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Table of Contents – Types, Formats, Examples

Table of Contents

Definition:

Table of contents (TOC) is a list of the headings or sections in a document or book, arranged in the order in which they appear. It serves as a roadmap or guide to the contents of the document, allowing readers to quickly find specific information they are looking for.

A typical table of contents includes chapter titles, section headings, subheadings, and their corresponding page numbers.

The table of contents is usually located at the beginning of the document or book, after the title page and any front matter, such as a preface or introduction.

Table of Contents in Research

In Research, A Table of Contents (TOC) is a structured list of the main sections or chapters of a research paper , Thesis and Dissertation . It provides readers with an overview of the organization and structure of the document, allowing them to quickly locate specific information and navigate through the document.

Importance of Table of Contents

Here are some reasons why a TOC is important:

• Navigation : It serves as a roadmap that helps readers navigate the document easily. By providing a clear and concise overview of the contents, readers can quickly locate the section they need to read without having to search through the entire document.
• Organization : A well-structured TOC reflects the organization of the document. It helps to organize the content logically and categorize it into easily digestible chunks, which makes it easier for readers to understand and follow.
• Clarity : It can help to clarify the document’s purpose, scope, and structure. It provides an overview of the document’s main topics and subtopics, which can help readers to understand the content’s overall message.
• Efficiency : This can save readers time and effort by allowing them to skip to the section they need to read, rather than having to go through the entire document.
• Professionalism : Including a Table of Contents in a document shows that the author has taken the time and effort to organize the content properly. It adds a level of professionalism and credibility to the document.

Types of Table of Contents

There are different types of table of contents depending on the purpose and structure of the document. Here are some examples:

Simple Table of Contents

This is a basic table of contents that lists the major sections or chapters of a document along with their corresponding page numbers.

Example: Table of Contents

I. Introduction …………………………………………. 1

II. Literature Review ………………………………… 3

III. Methodology ……………………………………… 6

IV. Results …………………………………………….. 9

V. Discussion …………………………………………. 12

VI. Conclusion ……………………………………….. 15

Expanded Table of Contents

This type of table of contents provides more detailed information about the contents of each section or chapter, including subsections and subheadings.

A. Background …………………………………….. 1

B. Problem Statement ………………………….. 2

C. Research Questions ……………………….. 3

II. Literature Review ………………………………… 5

A. Theoretical Framework …………………… 5

B. Previous Research ………………………….. 6

C. Gaps and Limitations ……………………… 8 I

II. Methodology ……………………………………… 11

A. Research Design ……………………………. 11

B. Data Collection …………………………….. 12

C. Data Analysis ……………………………….. 13

IV. Results …………………………………………….. 15

A. Descriptive Statistics ……………………… 15

B. Hypothesis Testing …………………………. 17

V. Discussion …………………………………………. 20

A. Interpretation of Findings ……………… 20

B. Implications for Practice ………………… 22

VI. Conclusion ……………………………………….. 25

A. Summary of Findings ……………………… 25

B. Contributions and Recommendations ….. 27

Graphic Table of Contents

This type of table of contents uses visual aids, such as icons or images, to represent the different sections or chapters of a document.

I. Introduction …………………………………………. [image of a light bulb]

II. Literature Review ………………………………… [image of a book]

III. Methodology ……………………………………… [image of a microscope]

IV. Results …………………………………………….. [image of a graph]

V. Discussion …………………………………………. [image of a conversation bubble]

Alphabetical Table of Contents

This type of table of contents lists the different topics or keywords in alphabetical order, along with their corresponding page numbers.

A. Abstract ……………………………………………… 1

B. Background …………………………………………. 3

C. Conclusion …………………………………………. 10

D. Data Analysis …………………………………….. 8

E. Ethics ……………………………………………….. 6

F. Findings ……………………………………………… 7

G. Introduction ……………………………………….. 1

H. Hypothesis ………………………………………….. 5

I. Literature Review ………………………………… 2

J. Methodology ……………………………………… 4

K. Limitations …………………………………………. 9

L. Results ………………………………………………… 7

M. Discussion …………………………………………. 10

Hierarchical Table of Contents

This type of table of contents displays the different levels of headings and subheadings in a hierarchical order, indicating the relative importance and relationship between the different sections.

    A. Background …………………………………….. 2

      B. Purpose of the Study ……………………….. 3

      A. Theoretical Framework …………………… 5

             1. Concept A ……………………………….. 6

                    a. Definition ………………………….. 6

                     b. Example ……………………………. 7

              2. Concept B ……………………………….. 8

       B. Previous Research ………………………….. 9

III. Methodology ……………………………………… 12

       A. Research Design ……………………………. 12

             1. Sample ……………………………………. 13

               2. Procedure ………………………………. 14

       B. Data Collection …………………………….. 15

            1. Instrumentation ……………………….. 16

            2. Validity and Reliability ………………. 17

       C. Data Analysis ……………………………….. 18

          1. Descriptive Statistics …………………… 19

           2. Inferential Statistics ………………….. 20

IV. Result s …………………………………………….. 22

    A. Overview of Findings ……………………… 22

B. Hypothesis Testing …………………………. 23

V. Discussion …………………………………………. 26

A. Interpretation of Findings ………………… 26

B. Implications for Practice ………………… 28

VI. Conclusion ……………………………………….. 31

A. Summary of Findings ……………………… 31

B. Contributions and Recommendations ….. 33

Table of Contents Format

Here’s an example format for a Table of Contents:

I. Introduction

C. Methodology

II. Background

A. Historical Context

B. Literature Review

III. Methodology

A. Research Design

B. Data Collection

C. Data Analysis

IV. Results

A. Descriptive Statistics

B. Inferential Statistics

C. Qualitative Findings

V. Discussion

A. Interpretation of Results

B. Implications for Practice

C. Limitations and Future Research

VI. Conclusion

A. Summary of Findings

B. Contributions to the Field

C. Final Remarks

VII. References

VIII. Appendices

Note : This is just an example format and can vary depending on the type of document or research paper you are writing.

When to use Table of Contents

A TOC can be particularly useful in the following cases:

• Lengthy documents : If the document is lengthy, with several sections and subsections, a Table of contents can help readers quickly navigate the document and find the relevant information.
• Complex documents: If the document is complex, with multiple topics or themes, a TOC can help readers understand the relationships between the different sections and how they are connected.
• Technical documents: If the document is technical, with a lot of jargon or specialized terminology, This can help readers understand the organization of the document and locate the information they need.
• Legal documents: If the document is a legal document, such as a contract or a legal brief, It helps readers quickly locate specific sections or provisions.

How to Make a Table of Contents

Here are the steps to create a table of contents:

• Organize your document: Before you start making a table of contents, organize your document into sections and subsections. Each section should have a clear and descriptive heading that summarizes the content.
• Add heading styles : Use the heading styles in your word processor to format the headings in your document. The heading styles are usually named Heading 1, Heading 2, Heading 3, and so on. Apply the appropriate heading style to each section heading in your document.
• Insert a table of contents: Once you’ve added headings to your document, you can insert a table of contents. In Microsoft Word, go to the References tab, click on Table of Contents, and choose a style from the list. The table of contents will be inserted into your document.
• Update the table of contents: If you make changes to your document, such as adding or deleting sections, you’ll need to update the table of contents. In Microsoft Word, right-click on the table of contents and select Update Field. Choose whether you want to update the page numbers or the entire table, and click OK.

Purpose of Table of Contents

A table of contents (TOC) serves several purposes, including:

• Marketing : It can be used as a marketing tool to entice readers to read a book or document. By highlighting the most interesting or compelling sections, a TOC can give readers a preview of what’s to come and encourage them to dive deeper into the content.
• Accessibility : A TOC can make a document or book more accessible to people with disabilities, such as those who use screen readers or other assistive technologies. By providing a clear and organized overview of the content, a TOC can help these readers navigate the material more easily.
• Collaboration : This can be used as a collaboration tool to help multiple authors or editors work together on a document or book. By providing a shared framework for organizing the content, a TOC can help ensure that everyone is on the same page and working towards the same goals.
• Reference : It can serve as a reference tool for readers who need to revisit specific sections of a document or book. By providing a clear overview of the content and organization, a TOC can help readers quickly locate the information they need, even if they don’t remember exactly where it was located.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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• Writing Tips

How to Structure the Table of Contents for a Research Paper

4-minute read

• 16th July 2023

So you’ve made it to the important step of writing the table of contents for your paper. Congratulations on making it this far! Whether you’re writing a research paper or a dissertation , the table of contents not only provides the reader with guidance on where to find the sections of your paper, but it also signals that a quality piece of research is to follow. Here, we will provide detailed instructions on how to structure the table of contents for your research paper.

Steps to Create a Table of Contents

• Insert the table of contents after the title page.

Within the structure of your research paper , you should place the table of contents after the title page but before the introduction or the beginning of the content. If your research paper includes an abstract or an acknowledgements section , place the table of contents after it.

• List all the paper’s sections and subsections in chronological order.

Depending on the complexity of your paper, this list will include chapters (first-level headings), chapter sections (second-level headings), and perhaps subsections (third-level headings). If you have a chapter outline , it will come in handy during this step. You should include the bibliography and all appendices in your table of contents. If you have more than a few charts and figures (more often the case in a dissertation than in a research paper), you should add them to a separate list of charts and figures that immediately follows the table of contents. (Check out our FAQs below for additional guidance on items that should not be in your table of contents.)

• Paginate each section.

Label each section and subsection with the page number it begins on. Be sure to do a check after you’ve made your final edits to ensure that you don’t need to update the page numbers.

• Format your table of contents.

The way you format your table of contents will depend on the style guide you use for the rest of your paper. For example, there are table of contents formatting guidelines for Turabian/Chicago and MLA styles, and although the APA recommends checking with your instructor for formatting instructions (always a good rule of thumb), you can also create a table of contents for a research paper that follows APA style .

• Add hyperlinks if you like.

Depending on the word processing software you’re using, you may also be able to hyperlink the sections of your table of contents for easier navigation through your paper. (Instructions for this feature are available for both Microsoft Word and Google Docs .)

To summarize, the following steps will help you create a clear and concise table of contents to guide readers through your research paper:

1. Insert the table of contents after the title page.

2. List all the sections and subsections in chronological order.

3. Paginate each section.

4. Format the table of contents according to your style guide.

5. Add optional hyperlinks.

If you’d like help formatting and proofreading your research paper , check out some of our services. You can even submit a sample for free . Best of luck writing your research paper table of contents!

What is a table of contents?

A table of contents is a listing of each section of a document in chronological order, accompanied by the page number where the section begins. A table of contents gives the reader an overview of the contents of a document, as well as providing guidance on where to find each section.

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What should I include in my table of contents?

If your paper contains any of the following sections, they should be included in your table of contents:

●  Chapters, chapter sections, and subsections

●  Introduction

●  Conclusion

●  Appendices

●  Bibliography

Although recommendations may differ among institutions, you generally should not include the following in your table of contents:

●  Title page

●  Abstract

●  Acknowledgements

●  Forward or preface

If you have several charts, figures, or tables, consider creating a separate list for them that will immediately follow the table of contents. Also, you don’t need to include the table of contents itself in your table of contents.

Is there more than one way to format a table of contents?

Yes! In addition to following any recommendations from your instructor or institution, you should follow the stipulations of your style guide .

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• Dissertation Table of Contents in Word | Instructions & Examples

Dissertation Table of Contents in Word | Instructions & Examples

Published on 15 May 2022 by Tegan George .

The table of contents is where you list the chapters and major sections of your thesis, dissertation, or research paper, alongside their page numbers. A clear and well-formatted table of contents is essential, as it demonstrates to your reader that a quality paper will follow.

The table of contents (TOC) should be placed between the abstract and the introduction. The maximum length should be two pages. Depending on the nature of your thesis, dissertation, or paper, there are a few formatting options you can choose from.

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Table of contents

What to include in your table of contents, what not to include in your table of contents, creating a table of contents in microsoft word, table of contents examples, updating a table of contents in microsoft word, other lists in your thesis, dissertation, or research paper, frequently asked questions about the table of contents.

Depending on the length of your document, you can choose between a single-level, subdivided, or multi-level table of contents.

• A single-level table of contents only includes ‘level 1’ headings, or chapters. This is the simplest option, but it may be too broad for a long document like a dissertation.
• A subdivided table of contents includes chapters as well as ‘level 2’ headings, or sections. These show your reader what each chapter contains.
• A multi-level table of contents also further divides sections into ‘level 3’ headings. This option can get messy quickly, so proceed with caution. Remember your table of contents should not be longer than 2 pages. A multi-level table is often a good choice for a shorter document like a research paper.

Examples of level 1 headings are Introduction, Literature Review, Methodology, and Bibliography. Subsections of each of these would be level 2 headings, further describing the contents of each chapter or large section. Any further subsections would be level 3.

In these introductory sections, less is often more. As you decide which sections to include, narrow it down to only the most essential.

Including appendices and tables

You should include all appendices in your table of contents. Whether or not you include tables and figures depends largely on how many there are in your document.

If there are more than three figures and tables, you might consider listing them on a separate page. Otherwise, you can include each one in the table of contents.

• Theses and dissertations often have a separate list of figures and tables.
• Research papers generally don’t have a separate list of figures and tables.

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All level 1 and level 2 headings should be included in your table of contents, with level 3 headings used very sparingly.

The following things should never be included in a table of contents:

• Your acknowledgements page
• Your abstract
• The table of contents itself

The acknowledgements and abstract always precede the table of contents, so there’s no need to include them. This goes for any sections that precede the table of contents.

