essay on parenting styles

The Three Parenting Styles Essay

Introduction, authoritarian, authoritative, works cited.

Parenting is a stage of life that comes about when one gets children to bring up. It is natural and there are no manuals or rules to parenting as people just learn about it as they go. Though there are many ideas on how to bring up children some will be individual based, others from their own parents while others will adopt ideas from their friends. Parenting styles can be described as the ways parents use to parent their children (Aunola et al 217).

Psychologists have therefore established three different parenting styles that are used by parents either with or without their consent. The parenting styles, permissive, authoritative and authoritarian are usually based on the communication styles, disciplinary strategies as well as warmth and nurture. This paper is therefore an in-depth analysis of the three basic parenting styles used by most parents.

Being permissive entirely means not being strict. This style of parenting is where the parents let their children to make decisions on their own. Most of the control is left in the hands of the children themselves, though the parents come in to make a few rules if any.

Nevertheless, the rules made by the parents are not meant to tie down the children and are thus not consistently enforced (Then 1). Parents using this parenting style usually want to make their children to feel free. They also tend to accept their children’s behaviour and acts regardless whether they are good or bad.

This is because they tend to feel unable to make them change hence choosing not to be involved with their children’s lives. Therefore, this parenting style is characterised by a lot of affection and warmth as the children are not subject to punishment no matter what they do. The good thing about this style is the fact that communication is always open and parents are able to discuss anything with their children.

This parenting style has been described to be not the best as children require proper guidance as they grow and being left to choose what they want on their own could make them make the wrong decision which could affect their entire life. However, children who are critical thinkers may grow up being good decision makers as they have been exposed to such conditions before.

This is the opposite of the permissive style of leadership. In this style the parents set up clear-cut rules and guidelines which are deemed to be followed by the children. The parents therefore expect their children to obey them or else get punished. Nurturing is very rare in this leadership as the children are rarely left free. The parents tell their children what to do and make decisions on their behalf without explaining to them (Then 1).

Parents using this style tend to focus more on the negatives rather than the positives such that a child who fails in school or wrongs is severely punished or scolded while the one who has exemplary passed is rarely praised. The children who grow up under this parenting style do not learn to think and do things on their own thus find it very difficult to make decisions later in life. This parenting style is mostly applicable to children who are very stubborn and need to be closely monitored.

This parenting style is also referred to as the democratic style as parents help their children to learn about themselves, being responsible for themselves and their behavioural consequences (Iannelli 1). This style is described as the best as it is a blend between permissive and authoritarian parenting styles. Parents using this style using set the necessary rules and enforces them while taking each situation as it comes.

The democratic parents usually want to make their children understand why they are being punished because of unacceptable behaviour or breaking up of rules. It is because of this reason that punishment is usually discussed with the children before being implemented. As a matter of fact, parents and children work hand in hand thus ensuring that the children respect their parents while the parents do not oppress their children as well. Conflicts under this parenting are handled in a reasonable manner without hurting either party.

The parenting styles discussed above are applicable depending on the views people hold for each. Each of the three parenting styles has its own merits and demerits. In the permissive parenting style the parents have adequate time to do what they would wish to do since they are not constantly monitoring the children (Spera 2).

Chances of separation in such a family are very high since people develop their own different lives. In the authoritarian parenting styles children tend to be very respectful thus parents have low levels of stress. The democratic style on the other hand is very involving for the parents as they have to be on toes and talking with their children to keep the unity of the family.

Aunola, K., Nurmi, J.and, Stattin, H. “Parenting styles and adolescents achievement Strategies”.2002- Journal of Adolescence, 23, 205-222.

Iannelli, Vincent. Parenting Styles. 2004. Web.

Spera, C. “A Review of the Relationship among Parenting Practices, Parenting Styles and Adolescent School Achievement”. Educational Psychology Review, 17. 2005.

Then, Joseph. Three Basic Parenting Styles. 2011. Web.

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Home / Parenting, Kids & Teens / The 4 types of parenting styles: What style is right for you?

The 4 types of parenting styles: What style is right for you?

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A parent’s job is to prepare their children to be adults who are capable of taking care of themselves and overcoming difficulties. It’s not an easy job. Parents have to set appropriate limits, watch their children fail and let them feel the consequences of their actions. Sometimes parents even endure the harsh screams of “I hate you!” or other painful words.

“I tell parents that it’s OK for your kids to be mad at you and not like you because of the limit you set,” said Hannah L. Mulholland, LICSW, MSW, a Mayo Clinic pediatric social worker. “You’re the best person in the world for them not to like and be mad at because you’re the one person who’s not going to desert them. You’re still going to love them, even when they’re mad at you. But for many parents, the reason they don’t set limits is because they want to be liked.”

Parenting is about supporting children while they make their own mistakes, take on age-appropriate responsibilities, think for themselves and solve their own problems. How you do that is up to you.

