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• Crime, Law, and Social Change Crime, Law and Social Change publishes peer reviewed, original research articles addressing crime and the political economy of crime, whether at the global, national, regional or local levels, anywhere in the world. The Journal often presents work on financial crime, corruption, organized criminal groups, criminal enterprises and illegal markets, state crime, terrorism and security issues, cybercrime, cross-border crime and environmental crime.
• Crime Science Can systematic reviews and meta-analyses advance our knowledge and synthesis of crime in a broad sense, rather than just assessing the effectiveness of various interventions? This collection includes actual reviews and meta-analyses to this end; comments and thoughts on this question; and empirical manuscripts relevant to the use of systematic reviews as a means to improve knowledge of the environmental aspects of crime as well as its patterns, organization and explanations.
• Forensic Science International Forensic Science International publishes original contributions in the many different scientific disciplines pertaining to the forensic sciences. Fields include forensic pathology and histochemistry, chemistry, biochemistry and toxicology, biology, serology, odontology, psychiatry, anthropology, the physical sciences, firearms, the physical sciences, and document examination.
• NCJRS Abstracts This link opens in a new window Over 150,000 summaries of books & reports, journal articles, program descriptions, and evaluations maintained by the National Institute of Justice's National Criminal Justice Reference Service. Includes U.S. material and selected international publications, in English. Topics include corrections, courts, drugs and crime, law enforcement, juvenile justice, crime statistics, and victims of crime. On October 1, 2014, the NCJRS Virtual Library began to focus primarily on the collection of informational materials and resources produced, funded, and/or sponsored by the bureaus and offices of the U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs (OJP).
• Oxford Bibliographies: Criminology This link opens in a new window Oxford Bibliographies in Criminology offers peer-reviewed annotated bibliographies on the study of crime as a social phenomenon. Bibliographies are browseable by subject area and keyword searchable.
• SAGE Knowledge This link opens in a new window An online collection of subject encyclopedias and handbooks covering a wide-variety of subjects in the social sciences. Particularly strong for handbook coverage.

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• v.8(4); 2021 Dec

DNA Profiling in Forensic Science: A Review

Jaya lakshmi bukyya.

1 Department of Oral Medicine and Radiology, Tirumala Institute of Dental Sciences, Nizamabad, Telangana, India

M L. Avinash Tejasvi

2 Department of Oral Medicine and Radiology, Kamineni Institute of Dental Sciences, Narketpally, Telangana, India

Anulekha Avinash

3 Department of Prosthodontics, Kamineni Institute of Dental Sciences, Narketpally, Telangana, India

Chanchala H. P.

4 Department of Pedodontics and Preventive Dentistry, JSS Dental College, Mysore, Karnataka, India

Priyanka Talwade

Mohammed malik afroz.

5 Department of Oral Surgery and Diagnostic Sciences, Oral Medicine, College of Dentistry, Dar Al Uloom University, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Archana Pokala

Praveen kumar neela.

6 Department of Orthodontics, Kamineni Institute of Dental Sciences, Narketpally, Telangana, India

T K. Shyamilee

7 Department of Oral Pathology, Private Practice, Hyderabad, Telangana, India

Vammi Srisha

8 Department of Oral Medicine and Radiology, Private Practice, Bangalore, Karnataka, India

DNA is present in most of the cells in our body, which is unique in each and every individual, and we leave a trail of it everywhere we go. This has become an advantage for forensic investigators who use DNA to draw conclusion in identification of victim and accused in crime scenes. This review described the use of genetic markers in forensic investigation and their limitations.

Introduction

Forensic identification is a universal method used to establish the veracity in the process of forensic investigation. Both criminalities and medico-legal identification are integrative parts of forensic identification, having probative value. The value of an identification method resides in the specialist's ability to compare traces left at the crime scene with traces found on other materials such as reference evidence. Through this procedure, one can compare traces of blood, saliva, or any biological sample left at the crime scene with those found on a suspect's clothes and with samples from the victim. Medico-legal identification is based on scientific methods or intrinsic scientific methods absorbed from other sciences, usually bio-medical sciences. Scientific progress in the last 30 to 40 years has highlighted and continues to highlight the role of the specialists in identification. Their role proves its significance in cases that have to do with civil, family, and criminal law, as well as in cases of catastrophes with numerous victims (accidents, natural disasters, terrorist attacks, and wars). Together with the discovery by Mullis in 1983 of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), Sir Alec Jeffreys in the field of forensic genetics used this technique by studying a set of DNA fragments that proved to have unique characteristics, which were nonrecurring and intrinsic for each individual, the only exception being identical twins. Alec Jeffreys named these reaction products “genetic fingerprints.” 1 PCR procedure is correct as per the reference.

Brief History of Forensic Genetics

• In 1900, Karl Landsteiner distinguished the main blood groups and observed that individuals could be placed into different groups based on their blood type. This was the first step in development of forensic hemogenetics. 2
• 1915: Leone Lattes describes the use of ABO genotyping to resolve paternity case. 2
• 1931: Absorption–inhibition of ABO genotyping technique had been developed. Following on from this, various blood group markers and soluble blood serum protein markers were characterized. 2
• In the 1960s and 1970s: Developments in molecular biology, restriction of enzymes, Southern blotting, 3 and Sanger sequencing 4 enabled researchers to examine sequences of DNA.
• 1978: Detection of DNA polymorphisms using Southern blotting. 5
• 1980: First polymorphic locus was reported. 6
• 1983: A critical development in the history of forensic genetics came with the advent of PCR process that can amplify specific regions of DNA, which was conceptualized by Kary Mullis, a chemist; later he was awarded Nobel Prize in 1993. 7
• 1984: Alec Jeffrey introduced DNA fingerprinting in the field of forensic genetics, and proved that some regions in the DNA have repetitive sequences, which vary among individuals. Due to this discovery, first forensic case was solved using DNA analysis. 8

DNA Structure and Genome

DNA was first described by Watson and Crick in 1953, as double-stranded molecule that adopts a helical arrangement. Each individual's genome contains a large amount of DNA that is a potential target for DNA profiling.

DNA Structure

DNA is often described as the “blue print of life,” because it contains all the information that an organism requires in function and reproduction. The model of the double-helix structure of DNA was proposed by Watson and Crick. The DNA molecule is a polymer of nucleotides. Each nucleotide is composed of a nitrogenous base, a five-carbon sugar (deoxyribose), and a phosphate group. There are four nitrogenous bases in DNA, two purines (adenine and guanine) and two pyrimidines (cytosine and thymine). Each base is attracted to its complimentary base: adenine base always pairs with thymine base whereas cytosine base always pairs with guanine base ( Fig. 1 ). 9

Structure of DNA. Image courtesy: National Human Genome Research Institute.

Organization of DNA into Chromosomes

There are two complete copies of the genome in each nucleated human cell. Humans contain ∼3,200,000,000 base pairs (BPs) of information, organized in 23 pairs of chromosomes. There are 2 sets of chromosomes; 1 version of each chromosome is inherited from each parent with total of 46 chromosomes. 10 11 12

Classification of Human Genome 2

Based on the structure and function, Classification of Human Genome into following different types ( Fig. 2 ).

Classification of human genome.

• Coding and regulatory regions: The regions of DNA that encode and regulate protein synthesis are called genes. Approximately, a human genome contains 20,000 to 25,000 genes; 1.5% of the genome is involved in encoding for proteins.
• Noncoding: Overall, 23.5% of the genome is classified under genetic sequence but does not involve in enclosing for proteins; they are mainly involved with the regulation of genes including enhancers, promoters, repressors, and polyadenylation signals.
• Extragenic DNA: Approximately 75% of the genome is extragenic, of which 50% is composed of repetitive DNA and 45% of interspersed repeats. Four common types of interspersed repetitive elements are: (i) short interspersed elements, (ii) long interspersed elements, (iii) long terminal repeats, and (iv) DNA transposons. Tandem repeats consist of three different types: (i) satellite DNA, (ii) minisatellite DNA, and (iii) microsatellite DNA.