To automatically insert a table of contents in Microsoft Word, be sure to first apply the correct heading styles throughout the document, as shown below.

• Choose which headings are heading 1 and which are heading 2 (or 3!
• For example, if all level 1 headings should be Times New Roman, 12-point font, and bold, add this formatting to the first level 1 heading.
• Highlight the level 1 heading.
• Right-click the style that says ‘Heading 1’.
• Select ‘Update Heading 1 to Match Selection’.
• Allocate the formatting for each heading throughout your document by highlighting the heading in question and clicking the style you wish to apply.

Once that’s all set, follow these steps:

• Add a title to your table of contents. Be sure to check if your citation style or university has guidelines for this.
• Place your cursor where you would like your table of contents to go.
• In the ‘References’ section at the top, locate the Table of Contents group.
• Here, you can select which levels of headings you would like to include. You can also make manual adjustments to each level by clicking the Modify button.
• When you are ready to insert the table of contents, click ‘OK’ and it will be automatically generated, as shown below.

The key features of a table of contents are:

• Clear headings and subheadings
• Corresponding page numbers

Check with your educational institution to see if they have any specific formatting or design requirements.

Write yourself a reminder to update your table of contents as one of your final tasks before submitting your dissertation or paper. It’s normal for your text to shift a bit as you input your final edits, and it’s crucial that your page numbers correspond correctly.

It’s easy to update your page numbers automatically in Microsoft Word. Simply right-click the table of contents and select ‘Update Field’. You can choose either to update page numbers only or to update all information in your table of contents.

In addition to a table of contents, you might also want to include a list of figures and tables, a list of abbreviations and a glossary in your thesis or dissertation. You can use the following guides to do so:

• List of figures and tables
• List of abbreviations

It is less common to include these lists in a research paper.

All level 1 and 2 headings should be included in your table of contents . That means the titles of your chapters and the main sections within them.

The contents should also include all appendices and the lists of tables and figures, if applicable, as well as your reference list .

Do not include the acknowledgements or abstract   in the table of contents.

To automatically insert a table of contents in Microsoft Word, follow these steps:

• Apply heading styles throughout the document.
• In the references section in the ribbon, locate the Table of Contents group.
• Click the arrow next to the Table of Contents icon and select Custom Table of Contents.
• Select which levels of headings you would like to include in the table of contents.

Make sure to update your table of contents if you move text or change headings. To update, simply right click and select Update Field.

The table of contents in a thesis or dissertation always goes between your abstract and your introduction.

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If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

George, T. (2022, May 15). Dissertation Table of Contents in Word | Instructions & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 6 May 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/thesis-dissertation/contents-page/

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Thesis / dissertation formatting manual (2024).

• Filing Fees and Student Status
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Table of Contents

• List of Figures (etc.)
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• Figures and Illustrations
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The Table of Contents should follow these guidelines:

• ​All sections of the manuscript are listed in the Table of Contents except the Title Page, the Copyright Page, the Dedication Page, and the Table of Contents.
• You may list subsections within chapters
• Creative works are not exempt from the requirement to include a Table of Contents

Table of Contents Example

Here is an example of a Table of Contents page from the Template. Please note that your table of contents may be longer than one page.

• << Previous: Dedication Page
• Next: List of Figures (etc.) >>
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Microsoft Word for Dissertations

• Table of Contents
• Introduction, Template, & Resources
• Formatting for All Readers
• Applying a Style
• Modifying a Style
• Setting up a Heading 1 Example
• Images, Charts, Other Objects
• Footnotes, Endnotes, & Citations
• Cross-References
• Appendix Figures & Tables
• List of Figures/Tables
• Chapter and Section Numbering
• Page Numbers
• Landscape Pages
• Combining Chapter Files
• Commenting and Reviewing
• The Two-inch Top Margin
• Troubleshooting
• Finalizing Without Styles
• Preparing Your Final Document

Automatic Table of Contents

An automatic Table of Contents relies on Styles to keep track of page numbers and section titles for you automatically. Microsoft Word can scan your document and find everything in the Heading 1 style and put that on the first level of your table of contents, put any Heading 2’s on the second level of your table of contents, and so on.

If you want an automatic table of contents you need to apply the Heading 1 style to all of your chapter titles and front matter headings (like “Dedication” and “Acknowledgements”).  All section headings within your chapters should use the Heading 2  style.  All sub-section headings should use  Heading 3 , etc....

If you have used Heading styles in your document, creating an automatic table of contents is easy.

• Place your cursor where you want your table of contents to be.
• On the References Ribbon, in the Table of Contents Group , click on the arrow next to the Table of Contents icon, and select  Custom Table of Contents .
• We suggest that you set each level (Chapters, sections, sub-sections, aka TOC 1, TOC 2, TOC 3) to be single-spaced, with 12 points of space afterwards.  This makes each item in your ToC clump together if they're long enough to wrap to a second line, with the equivalent of a double space between each item, and makes the ToC easier to read and understand than if every line were double-spaced. See the video below for details.
• If you want to change which headings appear in your Table of Contents, you can do so by changing the number in the Show levels: field. Select "1" to just include the major sections (Acknowledgements, List of Figures, Chapters, etc...).  Select "4" to include Chapters, sections, sub-sections, and sub-sub-sections.
• Click OK to insert your table of contents.  

The table of contents is a snapshot of the headings and page numbers in your document, and does not automatically update itself as you make changes. At any time, you can update it by right-clicking on it and selecting Update field .  Notice that once the table of contents is in your document, it will turn gray if you click on it. This just reminds you that it is a special field managed by Word, and is getting information from somewhere else.

Modifying the format of your Table of Contents

The video below shows how to make your Table of Contents a little easier to read by formatting the spacing between items in your Table of Contents. You may recognize the "Modify Style" window that appears, which can serve as a reminder that you can use this window to modify more than just paragraph settings. You can modify the indent distance, or font, or tab settings for your ToC, just the same as you may have modified it for Styles. 

By default, the Table of Contents tool creates the ToC by pulling in Headings 1 through 3. If you'd like to modify that -- to only show H1's, or to show Headings 1 through 4 -- then go to the References tab and select Custom Table of Contents .  In the window that appears, set Show Levels to "1" to only show Heading 1's in the Table of Contents, or set it to "4" to show Headings 1 through 4.

Bonus tip for updating fields like the Table of Contents

You'll quickly realize that all of the automatic Lists and Tables need to be updated occasionally to reflect any changes you've made elsewhere in the document -- they do not dynamically update by themselves. Normally, this means going to each field, right-clicking on it and selecting "Update Field". 

Alternatively, to update all fields throughout your document (Figure/Table numbers & Lists, cross-references, Table of Contents, etc...), just select "Print". This will cause Word to update everything in anticipation of printing. Once the print preview window appears, just cancel.

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A guide to the table of contents page

Inhaltsverzeichnis

• 1 Definition: Table of Contents
• 3 Everything for Your Thesis
• 5 Create in Microsoft Word
• 6 In a Nutshell

Definition: Table of Contents

The table of contents is an organized listing of your document’s chapters, sections and, often, figures, clearly labelled by page number. Readers should be able to look at your table of contents page and understand immediately how your paper is organized, enabling them to skip to any relevant section or sub-section. The table of contents should list all front matter, main content and back matter, including the headings and page numbers of all chapters and the bibliography . A good table of contents should be easy to read, accurately formatted and completed last so that it is 100% accurate. Although you can complete a table of contents manually, many word processing tools like Microsoft Word enable you to format your table of contents automatically.

When adding the finishing touches to your dissertation, the table of contents is one of the most crucial elements. It helps the reader navigate (like a map) through your argument and topic points. Adding a table of contents is simple and it can be inserted easily after you have finished writing your paper. In this guide, we look at the do’s and don’ts of a table of contents; this will help you process and format your dissertation in a professional way.

When adding the finishing touches to your dissertation, the table of contents is one of the most crucial elements. It helps the reader navigate (like a map) through your argument and topic points. Adding a table of contents is simple and can be inserted easily after you have finished writing your paper. In this guide, we look at the do’s and don’ts of a table of contents; this will help you process and format your dissertation in a professional way.

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What is a table of contents?

A table of contents is a list, usually on a page at the beginning of a piece of academic writing , which outlines the chapters or sections names with their corresponding page numbers. In addition to chapter names, it includes bullet points of the sub-chapter headings or subsection headings. It usually comes right after the title page of a research paper.

How do you write a table of contents

To write a table of contents, you first write the title or chapter names of your research paper in chronological order. Secondly, you write the subheadings or subtitles, if you have them in your paper. After that, you write the page numbers for the corresponding headings and subheadings. You can also very easily set up a table of contents in Microsoft Word.

Where do you put a table of contents?

The table of contents is found on a page right at the beginning of an academic writing project. It comes specifically after the title page and acknowledgements, but before the introductory page of a writing project. This position at the beginning of an academic piece of writing is universal for all academic projects.

What to include in a table of contents?

A sample table of contents includes the title of the paper at the very top, followed by the chapter names and subtitles in chronological order. At the end of each line, is the page number of the corresponding headings. Examples of chapter names can be: executive summary,  introduction, project description, marketing plan, summary and conclusion. The abstract and acknowledgments are usually not included in the table of contents, however this could depend on the formatting that is required by your institution. Scroll down to see some examples.

How important is a table of contents?

A table of contents is very important at the beginning of a writing project for two important reasons. Firstly, it helps the reader easily locate contents of particular topics itemized as chapters or subtitles. Secondly, it helps the writer arrange their work and organize their thoughts so that important sections of an academic project are not left out. This has the extra effect of helping to manage the reader’s expectation of any academic essay or thesis right from the beginning.

Everything for Your Thesis

A table of contents is a crucial component of an academic thesis. Whether you’re completing a Bachelor’s or a postgraduate degree, the table of contents is a requirement for dissertation submissions. As a rule of thumb, your table of contents will usually come after your title page , abstract, acknowledgement or preface. Although it’s not necessary to include a reference to this front matter in your table of contents, different universities have different policies and guidelines.

Although the table of contents is best completed after you have finished your thesis, it’s a good idea to draw up a mock table of contents in the early stages of writing. This allows you to formulate a structure and think through your topic and how you are going to research, answer and make your argument. Think of this as a form of “reverse engineering”. Knowing how your chapters are going to be ordered and what topics or research questions are included in each will help immensely when it comes to your writing.

The table of contents is not just an academic formality, it allows your examiner to quickly get a feel for your topic and understand how your dissertation will be presented. An unclear or sloppy table of contents may even have an adverse effect on your grade because the dissertation is difficult to follow.

Examiners are readers, after all, and a dissertation is an exercise in producing an argument. A clear table of contents will give both a good impression and provide an accurate roadmap to make the examiner’s job easier and your argument more persuasive.

Your table of contents section will come after your acknowledgements and before your introduction. It includes a list of all your headers and their respective pages and will also contain a sub-section listing your tables, figures or illustrations (if you are using them). In general, your thesis can be ordered like this:

1. Title Page 2. Copyright / Statement of Originality 3. Abstract 4. Acknowledgement, Dedication and Preface (optional) 5. Table of Contents 6. List of Figures/Tables/Illustrations 7. Chapters 8. Appendices 9. Endnotes (depending on your formatting) 10. Bibliography / References

The formatting of your table of contents will depend on your academic field and thesis length. Some disciplines, like the sciences, have a methodical structure which includes recommended subheadings on methodology, data results, discussion and conclusion. Humanities subjects, on the other hand, are far more varied. Whichever discipline you are working in, you need to create an organized list of all chapters in their order of appearance, with chapter subheadings clearly labelled.

Sample table of contents for a short dissertation:

Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. ii Acknowledgements ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. iii Dedication ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. iv List of Tables ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. x List of Figures ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. xi Chapter 1: Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 1 Chapter 2: Literature Survey ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 13 Chapter 3: Methodology ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 42 Chapter 4: Analysis ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 100 Chapter 5: Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 129 Appendices ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 169 References ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 172

When producing a more significant and longer dissertation, say for a Master’s degree or even a PhD, your chapter descriptions should contain all subheadings. These are listed with the chapter number, followed by a decimal point and the subheading number.

Sample table of contents for a PhD dissertation:

Chapter 1 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Literature Review 1.3 Data 1.4 Findings 1.5 Conclusion

Chapter 2, and so on.

The key to writing a good table of contents is consistency and accuracy. You cannot list subheadings for one chapter and forget them for another. Subheadings are not always required but they can be very helpful if you are dealing with a detailed topic. The page numbers in the table of contents must match with the respective pages in your thesis or manuscript.

What’s more, chapter titles and subheading titles must match their corresponding pages. If your first chapter is called “Chapter 1: The Beginning”, it must be written as such on both the table of contents and first chapter page. So long as you remain both accurate and consistent, your table of contents will be perfect.

Create in Microsoft Word

Fortunately, the days of manually writing a contents page are over. You can still produce a contents page manually with Microsoft Word, but consider using their automatic feature to guarantee accuracy and save time.

To produce an automatically-generated table of contents, you must first work with heading styles. These can be found in the home tab under “Styles”. Select top-level headings (your chapter titles) and apply the Heading 1 style. This ensures that they will be formatted as main headings. Second-level headings (subheadings) can be applied with the Heading 2 style. This will place them underneath and within each main heading.

Once you have worked with heading styles, simply click on the “References” tab and select “Table of Contents”. This option will allow you to automatically produce a page with accurate page links to your document. To customize the format and style applied to your table of contents, select “Custom Table of Contents” at the bottom of the tab. Remember to update your table of contents by selecting the table and choosing “Update” from the drop-down menu. This will ensure that your headings, sub-headings and page numbers all add up.