For example, you can let your kids choose how and when to do their homework — but also let them know that if they don’t do it, there may be consequences at school. “Let your kid be distressed. Let your kid make mistakes,” Mulholland says. “That’s how they learn.”

Kids who don’t learn might enter the adult world woefully unprepared or even afraid because they don’t know how to have relationships, do their laundry or manage their money. “They get in over their heads because they don’t really know what their own capacity is,” Mulholland says.

4 parenting styles

There are four main parenting styles: authoritarian, authoritative, permissive and neglectful. You don’t have to commit to one style. It’s natural to use different styles in different situations. When safety is at stake, a parent might use a firm authoritarian style that leaves no room for negotiation. But a parent might put consequences on hold and lean into a permissive approach to encourage a teenager to call for help if they put themselves in a dangerous situation.

“As parents, we are all doing the best we can each day,” Mulholland says. “Our intentions are always good, but we struggle to execute depending on our own capacity in the moment. Give yourself a break as a parent and recognize your own limits. All of the advice in this article is for when you are your very best self, not necessarily something you can implement all the time.”

Here’s a look at each of the four styles.

Authoritative parenting style

Authoritative parenting is often considered the ideal style for its combination of warmth and flexibility while still making it clear that the parents are in charge. (3) Children of authoritative parents know what is expected of them. Their parents explain reasons for the rules and consequences for breaking them. Parents also listen to their child’s opinions, but the parent remains the ultimate decision maker.

Authoritative parents develop close, nurturing relationships with their children. Children with authoritative parents tend to grow up confident, responsible and capable of managing their emotions. They are also friendly, curious and achievement-oriented.

What is an example of authoritative parenting style?

One place where parenting style shows is at mealtimes. Authoritative parents have more family meals where the parents model eating behaviors — rather than imposing strict restrictions. The parents will include the children in meal preparation. Perhaps the child will choose what’s for dinner one night a week or choose the side dish. Research shows that children of authoritative mothers have a high quality of diet and eat more fruit than children from different parenting styles.

Permissive parenting style

Permissive parents might pride themselves on being their child’s best friend. These parents are warm and nurturing with open communication. They are actively involved in their children’s emotional well-being. They also have low expectations and use discipline sparingly. Permissive parents let children make their own choices, but also bail them out if it doesn’t go well.

Children of permissive parents have the freedom to make decisions like what to eat, when to go to bed and whether to do their homework. These children tend to have good self-esteem and social skills. But they can be impulsive, demanding and lack the ability to self-regulate. (1) Permissive parents often try to control their child’s environment, so the child doesn’t have to experience rejection or failure. This means the child might enter adulthood unprepared.

What is an example of permissive parenting style?

When it comes to food, permissive parents might have lax rules. They allow the children to choose what they want, even if that means the parents make a special meal. This could lead to picky eating and unhealthy diet choices. Permissive parenting is associated with lower fruit and vegetable intake. It may also result in inexperience in trying new things or going with the flow and difficulty in social settings involving food.

Authoritarian parenting style

Authoritarian parenting uses strict rules, high standards and punishment to regulate the child’s behavior. Authoritarian parents have high expectations and are not flexible on them. The children might not even know a rule is in place until they’re punished for breaking it.

Children of authoritarian parents are good at following instructions and behave well. However, these children might grow up with a fear of punishment and lack experience making their own decisions. As a result, some might become aggressively rebellious, lack social skills and may have difficulty making sound decisions on their own.

What is an example of authoritarian parenting style? 

At mealtimes, authoritarian parents might enforce rules, such as the children eat the same meal as everyone else or finish everything on their plate. However, the family is unlikely to discuss why they eat certain foods and how they fit into their culture or affect a child’s health.

Neglectful parenting style

Neglectful parents fulfill the child’s basic needs, but then pay little attention to the child. These parents tend to offer minimal nurturing and have few expectations or limitations for their child. It’s not always a conscious choice parents make, but can be forced by circumstance, such as the need to work late shifts, single parenting, mental health concerns or overall family troubles.

Children of neglectful parents usually grow up to be resilient and self-sufficient out of necessity. They might have trouble controlling emotions, don’t develop effective coping strategies and they have difficulty maintaining social relationships. They tend to have low self-esteem and might seek out inappropriate role models.

What is an example of neglectful parenting style?

Parents who are uninvolved might not buy groceries or plan meals consistently. That could leave the child concerned about when they will next eat. It can lead them to become preoccupied with food. Children who had neglectful parents often overeat when food is available and may become overweight. But these children often have an easier time leaving home when it’s time.

How do I make sure I don’t mess up my child?

There’s no parenting style that is guaranteed to produce perfectly adjusted children. Nobody’s child is going to go through life universally liked and immune to failure or disappointment. Mulholland says everyone experiences difficulties. “It’s just unrealistic to say that a parenting decision is the reason for that.”