Genome and Forensic Genetics

DNA loci that are to be used for forensic genetics should have the following ideal properties:

• Should be highly polymorphic.
• Should be easy and cheap to characterize.
• Should be simple to interpret and easy to compare between laboratories.
• Should have a low mutation rate.

With recent advances in molecular biology techniques, it is possible to analyze any region with 3.2 billion BPs that make up the genome. 2

Biological Material

Three most important steps are collection, characterization, and storage.

Sources of Biological Evidence

Human body is composed of trillions of cells and most of them are nucleated cells, except for the red blood cells. Each nucleated cell contains two copies of individual's genome and can be used to generate a DNA profile. Usually, samples show some level of degradation but when the level of degradation is high, more cellular material is needed to produce a DNA profile. 13

Biological samples with nucleated cells are essential for forensic genetic profiling, such as: 14

• Liquid blood or dry deposits.
• Liquid saliva, semen, or dry deposits.
• Hard tissues like bone and teeth.
• Hair with follicles.

Collection and Handling of Material at the Crime Scenes

Whole blood is considered as one of the widely used source of DNA. It is preserved in an anticoagulant (ethylenediamine tetra acetic acid) and conserved at 4°C for 5 to 7 days initially. After this period, DNA samples are kept at –20°C for few weeks or at –80°C for longer periods of time. Epithelial cells collected from crime scenes are harvested with sterile brush or bud. After harvesting, they are wrapped in plastic envelope or paper envelope and kept in a dry environment at room temperature. 15 It is essential that proper care is taken, such as maintaining integrity of the crime scene, wearing face masks and full protective suits during the investigation of scene, 16 17 18 as inappropriate handling of the evidence can lead to serious consequences. In worst cases, cross-contamination leads to high level of sample degradation; this can confuse or avert the final result of evidence.

Characterization of DNA Analysis: Basic Steps 1

Analysis of DNA involves four basic steps, which are as follows ( Fig. 3 ):

Extraction of DNA.

• DNA extraction.
• DNA quantification.
• DNA amplification.
• Detection of the DNA-amplified products.

DNA Extraction

The first DNA extraction was performed by Friedrich Miescher in 1869. Since then, scientists have made progress in designing various extraction methods that are easier, cost-effective, reliable, faster to perform, and producing a higher yield. With the advent of gene-editing and personalized medicine, there has been an increase in the demand for reliable and efficient DNA isolation methods that can yield adequate quantities of high-quality DNA with minimal impurities.

There are various methods of extraction as mentioned below, though commonly used are Chelex-100 method, silica-based DNA extraction, and phenol–chloroform method.

• Chromatography-based DNA extraction method.
• Ethidium bromide–cesium chloride (EtBr-CsCl) gradient centrifugation method.
• Alkaline extraction method.
• Silica matrices method.
• Salting-out method.
• Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) extraction method.
• Phenol–chloroform method.
• Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)-proteinase K method.
• Silica column-based DNA extraction method.
• Magnetic beads method.
• Cellulose-based paper method.
• Chelex-100 extraction method.
• Filter paper-based DNA extraction method.

Chromatography-Based DNA Extraction Method

Chromatography-based DNA extraction method is used to isolate DNA from any kind of biological material. 19 This method is divided into three different types:

• Size-inclusion chromatography: In this method, molecules are separated according to their molecular sizes and shape.
• Ion-exchange chromatography (IEC): In this method, solution containing DNA anion-exchange resin selectively binds to DNA with its positively charged diethylaminoethyl cellulose group. 20 This method is simple to perform when compared with other DNA extraction methods. 19
• This procedure is used for isolation of messenger ribonucleic acid (m-RNA).
• It is time-efficient.
• It yields a very good quality of nucleic acids. 21

EtBr-CsCl Gradient Centrifugation Method

In 1957, Meselson et al developed this method. 22 DNA is mixed with CsCl solution, which is then ultra-centrifuged at high speed (10,000–12,000 rpm) for 10 hours, resulting in separation of DNA from remaining substances based on its density. EtBr is incorporated more into nonsupercoiled DNA than supercoiled DNA molecules resulting in accumulation of supercoiled DNA at lower density, and location of DNA is visualized under ultraviolet (UV) light.

• This method is used to extract DNA from bacteria.

Limitations:

• Greater amount of material source is needed.
• Time-consuming.
• Costly procedure due to long duration of high-speed ultra-centrifugation.
• Complicated method. 23

Alkaline Extraction Method

First introduced by Birnboim and Doly in 1979, this method is used to extract plasmid DNA from cells. 24 Sample is suspended in NaOH solution and SDS detergent for lysis of cell membrane and protein denaturation. Potassium acetate is then added to neutralize the alkaline solution, which results in formation of precipitate. Plasmid DNA in the supernatant is recovered after centrifugation.

Limitation:

• Contamination of plasmid DNA with fragmented chromosomal DNA. 25

Silica Matrices Method

The affinity between DNA and silicates was described by Vogelstein and Gillespie in 1979. 26

Principle: Selective binding of negatively charged DNA with silica surface is covered with positively charged ions. DNA tightly binds to silica matrix, and other cellular contaminants can be washed using distilled water or Tris-EDTA. 27

Advantages:

• Fast to perform.
• Cost-efficient.
• Silica matrices cannot be reused.

Salting-Out Method

Introduced by Miller et al 55 in 1988, this method is a nontoxic DNA extraction method.

Procedure: Sample is added to 3 mL of lysis buffer, SDS, and proteinase K, and incubated at 55 to 65°C overnight. Next, 6 mL of saturated NaCl is added and centrifuged at 2,500 rpm for 15 minutes. DNA containing supernatant is transferred into fresh tube and precipitated using ethanol. 28

• This method is used to extract DNA from blood, tissue homogenate, or suspension culture.
• High-quality DNA is obtained.
• Reagents are nontoxic.28,29

Cetyltrimethylammonium Bromide (CTAB) Extraction Method

This method was introduced by Doyle et al in 1990. 30

Samples are added to 2% CTAB at alkaline pH. In a solution of low ionic strength, buffer precipitates DNA and acidic polysaccharides from remaining cellular components. Solutions with high salt concentrations are then added to remove DNA from acidic polysaccharides; later, DNA is purified using organic solvents, alcohols, phenols, and chloroform. 20

• Time-consuming method.
• Toxic reagents like phenol and chloroform are used.

Phenol–Chloroform Method

This method was introduced by Barker et al in 1998. 31 Lysis containing SDS is added to cells to dissolve the cell membrane and nuclear envelope; phenol–chloroform–isoamyl alcohol reagent is added in the ratio 25:24:1. 28 Both SDS and phenol cause protein denaturation, while isoamyl alcohol prevents emulsification and hence facilitates DNA precipitation. The contents are then mixed to form biphasic emulsion that is later subjected to vortexing. This emulsion separates into two phases upon centrifugation, upper aqueous phase, composed of DNA, and the lower organic phase, composed of proteins. Upper aqueous phase is transferred to fresh tube and the lower organic phase is discarded. These steps are further repeated until the interface between the organic and aqueous phase is free from protein. 31 Later, sodium acetate solution and ethanol are added in 2:1 or 1:1 ratio, followed by centrifugation for separation of DNA from the solution. The pellet is washed with 70% ethanol to remove excess salt from the DNA and subjected to centrifugation for removal of ethanol. The pellet is dried and suspended in an aqueous buffer or sterile distilled water.