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In a Nutshell

• The table of contents is a vital part of any academic thesis or extensive paper.
• It is an accurate map of your manuscript’s content – its headings, sub-headings and page numbers.
• It shows how you have divided your thesis into more manageable chunks through the use of chapters.
• By breaking apart your thesis into discrete sections, you make your argument both more persuasive and easier to follow.
• What’s more, your contents page should produce an accurate map of your thesis’ references, bibliography, illustrations and figures.
• It is an accurate map of the chapters, references, bibliography, illustrations and figures in your thesis.

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How to Write a Table of Contents for Different Formats With Examples

• 11 December 2023

Rules that guide academic writing are specific to each paper format. However, some rules apply to all styles – APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, and Harvard. Basically, one of these rules is the inclusion of a Table of Contents (TOC) in an academic text, particularly long ones, like theses, dissertations, and research papers. When writing a TOC, students or researchers should observe some practices regardless of paper formats. Also, it includes writing the TOC on a new page after the title page, numbering the first-level and corresponding second-level headings, and indicating the page number of each entry. Hence, scholars need to learn how to write a table of contents in APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, and Harvard styles.

General Guidelines

When writing academic texts, such as theses, dissertations, and other research papers, students observe academic writing rules as applicable. Generally, the different paper formats – APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, and Harvard – have specific standards that students must follow in their writing. In this case, one of the rules is the inclusion of a Table of Contents (TOC) in the document. By definition, a TOC is a roadmap that scholars provide in their writing, outlining each portion of a paper. In other words, a TOC enables readers to locate specific information in documents or revisit favorite parts within written texts. Moreover, this part of academic papers provides readers with a preview of the paper’s contents.

For writing your paper, these links will be helpful:

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Difference Between a Table of Contents and an Outline

In essence, a TOC is a description of first-level headings (topics) and second-level headings (subtopics) within the paper’s body. For a longer document, writers may also include third-level titles to make the text palatable to read. Ideally, the length of papers determines the depth that authors go into detailing their writing in TOCs. Basically, this feature means that shorter texts may not require third-level headings. In contrast, an essay outline is a summary of the paper’s main ideas with a hierarchical or logical structuring of the content. Unlike a TOC that only lists headings and subheadings, outlines capture these headings and then describe the content briefly under each one. As such, an outline provides a more in-depth summary of essay papers compared to a TOC.

How to Write a Table of Contents in APA

When writing a TOC in the APA format , writers should capture all the headings in the paper – first-level, second-level, and even third-level. Besides this information, they should also include an abstract, references, and appendices. Notably, while a TOC in the APA style has an abstract, this section is not necessary for the other formats, like MLA, Chicago/Turabian, and Harvard. Hence, an example of a Table of Contents written in the APA format is indicated below:

How to Write a Table of Contents in MLA

Unlike papers written in the APA style, MLA papers do not require a Table of Contents unless they are long enough. In this case, documents, like theses, dissertations, and books written in the MLA format should have a TOC. Even where a TOC is necessary, there is no specific method that a writer should use when writing it. In turn, the structure of the TOC is left to the writer’s discretion. However, when students have to include a TOC in their papers, the information they capture should be much more than what would appear in the APA paper . Hence, an example of writing a Table of Contents in MLA format is:

In the case of writing a research paper, an example of a Table of Contents should be:

How to Write a Table of Contents in Chicago/Turabian

Like the MLA style, a Chicago/Turabian paper does not require writing a Table of Contents unless it is long enough. When a TOC is necessary, writers should capitalize on major headings. Additionally, authors do not need to add a row of periods (. . . . . . . .) between the heading entry and the page number. Moreover, the arrangement of the content should start with the first-level heading, then the second-level heading, and, finally, the third-level title, just like in the APA paper. In turn, all the information that precedes the introduction part should have lowercase Roman numerals. Also, the row of periods is only used for major headings. Hence, an example of writing a Table of Contents in a Chicago/Turabian paper is:

How to Write a Table of Contents in Harvard

Like in the other formats, writing a Table of Contents in the Harvard style is captured by having the title “Table of Contents” at the center of the page, in the first line. Basically, it comes after the title page and captures all the sections and subsections of Harvard papers. In other words, writers must indicate first-level headings in a numbered list. Also, scholars should align titles to the left side and capitalize them. In turn, if there is a need to show second-level headings, authors should list them under corresponding first-level headings by using bullet points. However, it is essential for students not to disrupt the numbering of first-level headings. Moreover, writers should align second-level headings to the left side and indent them by half an inch and capitalize on this content. Hence, an example of writing a Table of Contents in a Harvard paper should appear as below:

A Table of Content (TOC) is an essential component of an academic paper , particularly for long documents, like theses, dissertations, and research papers. When students are writing a TOC, they should be careful to follow the applicable format’s rules and standards. Regardless of the format, writers should master the following tips when writing a TOC:

• Write the TOC on a new page after the title page.
• Indicate first-level headings of the document in a numbered list.
• Indicate second-level headings under the corresponding first-level heading.
• If applicable, indicate third-level headings under the corresponding second-level heading.
• Write the page number for each heading.
• Put the content in a two-column table.
• Title the page with “Table of Contents.”

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Table of Contents Format

For Academic Papers

This table of contents is an essential part of writing a long academic paper, especially theoretical papers.

This article is a part of the guide:

• Outline Examples
• Example of a Paper
• Write a Hypothesis
• Introduction

Browse Full Outline

• 1 Write a Research Paper
• 2 Writing a Paper
• 3.1 Write an Outline
• 3.2 Outline Examples
• 4.1 Thesis Statement
• 4.2 Write a Hypothesis
• 5.2 Abstract
• 5.3 Introduction
• 5.4 Methods
• 5.5 Results
• 5.6 Discussion
• 5.7 Conclusion
• 5.8 Bibliography
• 6.1 Table of Contents
• 6.2 Acknowledgements
• 6.3 Appendix
• 7.1 In Text Citations
• 7.2 Footnotes
• 7.3.1 Floating Blocks
• 7.4 Example of a Paper
• 7.5 Example of a Paper 2
• 7.6.1 Citations
• 7.7.1 Writing Style
• 7.7.2 Citations
• 8.1.1 Sham Peer Review
• 8.1.2 Advantages
• 8.1.3 Disadvantages
• 8.2 Publication Bias
• 8.3.1 Journal Rejection
• 9.1 Article Writing
• 9.2 Ideas for Topics

It is usually not present in shorter research articles, since most empirical papers have similar structure .

A well laid out table of contents allows readers to easily navigate your paper and find the information that they need. Making a table of contents used to be a very long and complicated process, but the vast majority of word-processing programs, such as Microsoft WordTM and Open Office , do all of the hard work for you.

This saves hours of painstaking labor looking through your paper and makes sure that you have picked up on every subsection. If you have been using an outline as a basis for the paper, then you have a head start and the work on the table of contents formatting is already half done.

Whilst going into the exact details of how to make a table of contents in the program lies outside the scope of this article, the Help section included with the word-processing programs gives a useful series of tutorials and trouble-shooting guides.

That said, there are a few easy tips that you can adopt to make the whole process a little easier.

The Importance of Headings

In the word processing programs, there is the option of automatically creating headings and subheadings, using heading 1, heading 2, heading 3 etc on the formatting bar. You should make sure that you get into the habit of doing this as you write the paper, instead of manually changing the font size or using the bold format.

Once you have done this, you can click a button, and the program will do everything for you, laying out the table of contents formatting automatically, based upon all of the headings and subheadings.

In Word, to insert a table of contents, first ensure that the cursor is where you want the table of contents to appear. Once you are happy with this, click 'Insert' on the drop down menu, scroll down to 'Reference,' and then across to 'Index and Tables'.

Click on the 'Table of Contents' tab and you are ready to click OK and go. OpenOffice is a very similar process but, after clicking 'Insert,' you follow 'Indexes and Tables' and 'Indexes and Tables' again.

The table of contents should appear after the title page and after the abstract and keywords, if you use them. As with all academic papers, there may be slight variations from department to department and even from supervisor to supervisor.

Check the preferred table of contents format before you start writing the paper , because changing things retrospectively can be a little more time consuming.

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Martyn Shuttleworth (Aug 27, 2009). Table of Contents Format. Retrieved May 10, 2024 from Explorable.com: https://explorable.com/table-of-contents-format

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How to Create a Table of Contents in Word for Your Paper? [For Students]

Working on a paper or thesis is mentally exhausting on its own, but having to format everything according to MLA, APA, or Chicago style can be a real headache, especially when creating a table of contents. Manually updating it every time you make changes is tedious and error-prone. What you really need is a way to generate and update the table of contents automatically, allowing you to concentrate on the content without worrying about the structure.

This makes the entire process smoother and less stressful, letting you focus on your research without the constant formatting frustration. In this article, we will explore the essentials of creating a functional and clear table of contents Word for students, covering what it is, why it's important, and how to prepare one that effectively outlines your paper's structure.

Table of Contents in APA, MLA and Chicago Style

In academic writing, particularly for longer pieces such as thesis, dissertations, and research papers, having a clear organization is highly beneficial. A crucial aspect that helps readers navigate your work is a Table of Contents (TOC). Despite the variations in specific style guides like APA, MLA, or Chicago, incorporating a TOC provides numerous advantages. Besides these benefits, TOCs in these three academic formats adhere to generally similar guidelines, although there are some differences that must be acknowledged and addressed.

1. A Table of Contents in APA

The American Psychological Association (APA) style is commonly used in the social sciences. While APA style does not always require a table of contents, it is often recommended for lengthy papers or theses. Here's how to structure a table of contents in APA style:

Placement : The TOC goes between the abstract and introduction on a separate page.

Formatting : Use the same font and size as your main text (typically 12 pt Times New Roman).

Title : Center and bold the word "Contents" at the top of the page.

Heading Levels : Include all level 1 (main sections) and level 2 (subheadings) headings in the TOC.

Alignment : Left-align all entries in the TOC.

Indentation : Level 2 headings are indented for clarity.

Lower Levels (Optional) : Including level 3 headings or lower is optional and requires additional indentation for each level.

Length : Keep the TOC concise; ideally, it shouldn't exceed two pages.

2. A Table of Contents in MLA

The Modern Language Association (MLA) style is typically used in the humanities. While MLA does not always require a table of contents for shorter papers, longer academic works may benefit from having one. Here are some tips for creating a table of contents in MLA style:

Font and Size : Stick to Times New Roman, 12 point size, for consistency with the rest of your document.

Margins : Use standard 1-inch margins on all sides.

Spacing : Double line spacing is the norm for MLA formatting.

Indentations : Create a clear distinction between paragraphs with a ½-inch indent for the first line.

Headings : Use title case capitalization (capitalize the first word of each main word) for your headings in the TOC.

3. A Table of Contents in Chicago Style

The Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) is widely used in historical and other academic research. Chicago style often requires a detailed table of contents for dissertations and other extensive works. Here's how to create a table of contents in Chicago style:

Starting Fresh : Begin your TOC on a separate page following the title page.

Clear Labeling : Center the title "Contents" at the top of the page.

Spacing for Readability : Leave a double space between "Contents" and the first entry in your TOC.

Mirroring Your Paper : List chapter titles, headings, and subheadings in the exact order they appear in your paper.

Matching Matters : Ensure capitalization and the hierarchy of titles/headings in the TOC match your paper's formatting.

Pinpointing Locations :  Place page numbers flush right, using leader dots (a series of periods) to connect them to the corresponding entry.

How to Create a Table of Contents Easily in Word for Your Paper

Before inserting a table of contents in Word , we first need to format the headings of our research paper or thesis according to an academic style.

Let's take a look at it through an example for better understanding. We need to write a research paper on Environment Safety, so before getting started with the writing part, let’s create an outline for it. This means we will need to lay out the headings in order. We have a main heading called Heading 1, and then we have subheadings called Heading 2. In some instances, we have Heading 3 or Heading 4 as well, so let's take a look at the breakdown of these headings beforehand.

H1 : The main heading of your document, typically used once for the overall title.

H2 : Subheadings that break down your H1 topic into major sections.

H3 : Subheadings that further divide your H2 sections into more specific points.

If you understand this, then formatting will be a breeze for you. So let's jump right into it:

Step 1 : We now have our outline laid out in our document on Microsoft Word.

Step 2 : Even though I went through and formatted my headings and subheadings by increasing the font size of the main headings and making them bold, this is completely wrong.

Step 3 : In Word, we need to do proper formatting. To do this, click on your main heading of the essay and head over to the Home tab.

Step 4 : Now, in the "Styles" section, you will see various styles. From this, click on "Heading 1", and you will notice a change in your headings formatting.

Step 5 : To change the formatting to fit your academic style, right-click on the "Heading 1" button in the Styles section to open the context menu, and then click on "Modify".

Step 6 : In the Modify Style dialog, users can change the font, font size, and other changes to format their heading.

Step 7 : Similarly, click on Heading 2 in your document, then in the Styles section, select Heading 2, and so on.

Step 8 : Once all the headings have been formatted, now we can proceed to inserting a table of contents into our document.

Step 9 : To insert the table of contents, visit the Reference tab and then click on the "Table of Contents" option in the ribbon menu.

Step 10 : Microsoft Word gives its users the option to insert a pre-formatted table of contents, but if you wish to insert a custom-made table of contents, that's also possible.

