the critical evaluation of websites allows users to identify

Evaluating Websites: A Guide to Critical Evaluation of Web Sources

Evaluating sources.

Critical evaluation of sources is an essential part of the research process. Your credibility is dependent upon the quality of your sources. Sources should be authoritative, reliable, relevant and appropriate.

The following can be used as a general guideline for evaluating information found on the web. When in doubt, speak to your professor or ask a reference librarian for assistance.

Additional tips for determining source reliability are available on our Evaluating News page  and Evaluating Sources page .

• scholarly research?
• general educational or factual information?
• an editorial or persuasive argument?
• a sales pitch?
• an advertisement?
• entertainment?
• misinformation?
• Who is the intended audience?
• Is the publisher of the site likely to have any particular agenda (e.g. political, ideological, commercial)?
• Does the author appear to have a particular bias?

  Relevance

• does the information relate to your topic or answer your question?
• is the information at an appropriate level for your needs (not too elementary or advanced)?
• would you be comfortable citing this source in your research paper?

 Accuracy

• Where does the information come from?
• Is the information supported by facts or evidence? Is it refereed or peer-reviewed?
• If this is a research document, is there an explanation of the research method(s) used?
• Are sources cited? Is there a bibliography?
• When statistics and other types of factual data are presented are they cited so that they may be verified?
• Is the document generally well-written?  Free of spelling mistakes?  Free of typographical errors?

 Currency

• Is currency important to the type of information being presented? (For some types of information or topics, currency may not be important).
• creation date
• revision date
• In cases where there is statistical data or factual data is it indicated when that data was gathered?
• Does the information seem to be out-of-date and therefore irrelevant and/or unreliable?
• Do the links provided on the site work (i.e. do they get you where you need to go)?

 Compare, Contrast, Confirm

• How does the information presented on the web site compare to information you have gathered elsewhere - including other web sites, books, journal articles, interviews, etc.?
• Do the theories or information presented agree or disagree with established scholarship or widely held points of view?
• Can data and pieces of factual information be confirmed using other sources?
• Last Updated: Dec 2, 2022 10:21 AM
• URL: https://libguides.bentley.edu/evaluatingwebsites

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Evaluating Websites: Evaluating Websites: Criteria and Exercises

The capps criteria.

Before you use a website as a resource, evaluate it with the five CAPPS Criteria :

• C urrency: Publication date or updated date.  The age of the content.
• Authority : What qualifies the content creator or author to produce information about the topic?
• Publisher / Publication : What is the reputation of the publisher, publication, or organization hosting the content?
• Point of View : The way the information is presented.
• Sources :  Amount of evidence provided.

Download the documents below for specific evaluation criteria and practice evaluating.

• CAPPS Criteria for Evaluating Resources
• Practical Tips for Evaluating Websites
• Worksheet for Evaluating Websites

The Importance of Evaluating Websites

Putting information on the Internet is fast, cheap, and can be done by anyone with an Internet connection.

If you are using a website as a source in your paper or project, you need to think critically about where that information is coming from.  You don't want to base your paper off a biased opinion or cite a website that's simply a mask for advertising.

Instead, you want to find credible, up-to-date, relevant information that's written by an expert or an authority on the topic, whose claims are based in fact and supported by evidence.

To learn how to separate the good information from the not-so-good or downright bad information that you might come across online, start with the CAPPS Criteria outlined on the left.  Download the linked documents for specific criteria and practice using each principle.

Once you've read about the CAPPS Criteria , test your knowledge by comparing the pairs of websites in the exercises below.

Note: The following examples were borrowed from Castleton College.

Instructions for Exercises Below

As you compare the pairs of sites below, consider these questions:

• What kind of site are you looking at?  Informational? Sales? Personal? Advocating for a cause?
• Who is responsible for the information?  Look for an ABOUT page.
• Which one is more appropriate for college assignments?
• Which is more credible?
• What factors helped you decide?

Compare the following sites.  Use the questions in the Instructions box above to guide your analysis.