• Used to extract DNA from blood, tissue homogenate, and suspension culture.
• Inexpensive.
• Gold standard method.
• Toxic nature of phenol and chloroform. 28

SDS-Proteinase K Method

It was first introduced by Ebeling et al in 1974. 32 For extraction of DNA, 20 to 50 µL of 10 to 20 mg/mL proteinase K is added. SDS is added to dissolve the cell membrane, nuclear envelope, and also to denature proteins. The solution is incubated for 1 to 18 hours at 50 to 60°C and then DNA can be extracted using the salting-out method or phenol–chloroform method. 33

Silica Column-Based DNA Extraction Method

In this method, 1% SDS, lysis buffer (3 mL of 0.2 M tris and 0.05 M EDTA), and 100 mg of proteinase K are added to sample and incubated at 60°C for 1 hour, and this mixture is added in a tube containing silica gel. To this, phenol–chloroform is added in the ratio of 1:1 and centrifuged for 5 minutes. This separates the organic phase containing proteins beneath the silica column while aqueous phase containing DNA above the gel polymerase, and then aqueous layer is transferred to the tube and dissolved in TE buffer.

• Increase in purity of extracted DNA.
• Silica gel prevents physical contact with toxic reagents.
• DNA yield is 40% higher than organic solvent-based DNA extraction method.34

Magnetic Beads Method

Trevor Hawkins filed a patent “DNA purification and isolation using magnetic particles” in 1998. 35

Magnetic nanoparticles are coated with DNA-binding antibody or polymer that has specific affinity to bind to its surface. 36 In this method, a magnetic field is created at the bottom of the tube using an external magnet that causes separation of DNA-bound magnetic beads from cell lysate. The supernatant formed is rinsed, and beads aggregated at the bottom can be eluted with ethanol precipitation method; and the magnetic pellet is incubated at 65°C to elute the magnetic particles from the DNA. 28

• Time taken is less than 15 minutes.
• Faster compared with other conventional methods.
• Little equipment is required.
• Less cost.19,37

Cellulose-Based Paper

It was first introduced by Whatman in 2000, who filed a patent titled “FTA-coated media for use as a molecular diagnostic tool.” Cellulose is a hydroxylated polymer with high binding affinity for DNA. Whatman FTA cards are commercially available as cellulose-based paper that is widely used for extraction of DNA. 38 They are impregnated with detergents, buffers, and chelating agents that facilitate DNA extraction. About 1 to 2 mm of sample area is removed with micro punch and further processed for downstream applications. 19 39

• Extraction of DNA using cellulose-based paper is fast.
• Highly convenient.
• Does not require laboratory expertise.
• Easy storage of sample.40

Chelex-100 Extraction Method

In 2011, Xlonghui et al 40 patented a DNA extraction method using Chelex-100. Chelex resin is used to chelate metal ions acting as cofactors for DNases. After incubating overnight, 5% Chelex solution and proteinase K are used to degrade the added DNases, which are later boiled in 5% Chelex solution to lyse the remaining cell membranes, and to denature both proteins and DNA. Also, 5% Chelex solution prevents DNA from being digested by DNases that remain after boiling, hence stabilizing the preparation. The resulting DNA can then be concentrated from the supernatant after centrifugation.

• Reduced risk of contamination.
• Use of single test tube.
• Isolated DNA can be unstable. 38

Filter Paper-Based DNA Extraction Method

This method was described by Ruishi and Dilippanthe in 2017. DNA extraction method using filter paper can be used to isolate DNA from plant sources. A spin plate composed of 96-well plate is used, with a hole 1 mm in diameter drilled into bottom of each well used, and each well containing a disk of 8 mm diameter Whatman FTA filter paper. Samples subjected to lysis buffer are filtered with centrifugation.

• Less cost. 41

DNA Quantification

After DNA extraction, an accurate measurement of the amount and quality of DNA extract is desirable. When the correct amount of DNA is added to PCR, it results in best quality within short duration of time. Adding less or more amount of DNA will results in a profile that is difficult or impossible to interpret. 40

Quantity of DNA that can be extracted from a sample depends on the type of model. Quantity of DNA in different biological samples is shown in Table 1 . 42

Classification of Quantification 43

DNA quantification can be classified as follows:

• Microscopic and macroscopic examination.
• Chemical and immunological methods.
• ○ PicoGreen homogenous microtiter plate assays.
• Intact vs degraded DNA–agarose gel electrophoresis.
• Human total autosomal DNA.
• Y chromosome DNA, mitochondrial DNA (mt-DNA), Alu repeat real-time PCR.
• Multiplex real-time PCR.
• End-point PCR DNA quantification and alternative DNA detection methods.
• RNA-based quantification.

Visualization on agarose gels

• It is relatively easy and quick method for assessing both quality and quantity of extracted DNA.
• Gives indication of size of extracted DNA molecules.

Disadvantages:

• Quantification is subjective.
• Total DNA obtained can be mixture of human DNA and microbial DNA and this can lead to overestimation of DNA concentration. 2

Ultraviolet Spectrometry

Spectrometry is commonly used for quantification of DNA in molecular biology but has not been widely adopted by the forensic community. Usually, DNA absorbs light maximally at 260 nm; this feature is used to estimate the amount of DNA extraction by measuring wavelengths ranging from 220 nm to 300 nm. With this method, it is possible to assess the amount of protein (maximum absorbance is 280 nm) and carbohydrate (maximum absorbance is 230 nm). If the DNA extract is clean, the ratio of absorbance should be between 1.8 and 2.0.

• Difficult to quantify small amounts of DNA.
• It is not human specific. 2

Fluorescence Spectrometry

EtBr or 4′,6 diamidino-2-phenylindole can be used to visualize DNA in agarose gels. In addition to staining agarose gels, fluorescent dyes can be used as an alternative to UV spectrometry for DNA quantification. PicoGreen dye is commonly used because it is specific for double-stranded DNA as it has the ability to detect little amount of DNA as 25 pg/mL.

Disadvantage:

• Nonhuman specific. 44

DNA Amplification

There are eight DNA- and RNA-based techniques, but PCR and reverse transcription-PCR have been the predominant techniques.

PCR is the commonly used method of amplification of DNA. PCR amplifies specific regions of DNA template; even a single molecule can be amplified to 1 billion fold by 30 cycles of amplification. 45

DNA amplification occurs in cycling phase, which consists of three stages.

• Denaturation.
• Extraction.

Normal range of PCR cycle is between 28 and 32; when DNA is very low, then cycles can be increased to 34 cycles. 46

Other methods are as follows: 47

• Nucleic acid sequence-based amplification method.
• Strand displacement amplification.
• Recombinase polymerase amplification.
• Strand invasion-based amplification.
• Multiple displacement amplification.
• Hybridization chain reaction.

After the amplification of DNA, the final step is detection of the DNA-amplified products.

Detection of the DNA-Amplified Products

The following methods are used in forensic human identification:

• Autosomal short-tandem repeat (STR) profiling
• Analysis of the Y chromosome
• Analysis of mt-DNA.
• Autosomal single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) typing.

Autosomal STR Profiling

STRs were discovered in 1980. Since then, they are considered as gold standard in human identification in forensics. STR or microsatellites are the most frequently genotyped to distinguish between individuals. STR consists of mononucleotide, dinucleotide, trinucleotide, tetranucleotide, pentanucleotide, and hexanucleotide repeats of which tetranucleotide repeats are used for genotyping. 2

STR profiling is used in paternity/maternity testing, rape perpetrators' identification, kinship testing, and disaster victim identification. 48

STR-based DNA analysis in forensic has been well accepted by professionals and population as an important tool in criminal justice and in human identification.