Step 11 : Once you have selected your desired table of contents, it will be added, and you can now complete your work with ease.

How to Update the Table of Contents in Word for Your Paper

The outline was ready, or at least that's what we thought, but now we added a few new headings, but they won't show up in the table of contents. Now, to address this, we need to Update our Table of Contents:

Step 1 : Let's open Microsoft Word again. As we can see, there's nothing changed in the table of contents even though we've correctly styled the headings in our essay.

Step 2 : To update the table of contents, right-click anywhere on the table of contents to open the context menu.

Step 3 : In the context menu, we need to click on "Update Field" or simply press the shortcut key "F9".

Step 4 : Now, we see the Update Table of Contents dialog. Click on "Update entire table" and then click "OK".

Step 5 : The table of contents will now be completely updated with the new headings that you've inserted.

Bonus Tip: Converting Your Paper to PDF Without Losing Format

Once you're done with your paper and a well-organized table of contents, the next step is often converting it to a PDF. This is crucial because PDFs preserve formatting, ensuring that your hard work doesn't get scrambled when shared or printed. However, conversion can be tricky, especially with Microsoft Word 365. When converting a document to PDF in Word 365, you might encounter issues like misaligned text, broken page breaks, or distorted table of contents formatting.

WPS Office is an excellent alternative to Microsoft Word 365 for PDF conversions. It offers robust PDF features that can convert your paper without losing formatting. Here's why WPS Office might be a better choice:

Direct PDF Conversion : WPS Office has a built-in PDF converter that maintains the layout and structure of your document, reducing the risk of misalignment.

Enhanced PDF Features : WPS Office allows you to merge, split, or compress PDFs , which can be useful if you need to adjust your document after conversion.

Easy Table of Contents Management : WPS Office handles tables of contents well, ensuring links and formatting remain intact.

WPS Office: Use Word, Excel, and PPT for FREE, No Ads.

Now, to convert your Word document with the table of contents into a PDF document without losing any formatting in the process, WPS Office provides a very easy and effective solution:

Step 1 : Let's open the Word document in WPS Office and then head over to the Menu on the top left of the page.

Step 2 : In the menu, click on "Save as" and select "Other formats" from the flyout menu.

Step 3 : Simply in the Save as options, change the file type to "PDF" in the "File Type" field and then hit "Save" to save your document as a PDF.

FAQs about Table of Contents in Word

1. how do i link headings to table of contents in word.

If you've inserted a manual table, here's how to link headings to a table of contents in Microsoft Word:

Step 1 : Go to your table of contents.

Step 2 : Select the heading in the table of contents you want to link to your document heading.

Step 3 : Right-click and choose "Link" from the context menu.

Step 4 : In the Insert Link dialog, select the "Place in This Document" tab and choose the heading you want to link to. Click OK to finish.

Step 5 : The linked heading will appear blue and underlined in your table of contents.

2. How do you update a Table of Contents in Word and keep formatting?

To adjust your current table of contents:

Step 1 : Go to the References tab.

Step 2 : Click on Table of Contents.

Step 3 : Choose Custom table of contents.

Step 4 : Use the options to change what appears in the table, how page numbers are displayed, adjust formatting, and decide how many heading levels to include.

3. How do I link a table of contents to a page in word?

Users can easily link the table of contents to pages in Word by applying heading styles to document sections and then clicking on the Update tab in the Reference tab.a

Perfect Your Paper: Mastering Table of Contents with WPS Office

Your thesis or report isn't complete without a table of contents, especially if it's a requirement. Forgetting this crucial section could lead to a lower grade, which might have been avoided by simply adding a well-structured table of contents. To ensure your report meets the necessary academic standards, not only should you include a  table of contents Word for students, but you should also make sure it's correctly formatted according to the guidelines.

WPS Office is the ideal tool for writing your paper, thanks to its robust formatting capabilities. It's particularly useful when you need to share your document or convert it to PDF, as WPS Office maintains your formatting without glitches. So, if you haven't tried WPS Office yet, consider downloading it now to streamline your writing process and keep your formatting consistent.

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Volume 629 Issue 8011, 9 May 2024

Fossil fuels supply most of the world’s energy and are the basis of many key products used in everyday life, but they are also a major source of carbon dioxide emissions. Although renewable energy has the potential to replace fossil-fuel-generated energy, there will still be a need for the transport fuels and chemicals produced by oil refineries. In this week’s issue, Eelco Vogt and Bert Weckhuysen examine ways in which oil refineries could be reinvented to be completely fossil-free. They note that with sufficient long-term commitment and support, the science and technology for such a refinery could be developed, and they sketch a roadmap towards this goal.

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Editorial article, editorial: capturing talk: the institutional practices surrounding the transcription of spoken language.

• 1 Research Hub for Language in Forensic Evidence, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
• 2 Aston Institute for Forensic Linguistics, Aston University, Birmingham, United Kingdom
• 3 Department of Communication and Media, School of Social Science and Humanities, Loughborough University, Loughborough, United Kingdom
• 4 Netherlands Institute for the Study of Crime and Law Enforcement (NSCR), Amsterdam, Netherlands

Editorial on the Research Topic Capturing talk: the institutional practices surrounding the transcription of spoken language

Transcripts are a ubiquitous feature of virtually all modern institutions, many of which would be unable to function without them. Nevertheless, transcription remains an under-researched subject—a situation that Capturing talk: the institutional practices surrounding the transcription of spoken language seeks to remedy.

The initial aim of this Research Topic was to expose and examine under-appreciated features of “entextualization” (the process of representing spoken language as written text). One of these features is the fact that a transcript can only ever be a representation of speech, not a copy—and thus can never represent speech exactly. Another feature, well-articulated by Sarangi (1998) , is the unequal power over the process of transcription exercised by, on the one hand, the speakers whose voices are represented, and, on the other, by those controlling the transcription process.

Where Sarangi's interest was mainly in health and social services institutions, the present Research Topic has a leaning toward legal institutions, where, arguably, these power inequalities are even more starkly contrasted—as demonstrated by the territory-defining volume ( Heffer et al., 2013 ).

Four of the papers in this Research Topic deal with police interviews, providing insight into differing practices across jurisdictions and type of interview (e.g., whether with witnesses or suspects). Several papers examine the practice of converting an interview into a “statement,” written up by the officers who conduct the interviews. Beginning with interviews with witnesses in England and Wales (E&W), Milne et al. analyze a sample of such statements against transcripts produced by the researchers from an audio recording. The omissions, additions, distortions, and other errors in the police versions give cause for deep concern.

An extended study analyzing the creation of records of interviews with suspects in the Netherlands is recounted by Komter , which, again, contrasts transcripts prepared by police interviewers, with the author's transcripts prepared from audio recordings. Again, many concerning limitations on the police transcripts are observed and analyzed. However, while her own transcripts are far more detailed, Komter acknowledges that she too is necessarily selective in what she chooses to represent, guided by the evolving research questions she seeks to investigate.

One practice Komter discusses is that of police records presenting an interview as a monolog, in the voice of the interviewee, rather than as the question-and-answer dialogue it actually was. This practice is also investigated by Eerland and van Charldorp , again focusing on the Dutch context. These authors study how readers of the statements were influenced by three different styles of reporting (monolog, dialogue and narrative), with the troubling finding that the style of reporting affected perceptions of the statements' accuracy and comprehensibility.

In many jurisdictions, police interviews with suspects are routinely audio- or video-recorded. However, this does not signal the end of problems with the representation of these high-stakes interactions. The last of our interview papers is Haworth et al. , which summarizes the key findings to date of an ongoing study of the transcription of electronic records of interviews with suspects in E&W. It demonstrates a range of problems with official police transcripts even when these ostensibly capture the dialogue “verbatim,” and proposes that consistency, accuracy, and neutrality are the foundational features that should underpin any police interview transcript.

A second group of papers studies transcription in non-legal institutional settings. Holder et al. delves into two very large and highly structured organizations with serious security needs: NASA and the US Military. Both make extensive use of audio and video recordings capturing employees as they work—with transcripts produced either routinely, or on demand. The authors look into the two organizations' use of these transcripts, again comparing the official transcripts with their own transcripts of selected sections, using conversation analysis (CA) conventions.

Park and Hepburn also examine CA-style transcripts. Taking as an example Rachel Mitchell's interview of US Supreme Court nominee Brett Kavanaugh about his alleged historical sexual misconduct, these authors compare the information retrievable from a richly detailed Jeffersonian transcript with an orthographic transcript that “wipes out” or “skates over” crucial aspects of speech used by speakers and listeners in constructing the message expressed by the speech.

Another institutional use of transcripts covered in Capturing Talk concerns workers on the assembly line of a small factory in Sweden. Carlsson and Harari report an observation-and-interview study of the instruction manuals created by the workers. While they find much to commend in the retention of power by the creators and users of the manuals, the authors observe room for improvement in the “information design” of the texts, recommending that consultation of linguistics experts could offer benefits.

Voutilainen showcases the high quality of transcripts produced as an official record of the complex and challenging multicultural discussions of wide-ranging Research Topics covered by the parliament in Finland. His account demonstrates how much thought, research and work goes into managing all the factors that need to be considered to create transcripts of this standard.

In a return to the legal setting, a further group of papers examines transcripts of forensic audio, i.e., recordings of speech used as evidence in criminal trials. These are often of very poor quality, meaning that the transcript is intended not as a record of what was said, but as assistance to the court in determining what was said. Internationally, it is common for such transcripts to be provided by police investigating the case. While the courts recognize that police transcripts might contain errors, they rely on judges and/or juries being able to check the transcript against the audio. This ignores well-established research findings that the very act of checking a transcript can cause the listener to hear in line with the transcript, even if it is demonstrably false. For this reason, linguists sometimes recommend that, to ensure accuracy, transcripts should be produced by independent experts in transcription.

However, mere independence may not be enough, and Love and Wright point out some important caveats around this recommendation. They had eight trained transcribers produce transcripts of poor-quality forensic-like audio—finding huge divergences in the content of the transcripts (< 3% of conversational turns were transcribed consistently by all eight participants). This demonstrates that transcribing poor-quality forensic audio needs not just expertise in linguistics, but a managed, evidence-based method.

Recently, a common response to any discussion of the difficulty of transcribing poor-quality audio has been: “Why not let AI do it?” Loakes investigates this suggestion, finding that, while modern automatic speech recognition (ASR) systems are extremely efficient at transcribing good-quality audio, their performance on poor-quality forensic-like audio is low. Even the best-performing system, Whisper, scored only around 50% accuracy, with others far lower.

Harrington also observed low scores for ASR transcripts of poor-quality forensic-like audio. Bridging two of the main areas considered in this Research Topic, she also trialed ASR on recordings of police interviews. The resulting transcripts, though not problem-free, score far higher than those of covert recordings, with errors easier to identify. Harrington makes innovative recommendations for how ASR could be used as a “first draft” interview transcript, to be refined via human transcribers.

Two papers consider the transcription and translation of forensic audio featuring languages other than English. Gilbert and Heydon look at translated transcripts of Vietnamese recordings used as evidence in a drug-related trial. They point out significant errors in the translations, but note that, unless the defense goes to the expense of hiring their own translator/interpreter, such errors are unlikely to be detected—and suggest that audio in languages other than English is often admitted with inadequately tested translations.

Lai presents results of a large national survey of the practices and concerns of translators and interpreters who undertake forensic casework across a wide range of languages. Here, too, results indicate a number of important deficiencies in current practice for translating forensic audio featuring languages other than English—and Lai makes valuable recommendations for improvement.

Finally, taking an authoritative overview of the key issues relevant to this Research Topic, Fraser provides a systematic review of interdisciplinary research on transcripts and transcription, and sets out a series of interacting factors that are known to affect a transcript's reliability. Using examples from a range of legal and academic situations, Fraser argues that, to ensure a transcript is suitable for its intended purpose, it is essential that all the factors be appropriately managed.

Taken as a whole, Capturing Talk amplifies two observations made in both Sarangi (1998) and Heffer et al. (2013) , which, though not the exclusive focus of any individual paper, are highlighted throughout the Research Topic. First, the strong role that context inevitably plays in the interpretation of a transcript implies that “recontextualization” (using a transcript in a context other than the one it was created in) is likely to change its interpretation. Second, even the most expert linguistic analysis of transcripts produced by others is not itself a neutral or “objective” activity. However, this does not mean that such analysis must be “subjective” in any limiting sense. Rather it indicates a need for transcripts to be produced and analyzed by independent, context-aware experts able to devote appropriate attention to all relevant factors.

Most importantly, all contributions to Capturing Talk emphasize that transcription is far from the simple transduction of “sounds” into letters that it is often assumed to be by those who have not studied its intricacies. It is a highly complex and fascinating Research Topic worthy of taking its place as a dedicated field of research in its own right, particularly in view of the widespread misconceptions and unhelpful language ideologies that still beset the institutional practices surrounding the transcription of spoken language.

Author contributions

HF: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. KH: Writing – review & editing. FD: Writing – review & editing. DL: Writing – review & editing. ER: Writing – review & editing. MK: Writing – review & editing.

The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Heffer, C., Rock, F., and Conley, J. (2013). Legal-Lay Communication: Textual Travels in the Law . Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Google Scholar

Sarangi, S. (1998). Rethinking recontextualization in professional discourse studies: an epilogue. Text Talk 18, 301–318. doi: 10.1515/text.1.1998.18.2.301

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Keywords: transcription, misconceptions about language and linguistics, language ideologies, forensic linguistics, forensic transcription, police interviews and interrogations, entextualization

Citation: Fraser H, Haworth K, Deamer F, Loakes D, Richardson E and Komter M (2024) Editorial: Capturing talk: the institutional practices surrounding the transcription of spoken language. Front. Commun. 9:1417465. doi: 10.3389/fcomm.2024.1417465

Received: 15 April 2024; Accepted: 22 April 2024; Published: 08 May 2024.