Since children will inevitably go through difficult moments, it’s best to equip them with the ability to bounce back. It helps if kids have had some practice from being allowed to try and fail in a safe environment.

For example, if a child played video games instead of studying, they might do poorly on the test. That’s how they learn that they need to manage their time better. But if you let them stay home “sick” to get an extra day to study, they won’t have learned a lesson.

A lot of parents see their child’s successes or failures as a reflection of themselves as a parent. But it’s the parent’s job to give the child the tools they need, not to control the situation.

“I’m always reminding parents that those aren’t your grades,” Mulholland says. “That’s not your college that they end up going to. That’s on them. You shouldn’t measure your worth as a parent on how successful your children are.”

How can parents change their parenting style?

If you find that your child is having some behavior issues, you might decide you need to adjust your parenting style. Behavior change can be as difficult for parents as it is for kids.

Mulholland recommends thinking back to your own childhood and what worked for you and what didn’t. Some people had parents who were very strict. The child wasn’t allowed to talk at the table and was punished severely. As a result, when they became a parent, they went the other way and became permissive. But perhaps a middle ground would work better. As you reflect on your own parenting, think about why you react the way you do.

If you want to change your parenting style, look into parenting workshops. Many schools or early childhood centers offer classes or can refer you to one. Mulholland also recommends the book, How to Talk So Kids Will Listen & Listen So Kids Will Talk . A mental health therapist can also help you work through issues from your own childhood and find a parenting approach that will work for your family.

Which parenting style is most encouraged?

Authoritative parenting is the most recommended parenting style . The combination of clear communication and age-appropriate standards can lead to emotionally stable adults who can handle themselves in social situations and set goals for themselves.

To take an authoritative approach, parents can:

• Set clear boundaries and communicate them to children.
• Offer children choices and have discussions about what’s appropriate. For example, you can choose which pajamas you want to wear to bed. You cannot wear your winter coat to bed because it will be too warm.
• Listen to and explore their children’s emotional health concerns.
• Frequently express love and affection.

A helpful approach can be to use praise and positive reinforcement to encourage desired behavior. Ignore annoying, but not dangerous, attempts at getting attention, such as banging on a wall or whining. You also can tell children, “I’ll wait and respond to you when you stop whining.”

Another approach is to reward children with something they want. For example, instead of taking away their tablet until they do their homework, use it as a reward. “I’m going to give you your tablet as soon as you’re done with your homework.” That way the tablet is a reinforcer instead of a consequence.

How to set limits for children

A big part of parenting is setting rules and limits for your children. A metaphor from Russell A. Barkley, Ph.D. , suggests thinking of parenting like enclosing a pasture for your sheep. You build a fence and put things the sheep need in the pasture — plus some fun things to play with. Then let the sheep roam around within their limits.

“You don’t tell the sheep ‘You need to only be in this corner.’ Or ‘You need to only eat that type of flower,'” Mulholland explains. “They’re likely to run into the good flowers and eat the good stuff. But you’re also going to have the fence around them. So there’s a limit as to how far they can go.”

The same with children. As the parents, you set the limits and provide children with food to eat and toys to play with. As the children show they’re being responsible and can handle more, you can expand their boundaries.

Setting limits together

As much as you can, decide with your child what your limits are ahead of time. For example, before the start of a new school year, decide on your limits for weekday screen time, after-school snacks or homework rules.

If you’re trying to make rules on the fly, you’re more likely to be inconsistent from day to day. If you decide that the kids get 90 minutes of screen time on a school night, then you can always hold to that, and the kids know what to expect.

If you have a spouse or co-parent, discuss limits together. It’s common for two parents to have different ideas of what’s appropriate, so it’s helpful to set the boundaries together. And whether you live in the same house or not, try to maintain the same basic limits.

“The most important thing is — in front of the child — you 100% have your partner’s back, even if you disagree wholeheartedly with how they approached it. In front of the child, you have to have their back,” Mulholland says. “In the moment you say, ‘Yep. Dad said eat your broccoli. ‘” If you would have done things differently, talk to your partner about it away from the kids.

Your relationship with a grown child

Parenting style also plays a role in the relationship between parents and their children when they become adults. Kids who had strict, inflexible parents might not have a close relationship as adults. Kids of permissive parents might come back for help frequently when they are in a bind. Kids who grew up with encouraging, supportive parents tend to have close relationships with their parents. They will be independent, but still go to their parents for advice.

“The best-case scenario is they’re still keeping you involved in their life,” Mulholland says. “They’re telling you about the hardships and maybe even seeking advice, but they’re also not expecting you to fix everything.”