• The test is simple.
• Can be done rapidly. 49

Analysis of the Y Chromosome

Typically, biologically a male individual has 1 Y chromosome and contains 55 genes. Because of this unique feature, analysis of Y chromosome is done in crime cases. 50

Application of Y chromosome in forensic medicine: It is present only in males. Thus, in crime cases, the investigators expect to find Y chromosome at the crime scene. Also, when talking about male–female ratio in body fluid mixtures, such as sexual assault or rapes, by analyzing the Y-STR component, the investigators can obtain more information regarding the male component. It is well known that azoospermic or vasectomized rapists do not leave semen traces, and it is impossible to find spermatozoa on the microscopic examination. In such cases, the Y-STR profiling is very useful, offering information regarding the identity of the accused person. 50

Analysis of Mitochondrial DNA (mt-DNA)

mt-DNA is inherited from mother; thus all the members of a matrilineal family share the identical haplotype.

• mt-DNA has 200 to 1,700 copies per cell.
• Increased probability of survival when compared to nuclear DNA.

Applications:

• Analysis of biologic samples that are severely degraded or old.
• Samples with low amount of DNA (e.g., hair shafts). 51

Autosomal Single-Nucleotide Polymorphism Typing

SNP has a lower heterozygosity when compared with STRs. Advantage of SNP typing over STR is that the DNA template size can be as large as 50 BPs, compared with STRs that need a size of 300 BPs to obtain good STR profiling. 52 Due to this reason, SNP has become an important tool in analyzing degraded samples. Thus in the 2001 World Trade Center disaster, victims were identified using SNP typing. 53 54

Impact of Genetic Identification in Justice 1

Genetic testing using DNA has been widely applicable to the field of justice. This method is being used for the following:

• Identification of accused and confirmation of guilt.
• Exculpation of innocent ones.
• Identification of persons who commit crimes or serial killers.
• Identification of victims in disasters.
• Establishing consanguinity in complex cases.

Currently, the DNA genotyping of all types of microtraces or biological traces containing nucleated cells is possible if they are not entirely demolished, either chemically or by bacteria. The DNA analysis is an important tool in solving caseworks in forensic medicine, such as establishing the custody of a child through paternity or maternity tests, identifying victims from crimes or disasters, or exonerating innocent people convicted to prison.

Conflict of Interest None declared.

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Crime Science  is a 100% open access journal published by Springer Nature. It is part of the BMC group, a family of OA-native peer-reviewed journals. Editorially, the journal benefits from close connections with the Jill Dando Institute at University College London.

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Crime Science  is an international, interdisciplinary, peer-reviewed journal with an applied focus. The journal's main focus is on research articles and systematic reviews that reflect the growing cooperation among a variety of fields, including environmental criminology, economics, engineering, geography, public health, psychology, statistics and urban planning, on improving the detection, prevention and understanding of crime and disorder.  Crime Science  publishes theoretical articles that are relevant to the field, for example, approaches that integrate theories from different disciplines. The goal of the journal is to broaden the scientific base for the understanding, analysis and control of crime and disorder. It is aimed at researchers, practitioners and policy-makers with an interest in crime reduction. It also publishes short contributions on timely topics including crime patterns, technological advances for detection and prevention, and analytical techniques, and on the crime reduction applications of research from a wide range of fields.  Read more

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A Simplified Guide To

Crime scene investigation, how it’s done, samples that may be collected at a crime scene.

A wide variety of physical evidence can be collected at a scene that is deemed valuable (“probative”) for collection and investigation:

• biological evidence (e.g., blood, body fluids, hair and other tissues)
• latent print evidence (e.g., fingerprints, palm prints, foot prints)
• footwear and tire track evidence
• trace evidence (e.g., fibers, soil, vegetation, glass fragments)
• digital evidence (e.g., cell phone records, Internet logs, email messages)
• tool and tool mark evidence
• drug evidence
• firearm evidence

The type of evidence collected will vary with the type of crime. In the case of a burglary, for example, it would be common to perform tasks in the order listed below. This will help ensure that evidence isn’t inadvertently damaged or destroyed:

• Photograph and document the scene
• Collect trace materials (especially from probable points of entry)
• Collect low-level DNA evidence by swabbing areas of likely contact
• Collect other items that may contain biological evidence
• Locate and collect latent fingerprints

Who Examines Crime Scenes

The number and type of professional(s) responsible for investigating a scene and collecting evidence largely depends on the type of crime and the resources of the law enforcement agency. Larger agencies often have dedicated, highly trained crime scene specialists, while smaller agencies may require that first responders or detectives process the scene in addition to their other duties.

In many instances, a case will be investigated by a detective who is responsible for interviewing persons of interest and victims, pursuing leads and piecing together the information that is developed from the materials collected at the scene. The detective works in tandem with a team of crime scene personnel who search the scene and collect the evidence. The crime scene investigation team may consist of crime scene photographers and evidence collection personnel specializing in gathering specific evidence such as latent prints, DNA, trace evidence and the like.

In the United States, there are no national requirements that must be met to serve as a crime scene investigator; however, investigators can achieve four levels of certification through the International Association for Identification (IAI) that demonstrate their proficiency:

• Certified Crime Scene Investigator
• Certified Crime Scene Analyst
• Certified Crime Scene Reconstructionist
• Certified Senior Crime Scene Analyst

Other certifications commonly achieved include the Evidence Photographer Certification from the Evidence Photographers International Council, Inc. and Board Certified Medicolegal Death Investigator of the American Board of Medicolegal Death Investigators (ABMDI).

How a Crime Scene Investigation is Conducted

The circumstances that investigators encounter at the scene will largely dictate the approach used to process the scene. A homicide will likely require different treatment and processing than a burglary. However, to ensure a thorough process, the seven steps outlined below are often followed. These steps can be conducted in a different order, combined or even skipped altogether to meet the needs of the situation.

5. Document and process the scene - With a plan in place, the crime scene team conducts a thorough, coordinated investigation of the scene, collecting all probative evidence. This entails detailed documentation with digital and video cameras or, if available, a 3-D scanner. For some situations, sketches and diagrams are also created. During the evidence-collection process, it is crucial that the crime scene investigator follow proper procedures for collecting, packaging and preserving the evidence, especially if it is of a biological nature. Biological evidence can be destroyed or damaged by weather conditions, individuals can inadvertently contaminate it, or it can be overlooked entirely if alternate light sources are not used to inspect the scene.

6. Conduct a secondary survey/review - To ensure that the scene has been thoroughly searched, a second survey of the area is conducted as a quality control step.

7. Record and preserve evidence - To make certain that all evidence is accounted for, an inventory log is created. The descriptions recorded into the log must match the photo of the evidence taken at the scene and the description included in the crime scene report. For instance, if a gun is collected, the serial number of the firearm in the evidence log must match the serial number shown in the photo that was taken at the scene. This paper trail establishes the chain of custody that will follow the evidence throughout the lifecycle of the case.

How and Where Tests on the Evidence are Conducted

The most probative evidence will be sent to either a forensic laboratory or, if the laboratory does not have an expert in that forensic discipline, to an outside analyst for examination. To help identify the evidence that is most valuable, the crime scene personnel may conduct initial screening tests, called presumptive tests, at the scene. These tests can be useful in determining the type of substance present—whether it’s a toxin or a drug, a stain that contains body fluids, or even whether a dried red substance found in the kitchen is blood or ketchup.

Presumptive tests allow investigators to narrow the field of possibilities to a certain class of substance, but they are not specific enough to confirm the presence of specific compounds. In addition to helping provide clues to indicate how the crime occurred and who may have been involved, presumptive tests can also help reduce the quantity of evidence that is submitted to the lab to include only the most important items. This helps to expedite processing at the laboratory.