Edited and reviewed by: Mila Vulchanova , NTNU, Norway

Copyright © 2024 Fraser, Haworth, Deamer, Loakes, Richardson and Komter. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Helen Fraser, helen.fraser@unimelb.edu.au

This article is part of the Research Topic

Capturing Talk: The Institutional Practices Surrounding the Transcription of Spoken Language

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Academic writing comes with its unique set of challenges, particularly for non-native English speaking researchers. A PLOS survey showed that as compared to native English speakers, those with low English proficiency take as much as 91% more time to read English language papers and 51% more time to write a paper in English. 1 This was supported by another study on English academic writing in China, which revealed that while Chinese academics were often clear on what and how to write, almost half of them wrote in Chinese first and then translated it into English. 2

Chinese researchers also find it difficult to access efficient proofreading and accurate translation support. They typically wait for busy peers and seniors for help in reviewing their  work or are forced to rely on professional services that cost them time and money. These time-consuming and often expensive processes may cause delays in research publication and reduced academic productivity. While there are many AI tools available today, very few are tailored to understand and enhance the academic writing process in particular. This is where Paperpal emerges as a reliable writing partner for Chinese researchers. With its comprehensive feature suite that provides human precision at machine speed, it helps Chinese academics write confidently and deliver high-quality English writing. 

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Paperpal , the all-in-one AI academic writing assistant, has been used and loved by more than 13,800 students, professors, and medical professionals in China. From Paperpal’s extensive suite of checks and generative AI features, Chinese students and researchers found real-time language checks, precise academic translation, paraphrasing assistance, academic tone support, and research article outline features to be the most useful among many other features to assist you in your writing journey . With these features, Paperpal has enabled academics in China to overcome linguistic hurdles in the writing process, polish their writing quality, and increase productivity.  

Paperpal Impact: Accelerating Academic Excellence and Boosting Productivity

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In addition, Chinese researchers also uploaded 26,527 manuscripts to Paperpal Preflight and benefitted from the customized submission readiness checks before submitting to reputed journals; this accounts for an impressive 24.6% of total uploads globally .  

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* These are only preliminary estimations based on the real-time processed volumes by Paperpal and the assumption of an average human proofreading/translation speed.  

Adoption by Students at Top Institutions in China

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Powering Research Excellence and Innovation

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• 301 Hospital, the largest comprehensive military hospital in China 
• Shengjjng Hospital of China 
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Paperpal is a trusted tool for researchers looking to publish in reputed scientific publishers. Chinese researchers, especially in the field of medicine, found Paperpal Preflight’s pre-submission checks especially useful to polish and submit their work to prestigious publishers , which include the following: 

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Winning the Trust of Chinese Researchers

As the number of Chinese students, researchers, and professionals using Paperpal increases, so does the trust that it receives. In fact, Paperpal has an outstanding Net Promotor Score of 75, especially for its AI translation and academic writing enhancements, which reflects high satisfaction levels and strong recommendations from Chinese academics .

Paperpal is continually developing and adding new AI features to transform the academic writing journey, and we take pride in earning the love and trust of our users. Read what two of our users from China have to say about Paperpal’s ease of use, accuracy, and effectiveness: 

Mr. Ye, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking Union Medical College, said, “The language editing feature works well, easily identifying grammatical problems and categorizing errors to give a basis for revision. The Rewrite feature has some weight reduction effect. I was very impressed and have recommended it to students who are still writing their first SCI.”   

Liu Lu, PhD at Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, said, “Paperpal is a writing tool with strong academic attributes, translating and transcribing terms accurately, and then juxtaposing the language editing and synonym replacement features to bring up the depth and richness of the manuscript. Those who write papers will feel like they found treasure.”

Paperpal is transforming the tedious process of academic writing for Chinese students and researchers, empowering them to write better, faster, and in an ethical manner. By automating necessary checks and simplifying each step in the writing journey, Paperpal is helping to save researchers’ time while enabling them to write high-quality content and improve their productivity. This, in turn, helps researchers focus on their research, fueling academic excellence and moving them closer to publishing success. Paperpal also brings major benefits for universities, organizations, and publishers, helping them nurture an environment of excellence and growth that enables them to contribute to and further advance science. 

It’s time to experience the advantage Paperpal brings to your academic writing. Start writing with Paperpal for free now or write to [email protected] for more details, and we’ll be happy to help!

References:  

• Amano T, Ramírez-Castañeda V, Berdejo-Espinola V, Borokini I, Chowdhury S, Golivets M, et al. (2023) The manifold costs of being a non-native English speaker in science. PLoS Biol 21(7): e3002184.  https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3002184   
• Liu, M. Problems and Solutions in Response to Postgraduates’ English Academic Writing – A Case of SWPU. Journal of Education and Educational Research . ISSN: 2957-9465 | Vol. 3, No. 3, 2023 
• Best universities in China 2024, Times Higher Education University Rankings. Available online at https://www.timeshighereducation.com/student/best-universities/best-universities-china

Paperpal is a comprehensive AI writing toolkit that helps students and researchers achieve 2x the writing in half the time. It leverages 21+ years of STM experience and insights from millions of research articles to provide in-depth academic writing, language editing, and submission readiness support to help you write better, faster.  

Get accurate academic translations, rewriting support, grammar checks, vocabulary suggestions, and generative AI assistance that delivers human precision at machine speed. Try for free or upgrade to Paperpal Prime starting at US$19 a month to access premium features, including consistency, plagiarism, and 30+ submission readiness checks to help you succeed.  

Experience the future of academic writing – Sign up to Paperpal and start writing for free!  

Related Reads:

• The Do’s & Don’ts of Using Generative AI Tools Ethically in Academia
• Addressing Your Queries on AI Ethics, Plagiarism, and AI Detection
• 7 Ways to Improve Your Academic Writing Process
• QuillBot Review: Features, Pricing, and Free Alternatives

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This paper is in the following e-collection/theme issue:

Published on 8.5.2024 in Vol 26 (2024)

Emerging Trends in Information-Seeking Behavior for Alpha-Gal Syndrome: Infodemiology Study Using Time Series and Content Analysis

Authors of this article:

Original Paper

• Jamie L Romeiser, PhD, MPH   ; 
• Nicole Jusko, MPH   ; 
• Augusta A Williams, SCD, MPH  

Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, United States

Corresponding Author:

Jamie L Romeiser, PhD, MPH

Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine

Upstate Medical University

766 Irving Ave

Syracuse, NY, 13210

United States

Phone: 1 315 464 6897

Email: [email protected]

Background: Alpha-gal syndrome is an emerging allergy characterized by an immune reaction to the carbohydrate molecule alpha-gal found in red meat. This unique food allergy is likely triggered by a tick bite. Cases of the allergy are on the rise, but prevalence estimates do not currently exist. Furthermore, varying symptoms and limited awareness of the allergy among health care providers contribute to delayed diagnosis, leading individuals to seek out their own information and potentially self-diagnose.

Objective: The study aimed to (1) describe the volume and patterns of information-seeking related to alpha-gal, (2) explore correlations between alpha-gal and lone star ticks, and (3) identify specific areas of interest that individuals are searching for in relation to alpha-gal.

Methods: Google Trends Supercharged-Glimpse, a new extension of Google Trends, provides estimates of the absolute volume of searches and related search queries. This extension was used to assess trends in searches for alpha-gal and lone star ticks ( lone star tick , alpha gal , and meat allergy , as well as food allergy for comparison) in the United States. Time series analyses were used to examine search volume trends over time, and Spearman correlation matrices and choropleth maps were used to explore geographic and temporal correlations between alpha-gal and lone star tick searches. Content analysis was performed on related search queries to identify themes and subcategories that are of interest to information seekers.

Results: Time series analysis revealed a rapidly increasing trend in search volumes for alpha-gal beginning in 2015. After adjusting for long-term trends, seasonal trends, and media coverage, from 2015 to 2022, the predicted adjusted average annual percent change in search volume for alpha-gal was 33.78%. The estimated overall change in average search volume was 627%. In comparison, the average annual percent change was 9.23% for lone star tick, 7.34% for meat allergy, and 2.45% for food allergy during this time. Geographic analysis showed strong significant correlations between alpha-gal and lone star tick searches especially in recent years (ρ=0.80; P <.001), with primary overlap and highest search rates found in the southeastern region of the United States. Content analysis identified 10 themes of primary interest: diet, diagnosis or testing, treatment, medications or contraindications of medications, symptoms, tick related, specific sources of information and locations, general education information, alternative words for alpha-gal, and unrelated or other.

Conclusions: The study provides insights into the changing information-seeking patterns for alpha-gal, indicating growing awareness and interest. Alpha-gal search volume is increasing at a rapid rate. Understanding specific questions and concerns can help health care providers and public health educators to tailor communication strategies. The Google Trends Supercharged-Glimpse tool offers enhanced features for analyzing information-seeking behavior and can be valuable for infodemiology research. Further research is needed to explore the evolving prevalence and impact of alpha-gal syndrome.

Introduction

Food allergy is a growing public health concern. The global burden of food allergy is increasing, with 220 million individuals worldwide estimated to be affected by at least 1 food allergy [ 1 - 3 ]. In the United States, it is estimated that 26 million, or about 6.2%, of US adults and children have a food allergy [ 4 ]. Food allergies can induce a hefty economic burden on individuals and families due to lost labor, productivity, out-of-pocket costs, and opportunity costs [ 5 ] and can decrease the quality of life of patients in impacted physical health and mental health [ 6 , 7 ].

One somewhat unconventional food allergy on the rise is the alpha-gal allergy, also known as alpha-gal syndrome, red meat allergy, or tick bite meat allergy [ 8 ]. Alpha-gal syndrome is a type of allergy that is characterized by an immune reaction to the carbohydrate molecule galactose-alpha-1,3-galactose (alpha-gal), which is found in most mammalian or “red meat” [ 9 ]. This immune reaction can result in a variety of symptoms including hives, swelling of the face or facial features, shortness of breath, abdominal pain, gastrointestinal issues, anaphylaxis, or even fatality [ 10 ]. Whereas conventional food allergies usually involve an immediate immune response, alpha-gal allergy is characterized by the delayed onset of symptoms (ie, 3-8 hours following exposure) [ 8 , 9 , 11 , 12 ]. This delayed response, compounded with the varying clinical presentation, can make the diagnosis of the allergy challenging.

The alpha-gal allergy stands out not only due to its delayed nature but also because of the unconventional way most individuals develop the allergy. In most cases, it is thought that transmission occurs through the bite of a tick, which injects alpha-gal into the bloodstream. This sensitizes individuals to the molecule and can lead to an immune response when consuming mammalian meat [ 13 ]. Alpha-gal cases have been reported worldwide and are associated with various tick species. In the United States, however, growing evidence suggests that alpha-gal allergy is primarily linked to lone star ticks [ 14 ]. The connection between alpha-gal allergy and lone star ticks was initially described in 2011 [ 15 ] and has since been supported by subsequent studies [ 12 , 13 , 16 - 18 ]. Recent evidence from a case-control study further strengthens this association, revealing significantly higher odds of tick exposures among individuals with alpha-gal syndrome compared to controls [ 16 ].

Lone star ticks are traditionally found in the Southeastern region of the United States. However, the geographic range of lone star ticks has expanded to the Northeast [ 19 ] and Midwest in part due to climate change and sensitivity to microclimate conditions [ 18 ]. Indeed, exposure to and cases of alpha-gal allergy are also expanding beyond the Southeastern United States [ 20 ]. Recognition and general awareness of alpha-gal allergy are growing [ 21 ], but health care providers’ knowledge of the connection between lone star ticks and alpha-gal allergy may be lagging. A recent survey conducted among clinicians in Illinois revealed a lack of awareness regarding the link between lone star tick bites and alpha-gal allergy, as well as limited familiarity with diagnostic testing for the condition [ 22 ].

Because there remains considerable variation in health care providers’ knowledge of the condition [ 23 ], patients often play a critical role in driving their own diagnoses [ 24 ]. As 1 study reported, there is often a lengthy amount of time between symptom onset and diagnosis, with patients visiting multiple health care settings and receiving numerous referrals before obtaining the correct diagnosis [ 23 ]. In general, it is likely that many patients rely on finding their own sources of information to learn about the allergy and potentially self-diagnose it before receiving an official diagnosis.

The alpha-gal syndrome is not a reportable or notifiable condition and was only granted a separate International Classification of Diseases  10th Revision ( ICD-10 ) code for diagnostic identification in 2022. Therefore, little data exist on the prevalence of the allergy [ 8 ]. In the absence of incidence or prevalence data, infoveillence and infodemiology techniques can be used to help describe the overall population interest in the topic of alpha-gal [ 25 ], as well as correlations with potentially related search terms. Many studies over the past decade have used Google Trends as a tool to explore patterns in health information–seeking behavior [ 26 , 27 ]. In fact, 1 prior study using Google Trends found a high correlation between alpha-gal and lone star tick, including a general upward trend in relative search volume (RSV) [ 21 ]. Data were examined from 2004 to 2019, but it is likely that both awareness and diagnosis of the allergy have grown in the past 3 years [ 20 ].