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Why Parenting Styles Matter When Raising Children

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Amy Morin, LCSW, is a psychotherapist and international bestselling author. Her books, including "13 Things Mentally Strong People Don't Do," have been translated into more than 40 languages. Her TEDx talk,  "The Secret of Becoming Mentally Strong," is one of the most viewed talks of all time.

Verywell / Laura Porter

The Four Parenting Styles

• Impact of Parenting Style

Advantages of Authoritative Parenting

Can you change your parenting style.

• Limitations and Criticism

Parenting styles are constructs used to describe the different strategies parents tend to utilize when raising children. These styles encompass parents' behaviors and attitudes and the emotional environment in which they raise their children.

Developmental psychologists have long been interested in how parents affect child development. However, finding actual cause-and-effect links between specific actions of parents and later behavior of children is very difficult.

Some children raised in dramatically different environments can later grow up to have remarkably similar personalities . Conversely, children who share a home and are raised in the same environment can grow up to have very different personalities.

Despite these challenges, researchers have posited that there are links between parenting styles and the effects these styles have on children. And some suggest these effects carry over into adult behavior.

In the 1960s, psychologist Diana Baumrind conducted a study on more than 100 preschool-age children. Using naturalistic observation , parental interviews, and other research methods , she identified some important dimensions of parenting.

These dimensions include disciplinary strategies, warmth and nurturing, communication styles, and expectations of maturity and control. Based on these dimensions, Baumrind suggested that the majority of parents display one of three different parenting styles. Later research by Maccoby and Martin suggested adding a fourth parenting style. Each of these has different effects on children's behavior.

The four parenting styles that have been identify by Baumrind and other researchers are:

• The authoritarian parenting style
• The authoritative parenting style
• The permissive parenting style
• The uninvolved parenting style

What's Your Parenting Style?

This fast and free parenting styles quiz can help you analyze the methods you're using to parent your kids and whether or not it may be a good idea to learn some new parenting behaviors:

Authoritarian Parenting

In this style of parenting, children are expected to follow the strict rules established by the parents. Failure to follow such rules usually results in punishment.

Authoritarian parents don't explain the reasoning behind these rules. If asked to explain, the parent might simply reply, "Because I said so."

Other common characteristics:

• While these parents have high demands, they are not very responsive to their children.
• They expect their children to behave exceptionally and not make errors, yet they provide little direction about what they should do or avoid in the future.
• Mistakes are punished, often quite harshly, yet their children are often left wondering exactly what they did wrong.

Baumrind says these parents "are obedience- and status-oriented, and expect their orders to be obeyed without explanation." They are often described as domineering and dictatorial. Their approach is "spare the rod, spoil the child." They expect children to obey without question.

Effects of Authoritarian Parenting

Authoritarian parenting styles generally lead to obedient and proficient children, but they rank lower in happiness, social competence, and  self-esteem . They may also be more likely to lie to avoid punishment.

Authoritative Parenting

Like authoritarian parents, those with an authoritative parenting style establish rules and guidelines that their children are expected to follow. However, this parenting style is much more democratic.

Common characteristics of the authoritative parenting style:

• Authoritative parents are responsive to their children and willing to listen to questions.
• These parents expect a lot of their children, but they provide warmth, feedback, and adequate support.
• When children fail to meet expectations, these parents are more nurturing and forgiving than punishing.

According to Baumrind, authoritarive parents are good at setting standards and monitoring their children's behavior. Their disciplinary methods are assertive and supportive rather than intrusive, restrictive, or punitive.

For authoritative parents, the goal is to raise children who are socially responsible, cooperative, and self-regulated. The combination of expectation and support helps children of authoritative parents develop skills such as independence, self-control, and self-regulation. 

Effects of Authoritative Parenting

Authoritative parenting styles tend to result in happy, capable, and successful children.

Permissive Parenting

Permissive parents , sometimes referred to as indulgent parents, make very few demands of their children. These parents rarely discipline their children because they have relatively low expectations of maturity and self-control.​

• Other common characteristics of permissive parenting:
• Permissive parents prioritize being their child's friend rather than being a parent.
• They are warm and attentive but tend to set few rules, rarely enforce rules, and have few expectations.
• They allow their children to make their own decisions. 

According to Baumrind, permissive parents are responsive to their children but not demanding. Because they do not expect mature behavior from their children, kids may struggle to set limits for themselves. On the positive side, this can help kids become more self-sufficient and independent. On the downside, it can contribute to poor self-regulation.

Permissive parents are generally nurturing and communicative with their children, often taking on the status of a friend more than a parent.

Effects of Permissive Parenting

Permissive parenting often results in children who rank low in happiness and self-regulation. These children are more likely to experience problems with authority and tend to perform poorly in school.

Uninvolved Parenting

In addition to the three major styles introduced by Baumrind, psychologists Eleanor Maccoby and John Martin proposed a fourth style: uninvolved or neglectful parenting.