• Center for Consumer Freedom
• Consumer Reports
• The Effects of Pesticides from the Global Healing Center
• About Pesticides
• Factcheck.org
• JustFacts.com
• The Use of Drugs in Farm Animals: Benefits and Risks
• The Dangers of Antibiotics in Foods
• Antibiotics Used in Meat Pose a Threat to Public Health, Admits FDA
• Antibiotics in Meat Could Be Damaging Our Guts
• Community Supported Agriculture: A Secure Market, A Local Food Supply
• Community Supported Agriculture for Meat and Eggs

Compare the following sites.  Use the questions in the Instructions box above to guide your analysis

• Greener Pastures: How Grass-Fed Beef and Milk Contribute to Healthy Eating
• The Health Benefits of Grass Fed Beef
• About Antimicrobial Resistance: A Brief Overview
• Antibiotic Resistance
• Last Updated: May 1, 2024 10:42 PM
• URL: https://hennepintech.libguides.com/evaluatingwebsites

Study Toolbox: Critically Evaluating Websites

• General Study Tips
• Note Taking
• Mind Mapping
• Searching Online Databases
• Searching Business Source Complete
• Searching CINAHL Ultimate
• Searching ProQuest Central
• Searching Science Direct
• Critically Evaluating Articles
• Critically Evaluating Websites
• Using Ebook Central
• Assignment Process
• Structure of an Academic Essay
• Understanding Instructional Words in Essays, Assignments & Exams
• Essay Checklist
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• APA Referencing
• Studying for Exams and Tests
• Tips for taking Exams

Why should I critically evaluate a website?

The internet provides access to a vast amount of information.  However, not all information available online can be considered accurate and reliable.  Because anyone can publish information on the internet it is essential to develop skills to evaluate what you find.  Before using information you find online in an assignment, it is important to judge its accuracy and establish that the information comes from a reliable and appropriate source.

Consider the following criteria before using and citing a website in an assignment:

• Objectivity & Bias

Investigating who the author is and their qualifications can help verify the quality of the information and the credibility of the website.

To judge the author’s credibility find out:

• Is the author identified?  If the author cannot be identified the information could be unreliable.
• What are the author’s qualifications? 
• Is the author an expert in the topic presented on the website?
• What else has the author written?
• Has the author been referenced by other writers?
• Is the author affiliated to an organisation or institution that promotes a particular point of view?
• Is the tone and style of writing factual?
• Are there any grammar and/or spelling errors?

Information about an author is often found at the bottom of the website, via a link to author information or a profile page e.g. about us, background or biography.  To investigate the author’s credibility search for the author online and check academic databases to locate other publications by the author or if the author has been cited by other writers.  Make sure to investigate the author’s area of expertise because if the author is writing on a subject in their field of study the website’s information is more authoritative than information written on a subject outside of the author’s expertise.  Consider the tone, style and quality of the writing.  Inappropriate style and incorrect spelling/grammar may indicate the author’s poor credibility.

Check the domain name of the website as this gives you an indication of the nature and authority of the website.  Use the URL domain name to help determine the type of organisation.  For example:

• .gov or .govt = government
• .org = non-profit organisation
• .co = company
• .com or .net = commercial
• .edu or .ac or .school = academic/educational
• .nz or .au = country-specific website

For example, the domain name tells you that https://www.sit.ac.nz is educational and country-specific.  This shows it is the official website of the Southern Institute of Technology, a New Zealand educational institution. 

Currency asks the question ‘is the information current’?  It is important to know when a website was created, when it was last updated and if all the links are working.  Knowing a website’s currency allows you to judge if a website is up to date with current facts and opinions of a topic or if the information is out of date which may mean it is inaccurate and/or misleading. 

To discover a website’s currency consider the following questions:

• When was the information first posted on the website?
• Has the information been revised or updated?
• Are there references to recently published materials?
• Are all the links working? 

The date of creation and last update is often found at the bottom of a website.  If a website has no date of publication, the information provided cannot always be dated to a time period.  This makes it difficult to judge if the information represents current opinion of the topic or if the information is out of date.  If the website’s links do not work this indicates that the website is not being maintained and the information presented may not be current. 

When judging the currency of a website it is important to take the topic into consideration.  For some websites regular updating of information is vital.  However, for some types of information such as historical information the authorship and authority is more important than the currency. 

One of the critical steps in evaluating a website is questioning if the information is accurate.

To evaluate a website’s accuracy consider the following questions:

• Is the author affiliated with a known, respectable institution?
• Are references included to identify where any factual information and data comes from?
• Are the references used real, credible and relevant?
• Can you verify the information in another source?
• Is the information consistent with other authors’ findings and websites on the same topic?
• Does the text follow basic rules of grammar, spelling and composition?
• Is a bibliography or reference list included?