Further, new tools have emerged that offer enhanced features for analyzing various aspects of information-seeking behavior. One such tool is Glimpse, which is an extension app of Google Trends [ 28 ]. Google Trends has been both praised and criticized for reporting all searches as RSVs [ 29 ]. RSV is a query share of a search term within a specific geography and time range, which is then normalized to the highest point of popularity within that time period [ 26 ]. A notable drawback of this approach is that the absolute volume is not provided; therefore, there is no way to track an estimated number of queries for a particular topic [ 30 ]. Because the RSV is indexed to the highest point of popularity for a term within a time period, reproducibility of research results can be challenging [ 26 , 29 ]. To address this issue, the Supercharged-Glimpse extension offers an estimate of the absolute search volume, as well as a dashboard of additional information such as related search terms. The absolute volume numbers are overlayed on the traditional RSV index graph. This tool could be useful for understanding the specific content topics and themes that people search for health information.

Additional quantification of the changing volume of information seeking for alpha-gal can provide valuable evidence regarding shifts in awareness levels and potential changes in alpha-gal prevalence. Moreover, analyzing the evolving information-seeking patterns for both alpha-gal and lone star ticks can offer insights into the changing public interest across different geographic areas. Finally, health care providers and public health officials could benefit from understanding the topics that are most relevant to their patients and the public and adjust their communication strategies for alpha-gal accordingly. Therefore, using the Google Trends Supercharged-Glimpse extension, our objectives were to (1) describe the basic volume and patterns of information seeking related to alpha-gal; (2) explore further correlations between alpha-gal and lone star ticks; and (3) understand and identify specific questions, concerns, and areas of interest that individuals are searching for in relation to alpha-gal.

Google Trends Supercharged-Glimpse

Google Trends Supercharged-Glimpse is a new web-based tool available as an extension of Google Trends [ 28 ]. Glimpse functions in parallel with Google Trends and uses a similar random sampling approach to produce reports containing multiple components of trends in web-based information–seeking behavior. Searches are conducted on the Google Trends platform, with options to specify a particular geographic location and time period (spanning from 2004 to the present day). With the Glimpse extension, estimated search trends over time are provided as an absolute volume, rather than RSV. This allows for direct comparisons of volume from separate terms conducted in separate searches. The extension also produces a list of the highest volume of keywords and questions related to the search term, which is akin to a listing of terms that information seekers use in addition to the main keyword. Reports also contain the RSV for geographic areas from Google Trends.

Search Strategy

To begin our search, we implemented a methodological framework based upon previous strategies aimed to establish a consistent approach to conducting Google Trends research [ 31 , 32 ] and adhered to a suggested checklist for documenting and reporting our search strategy [ 26 ]. We report keywords in italics and the classification of the keyword in parentheses.

Google Trends Supercharged-Glimpse was used to determine search trends for 2 alpha-gal keywords: alpha gal (search term) and meat allergy (search term). Additional keywords related to alpha-gal were explored ( alpha-gal , alpha-gal syndrome , and alpha gal syndrome ), but these terms were visibly unstable, indicating a low search volume (with most months returning less than 1000 searches) and lower likelihood of using these terms when seeking information. Because these spelling variations produced very low volumes of searches and because the Supercharged tool does not allow modifiers (eg, “+” to add the terms together), we proceeded with the analysis without aggregating these data [ 31 ] but recognized these as potential limitations. We selected lone star tick (animal) as a keyword to explore objective 2 and food allergy (search term) as a broad comparison term. All keyword searches were compared with and without the use of quotations and produced similar results in terms of volume. Data were limited to the United States due to the context of the alpha-gal and lone star tick exploration, and the time frame ranged to include all available data (from January 1, 2004, to March 1, 2023). All keyword searches were conducted separately, without combining keywords. Similar to Google Trends, the Glimpse extension performs a sampling approach to estimate the absolute search volume. As with all sampling approaches, there is a degree of variability each time the data are queried. Further, there is a degree of caching that occurs; therefore, the same search conducted in a short time period (eg, within 10 minutes) may have identical numerical results. To produce a better estimate of the absolute volume of searches for our selected search terms, data were collected at 2 PM daily for a period of 10 days (March 2-12, 2023). Data for each term were compiled and averaged for search volume over time (absolute volume), related search queries (qualitative lists), and geographic interest (RSV). To demonstrate the overlap and correlation between the traditional RSV index values from Google Trends and the absolute volume estimates from the Supercharged-Glimpse extension, the averaged absolute volume and the averaged RSV index values for alpha gal (search term) are plotted in Figure S1 in Multimedia Appendix 1 . Absolute volume over time for all terms is presented in the Results section.

Statistical Analysis

Objective 1: trends over time.

Time series analyses were used to assess the trends in all 4 keywords over the study period. A quasi-Poisson regression was fit to account for the overdispersion of the count outcome variables. The regression used a penalized spline on year to account for long-term trends in these various allergies and related searches over time. We opted to use a penalized spline because the data appeared to be nonlinear in the raw data plots. Using penalized splines on the year allowed for the flexibility to account for the complex patterns seen in the raw data plots while not overfitting the model. The seasonality of web-based searches is likely to mirror the seasonality of cases of disease [ 31 ]. Therefore, we expected to see seasonal variation in search patterns for all 4 search terms, and indeed, this is what was revealed in graphing the monthly search volumes. There are seasonal variations in tick behaviors and tick-host encounters, which both peak during the warm season [ 33 , 34 ]. Additionally, food-related anaphylaxis has been found to increase during the warm season due to oral allergies (eg, pollen-food allergy syndrome) [ 35 ]. Therefore, a binary variable was created to indicate the warm season (May-September), which was then controlled via a linear term to account for seasonal trends. Google trends data for rare diseases can be influenced by the media [ 29 ]; therefore, the dates of national media stories on alpha-gal were identified from 2012 through 2023, and this (binary variable for the months that contained national media coverage) was controlled using a linear term. The predicted absolute search volume values are shown in the Results section. The average annual percent change (AAPC) in search volume was calculated based on this adjusted model for all 4 terms [ 36 ].

Objective 2: Alpha-Gal and Lone Star Tick

While our original intent was to describe how information-seeking behavior for both alpha gal and lone star tick changed geographically and temporally from 2004 to 2022, initial data extraction efforts revealed that the RSV geographic metrics were unstable and unreliable from 2004 to 2013. This is likely due to a lower volume of searches conducted during this time period, which would increase sampling variability. To produce more stable and reproducible results for the geographic analysis, the geographic interest index values were queried and exported in 3-year time period increments (2014-2016, 2017-2019, and 2020-2022) for the alpha gal (search term) and lone star tick ( animal ) keywords. Choropleth maps were produced. The distribution of the data was found to be nonnormally distributed (Shapiro-Wilk test P values <.05 for all variables); therefore, a Spearman correlation matrix was generated to examine geographic and temporal correlations for alpha gal and lone star tick using the RSV index values for the 3 time periods (2014-2016, 2017-2019, and 2020-2022).

Objective 3: Content Analysis

A conceptual content analysis was performed on the related search query data for alpha-gal. Lists from the 10 separate days were examined and found to be nearly identical. Lists were then combined and duplicates were removed, leaving a total of 371 related searches. All 371 related search queries contained the words “alpha gal” either before or after the additional keywords (eg, alpha gal hives ). For the qualitative content analysis, an inductive coding strategy was first implemented to identify overarching themes based on the content of the data itself. We identified 10 main themes: diet, diagnosis or testing, treatment, medications or contraindications of medications, symptoms, tick related, specific sources of information and locations, general education information, alternative words for alpha-gal, and unrelated or other. Two authors (JR and NJ) independently coded the list of 371 words based on the main concept themes. The results from the coders were compared, and discrepancies were resolved for a final theme designation. This process was repeated within each theme to further identify theme-based subcategories of interest. The total number of subthemes identified was 41. The frequency of keywords in each search theme and theme-based subcategories was compiled and described. All analyses were performed using SAS (version 9.4; SAS Institute) and R Studio (R Foundation for Statistical Computing).

Ethical Considerations

All data were publicly available and unidentifiable search engine metadata. Data are not used at the individual level and do not involve human subjects; therefore, institutional review board approval was not required for this study.

Time Series Analyses

The average absolute search volumes from 2004 to March 2023 were plotted for alpha gal , meat allergy , lone star tick , and food allergy ( Figure 1 ). The comparison of the traditional RSV index values and the absolute volume estimates demonstrated near-perfect overlap, with a Spearman correlation coefficient of ρ=0.99 ( P <.001; Figure S1 in Multimedia Appendix 1 ). In the time series analysis, the estimated absolute search volume values over time were nonlinear for all 4 search terms ( Figure 2 ). The binary indicator for the warm season was a significant predictor for all 4 search terms. While all 4 search terms demonstrated this significant seasonal trend, the magnitude of the warm season term was greatest for lone star tick and lowest for food allergy. Media coverage was only a significant predictor for alpha gal , lone star tick , and meat allergy . National media coverage of alpha-gal did not significantly impact food allergy searches. Based on the expected search volumes after adjusting for seasonality and media events in the time series analysis, the AAPC from 2004 to 2022 was 18.76%, 10.87%, 7.52%, and 1.09% for alpha gal , meat allergy , lone star tick , and food allergy , respectively. Interestingly, search trend volume began to noticeably increase starting around 2015 for alpha gal. From January 2015 to January 2022, the AAPC was 33.78%, 9.23%, 7.34%, and 2.45% for alpha gal , meat allergy , lone star tick , and food allergy , respectively. The estimated total increase during this time period was 627%, 81%, 61%, and 25% for alpha gal , meat allergy , lone star tick , and food allergy searches.

Alpha-Gal and Lone Star Tick

Choropleth maps of the RSV indices for alpha gal and lone star tick , as well as the Spearman correlation coefficient for each time period, are presented in Figure 3 . All correlations were significant at P <.001. State RSV indices for alpha gal and lone star tick were moderately correlated in 2014-2016 (ρ=0.59) but became more strongly correlated in the latter 2 time periods (ρ=0.82; ρ=0.80). These correlations can be visualized by the noticeable geographic overlap observed over time between states with a high information-seeking interest in alpha gal and lone star ticks .

Content Analysis

The content analysis revealed 10 overarching themes ( Figure 4 ). Of the 10 overarching themes, 7 were further divided into subcategories.

The most diverse search theme was diet (96/371, 25.9%), which could be further divided into 6 subthemes. The most popular subtheme was composed of general inquiries (eg, what foods to avoid with alpha gal? and what foods are safe with alpha gal? ), followed by food additives (eg, gelatin , glycerin , and magnesium stearate ), red meat (ie, specific mammal inquiries ), nonmammalian food options (eg, ostrich , eggs , and turkey ), dairy products (eg, butter , milk , and cheese ), and searches for recipes.

Symptom-related searchers accounted for 11.9% (44/371) of the total related search queries. General symptom–related questions or inquiries (eg, what are the symptoms? ) were most prominent, followed by symptom onset or triggers (eg, reaction time , onset , and exercise ). The other 5 specific subtheme symptoms that emerged were skin or rash (7/44, 15.9%), neurological (4/44, 9.1%), joint pain (3/44, 6.8%), gastrointestinal (3/44, 6.8%), and cardiovascular (2/44, 4.5%) symptoms.

Diagnosis-related searchers accounted for 10.8% (40/371) of the total related searches, including 4 subthemes of general searches for testing (eg, blood test and test results ), specific searches for IgE (eg, IgE numbers and levels ), specific laboratories that perform testing, and searches for ICD-10 codes.

General Education

General education and information seeking accounted for 10.5% (39/371) of the related searches. This theme was further broken down into causes (eg, what is the cause of alpha gal? , is alpha gal genetic? , is alpha gal contagious? ), duration (eg, is alpha gal permanent? , does alpha gal go away? ), general questions (eg, what is alpha gal? ), products, information seeking on the knockout pig, and other (eg, alpha gal and COVID-19 , alpha-gal while pregnant , and prevalence ).

Specific Sources

Specific sources of information or location accounted for 10.2% (38/371) of searches. Around 24% (9/38) of these were media-specific searches (eg, alpha-gal radiolab and nytimes ), 24% (9/38) were evidence-based sources (eg, NIH , UpToDate , CDC , and Mayo Clinic ), and 21% (8/38) were location or place specific (eg, Kentucky , Lynchburg VA , and UVA ). Other subgroups included nonevidence-based sources, specific clinician or health care provider searches, and others.

Treatment-related searches accounted for 9.4% (35/371). Most searches were general (eg. how to treat alpha gal and is it curable? ), while others were specifically related to acupuncture, antihistamines, and home remedies (eg, natural remedies and essential oils ).

Medication or contraindication-related searches accounted for 7.8% (27/371) of related searches. Roughly 25% (7/27) of these searches were vaccine related (eg, flu shot and COVID-19 vaccine ). About 25% (7/27) were inquiries about medications known to contain alpha-gal (eg, heparin), while the majority (37%, 16/27) were general inquiries on what medications were necessary to avoid (eg, alpha gal in medications , drugs to avoid , alpha gal medication list , and alpha gal and anesthesia ).

Principal Findings

To our knowledge, we believe this is one of the first studies to investigate absolute search volume trends over time using the Google Supercharged-Glimpse extension app. Our analysis revealed several important trends and patterns regarding public interest and information seeking for alpha-gal allergy.