An uninvolved parenting style is characterized by few demands, low responsiveness, and very little communication.

Other characteristics of the uninvolved parenting style:

• While these parents fulfill the child's basic needs, they are generally detached from their child's life.
• They might ensure that their kids are fed and have shelter but offer little to nothing in the way of guidance, structure, rules, or even support.
• These parents may seem indifferent, unresponsive, and dismissive.
• In some cases, these parents may reject or neglect the needs of their children. They may also be physically or emotionally abusive.

A 2019 study found that children raised by neglectful parents tend to struggle in school, experience more depression, have worse social relationships, have difficulty controlling their emotions, and experience more anxiety.

Effects of Uninvolved Parenting

Uninvolved parenting styles rank lowest across all life domains. These children tend to lack self-control, have low self-esteem, and are less competent than their peers.

The Impact of Parenting Styles

Research suggests that parenting styles can have a range of effects on children. Some of the areas of a child's life that may be affected in the present and in the future include:

• Academics : Parenting styles can play a part in academic achievement and motivation.
• Mental health : Parenting styles can also influence children's mental well-being. Kids raised by authoritarian, permissive, or uninvolved parents tend to experience more anxiety, depression, and other mental health problems.
• Self-esteem : Kids raised by parents with an authoritative style tend to have strong self-esteem than kids raised by parents with other styles,
• Social relationships : Parenting styles can impact how kids relate to other people. For example, kids raised by permissive parents are more likely to be bullied, while kids raised by authoritarian parents are more likely to bully others.
• Adult relationships : Researchers have also found that kids raised by strict, authoritarian parents may be more likely to experience emotional abuse in adult romantic relationships.

Because authoritative parents are more likely to be viewed as reasonable, fair, and just, their children are more likely to comply with their parents' requests. Also, because these parents provide rules as well as explanations for these rules, children are much more likely to internalize these lessons.

Rather than simply following the rules because they fear punishment (as they might with authoritarian parents), the children of authoritative parents are able to see why the rules exist, understand that they are fair and acceptable, and strive to follow these rules to meet their own internalized sense of what is right and wrong.

Mixing Parenting Styles

The parenting styles of individual parents also combine to create a unique blend in each family. For example, the mother may display an authoritative style, while the father favors a more permissive approach.

This can sometimes lead to mixed signals. To create a cohesive approach to parenting, parents must learn to cooperate and combine their unique parenting styles.

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If you notice that you tend to be more authoritarian, permissive, or uninvolved, there are steps you can take to adopt a more authoritative parenting style. Strategies that may help include:

• Listen : Spending time listening to what your child has to say. Let them share their opinions, ideas, and worries with you. 
• Establish rules : Create a clear set of rules for your household and communicate your expectations to your child. In addition to telling your child what the rules are, be sure to explain why these rules exist.
• Consider your child's input : Authoritative parents set the rules but are also willing to listen to their child's feelings and consider them when making decisions.
• Be consistent : Enforce rules consistently, but be sure to provide consequences that are fair, proportionate, and educational. 

Developing a more authoritative parenting style takes time. With practice and consistent effort, however, you will find that your approach to parenting gradually shifts to a more supportive, involved approach that can lead to better developmental outcomes.

Limitations of Parenting Style Research

Links between parenting styles and behavior are based on correlational research , which is helpful for finding relationships between variables . However, such research cannot establish definitive cause-and-effect relationships.

While there is evidence that a particular parenting style is linked to a specific pattern of behavior, other variables, such as a child's temperament, can also play a significant role.

Children May Affect Their Parents' Styles

There is also evidence that a child's behavior can impact parenting styles. One study found that the parents of children who exhibited difficult behavior began to exhibit less parental control over time. Such results suggest that kids might misbehave not because their parents were too permissive but because the parents of difficult or aggressive children gave up on trying to control their kids.

Outcomes Vary

Some researchers have also noted that the correlations between parenting styles and behaviors are sometimes weak. In many cases, the expected child outcomes do not materialize. For example, parents with authoritative styles may have children who are defiant or who engage in delinquent behavior. Parents with permissive styles may have self-confident and academically successful children.

Cultural Factors Play a Role

Cultural factors also play a significant role in parenting styles and child outcomes. There isn't a universal style of parenting that is always best. For example, while authoritative parenting is linked to better results in European and American cultures, research has also found that this style is not linked to better school performance Black and Asian youth.

Parenting styles are associated with different child outcomes, and the authoritative style is generally linked to positive behaviors such as strong self-esteem and self-competence. However, other important factors, including culture, children's temperament, children's perceptions of parental treatment, and social influences, also play an important role in children's behavior.

A Word From Verywell

Understanding more about your own parenting style can help you explore different approaches to parenting your children. If you notice that you tend to have a more strict, indulgent, or dismissive approach, there are steps that you can take to become more involved and authoritative in how you relate to your children.