Check the accuracy of information found on websites by checking the sources and references used and research the topic to compare the information with other reliable sources.  If you find factual errors, you may want to question the quality and accuracy of the website.

When evaluating a website it is important to investigate if the website is objective or if there is some form of bias.  Bias occurs when an author allows personal opinions, beliefs and/or values to influence how information is presented.  Bias inhibits impartial judgement leading to information being presented in a misleading and/or inaccurate way.

To investigate if a website is objective or biased ask the following questions:

• What is the purpose of this website?  Is it to persuade, present a point of view, disclose, entertain, sell a product or service, justify the author’s own actions/opinions or present data and facts?
• Does the author present objective arguments or is the author expressing their biased opinion without evidence to back up this opinion?
• Is the author affiliated to an organisation or institution that promotes a particular viewpoint?  Is the author promoting this viewpoint on the website?
• Are alternative sides of the issue or topic presented?
• Are there any political, ideological, cultural, religious, institutional or personal biases?
• Is advertising present on the website?
• Is the website part of a commercial organisation, a political party or an organisation with a specific agenda?  If yes, question the motives for publishing the information.
• What is the objective of those involved in the development of the website?  Does the site show a bias towards the developer’s particular point of view? 

Because anyone can publish on the internet investigating bias is a critical step in deciding if a website is accurate and reliable.  It is important to identify the purpose of the website because this effects how information is interpreted and presented.  When investigating if a website presents an objective discussion of a topic consider who runs the website and if this may affect the interpretation of information.  Also, the presence of advertising may signal a bias towards the advertiser’s products, values and/or beliefs so it is important you assess any advertising on the website. 

When evaluating a website for objectivity and bias check for a sound argument, supporting facts and references that include reliable sources representing more than one point of view.

How do I evaluate websites?

Video credited to OSLIS: Oregon School Library Information System.

OSLIS Secondary Videos. (2016, July 14). Evaluating websites [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FxyKHp47EnQ

Checklist for evaluating websites

• Checklist for evaluating websites This checklist is to help you evaluate websites and decide if the information is accurate and reliable.
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• Last Updated: Apr 17, 2024 4:06 PM
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Evaluating Websites as Information Sources

Using a six-point strategy, teachers can help students learn about responsible web research by assessing the validity of most information that they’ll encounter online.

Studies suggest that many U.S. students are too trusting of information found on the internet and rarely evaluate the credibility of a website’s information. For example, a survey found that only 4 percent of middle school students reported checking the accuracy of information found on the web at school, and even fewer did so at home (New Literacies Research Team & Internet Reading Research Group, 2006). At the same time, the web is often used as a source of information in school projects, even in early schooling, and sites with inaccurate information can come up high in search rankings.

Shenglan Zhang and I thought that we could help address this situation by laying a foundation for website evaluation in elementary school. In particular, we wanted to:

• Increase students’ awareness of the need to evaluate information on the internet for credibility
• Develop students’ understanding of the dimensions on which we should evaluate website information
• Improve students’ overall judgments about the credibility of a given website

To achieve these aims, we developed the WWWDOT Framework. WWWDOT in an acronym for the factors to consider when evaluating a website as a possible source of information:

W ho wrote it and what credentials do they have? W hy was it written? W hen was it written or updated? D oes it help meet my needs? O rganization of site T o-do list for the future

In teaching WWWDOT, we elaborate on each of these factors. For example, we note that whether a website is up to date is not important for some categories of information. We explain that "Does it help meet my needs?" refers to the relevance of the site for the student’s purposes rather than the credibility of the site’s information per se. We explicate that the last element here -- "To-do list for the future" -- can include sites or other texts that students plan to cross-check for whether information is consistent with the site that they just evaluated, content experts that they might consult, and so on.

In a study of fourth- and fifth-grade students, we found that those randomly assigned to learn the WWWDOT framework became, as compared to their pre-test and to a control group, more aware of the need to evaluate information on the internet for credibility and better able to evaluate the trustworthiness of websites on multiple dimensions (Zhang & Duke, 2011). However, on average, students' overall judgment and ranking of the relative trustworthiness of websites was not improved -- although it did improve for a subset of students (Zhang & Duke, 2008).