As technology advances and devices become more portable and affordable, additional testing of evidence will likely be conducted at the scene.

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• Introduction
• Applications
• How It’s Done ◀
• Common Terms
• Resources & References

Crime Scene Processing: Documentation and Evaluation

• First Online: 03 January 2022

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• Maha Ghanem 3 &
• Haidy M. Megahed 3  

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Thorough and complete documentation of observations at the crime scene is crucial. Failure of complete documentation of evidence at the crime scene may result in challenges at court and unsuccessful prosecution and may affect the credibility and reputation of the first responders.

Any incident, whether criminal or noncriminal must be documented thoroughly. Even accidental injuries can be open to civil litigation such as those made by insurance companies or equipment manufacturers.

Crime scene documentation may include notes, photography, videos, sketches, measurements, or reports. None of which are a substitute for the other.

During documentation, it is vital to be aware that there may be many other people (attorney’s, attorneys’ investigators, crime lab analysts, etc.) who are involved in the case and were not able to visit and assess the scene of the crime by themselves and observe the placement of physical evidence within it. The aim of documentation is to deliver an enduring record of the scene and provide physical proof. It is the fundamental initial step of the chain-of-custody.

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Ghanem, M., Megahed, H.M. (2021). Crime Scene Processing: Documentation and Evaluation. In: Singh, J., Sharma, N.R. (eds) Crime Scene Management within Forensic science. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4091-9_2

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Crime Scene Search Methods and Patterns: Types and When to Use With Examples

What is crime scene search.

A Crime Scene Search is a systematic method designed to locate evidence within a crime scene or other areas where evidence might be present. This process typically involves:

• Dividing the search area into manageable segments.
• Adapting the search pattern to suit the specific area, available personnel, time constraints due to weather and lighting, and the unique circumstances of each crime scene.

In other words, it is a technique used to comprehensively search the area to uncover potential evidence that helps in solving cases.

What is a Need for Crime Scene Search?

Forensic science is a scientific study. So, every element of it needed to be scientific or systematic.

This is also true for crime scene searches. 

Investigators need to follow certain patterns and protocols of searching so that they can rely on their findings and what evidence leads the case. And this is what crime scene searches do.

Let’s assume if there are no set protocols for searching, there might be a chance that potential evidence could be missed that hampered the investigation.

Here are some key elements that state why a crime scene search pattern is needed.

• Understanding the crime scene and what needed to focus on. For example, in a single center point in a confined area, wheel search is preferred.
• Defines where to look for evidence and what any anomalies or inconsistencies in a crime scene indicate. It helps in reconstruction.
• Using proper crime scene recording , the location of evidence can be established even if the evidence is located far from the crime site.
• An efficient and effective way to save time without compromising the investigation process.
• Help in the learning process for new crime scene examiners (CSE) or investigators.

10 Types of Crime Scene Search Methods and Patterns

There are mainly 10 types of crime scene searches and patterns. These are listed below in tables with examples:

1. Preliminary Search Method

The initial quasi-search focuses on identifying obvious items of evidence, such as weapons, broken objects, or visible traces. It is usually done before actual documentation of the crime scene.

This search serves orientation purposes, helping investigators familiarize themselves with the crime scene layout before documentation begins.

The preliminary search allows investigators to formulate an initial understanding of the crime , guiding their approach to the subsequent intensive search.

Advantages:

• Relatively quick and efficient.
• The best strategy to start documentation of any crime scene.
• Identify key pieces of evidence.
• Helps investigators familiarize themselves with the crime scene.

Disadvantages:

• Limited in-depth analysis.
• May not uncover less obvious or hidden evidence.
• The focus on more apparent items might lead to inadvertent contamination of other evidence.

2. Intensive Search Method

The intensive search is conducted after documentation, including photographs, sketches, and notes, but before the actual collection and packaging of evidence begin. They are used in conjunction with other searches (listed later in the post) such as zone, grid, and spiral.

They are proven more appropriate in indoor or crime scenes with confined areas and lots of items.

Intensive searches have a level of intrusiveness; Move from least intrusive to more intrusive to avoid damaging evidence. Here are examples of various levels of intrusiveness:

a. Least Intrusive Search Method: It includes searching the crime scene with the naked eye or lighting tool (ALS), without touching any items and then documenting and collecting.

b. More intrusive Method: After initial documentation and collection, items like furniture, clothes, or other objects are moved to uncover hidden or less obvious items.

c. Most intrusive Method: It involves damaging or destroying items within the crime scene to collect evidence. For Example: cutting holes in the wall to recover projectiles, cutting pieces of carpet with bloodstain pattern , etc.

Note: Make sure you document and photograph before and after each level of intrusive search and damages to the crime scene.

  Advantages:

• Recovery of hidden evidence that may be missed during the preliminary search.
• A thorough examination of the crime scene.
• Can be related to accurate and complete investigation.
• Reduce the risk of important evidence left behind.
• Can be time-consuming especially if there are too many items and hidden places.
• Documentation and photographing each level of intrusiveness during the search is time-consuming.
• Some evidence requires trained officials to avoid contamination.
• Require additional resources such as a specialized CSE and specialized equipment.
• The most intrusive searches may require physically damaging the crime scene items.

3. Link (Point-to-Point) Search Method 

Link search methods focus on following a trail of evidence by first evaluating the various focus points within the crime scene and then documenting and communicating successively.

In this method, the search begins from the first point of interest such as the front door or evidence, and processes to the next point of interest. This continues sequentially until all interest points get covered.

Appropriate Crime Scene Situation to Use In:

• This method is suitable for crime scenes with multiple points of interest and a need to establish clear paths for investigators to follow.
• Helps establish clear walking paths, minimizing loss or destruction of evidence.
• Allows a systematic search focused on multiple points of interest within the crime scene.
• Can be time-consuming, especially if there are many points of interest.
• Requires careful attention to avoid straying away from established pathways.
• May not be suitable for crime scenes with few interest points.

4. Strip (Lane) Search Method

The strip or lane search method involves dividing the crime scene into narrow strips or lanes. Each team member is responsible for searching their assigned lane and turning around and walking in the opposite direction to the next strip or lane.

Investigators needed: One (in strip method), while more than one (in lane search method).

Strip Vs Lane Search Method: Know the difference between strip and lane search methods. Check article Strip (Lane) Search Pattern: Procedure, When to Use? With Examples

• Large areas or expansive crime scenes.
• Open areas where visibility is generally unobstructed such as parks.
• Ensures systematic coverage of large or open areas.
• Can be easily extended to cover multiple rooms or areas within a given scene.
• Provides a clear and organized search pattern, reducing the risk of missing crucial evidence.

Disadvantages :

• Requires a sizable team of investigators for efficient execution.
• Can be time-consuming, particularly for very large crime scenes.
• Less suitable for irregularly shaped or indoor crime scenes.

5. Line Search Method

The line search method is a variation of the strip/lane search. There is only one main difference between the two i.e. in line search methods, multiple searchers are walking across the crime scene in straight lines and don’t turn back . 

They continued their path to the other side of the crime scene. While in strip or lane methods, searches turn around and continue to search in the adjacent strip or lane.

Investigators Needed: One per line.

• Best suited for outdoor crime scenes involving rough or uneven terrain, where it might be challenging to physically mark lanes or strips.
• Linear or elongated crime scenes such as roadsides, and alleyways.
• Suitable for outdoor crime scenes with difficult terrain.
• Enables simultaneous searching by multiple investigators, potentially expediting the search process.
• Provides a systematic approach, reducing the risk of overlooking evidence.
• Requires a larger team of investigators or searchers for efficient execution.
• Can be challenging to maintain a straight alignment and consistent search direction due to terrain.