First, over the past several years, the volume of searches for the alpha-gal allergy is significantly increasing at a rapid rate. After adjusting for seasonality and national media stories, the overall increase for alpha gal searches over time was at least 6 times that of the other search terms. Interestingly, alpha gal search term volume surpassed that of meat allergy in 2019, which likely indicates an increase in the awareness of the correct terminology for the allergy. Further, while lone star tick and meat allergy search term volumes seemed to level off from 2020 to 2022, alpha gal search term interest continued to grow. National media stories were found to have a significant impact on the search volume for alpha gal , meat allergy , and lone star tick terms, highlighting the role that media can play in engaging public interest and awareness of these topics.

Geographic popularity information-seeking for the term alpha gal did not vary greatly over time and remained concentrated in the southeast regions of the United States. While this finding was similar to a study using 2019 data [ 21 ], it was somewhat unexpected. Diagnoses of alpha-gal syndrome have occurred in other geographic regions including the Northeast and Midwest [ 20 ], and cases are increasing in those areas [ 8 ]. It is possible that this finding might be reflective of how the RSV index is generated. States with larger populations could have a greater absolute volume of interest, but this might not be reflected in the RSV index. There were no states throughout time with an RSV index of 0, which indicates that people are seeking information for the alpha-gal allergy in all 50 states. This finding is similar to laboratory-based studies that show documented cases in most states [ 20 ].

Geographic searches for the terms alpha gal and lone star tick strongly overlap. States have similarly ranked RSV indices for both alpha gal and lone star tick terms, and these have strengthened over time. Of note, geographic search interest in lone star ticks appears to be expanding. Search interest maps from 2014 to 2016 and 2017 to 2019 strongly overlap with a 2016 study that documented expansions of the lone star tick range [ 19 ]. Furthermore, search interest maps from 2020 to 2022 show a similar overlap with predicted lone star tick habitat expansion models developed in 2021 [ 37 ]. It is possible, therefore, that future interest and prevalence maps for alpha-gal may expand in similar ways. This serves as a forewarning, highlighting the urgent need to expand education efforts for both the general public and health care providers.

Finally, people are seeking a broad array of topics related to alpha-gal. The largest subgroup of content searched for in conjunction with alpha-gal was tick related. Encouragingly, national media stories and evidence-based sources comprised almost 50% of the specific sources that people were searching for. Unsurprisingly, diet was the largest theme, and interest in concealed sources of exposure and food additives remains a large concern [ 11 ]. The ubiquitous presence of animal products in food, medications, and other products can make it extremely difficult for individuals to know if what they ingest is safe [ 8 ]. Given the challenges of identifying safe foods and products, there is a clear need for improved food and product labeling. Additionally, information seeking for specific symptoms highlighted the broad array of ways that alpha-gal can manifest within an individual. Symptom variety remains one of the major reasons alpha-gal remains underdiagnosed. Health care professionals should not only be familiar with the most commonly identifiable symptoms of alpha-gal such as urticaria or anaphylaxis [ 18 ] but also be knowledgeable about symptom manifestations like joint pain [ 8 ], gastrointestinal symptoms [ 12 , 18 , 38 ], dizziness, or heart palpitations [ 10 ].

Limitations

There are several limitations to this study. First, we were only able to capture information seeking on 1 search engine platform. Second, absolute search volume estimates were not available geographically, and the RSV geographic data were unstable when examined yearly. We chose to sacrifice the granularity of a year-by-year analysis in favor of more reliable results. Third, the absolute volume was also not provided for each of the related searches. Therefore, the proportional composition of the content analysis themes represents the diversity within the theme, not necessarily the popularity of the theme. It is possible that tick-related searches encompassed the majority of the volume of the related alpha-gal searches, but we cannot identify this based on the data. Finally, at the time of the initial data analysis and submission of this study, alpha-gal syndrome was only available as a search term and not a disease. Since that time, the term has become searchable on the Google Trends platform as a designated syndrome. Absolute search volume trends over time for both alpha gal (search term) and alpha-gal syndrome (syndrome) are remarkably similar, indicating there is likely direct overlap between these 2 searches. It is unknown to what degree the addition of this condition as a designated syndrome may affect the volume reported for the alpha gal (search term) in the future.

Conclusions

Information seeking for alpha-gal syndrome is rapidly increasing. Geographic overlap with lone star tick searches might suggest future expansions in alpha-gal interest and prevalence, thereby emphasizing the urgency for increased education efforts. The diverse range of topics and symptoms searched for highlights the ongoing challenges faced by individuals affected by alpha-gal. However, the content and subthemes identified can serve as a valuable guide to facilitate public health outreach and effective patient-physician communication.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Adam Starke for assistance in generating the choropleth maps.

Data Availability

The data sets generated and analyzed during this study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Conflicts of Interest

None declared.

Comparison of absolute search volume and relative search volume (RSV) index over time for alpha gal (search term).

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Abbreviations

Edited by A Mavragani; submitted 14.06.23; peer-reviewed by JR Medina, A Allam, S Wei; comments to author 08.02.24; revised version received 28.02.24; accepted 23.03.24; published 08.05.24.

©Jamie L Romeiser, Nicole Jusko, Augusta A Williams. Originally published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research (https://www.jmir.org), 08.05.2024.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work, first published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research, is properly cited. The complete bibliographic information, a link to the original publication on https://www.jmir.org/, as well as this copyright and license information must be included.

This paper is in the following e-collection/theme issue:

Published on 9.5.2024 in Vol 8 (2024)

Relationship Between Product Features and the Prices of e-Cigarette Devices Sold in Web-Based Vape Shops: Comparison Study Using a Linear Regression Model

Authors of this article:

Original Paper

• Yanyun He 1 , PhD   ; 
• Qian Yang 1 , MPH   ; 
• Yousef Alish 2 , BSc   ; 
• Shaoying Ma 1 , PhD   ; 
• Zefeng Qiu 3 , MS   ; 
• Jian Chen 3 , PhD   ; 
• Theodore Wagener 1, 4 , PhD   ; 
• Ce Shang 1, 4 , PhD  

1 Center for Tobacco Research, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH, United States

2 Center for Biostatistics, Department of Biomedical Informatics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States

3 Department of Computer Science and Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States

4 Medical Oncology Division, Department of Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States

Corresponding Author:

Yanyun He, PhD

Center for Tobacco Research

The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center

3650 Olentangy River Rd

Columbus, OH, 43214

United States

Phone: 1 9739607969

Email: [email protected]

Background: Open-system electronic cigarette (EC) product features, such as battery capacity, maximum output wattage, and so forth, are major components that drive product costs and may influence use patterns. Moreover, continued innovation and monitoring of product features and prices will provide critical information for designing appropriate taxation policies and product regulations.

Objective: This study will examine how product features are associated with the prices of devices sold in web-based vape shops.

Methods: We draw samples from 5 popular, US-based, web-based vape shops from April to August 2022 to examine starter kits, device-only products, and e-liquid container–only products. We implemented a linear regression model with a store-fixed effect to examine the association between device attributes and prices.

Results: EC starter kits or devices vary significantly by type, with mod prices being much higher than pod and vape pen prices. The prices of mod starter kits were even lower than those of mod devices, suggesting that mod starter kits are discounted in web-based vape shops. The price of mod kits, mod device–only products, and pod kits increased as the battery capacity and output wattage increased. For vape pens, the price was positively associated with the volume size of the e-liquid container. On the other hand, the price of pod kits was positively associated with the number of containers.

Conclusions: A unit-based specific tax, therefore, will impose a higher tax burden on lower-priced devices such as vape pens or pod systems and a lower tax burden on mod devices. A volume- or capacity-based specific tax on devices will impose a higher tax burden on vape pens with a larger container size. Meanwhile, ad valorem taxes pegged to wholesale or retail prices would apply evenly across device types, meaning those with advanced features such as higher battery capacities and output wattage would face higher rates. Therefore, policy makers could manipulate tax rates by device type to discourage the use of certain device products.

Introduction

The electronic cigarette (EC) market has experienced a surge in growth, especially among adolescents and young adults in the United States, which prompted a series of government regulatory actions such as flavor product restrictions and e-cigarette taxes at various government levels [ 1 ]. Although ECs pose addiction risks among adolescents and young adults, they also have the potential to help people who smoke combustible tobacco to quit smoking [ 2 ], making EC regulations challenging and controversial. Nonetheless, effective EC regulations require that policy makers weigh the benefits and risks of ECs [ 3 , 4 ].

One important feature distinguishing ECs from cigarettes is the wide range of EC models, ranging from basic disposable models to more complex rechargeable devices, which may affect product appeal, use patterns, and health consequences. The use of certain EC devices such as mods and pods may be associated with more frequent EC use and nicotine dependence symptoms [ 5 - 7 ]. The majority of adolescent and young adult EC users report using rechargeable pods (eg, JUUL) [ 7 - 11 ], while smokers who successfully quit smoking are more likely to use open-tank systems or mods [ 12 , 13 ]. The choices of models are further associated with the frequency of EC use and nicotine dependence, making EC devices or models an important product attribute for policy makers to regulate [ 5 - 7 ].

In addition to regulating product attributes by implementing product standards, policy makers could also impose taxes on ECs, including devices, to change their appeal. To attract new users, many EC retailers offer starter kits at discounted prices [ 14 , 15 ], which typically include a rechargeable device and replaceable e-liquid tanks or pods [ 16 , 17 ]. Therefore, taxes and promotion restrictions may be needed to decrease the affordability or appeal of these starter kits to prevent youth initiation. On the other hand, the perceived cost of the devices may make ECs seem expensive compared to traditional tobacco products, which may prevent people from switching from cigarettes to ECs [ 18 , 19 ]. Therefore, monitoring EC device prices and attributes associated with price differences is crucial for policy makers and public health officials to make informed decisions about EC taxation and other pricing policies [ 5 , 6 ].

Rapid advancements in technology have resulted in an increasing number of EC devices being offered in the market, making it challenging to monitor the market and keep track of pricing trends. The existing surveillance data also have the limitation of only providing information on brands sold in brick-and-mortar stores and missing the products sold in other retail channels such as vape shops and web-based stores. Prior studies examining web-based EC stores or vendors revealed that the prices offered digitally were much cheaper than physical stores and few collected sales taxes in their state of business or based on shipping addresses [ 20 , 21 ]. Web-based retail websites engage in a variety of promotional strategies, such as promo or discounts, customer rewards, loyalty programs, and so forth [ 20 , 21 ]. Moreover, they use multiple marketing techniques such as linking their websites to social media platforms, using celebrity endorsement, posing misleading messages about ECs (eg, ECs are healthier, cleaner, and effective as a cessation aid), and so forth, to attract younger population [ 22 - 24 ]. As the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued denial orders to approximately 1 million EC-flavored products in 2020, how this will shift the marketplace and product features remains unknown. It is therefore critical to conduct comprehensive and rapid surveillance on EC devices.

Finally, a growing literature suggests that EC taxes and prices are effective in reducing EC use, with a 10% increase in prices associated with an 11.5% decrease in sales or purchases [ 25 ]. However, it is also shown that the current tax bases for ECs vary significantly by state; some states adopt specific taxes, whereas others adopt ad valorem taxes. Given that ECs have a wide range of configurations and features, different tax bases may lead to different tax burdens on different EC types (eg, vape pens vs disposables) [ 26 ]. The taxation policies also differ by state regarding whether to tax devices, which are the more durable components compared to refillable cartridges or e-liquid in open-system ECs. A better understanding of EC devices and their costs is needed to guide taxation policies for devices.

In response to these research needs, this study aims to bridge the gap in the literature by analyzing EC device data from popular web-based retailers to evaluate the distribution of device prices and features and investigate the associations between device characteristics and prices in the marketplace using a hedonic pricing model [ 27 ]. The results of this study will provide insights to policy makers considering product standards and taxation policies for ECs.

Data Sources

After conducting extensive research through a combination of Google searches and Reddit discussions in 2021, we curated a list of 5 popular web-based vaping shops. Using the latest information available, we prioritized the top results from Google searches and Reddit threads. Specifically, we focused on the top 3 results without physical addresses from Google and identified 2 highly regarded shops without physical addresses from a Reddit discussion dated in 2020. This comprehensive approach ensured that our selection process was thorough and reflective of the most current and popular web-based vape shops available.

From April to August 2022, we conducted a study on open-system EC device products sold from these 5 web-based vape shops. In total, we identified 1166 reusable products after charging or changing batteries. These products include starter kits, device-only products, and container-only products. Starter kits refer to products that include both the heating device and containers, such as mod kits, pod kits, and vape pens. Device-only products only include the heating devices, such as mod and pod devices. Container-only products are just replacement tanks or pods and contain no liquid or solutions. To examine the relationship between prices and device attributes, we focused our analysis on starter kits and device-only products as replacement tanks or pods are components instead of devices.

Outcome Variable

The outcome variable in our analysis was the log-transformed effective price (ie, after discounts) in US dollars, extracted from the store web pages.

Explanatory Variables

The following product attributes were selected for regression analysis: the number of containers (ie, tanks or pods or cartridges), container volume size (ie, maximum e-liquid capacity per tank, pod, or cartridge in mL), maximum output wattage (divided into 3 groups with each group comprising approximately one-third of the total observations: 5-39 W, 40-85 W, and more than 85 W), and battery capacity (divided into 3 groups: less than 900 mAh, 900-1499 mAh, and 1500 mAh and more). For the products with missing battery capacity (n=488) or missing wattage information (n=91), we manually checked each product web page. We found that the missing battery capacity in mod kits (n=273) or mod device–only products (n=209) was due to their use of 18,650- or 21,700 mAh–sized batteries and a lack of inclusion in the kits or devices. The missing battery capacity information on other products (n=6) and missing wattage information were purely due to a lack of information on the product web pages. To fully use the sample that we collected for the analysis, a missing category was added for output wattage and battery capacity. In addition to these attributes, the number of coils, rings, cables, chargers, batteries, glasses, and chips were included as control variables.