In the study, the WWWDOT Framework was taught in four 30-minute sessions. In the first session, the teachers introduced basic concepts and concerns about information on the internet and introduced the WWW in the framework. In the second session, the teachers reviewed the WWW components, taught the DOT components, and took a careful look at a hoax website to further students’ understanding that we cannot trust everything we read and see on the internet. In the third session, the students completed WWWDOT sheets (see the page 93 download ) with three websites on the same topic (we used the underground railroad). In the fourth session, the students had a debate about which of the three websites was most trustworthy, which was least trustworthy, and why. The article "The WWWDOT approach to improving students’ critical evaluation of websites" (Zhang, Duke, & Jimenez, 2011 -- see below) provides further detail about teaching the WWWDOT framework, with a description of and artifacts from instruction in a fourth-grade classroom.

Students realized, as do we, that the web offers a wealth of information -- truly unprecedented in human history -- but that it also requires a rich understanding of why and how to evaluate credibility of information found there.

• New Literacies Research Team & Internet Reading Research Group (2006). "Results summary report from the Survey of Internet Usage and Online Reading for School District 10-C" (Research Rep. No. 1). Storrs, CT: University of Connecticut, New Literacies Research Lab.
• Zhang, S., & Duke, N. (2008). "A comparative verbal protocol study of fourth- and fifth-grade students’ website evaluation strategies." In K. McFerrin (Ed.), Proceedings of the Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference 2008 (pp.1921-1929). Chesapeake, VA: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education, Society for Information Technology and Teacher Education.
• Zhang, S., & Duke, N.K. (2011). "The impact of instruction in the WWWDOT Framework on students' disposition and ability to evaluate websites as sources of information." The Elementary School Journal, 112 (1), pp.132-154.
• Zhang, S., Duke, N.K., & Jiménez, L.J. (2011). "The WWWDOT approach to improving students’ critical evaluation of websites." The Reading Teacher, 65, pp.150-158.

How to Analyse a Website

• Web Design & Development
• 19th January 2023

Knowing how to analyse a website and its data is an aspect of web design and web development that is often forgotten or treated as unimportant. However, a good business and, by extension, its website, will only be successful and efficient through the testing and evaluation of all its processes. This article will therefore highlight how to analyse a website and how this critical analysis of the website can lead to greater growth and performance.

What Is Website and Data Analysis?

Website analysis, as the name suggests, is an analytical process undertaken to test and review the performance of a website through gathered data from factors such as search engine optimisation (SEO), user experience , website speed, traffic and consumer behaviour. Your website can often be the first brand touchpoint your customer may interact with, so enhancing user experience and ensuring that every element of your website encourages your customer to come back is vital to the success of your business. This can only be achieved through the critical analysis of a website and its data.

• Define the focus of your analysis The process of analysing your entire website and all its elements can be a huge task. Doing this large-scale analysis on a regular basis may prove to be a waste of resources or simply not possible. Therefore, it is essential to set out a goal each time you carry out a website analysis. For example, say you recently noticed a drop in page rankings for one of your webpages that has continued to perform well. Now you are aware of what to analyse and how to collect the data.
• Create a benchmark Identifying an ideal instance or a benchmark for your website analysis will help guide you and ensure you are working towards the right direction. For example, in the case of page rankings, perhaps your benchmark is to appear within the top two search results. Collecting and analysing your data with this goal in mind will help you judge the gap that exists and how to fix it.
• Outline the methodology The methodology of your analysis will determine how you are actually going to conduct the analysis, how the data will be collected and how this data will then be evaluated. For example, if you analysed a competitor’s website, remember to outline how you identified which competitors to analyse. This could be based on geographic location, specific blog content that is relevant to your field, or they could be your direct business competitor. Including information on how this competitor data is also evaluated will provide deeper insight.
• Collect the data Once you have determined how to analyse the website, it's time to collect the data. A good place to begin is by conducting a site audit and running a quality assurance test . This can be done by using a range of software platforms and tools such as Google Analytics , Moz , Ahrefs , and Semrush , among others. Make sure that all the data collected is in similar formats for better and more uniform evaluation.
• Analyse the data and review it This is a crucial stage in conducting a critical analysis of a website. Analysing the gathered data to ascertain the performance of the various elements of the website. It is important to identify what is functioning efficiently, what is not working at all, what needs to improve and finally, what new ideas can be introduced to catapult the website and business to higher levels of success.
• Make it a regular habit The most important stage in the website and data analysis process is to conduct it on a periodic basis. This will ensure your website is relevant to the audience and provides the best user experience possible. It will also help ensure that implemented changes are performing as expected and will help identify further adjustments that might need to be made. This approach will make sure growth is at the centre of your business and website ideology, in turn ensuring that your business continues to succeed and run as efficiently as possible.