6. Spiral (Circle) Search Method

As the name suggests, the crime scene is searched in circular motion either from the center of the scene (outward spiral) or from the outer perimeter to the center of the scene (inward spiral). 

With each turn, the searcher either has to move outward or inward while searching for evidence. If the searcher feels dizziness due to circular movement, make sure to take rest.

• Other Names: Circle Search Method
• Investigators Required: Only one
• An inward spiral method is preferred in confined, small, confined, or smaller areas.
• An outward spiral method is preferred when crime scenes have no outer perimeter such as open water.
• One searcher is needed.
• A way of thoroughly searching crime scenes.
• Searchers need to pay constant attention.
• Can cause disorientation due to circular motion.
• Investigators have to follow their imaginary spiral lines which can lead to missing some evidence.

Read More: Spiral (Circle) Search Patterns: Procedure, When to Use With Examples

7. Grid Search Method

The grid search method is a variation of the strip search method, where the area is searched twice in two perpendicular directions, ensuring a more thorough examination of the crime scene.

In this systematic approach, investigators start walking in a designated lane in one direction (e.g., north to south ). After completing, turn around at a 90° angle and continue (east to west).

• Other Names: Modified line method or Double-line search
• Investigators needed: One investigator

Appropriate Crime Scene Situation to Use

• This method is well-suited for large, open areas and outdoor crime scenes.
• Where evidence may be scattered over a definitive wide area, such as fields or parking lots.
• Ensures thorough coverage by searching the area twice in perpendicular directions.
• Minimizes the chances of missing crucial evidence.
• More time-consuming due to double search.
• Requires significant manpower for optimal efficiency.
• Physically marking in two stages also increases the risk of contaminating the crime scene.

8. Zone Search Method

The zone search pattern method divides an extensive crime scene into smaller sections or quadrants. Each investigator is assigned to search a specific quadrant or zone, ensuring a comprehensive search.

• Other Names: Map Grid or Quadrant searching
• Investigators Needed: Depends on crime scene needs
• Ideal for large interior or exterior scenes or vehicles that require a need of dividing crime scenes into zones.
• For example, effective in houses or buildings with rooms.
• Enables a more organized and systematic search of extensive crime scenes.
• Use of other search methods such as strips, and spirals in each zone for thorough coverage.
• Facilitates tracking of which zones have been searched and by whom, ensuring no areas are overlooked.
• Can be time-consuming, particularly for very large or complex crime scenes.
• Requires proper documentation and labeling of zones to avoid confusion or overlap.
• A larger team of investigators may be required for efficient execution.

9. Wheel or Ray Search Method

The wheel or ray search method is used in crime scenes with a central point of interest. From the central points, searches have to move in a straight ray looking for evidence.

You can understand the wheel/ray search method as a wheel whose center axis represents the central point of interest and each spoke represents the ray that needs to be followed by the searcher.

• Other Names: Radial, Spoke, or Ray search pattern method
• Investigators Needed: One per ray (Ideal at least 6)
• Small crime scenes with limited area.
• Larger scenes such as grasslands in searching for bodies.
• Situations where a quick initial search is needed. Eg: a missing person from his trip to the forest.
• Cover a large area in a short time.
• Easy to organize.
• No marking zones or lines.
• Higher chance of losing potential evidence.
• Not suitable for crime scene searches with scattered evidence.
• Need of secondary search from other searching methods.

10. Vehicle Search Methods

A specialized way of searching a vehicle for evidence either because of linking them to a crime scene or suspecting of illegal transport goods. In most cases, vehicle searches are usually done in zones.

There are three main parts of vehicle searches: preliminary, exterior, and interior searches.

• Preliminarily deals with finding any evidence near the vehicle such as shoe prints near a pickup truck
• Exterior vehicle searches include finding evidence on the exterior of the vehicle such as damage signs, accident marks, scratches, paint transfers, etc.
• Interior searches include finding evidence on the interior of vehicles such as finding fingerprints on front dashboards, blood-soiled clothes, etc.

Read More: How to Search Vehicles for Evidence? A Practical Guide and Tips

Who Should Choose to be a Crime Scene Searcher? 

Following are the some of deciding factors in choosing a searcher during a crime scene search:

• Education and Training: He/she should have a background in forensics or the justice system or have undergone specialized training in crime scene investigation.
• Experience: Prior experience is always preferred if you have options.
• Emotional resilience: Some crime scenes are emotional or religious driven. A crime searcher must value evidence or facts over their emotions.
• Maintain the integrity of evidence: He or she properly knows how to document, collect and preserve various types of evidence without damaging their values.

Why is it not advisable to use Citizens for searching for some crimes?

In some cases, such as missing persons in forest areas need to rescue asap, in those cases, police need more manpower and that is why they include citizens from local communities to search the area.

This is quite a good option but it leads to many other problems. These are:

• Risk of involvement of perpetrators as a searcher: This may lead perpetrators to compromise the investigation.
• Lack of expertise to handle evidence: Citizens may not have the experience to conduct a crime scene search and handle evidence. This leads to contamination of potential evidence.
• Emotional involvement: Some of the citizens might have a personal connection to victims or suspects that can deliberately bias their actions and judgment during the search.
• Legal Issue: Destruction or contamination of potential evidence by a citizen can lead to the removal of that evidence from the case, and the loss of its evidentiary values.

So, it is better, whenever possible, not to involve any citizen in crime scene searches . All citizens or reporters should be bound behind the yellow crime scene tapes.

References:

• Expertise in crime scene examination: comparing search strategies of …[ DOI ]
• UAV‐assisted real‐time evidence detection in outdoor crime scene investigations [ DOI ]
• Henry Lee’s Crime Scene Handbook By Henry C. Lee, Timothy Palmbach, Marilyn T. Miller [ link ]
• Crime Scene Forensics: A Scientific Method Approach By Robert C Shaler [ link ]
• An introduction to crime scene investigation: AW Dutelle by Jones & Bartlett Learning
• Intelligent indexing of crime scene photographs by K. Pastra; H. Saggion; Y. Wilks [ link ]
• A Comparative Study: The Effectiveness of Various Search Strategies for Finding Critical Evidence in Crime Scene Analysis by Elianna Tracy, Spring Valley High School [ link ]
• Crime Scene Processing and Investigation Workbook, Second Edition By Christine R. Ramirez, Casie L. Parish-Fisher [ link ]
• Crime Scene Management within Forensic science [ link ]

FR Author Group at ForensicReader is a team of Forensic experts and scholars having B.Sc, M.Sc, or Doctorate( Ph.D.) degrees in Forensic Science . We published on topics on fingerprints, questioned documents, forensic medicine, toxicology, physical evidence, and related case studies. Know More .

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Most crime has fallen by 90% in 30 years – so why does the public think it’s increased?

Associate Professor in Criminal Justice Data Analytics, University of Leeds

Professor of Crime Science, University of Leeds

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Toby Davies has received funding from the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council and the UK Home Office.

Graham Farrell has received funding from the Economic and Social Research Council.

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Seventy-eight per cent of people in England and Wales think that crime has gone up in the last few years, according to the latest survey . But the data on actual crime shows the exact opposite.

As of 2024, violence, burglary and car crime have been declining for 30 years and by close to 90%, according to the Crime Survey for England and Wales (CSEW) – our best indicator of true crime levels. Unlike police data , the CSEW is not subject to variations in reporting and recording.

The drop in violence includes domestic violence and other violence against women. Anti-social behaviour has similarly declined. While increased fraud and computer misuse now make up half of crime , this mainly reflects how far the rates of other crimes have fallen.

All high-income countries have experienced similar trends, and there is scientific consensus that the decline in crime is a real phenomenon .