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Huh D, Tristan J, Wade E, Stice E. Does problem behavior elicit poor parenting?: A prospective study of adolescent girls .  J Adolesc Res . 2006;21(2):185-204. doi:10.1177/0743558405285462

Bernstein DA.  Essentials of Psychology . Cengage Learning; 2013.

Benson, JB, Marshall, MH. Social and Emotional Development in Infancy and Early Childhood . Academic Press, 2009.

Macklem, GL. Practitioner's Guide to Emotion Regulation in School-Aged Children . Springer, 2008.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Parenting Styles

Reviewed by Psychology Today Staff

It is a stereotype that, in therapy, all of a person’s problems will be blamed on their parents. That is not the case. But decades of psychological research have suggested that the approach to parenting generally followed by an individual’s mother and/or father can influence the way they approach relationships, challenges, and opportunities. That doesn’t mean that an adult can’t change, of course, especially once they understand what may be influencing their behavior. And parents who become aware of the pitfalls of their own style and how it may affect their kids can also change.

For more on dysfunctional parenting, click here .

On This Page

• What are the four major parenting styles?
• How can a parent’s style predict a child’s future relationships?
• How can mothers and fathers tell what their parenting style is?
• How can parents become more authoritative?
• What is supportive parenting?
• What is attachment parenting?
• How can mothers and fathers transition away from attachment parenting?

Research begun by developmental psychologist Diana Baumrind in the 1960s identified three main parenting styles —authoritarian, indulgent, and authoritative. Later studies added a fourth—neglectful. Every parent does not neatly fit into one of these four categories but they describe the approaches of many.

• An authoritarian parent seeks to maintain a high level of control over their children. They may set and adhere to a strict set of rules, and are more likely to support and take part in corporal punishment such as spanking. Children of highly authoritarian parents may struggle socially and may be likely to become authoritarian parents themselves.
• Neglectful parents (also known as uninvolved or disengaged) take on a limited parenting role. They may not spend as much time as other parents in conversation, play, or other activities, and may not bother to set many house rules. Some children of neglectful parents may resist rules outside of the home and struggle with self-control.
• Indulgent (or permissive) parents may be attentive and warm, but may not set many rules for their children. They may prioritize being their child’s friend over being their parent. Research suggests that the children of permissive parents may show higher levels of creativity but may also feel entitled, and be more interested in taking rather than giving in their own relationships.
• Authoritative parents follow what is widely understood as the preferred approach. Such parents are more pragmatic and flexible. They set clear boundaries but also encourage children’s independence within those limits. Discipline in such families may be more supportive than punitive, and as children get older, their independence increases. Children of authoritative parents may have more highly developed self-control and self-reliance.

Recent research suggests that, in some families, a parent’s style, especially as it relates to maintaining control over their children, could leave their kids vulnerable to emotional abuse from future partners, employers, and and others. Researchers found that people raised with a parent who maintained strict psychological control over them grew to be especially vulnerable to emotionally abusive partners. The effect appeared to be offset, though, by experiencing emotional warmth from the other parent. Research continues to explore the effect of differing parenting styles in the same family, and whether it matters if a mother or father is the authoritarian.

Much research of parenting styles has examined how the styles affect children as they grow up, and how negative effects could be tempered. But other studies have focused on helping parents become more self-aware and change their styles to develop healthier relationships with their kids . Some researchers have developed analytical scales in which parents indicate how they would respond to certain scenarios with an eye toward helping them shift, perhaps through therapy, to a more moderate approach.

In practical terms, most parents do not think of themselves as authoritarian, authoritative, or otherwise, and many mothers and fathers are self-aware enough to know that they may not be consistent with their kids at all times. Experts suggest that attention to some general guidelines can help parents develop a healthier style—for example, being consciously warm and loving toward children, setting age-appropriate limits, actively listening to children’s concerns, gently but firmly asking to be treated with respect, and “catching” kids being good , while making sure they know they’ve been seen and acknowledged.

Supportive parenting describes an approach to authoritative parenting in which mothers and fathers are conscious of how often they say no to children (as they often must, especially when kids are young) so that they can seek more opportunities to say yes to them in encouraging ways that help kids develop confidence and self-esteem. When children are mostly told what they cannot do, they can feel rejected by a parent, even a well-meaning one, with potentially negative emotional outcomes. Being consciously supportive and selfless with children can help them internalize belief in themselves.

Attachment parenting , a term coined by pediatrician William Sears, describes an approach to parenting in which mothers and fathers are physically and emotionally close to their children, especially at an early age, and is characterized in practice by extended periods of breastfeeding and co-sleeping. Sears referred to it as “what mothers and fathers would do instinctively if they were raising their baby on a desert island.” There is little evidence, however, that this approach leads to more positive psychological outcomes for children and many experts reject attachment parenting as unnecessarily demanding of parents and potentially creating conflict and division between new parents.