Benefits of conducting a website analysis

The ultimate benefits of conducting a regular website and data analysis are threefold – to increase traffic, in order to increase conversions and finally, to increase revenue as a result. This may not always be the norm, but conventionally most businesses and their websites operate on this pattern. However, there are numerous other advantages of a website analysis as well, and they are as follows -

• A careful analysis will most often than not reveal areas of the website that can be improved. In certain cases, it might also extend to areas of the business itself that can be built further.
• It can help identify and fix problems such as broken links, duplicate content and cannibalisation issues.
• The data collected can be used to re-evaluate and adjust strategies and objectives in order to enhance the business or website.
• The critical analysis of a website helps bridge the gap between customer needs and the ability of the website and business to satisfy those needs. It provides deeper insight into the audience and what resonates with them. It may also provide knowledge on audience needs that are perhaps not being met, or it could also reveal certain changes in audience needs.
• Analysing a competitor’s website can spark ideas and reveal new avenues that are unexplored.
• Regular analysis and records can show consistent growth and change, which can be beneficial for board meetings, investor pitches and even securing funding and grants.

Website analysis factors

A highly efficient and successful website will be one that balances the strategic and technical components. The technical components include the site speed, the navigation, functioning links and the site architecture. In comparison, the strategic components include the objectives of the business and the objectives of the website itself; what customer need or pain point will the website solve?

The technical aspects must ultimately align and ensure the successful achievement of the strategic aspects, such as the website and business objectives. For example, if the goal of the website is to increase sales in order to increase the revenue of the business, the technical components, such as site speed and navigation to ensure purchasing through just a few clicks is easy, form the foundation of achieving this goal. As the nature of a website is highly dynamic, this critical analysis of the website must be conducted on a periodic basis in order to constantly measure and ascertain the performance and alignment of the strategic and technical elements.

Technical Components -

Search engine optimisation.

Search Engine Optimisation is a collection of processes that are designed to improve and optimise the positioning and appearance of webpages in organic search results. The process of SEO will typically encompass keyword research, link building, page optimisation, site audits, reporting and rank tracking, among others. A good place to begin is as follows -

Backlink analysis:

This will enable you to discover and evaluate internal and external pages that link to your website. A backlink analysis, in certain cases, will also allow you to compare your backlink profile with that of a competitor. Most SEO platforms such as Moz , Ahrefs , and Semrush will have these features.

On-page SEO:

This aspect analyses your website and will help review common technical problems that may affect the website's performance on search engines. Google search console is a great tool for how to analyse your website's on-page SEO.

SERP ranking:

This analysis will show you the various pages your website is ranking for, the keywords you are targeting and their position on search engines such as Google and Bing. Depending on the tool you use, your results may slightly vary. For example, a platform like SERPchecker will evaluate your website's performance based on a specific keyword you have chosen. In comparison, a platform like Ahrefs will show you the various keywords your pages are ranking for.

Search engine crawlers, as well as users, enjoy fast websites. Periodically analysing your website speed in accordance with page load times is crucial for not just SEO performance but also to attract and keep customers engaged. There is nothing more frustrating that a slow website! Improvements can be made on common elements that affect loading speed such as large images, inefficient code and too many plugins. Google PageSpeed Insights and Pingdom are common efficient tools to utilise. It would be advantageous to consider the various devices your audience would use; with mobile devices quickly taking over, a responsive website is highly recommended!

User Experience

The user experience of your website is an element that can be vastly different from any of your competitors. This aspect, therefore, is a combination of the human element of preference and behaviour along with the technical aspects of navigation, function and design. Developing good UI and UX will reinforce your brand image and ensure your audience returns to your website.

Strategic Components –

Competitor analysis.

As mentioned previously, analysing a competitor’s website is a necessity to evaluate the strategic direction of your own website and business. It is important to keep an eye on what relevant leaders within each market are carrying out. This will help establish whether you are performing on par with your competitors or if there are gaps in the market that your competitor is filling, but you aren’t.