Statistical Methods

We used a 3-step approach to investigate pricing patterns and product attributes of EC devices sold in web-based vape shops. First, we computed the price distribution for all EC device products and identified the respective brands. Second, we examined the battery capacity and maximum output wattage features of products for starter kits and device-only products. Finally, we analyzed a linear regression model to examine the association between device prices and product attributes using a hedonic pricing model [ 27 ], controlling for store-specific unobservable factors using store-fixed effect and stratified by device types (mod kit, mod devices only, pod kits, and vape pens). Pod device–only products were excluded from the analysis because of the small sample size (n=8). SEs were clustered at the store level to account for intertemporal correlations among products sold in the same store. As the outcome variable was the log form of device price, our estimates reflect the percentage change in price due to a 1-unit change in a continuous independent variable. In the case of a categorical independent variable, our estimates indicate the percentage change in price for being in a certain category compared to the comparison category.

Given that our sample comprises a large number of brands (93 brands) and many brands (59/93, 63% brands) have fewer than 5 products, we did not control for brand-fixed effects. Nonetheless, we conducted sensitivity analysis and estimated alternative models where brand effects are controlled using random effects and generalized estimating equations.

Ethical Considerations

In this study, we collected data from 5 US-based, web-based vape shops. Thus, no human subjects were involved, and the determination of no human subjects was approved by the Ohio State University institutional review board (study 2020E1328).

Table 1 shows the summary statistics of EC device products. We identified 1166 products from 93 unique brands, including 427 mod kits, 348 pod kits, 50 vape pens, 229 mod device–only products, 8 pod device–only products, and 104 replacement tanks or pods. Among starter kits, mod kits have a mean price of US $51.46 (SD US $24.72), which is significantly higher ( P <.001) compared to pod kits (US $24.72, SD US $8.78) and vape pens (US $29.50, SD US $15.60). The mean price of mod kits is significantly lower ( P <.001) than that of mod device–only products (US $58.93, SD US $41.98). In addition, the median price of mod starter kits is about US $6 cheaper than the sum of individual mod device and e-liquid container prices (US $44.99 and US $8.99, respectively), suggesting that mod kit prices are heavily discounted.

a EC: electronic cigarette.

The price distribution for all devices except pod kits, which follow a normal distribution, is positively skewed (ie, having high prices; Figures 1 - 4 ). Few pod device–only products (n=8) were identified, and they were significantly less expensive than pod kits. This reveals that web-based stores are more likely to sell pod devices in starter kits instead of individual products. The price distributions of vape pens and pod kits are similar: the lower quartile and median prices for vape pens and pod kits are almost identical.

Table 2 displays the distribution of product attributes based on the device type. Pod kits tend to have more replacement tanks or pods included in the kits than mod kits and vape pens. However, the volume size of the containers in mod kits is significantly larger than that in pod kits and vape pens. Most mod kits (396/427, 92.74%) have a battery capacity above 1500 mAh (123/427, 28.81%) or high-end 18,650- and 21,700 mAh–sized batteries (273/427, 63.93%), which are not included in the kits. On the other hand, most pod kits (282/348, 81.04%) have a battery capacity below 900 mAh (152/348, 43.68%) or between 900 mAh and 1500 mAh (130/348, 37.36%). This is probably because these products also typically have much higher concentrations of nicotine so they can still deliver high doses of nicotine with lower wattage and therefore do not need the same battery power. Of the 50 vape pens, 21 (42%), 14 (28%), and 12 (24%) have a battery capacity above 1500 mAh, between 900 mAh and 1500 mAh, and below 900 mAh, respectively. Additionally, 90.63% (387/427) of mod kits have output wattage between 40 W and 85 W (194/427, 45.43%) or above 85 W (193/427, 45.2%), while the majority of pod kits (293/348, 84.2%) have output wattage less than 40 W (216/348, 62.07%) or between 40 W and 85 W (77/348, 22.13%). Most vape pens (21/50, 42%) have output wattage below 40 W. The majority of the mod device–only products (209/229, 91.27%) are sold without including batteries (18,650 or 21,700 mAh) in web-based vape shops. More than half (154/229, 67.25%) of the mod device–only products have output wattage greater than 85 W. These findings suggest that mod kits and mod device–only products are distinct from pod kits and vape pens in terms of battery capacity, output wattage, and volume size.

Table 3 illustrates the association between device prices and product attributes, stratified by device types (mod kit, mod device–only products, pod kits, and vape pens). We found that the price of mod kits is not significantly associated with the number of tanks or pods ( P =.84) included or with the volume size of the container ( P =.07). Mod kits with advanced battery sizes (18,650 or 21,700 mAh) are priced 21.5% higher than those with less than 900 mAh batteries, even though the battery is not included in the kit. Mod kits with output wattage over 85 W are priced 27.3% higher than those with less than 40-W output. Similarly, the prices of mod device–only products are higher when they have greater battery capacity or output wattage.

On average, the price of pod kits is 10% higher as the number of tanks or pods increases. However, the price of pod kits is not significantly associated with the volume size of tanks or pods ( P =.60). Furthermore, the price of pod kits is positively associated with battery capacity, with a capacity between 900 mAh and 1500 mAh and greater than 1500 mAh being 16% and 23.9% higher, respectively, than those with less than 900 mAh battery. The price of pod kits with output wattage between 40 W and 85 W is 12.5% higher compared to those with output wattage less than 40 W.

Unlike mod and pod devices that can be sold as part of a starter kit or as individual devices, vape pens are rechargeable devices sold exclusively as starter kits. The price of vape pens is positively associated with volume sizes, with every 1-mL increase in volume size associated with 3.7% higher prices. In addition, compared to vape pens with a battery capacity below 900 mAh, those with a battery capacity above 1500 mAh are priced 11.9% higher. Output wattage is not significantly associated with the prices of vape pens.

The sensitivity analysis using a random effect model or generalized estimating equations to account for brand effects is reported in Multimedia Appendix 1 . The results are very similar to our main findings using ordinary least square regressions.

a N/A: not applicable.

b 9 out of 50 vape pens had missing volume size information.

a P <.05.

b All regressions were controlled for accessories.

c P <.01.

d P <.001.

e Since only 2 pod kits have output wattage greater than 85 W and only 3 pod kits have missing battery capacity information, their estimated coefficients have limited statistical relevance.

f Since only 1 vape pen has an output wattage greater than 85 W, the estimated coefficient has limited statistical relevance.

Using unique data gathered from 5 web-based stores that sell nationally, this study examines the pricing of rechargeable EC starter kits and devices. The findings reveal that the prices of mod devices and starter kits are on average US $59 to US $51, respectively, approximately twice as high as those of pod starter kits (US $25) and vape pens (US $30). Moreover, all rechargeable devices are much more expensive than disposable devices (cost about US $8) [ 28 ]. The average price of mod starter kits (US $51) from the 5 stores is similar to the price reported in a 2016 study (US $56) [ 20 ], which evaluated starter kit costs from 44 web-based vendors. Therefore, consumers considering using ECs, especially mod products, can expect relatively high initial costs. This supports previous findings suggesting that consumers tend to choose more affordable disposable options when first experimenting with ECs [ 29 ].

Furthermore, we discovered that the price distribution of both mods (starter kits and devices) and vape pens are positively skewed, suggesting that certain products are priced much higher than their average counterparts. This finding is consistent with prior studies based on web-based vendors and studies using the Standardized Tobacco Assessment for Retail Settings: Vape Shops surveillance tool to document prices that found that advanced mod products are priced much higher than regular mods [ 30 , 31 ].

The price analysis of EC devices further illustrates that greater battery capacity and output wattages are associated with higher device or kit prices. This is not surprising given that battery capacity and output wattage are key factors that determine nicotine delivery and user behaviors [ 21 , 32 , 33 ]. Studies have shown that tank ECs (eg, mod devices) can achieve much higher blood nicotine levels over a longer duration [ 34 ]. Survey data also suggest that smokers who successfully quit cigarette smoking using ECs are more likely to use tanks or mod devices [ 12 , 13 ]. It is possible that the higher output wattage and battery capacity, which ensure longer use before needing to be charged and reduce the risk of unexpected power outages, lead to more frequent e-cigarette use and may have assisted in transitions from smoking to vaping. However, greater battery capacity and output wattages could also attract youth and young adult users who report often trying or using multiple devices. Nonetheless, higher output wattage could also expose users to higher toxicant emissions and exposure to higher amounts of particulate matter, which may be harmful to human health [ 35 , 36 ]. The FDA and policy makers may need to take all of the factors (eg, product appeals in youth vs adult smokers) into consideration when setting product standards for batteries and volume sizes.

Our findings provide several key insights about designing EC pricing policies (eg, taxes) for devices. While there is growing literature that increasing EC taxes and prices reduces consumption, there is a lack of evidence that distinguishes between EC types and components, such as devices versus consumables such as e-liquid and cartridges. As a growing number of states start to tax ECs, not all EC-taxing states impose excise taxes on devices. Moreover, there is no clear guidance on how best to tax devices such as choosing tax rates and bases. Our findings suggest that EC starter kits or devices vary significantly by type, with mod prices being much higher than pod and vape pen prices. A unit-based specific tax therefore will impose a higher tax burden on lower-priced devices such as vape pens or pod systems and a lower tax burden on mod devices. A volume- or capacity-based specific tax on devices will impose a higher tax burden on vape pens with large container sizes. On the other hand, ad valorem taxes based on wholesale or retail prices will impose uniform tax burdens across all device types and consequently tax devices with higher battery capacities and output wattage at a higher rate. Therefore, policy makers could manipulate tax rates by device type to discourage the use of certain device products according to the health literature on the relative harms of ECs. For example, if cheap devices are preferred by smokers who are considering ECs, ad valorem tax may be preferred over specific taxes as the former imposed lower taxes on lower-priced products. In contrast, if the goal is to prevent youth from trying ECs and youth are more interested in cheap devices, a specific tax will be more favorable than ad valorem taxes in raising the prices of cheap devices.

In addition to taxation policies, our findings also highlight the importance of promotion restrictions. In web-based stores, the prices of mod starter kits are even lower than those of mod devices, suggesting mod starter kits are discounted. If mod products are mostly used by adult smokers to quit and the initial costs of ECs are a barrier to completely transitioning from cigarettes to ECs, such discounts should be allowed. However, if mods are found to attract youth and young adults, promotion restrictions may be needed to reduce their affordability.

Finally, we used data collected from 5 web-based stores that sell nationally. Although these data are not representative of the US web-based EC marketplace, they provide valuable information on device attributes and costs. It is also important to acknowledge that web-based stores or sales lead to challenges for regulations, including low prices and low compliance with state taxes [ 21 , 37 ]. A prior study further shows that there are international sites that sell ECs to the United States and these sites did not have age verification and detectable health warnings [ 38 ]. Future research is needed to understand how international markets in the web-based space may impact use behaviors, price minimization, and policy effectiveness.

There are some limitations of this study. First, we have very limited data on pod devices sold as stand-alone products and therefore do not have sufficient statistical power to conclude the pricing differences between pod starter kits and pod devices. Future studies are needed to address this gap. Second, we did not control for all the factors that affect prices because many factors are either not available or not measurable, such as production costs, consumer preferences, and so forth. Future studies may address this limitation. Nonetheless, we assessed all attributes that are presented on the web-based store web page, which arguably contains all the information that consumers see when they make purchasing decisions. Finally, the US FDA has approved a limited list of EC products. Many e-liquid products have or will become illegal for either failing to submit a premarket approval application or having their applications denied. Therefore, the demand for open-system devices could be significantly reduced as a result. However, given that many e-liquid products remain available in the marketplace and devices could still be used with 0-nicotine e-liquid, we consider monitoring device features continuing to be an important endeavor.

In summary, we provide the first assessment of how product features are associated with device or starter kit prices for the following distinct device types sold in the US digital market: mods, vape pens, and pods. The results can be used to design EC product standards and pricing policies by policy makers.

Acknowledgments

This study was funded by The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center for Tobacco Research Pilot Grant and by the National Cancer Institute of the National Institutes of Health and Food and Drug Administration U54CA287392 OSU Tobacco Center of Regulatory Science and Center for Tobacco Products at Rutgers U01CA278695. CS is funded by the National Cancer Institute (R21CA249757; Principal Investigator CS; 9/16/2021-8/31/2023). TW is funded by the Center Core Grants (P30) of the National Institute of Health and the National Cancer Institute (2P30CA016058-45). The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institute of Health or the Food and Drug Administration.

Data Availability

The data sets generated and analyzed during this study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Authors' Contributions

CS conceived of the idea. YH cleaned the data, conducted the analysis, and drafted the paper. QY drafted part of the paper. YA made plots. ZQ and JC scraped data from web-based vape shops. CS, SM, and TW reviewed the paper.

Conflicts of Interest

None declared.

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Abbreviations

Edited by A Mavragani; submitted 23.05.23; peer-reviewed by M Feng, Y Yang; comments to author 20.01.24; revised version received 07.02.24; accepted 01.03.24; published 09.05.24.

©Yanyun He, Qian Yang, Yousef Alish, Shaoying Ma, Zefeng Qiu, Jian Chen, Theodore Wagener, Ce Shang. Originally published in JMIR Formative Research (https://formative.jmir.org), 09.05.2024.

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