Parents who commit themselves to attachment parenting and have the time and temperament to maintain the approach throughout early childhood may then be faced with the challenge of weaning their children from the approach. These mothers and fathers may need to consciously practice “ detachment parenting ” so that children entering early adolescence can develop independence and healthy friendships, while resisting feeling rejected themselves as kids begin to resist a parent’s efforts to hold onto their previous level of connection.

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What Is Your Parenting Style, and Why Does It Matter?

From authoritarian to authoritative, permissive to neglectful, we're breaking down different types of parenting styles. Which one do you practice? 

Authoritarian Parenting

Permissive parenting, authoritative parenting, neglectful or uninvolved parenting, sub-types of parenting styles.

Your parenting style can affect everything from your child's self-esteem to their academic success. It's important to ensure your parenting style supports healthy growth and development because the way you interact with your child—and how you discipline them— will influence them for the rest of their life. 

Researchers have identified four main types of parenting styles that take a unique approach to raising children:

• Authoritarian
• Authoritative

People often want to know which parenting style they're using, and which one is the best overall. The truth is that there's no one right way to parent, but the general parenting style that most experts, including the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), recommend is an authoritative approach.

Read on to learn the difference between these four major parenting styles, with information about popular subtypes like helicopter parenting, free-range parenting, tiger parenting, and more.

Baumrind's Four Parenting Styles

In the 1960s, developmental psychologist Diana Baumrind described three distinct parenting styles—authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive—based on parental demands and responsiveness to children. A fourth style, neglectful, was added later based on work by other researchers.

Do any of these statements sound like you?

• You believe kids should be seen and not heard.
• When it comes to rules, you believe it's "my way or the highway."
• You don't take your child's feelings into consideration.
• You've uttered the words "because I said so" when a child questions the reasons behind a rule.

If any of those ring true, you might be an authoritarian parent. The authoritarian style of parenting focuses on strict rules, obedience, and discipline. These parents have high expectations, and they don't hesitate to punish when children don't follow their guidelines.

Authoritarian parents take over the decision-making power, rarely giving children any input in the matter. Similar to an army drill sergeant, authoritarian parents are not nurturing, lenient, or communicable. They make the rules and enforce the consequences with little regard for a child's opinion.

How authoritarian parenting affects children

When raised by an authoritarian parent, children are often well-behaved at home, but they may rebel when with classmates or friends. Kids may also struggle with the following:

• Social skills
• Indecisiveness and trouble thinking on their own
• Low self-esteem
• Poor judge of character
• Anger management and resentfulness
• Hostility and aggression

Some research also indicates that children whose parents were authoritarian reported more substance use and higher instances of depression.

• You set rules but rarely enforce them.
• You don't give out consequences very often.
• You think your child will learn best with little interference from you.
• You let your children do what they want—even if it's drinking soda at every meal.

If those statements sound familiar, you might practice permissive parenting . Permissive parents are lenient, only stepping in when there's a serious problem. They're quite forgiving and they adopt an attitude of "kids will be kids." Oftentimes they act more like friends than authoritative figures.

Permissive parents cater to their children's needs without giving out much discipline . When they do use consequences, they may not stick. For example, they'll give privileges back if a child begs, or they may allow a child to get out of time-out early if they promise to be good. Permissive parents are the total opposite of strict.

How permissive parenting affects children

Since they have a high standing in the household, children of permissive parents are accustomed to getting whatever they want. They may exhibit more behavioral problems as they don't appreciate authority and rules.

Other downsides of the permissive parenting style can include:

• Lack of responsibility
• Difficulty with decision-making
• Impulsiveness and aggressiveness
• Lack of independence and personal responsibility
• Anxiety and depression
• Academic struggles

Kids who are parented permissively often act entitled, egocentric, and selfish. These children might also fail to put effort into school, work, or social endeavors since they don't have to put in any effort at home.

Additionally, kids raised by permissive parents are at a higher risk for health problems, like obesity , because permissive parents struggle to limit unhealthy food intake or promote regular exercise or healthy sleep habits. They're more likely to have dental cavities because permissive parents often don't enforce good habits, like ensuring a child brushes their teeth.

The "Gold Standard" Parenting Style

Experts consider authoritative parenting to be the most developmentally healthy and effective parenting style. Research has found kids who have authoritative parents are most likely to become confident, responsible adults who feel comfortable self-advocating and expressing their opinions and feelings.

• You put a lot of effort into creating and maintaining a positive relationship with your child.
• You explain the reasons behind your rules.
• You set limits, enforce rules, and give consequences, but also consider your child's feelings. 
• You use positive discipline strategies such as praise and rewards.