Examining organic traffic and customer demographics is always a great place to begin. Conducting an entire competitor analysis every single time you run a website analysis may prove to be a cumbersome process and a waste of resources, so it might be advantageous to instead conduct this aspect on an occasional basis. Just remember not to overlook it completely!

Traffic and Behaviour analysis

Conducting a critical analysis of a website with all the technical aspects like SEO, site speed, site architecture and competitor evaluation is vital. However, what is often overlooked is that this alone will not help achieve a competitive edge. This is because of the basic fact that your competitors are conducting the very same analysis with the same platforms and tools.

Identifying the truly unique element will help you stand apart. This element is understanding your audience. Understanding their perspective and paying special attention to what will create a great experience for them is key! Using behaviour analytics tools such heat maps will provide knowledge on the traffic coming into your website and how people are subsequently interacting with your website, such as, where they are clicking the most, what they are spending the most time on and even how far they scroll on your website.

We hope that this comprehensive guide has provided you with information that can assist you with how to analyse a website and better understand your audience.

Our team of expert designers and developers are highly experienced in creating bespoke websites that are fast, efficient and ensure customer conversions as well as returns. Contact us for further information on our range of bounce back packages that will help you achieve your website goals!

Critical Evaluation of Resources: Evaluating Websites

• Scholarly / Popular Chart
• Determining Credibility
• Evaluating Websites

When evaluating websites, you may want to keep the following in mind:

• Is there an author listed for the site?
• Is the sites sponsored by a group or organization with a specific point of view?
• Is the site trying to sell you something?
• Is the site up to date?
• Are the links credible and authentic?

More information

• See UC Berkeley's Evaluating Web Pages site for more information on critical analysis of websites.

Evaluating Websites (CSUF)

Evaluating Websites - CAPOW!

• << Previous: Determining Credibility
• Last Updated: Jun 10, 2022 9:06 AM
• URL: https://libguides.ucmerced.edu/critical-evaluation-resources

Non-Science Majors’ Critical Evaluation of Websites in a Biotechnology Course

• Published: 22 May 2010
• Volume 19 , pages 612–620, ( 2010 )

Cite this article

• Kristy L. Halverson 1 ,
• Marcelle A. Siegel 2 &
• Sharyn K. Freyermuth 3  

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22 Citations

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Helping students develop criteria for judgment and apply examination skills is essential for promoting scientific literacy. With the increasing availability of the Internet, it is even more essential that students learn how to evaluate the science they gather from online resources. This is particularly true because publishing information on the web is not restricted to experts, and content quality can vary greatly across websites. The responsibility of evaluating websites falls upon the user. Little research has examined undergraduates’ evaluation of web sites in science classes. The purpose of this study was to investigate on which websites college students selected and how they evaluated the websites used when developing individual positions about stem-cell research. We used a qualitative approach in search of patterns in undergraduates’ website selection and evaluation criteria. We found that students used a variety of web resources from eleven types of websites to complete their independent research report. Students also used eleven evaluation criteria to evaluate these sources, some useful (e.g., credibility) and some not useful (e.g., readability). We found that university students struggled with critically evaluating online resources. Undergraduates need prompts to learn how to critically evaluate the science content provided within websites. This type of scaffold can facilitate useful evaluation and promote critical thinking required for becoming scientifically literate.

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Biological Sciences, University of Southern Mississippi, 118 College Dr. #5018, Hattiesburg, MS, 39406, USA

Kristy L. Halverson

Science Education, 303 Townsend Hall, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA

Marcelle A. Siegel

Biochemistry, 117 Schweitzer Hall, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA

Sharyn K. Freyermuth

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Halverson, K.L., Siegel, M.A. & Freyermuth, S.K. Non-Science Majors’ Critical Evaluation of Websites in a Biotechnology Course. J Sci Educ Technol 19 , 612–620 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-010-9227-6

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Published : 22 May 2010

Issue Date : December 2010

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-010-9227-6

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Critical evaluation of publications

N. gopi chander.

Editor, The Journal of Indian Prosthodontic Society, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

Critical evaluation is the process of examining the research for the strength or weakness of the findings, validity, relevance, and usefulness of the research findings.[ 1 ] The availability of extensive information and the difficulty in differentiating the relevant information obligate the primary need of critical appraisal. In addition, it establishes superior evidence and increases the application to clinical practice.[ 2 ] More importantly, it differentiates between significant and/or insignificant data in the literature and aids in providing the updated information. The purpose of critical appraisal shall help in informed decision and improve the quality of healthcare provided to patients.[ 1 , 2 , 3 ]