There is strong research evidence that security improvements were responsible for the drop. This is most obvious with vehicle electronic immobilisers and door deadlocks, and better household security – stronger door frames, double glazed windows and security fittings – along with an avalanche of security in shopping centres, sports stadiums, schools, businesses and elsewhere. Quite simply, it became more difficult to commit crimes.

Decreases in crimes often committed by teenagers, such as joyriding or burglary, had a multiplying effect: when teenagers could no longer commit these easy “debut crimes” they did not progress to longer criminal careers.

There are, of course, exceptions. Some places, times and crime types had a less pronounced decline or even an increase. For many years, phone theft was an exception to the general decline in theft. Cybercrime, measured by the CSEW as fraud and computer misuse, has increased and is the most prominent exception.

But this increase was not due to thwarted burglars and car thieves switching targets: the skillset, resources and rewards for cybercrime are very different . Rather, it reflects new crime opportunities facilitated by the internet. Preventive policy and practice is slowly getting better at closing off opportunities for computer misuse, but work is needed to accelerate those prevention efforts.

The perception gap

So why is there such a gulf between public perception and the reality of crime trends? A regular YouGov poll asks respondents for their top three concerns from a broad set of issues. Concern about crime went from a low in 2016 (when people were more concerned with Brexit), quadrupled by 2019 and plummeted during the pandemic when people had other worries. But in the last year, the public’s concern about crime has risen again.

Proportion of people naming crime as a top three issue facing the country:

There are many possible explanations for this, of which the first is poor information. A study published in 1998 found that “people who watch a lot of television or who read a lot of newspapers will be exposed to a steady diet of crime stories” that does not reflect official statistics.

The old news media adage “if it bleeds, it leads” reflects how violent news stories, including crime increases and serious crimes, capture public attention. Knife crime grabs headlines in the UK, but our shock at individual incidents is testament to their rarity and our relative success in controlling violence – many gun crimes do not make the news in the US.

Most recent terrorist attacks in the UK have featured knives (plus a thwarted Liverpool bomber ), but there is little discussion of how this indicates that measures to restrict guns and bomb-making resources are effective.

Political rhetoric can also skew perceptions, particularly in the run-up to elections. During the recent local elections, the Conservatives were widely criticised for an advert portraying London as “a crime capital of the world” (using a video of New York), while Labour has also made reference to high levels of crime under the current government.

There are also some “crime drop deniers”, who have vested interests in crime not declining due to, for example, fear of budget cuts. One of us (Graham) worked with a former police chief who routinely denied the existence of declining crime.

Despite the evidence of crime rates dropping, some concerns are justified. Victims, along with their families and friends, have legitimate concerns, particularly as crime is more likely to recur against the same people and at the same places.

And, while the trend is clear, there are nevertheless localised increases in some types of offending. When these relate to harmful and emotive issues like knife crime in London , for example, it is natural that this might have a substantial influence.

We are unlikely to be able to change political agendas or journalists’ approach to reporting. But governments should be taking a more rational approach to crime that is based on evidence, not public perception.

Local governments need to keep on top of their local crime hotspots: problem bars and clubs where crime occurs, shops where shoplifting is concentrated, local road traffic offence hotspots and so on. The common theme here is how crime concentrates.

National government, meanwhile, should lead on reducing crime opportunities via national-level levers. Only national government can influence social media platforms and websites that host online crime and encourage larger businesses to improve manufacturing, retailing and service industry practices.

The positive story around crime rarely makes headlines, but this should not put us off from learning the lessons borne out in the data. We know this can work from past success, but it took decades to get car makers to improve vehicle security and to get secure-by-design ideas in building regulations. Society needs to move more quickly.

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• Cyber crimes
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Most crime has fallen by 90% in 30 years—so why does the public think it's increased?

by Toby Davies and Graham Farrell, The Conversation

Seventy-eight percent of people in England and Wales think that crime has gone up in the last few years, according to the latest survey . But the data on actual crime shows the exact opposite.

As of 2024, violence, burglary and car crime have been declining for 30 years and by close to 90%, according to the Crime Survey for England and Wales (CSEW)—our best indicator of true crime levels. Unlike police data, the CSEW is not subject to variations in reporting and recording.

The drop in violence includes domestic violence and other violence against women. Anti-social behavior has similarly declined. While increased fraud and computer misuse now make up half of crime , this mainly reflects how far the rates of other crimes have fallen.

All high-income countries have experienced similar trends, and there is scientific consensus that the decline in crime is a real phenomenon .

There is strong research evidence that security improvements were responsible for the drop. This is most obvious with vehicle electronic immobilizers and door deadlocks, and better household security —stronger door frames, double glazed windows and security fittings—along with an avalanche of security in shopping centers, sports stadiums, schools, businesses and elsewhere. Quite simply, it became more difficult to commit crimes.

Decreases in crimes often committed by teenagers, such as joyriding or burglary, had a multiplying effect: when teenagers could no longer commit these easy "debut crimes" they did not progress to longer criminal careers.

There are, of course, exceptions. Some places, times and crime types had a less pronounced decline or even an increase. For many years, phone theft was an exception to the general decline in theft. Cybercrime, measured by the CSEW as fraud and computer misuse, has increased and is the most prominent exception.

But this increase was not due to thwarted burglars and car thieves switching targets: the skillset, resources and rewards for cybercrime are very different . Rather, it reflects new crime opportunities facilitated by the internet. Preventive policy and practice is slowly getting better at closing off opportunities for computer misuse, but work is needed to accelerate those prevention efforts.

The perception gap

So why is there such a gulf between public perception and the reality of crime trends? A regular YouGov poll asks respondents for their top three concerns from a broad set of issues. Concern about crime went from a low in 2016 (when people were more concerned with Brexit), quadrupled by 2019 and plummeted during the pandemic when people had other worries. But in the last year, the public's concern about crime has risen again.

Proportion of people naming crime as a top three issue facing the country:

There are many possible explanations for this, of which the first is poor information. A study published in 1998 found that "people who watch a lot of television or who read a lot of newspapers will be exposed to a steady diet of crime stories" that does not reflect official statistics.

The old news media adage "if it bleeds, it leads" reflects how violent news stories, including crime increases and serious crimes, capture public attention. Knife crime grabs headlines in the UK, but our shock at individual incidents is testament to their rarity and our relative success in controlling violence—many gun crimes do not make the news in the US.

Most recent terrorist attacks in the UK have featured knives (plus a thwarted Liverpool bomber ), but there is little discussion of how this indicates that measures to restrict guns and bomb-making resources are effective.

Political rhetoric can also skew perceptions, particularly in the run-up to elections. During the recent local elections, the Conservatives were widely criticized for an advert portraying London as "a crime capital of the world" (using a video of New York), while Labor has also made reference to high levels of crime under the current government.

There are also some "crime drop deniers," who have vested interests in crime not declining due to, for example, fear of budget cuts. One of us (Graham) worked with a former police chief who routinely denied the existence of declining crime.

Despite the evidence of crime rates dropping, some concerns are justified. Victims, along with their families and friends, have legitimate concerns, particularly as crime is more likely to recur against the same people and at the same places.

And, while the trend is clear, there are nevertheless localized increases in some types of offending. When these relate to harmful and emotive issues like knife crime in London, for example, it is natural that this might have a substantial influence.

We are unlikely to be able to change political agendas or journalists' approach to reporting. But governments should be taking a more rational approach to crime that is based on evidence, not public perception.

Local governments need to keep on top of their local crime hotspots: problem bars and clubs where crime occurs, shops where shoplifting is concentrated, local road traffic offense hotspots and so on. The common theme here is how crime concentrates.

National government, meanwhile, should lead on reducing crime opportunities via national-level levers. Only national government can influence social media platforms and websites that host online crime and encourage larger businesses to improve manufacturing, retailing and service industry practices.