The research data have three possible outcomes – true findings, random variation that occurs due to chance, and biased results due to systematic error.[ 4 ] The true findings can be of positive or negative results, but it shall be highly recognized. The random error or actual result deviation occurs due to the uncontrollable factors such as smaller sample size and confounding factors. The random error does not alter the measured value, but it is an imperfect error caused due to study design inconsistencies. These errors are unpredictable and cannot be repeated again by repeating the analysis. The biased results are deliberate deviation in the study design, methodology, or investigations. The deviations in the result can be due to poor designing, to the methodology, or in the analysis. It will be difficult to differentiate these findings without critical analysis of the literature.[ 5 , 6 ]

There are various guidelines and tools proposed to critically evaluate the literature.[ 7 , 8 , 9 ] Since the scientific literature is in constant evolution, no one guidelines or checklist is considered to be gold standard. Moreover, the appraisal varies with the type of research. The checklist provided by various organizations for designing or structuring manuscripts - case report, reviews, and original research - cannot be combined or generalized for use. Similarly, it varies with the types of study design - randomized clinical trials and observational studies –case–control, cohort, and cross-sectional studies. The methodological guidelines such as consort statements, CARE guidelines, PROSPERO, or Cochrane checklists can significantly aid in the evaluation of different types of research data.[ 10 ] The structured approach and checklists provided by the organizations can be a valuable aid to conduct research as well as critically evaluate the manuscripts. In addition to the guidelines, the simplified checklists proposed by Young and Solomon can be of adjuvant tool in critical assessment of the literature.[ 1 ] It consists of 10 simple rules. That includes relevance of study question, new information to existing literature, type of research question, appropriateness of study design, bias appraisal, adherence of study protocol, hypothesis testing, check or estimation of statistical analysis, validation of conclusion, and identification of conflicts of interest. These checklists along with updated methodological guidelines for different types of study designs can be a valuable tool for critical appraisal of the literature.[ 1 , 10 ]

Most of the tools assess the validity, reliability, bias, and clinical application of the research data. The validity aids in determining the accuracy of the results, and the reliability establishes the consistency of the results. The bias is systemic deviation of results. The bias is of many types: it can be of from the initiation of the study to manuscript publication. Various assessment tools have been proposed to determine the bias. More commonly employed are the GRADE, Grade pro, Newcastle Ottawa, jaded, ROB 2, and ARRIVE 2.[ 11 ] The bias tools vary with the type of study design, and it is significant to use the appropriate tool. The tools assess and grade the quality of bias in the manuscript. These tools are majorly used for evaluating randomized control trial employed for systematic review and meta-analysis but can be suitably employed to different study designs. These tools provide the grading of bias and provide useful data that are essential for clinical application.[ 11 , 12 ]

Rapid appraisal can be done with merit trials/rapid critical appraisal tool.[ 6 ] It is a compressed tool that basically assesses on the validity, reliability, and clinical use of the study. This is a simplified checklist for quicker assessment; however, for more accurate assessment, it is essential to appraise the entire manuscript from introduction till the conclusion. This mandates a detailed check for every component of the literature in accordance to the standard guidelines. In addition, the journal indexing and metrics can play a significant role in estimation. Higher metric journal shall possess more rigorous peer-review process that reduces the significant errors in the manuscript.[ 3 , 4 ]

The major contents to be generally assessed in the introduction of the manuscript are type and contents of research question, justification of purpose/background of the study with articles published in the last 5 years, or older articles that possess significant influences, citations of peer-reviewed journal, defined objective, and hypothesis statement. In methodology, the parameter of appraisal parameters should be on study design, inclusion and exclusion criteria, care in reduction of bias, following the acceptable procedures, control on confounding variables, and valid outcome measures. The result section should be checked for the subject and baseline - demographic, relevant statistical tests, and statistical significance. The discussion should possess adequate literature substantiation for results, study limitations, and declarations on conflicts of interest.[ 6 ]

In the prosthodontic literature, extensive reports of similar nature exist; critical analysis of the literature is a necessary skill to be mastered by researchers and clinicians.[ 10 ] It helps clinicians to make quality evidenced healthcare decisions by extensive evaluation of the literature.