The positive story around crime rarely makes headlines, but this should not put us off from learning the lessons borne out in the data. We know this can work from past success, but it took decades to get car makers to improve vehicle security and to get secure-by-design ideas in building regulations. Society needs to move more quickly.

Provided by The Conversation

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US Unveils Proposal to Ease Restrictions on Marijuana

FILE PHOTO: A woman holds marijuana for sale at the MedMen store in West Hollywood, California U.S. January 2, 2018. REUTERS/Lucy Nicholson/File Photo

By Sarah N. Lynch

WASHINGTON (Reuters) - The U.S. Justice Department on Thursday unveiled a historic proposal to ease restrictions on marijuana, a rule that if enacted would also enable more research on its medicinal benefits.

The proposal, first announced in April, would reclassify cannabis from a so-called schedule one drug to a schedule three. Schedule one drugs, such as heroin, are considered highly addictive with no medical benefits, while schedule three drugs are considered to have a moderate to low potential for physical and psychological dependence.

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration said it found "some credible scientific support for the use of marijuana in the treatment of chronic pain, anorexia related to a medical condition, and nausea and vomiting."

"Additionally, no safety concerns were identified in the FDA’s review that would indicate that medical use of marijuana poses unacceptably high safety risks," the proposal says.

President Joe Biden, a Democrat who is running for reelection in November, initiated a review of the drug's classification in 2022, fulfilling a campaign promise that was important to left-leaning members of his political base.

Currently, the drug falls under the Drug Enforcement Administration's (DEA) class that includes heroin and LSD. It would be moved to a group that contains ketamine and Tylenol with codeine.

Reclassifying marijuana represents a first step toward narrowing the chasm between state and federal cannabis laws. The drug is legal in some form in nearly 40 states.

While rescheduling the drug does not make it legal, it would open up the doors to more research and medical use, help lead to potentially lighter criminal penalties and increase investment in the cannabis sector.

In a new legal opinion made public on Thursday, the Justice Department's Office of Legal Counsel criticized the DEA's long-held approach for how it determines whether a drug has an acceptable medical use, calling it "impermissibly narrow."

The opinion also found that the DEA should "accord significant deference" to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services' (HHS) scientific and medical determinations.

According to the proposal, HHS's assistant secretary for health recommended that the DEA should place marijuana into schedule three back in August 2023.

The DEA, however, has yet to make its own determination.

If marijuana's classification were to ease at the federal level, cannabis companies could reap significant benefits, such as being eligible for listing on major stock exchanges and more generous tax deductions.

Moreover, they could face fewer restrictions from banks. With marijuana illegal federally, most U.S. banks do not lend to or serve cannabis companies, prompting many to rely on cash transactions.

The public will get 60 days to submit comments on the Justice Department's proposal.

A public hearing on the proposal can also be requested.

(Reporting by Sarah N. Lynch; Editing by Bill Berkrot)

Copyright 2024 Thomson Reuters .

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Crime Scene Assistant Supervisor

Job Posting for Crime Scene Assistant Supervisor at City of Indianapolis and Marion County

The purpose and mission of the Indianapolis-Marion County Forensic Services Agency is to serve the Marion County Community and supports the needs of the Criminal Justice System by providing services in Crime Scene Processing, Forensic Document Examinations, Latent Print Processing and Examination, Blood Alcohol Analysis, Fire Debris Analysis, Seized Drugs Analysis, Firearms Examinations and NIBIN, DNA and Serology Analysis and Forensic Evidence Technician (Morgue Liaison) services. The agency cultivates a productive, collaborative, and compliant work environment to meet the needs of the constituents of Indianapolis and Marion County. 

Position is responsible for providing crime scene specialist and investigation activities for public safety agencies throughout Marion County. Assists in the development and implementation of crime scene scientific programs; confers with local, state, and federal law enforcement agencies to coordinate work activities at scenes and/or in the laboratory. Provides preliminary analysis of collected crime scene evidence. Provides testimony as an expert in court as needed. Ensures that the total work product meets all appropriate scientific, legal and accreditation requirements. Trains new employees as assigned. Position is responsible for assisting the Crime Scene Specialist Supervisor in daily operations and/or functioning of the unit in their absence. Position includes evaluating and supervising their designated section/unit’s employees and may include input in performance evaluations. Under minimum supervision, may provide overall direction, management, and supervision to their assigned element of the Indianapolis-Marion County Forensic Services Laboratory. In the absence of the Crime Scene Specialist Supervisor, provides work direction, training, and supervision to subordinates. Position reports to the Crime Scene Specialist Supervisor.

All applicants will be considered for employment without attention to race, color, religion, sex, sexual orientation, gender identity, national origin, veteran, or disability status. We value diversity in perspectives and experiences among colleagues and the residents of this city of whom we serve.

• This list of duties and responsibilities is not intended to be all-inclusive and may be expanded to include other duties or responsibilities that management may deem necessary from time to time

Bachelor’s Degree in Biology, Chemistry, Forensic Science, Criminology, or related science courses maybe considered, with a minimum of two (2) years’ experience as a Crime Scene Specialist. Must possess a Crime Scene Certification through the Indiana Law Enforcement Training Board. Incumbent shall maintain proficiency through annual proficiency testing. Incumbent must be willing and capable of completing an internal/external training program determined by the Crime Scene Specialist Supervisor and the Quality Assurance Program, and capable of completing additional management and specialized training, as required or available, from Federal, State and Local agencies, and other organizations.  Must be able to establish and set priorities according to time sensitive information in order to have continued success in this position. Must be able to communicate effectively in oral, verbal, and written formats. 

Preferred Job Requirements and Qualifications

Master’s Degree in Biology, Chemistry, Forensic Science, Criminology, or related science courses, including minimum qualifications listed.

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Csi expert says murder in outer space is ‘inevitable’ — here’s why he’s studying sky-high crime already.

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It’s a Sirius problem.

A crime scene specialist is probing the forensics behind how a murder could be investigated in outer space — something he says is “inevitable” in the coming years by way of space tourism.

“Where humanity goes, so too will human behavior,” said Detective Zack Kowalske, who works in CSI for the Roswell, Georgia, police department told Fox News .

“So, being able to understand how to best reconstruct those criminal acts is really important.”

That’s right: The scene in “Armageddon” in which Bruce Willis’ crew finds a gun on their ship isn’t that far off.

To prove the legitimate risk of this “novel” concept, Kowalske and fellow researchers studied how blood and blood stains present themselves in a “microgravity environment,” such as a spacecraft. It was published in the July edition of “ Forensic Science International: Reports .”

Tests were run on board a Fort Lauderdale-based, modified Boeing 727 “parabolic” aircraft — known in-house as the “vomit comet” for aggressive zero-gravity astronaut training — that measured a weightless effect on food coloring-based blood synthetic sprayed at a small target.

“The microgravity environment presents unique challenges to the analysis of bloodstain patterns compared to a traditional 1G environment,” the researchers wrote.

It turns out that splatter samples, which looked like Rorschach inkblot tests in red, differ in a zero-G environment and appear much smaller, thanks to a lack of surface tension.

“It actually inhibits the spread of that blood, causing an inaccuracy in your calculation,” Kowalske said of the absence of gravity’s pull.

Why is that important? The CSI expert already has a potential scenario in which forensics can come into play.

“Say, hypothetically, we have a ship in orbit and there’s a catastrophic event,” he said.

“We can use bloodstain patterns to reconstruct where crew members were, what positioning they may have been in during the course of that catastrophic failure.”

And then there’s the question of who, exactly, would run a sky-high investigation.

“Jurisdiction will be tricky,” attorney Michelle Hanlon told Fox News. “Space objects remain under the jurisdiction and control of the state that launched the object.”

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