If those statements sound familiar, you might practice authoritative parenting , which is considered to be the "gold standard" parenting style. Authoritative parents provide their children with rules and boundaries, but they also give them the freedom to make decisions.

With an authoritative parenting style, parents validate their children's feelings while also making it clear that the adults are ultimately in charge. They invest time and energy into preventing behavior problems before they start. They also use positive discipline strategies , like praise and reward systems, to reinforce positive behavior.

Authoritative parents view mistakes as a learning experience, and they have clear expectations for their children. They're nurturing and warm, yet they instill the importance of responsibility and discipline.

How authoritative parenting affects children

Children raised with authoritative parenting tend to be happy, confident, and successful. They're also more likely to make sound decisions and evaluate safety risks on their own. Authoritative parenting is linked to academic achievement, heightened self-esteem, and resiliency.

Kids with authoritative parents tend to have the following positive outcomes:

• Close, nurturing relationships with parents
• Tendency to be responsible and respectful
• Ability to manage their aggression
• High degrees of self-esteem, self-confidence , and self-regulation
• More likely to be happy and successful
• Ability to clearly express their emotions

Kids who are parented authoritatively can be trusted to make the right decision on their own, and they often set high expectations for themselves. These children may also perform well academically and socially, and they're less likely to misuse drugs or alcohol.

Do any of these statements sound familiar?

• You don't ask your child about school or homework.
• You rarely know where your child is or who they're with.
• You don't spend much time with your child.
• You don't have many rules and expectations.

If those statements sound familiar, you might be an uninvolved or neglectful parent. Essentially, neglectful parents ignore their children, who receive little guidance, nurturing, and parental attention. They don't set rules or expectations, and they tend to have minimal knowledge about what their children are doing.

Uninvolved parents expect children to raise themselves. They don't devote much time or energy to meeting children's basic needs. At times, uninvolved parents lack knowledge about child development—or they may believe that their child will do better without their oversight.

Uninvolved parents may be neglectful but it's not always intentional. A parent with mental health issues or substance abuse problems, for example, may not be able to care for a child's physical or emotional needs consistently.

How uninvolved parenting affects children

Without any guidance, structure, or parental involvement, children of neglectful parents often act out. Research has found that kids with uninvolved parents have the worst outcomes, and they're more likely to experience the following:

• Substance use
• Rebelliousness
• Delinquency (vandalism, assault, rape, petty theft)
• Lower cognitive and emotional empathy
• Diminished self-esteem

Children of uninvolved parents might, for example, get in trouble at school or with the law. In addition, they might hesitate to form bonds with other people and exhibit depression. Academic performance and social competence often suffer.

Getty Images / Shaw Photography Co.

Of course, there are plenty of parenting style subtypes, including the following

Free-range parenting

Helicopter parenting, snowplow parenting, lighthouse parenting, attachment parenting, tiger parenting.

Free-range parents give their children the independence of being less supervised or unsupervised in public. For a long time, parents who practiced this style were considered neglectful, and many thought they endangered their kids.

But more recently (and after much debate) states like Utah passed laws in favor of the hands-off parenting style. Specifically, Utah changed the definition of neglect so it doesn't include certain independent childhood activities like walking to school and playing outside. Proponents say it can instill amazing qualities like self-sufficiency and resilience.

If you're an overprotective parent who feels the need to control most aspects of your child's life, you likely fit the bill of a helicopter parent . Helicopter parents constantly intervene in their kid's life, and they obsess about successes and failures.

The risk-assessing tendencies of helicopter parents are often driven by fear and anxiety. Parents who intervene in this way can hinder a child's ability to learn integral life skills, confidence, and self-sufficiency. Research by the American Psychological Association found that kids who experience helicopter parenting are less likely to be able to manage their emotions and behavior.

Snowplow parents (also known as lawnmower or bulldozer parents) are willing to drop everything to fulfill their child's wants and demands, no matter how small. They essentially "plow down" anything standing in their child's way.

These types of parents often have good intentions and don't want their children to experience struggle. However, their habits don't provide a foundation for long-term happiness, and they can worsen a child's anxiety about failure. An extreme example of snowplow parenting involves the college admissions scandal , where numerous high-profile celebrity parents were convicted of bribing colleges to admit their children.

One of the more balanced methods of parenting, the lighthouse approach was coined by pediatrician and author Kenneth Ginsburg, MD. In his book, Raising Kids to Thrive: Balancing Love With Expectations and Protection With Trust, Dr. Ginsburg writes: "We should be like lighthouses for our children. Stable beacons of light on the shoreline from which they can measure themselves against."

The lighthouse parenting style involves finding the perfect balance between loving, protecting, communicating, and nurturing your child. Parents seek to guide and support their children, much like a lighthouse does.

Attachment parenting involves a nurturing and hands-on approach. These parents think that putting a child's needs first leads to independence and emotional stability. Parents who follow this style value physical closeness, bed-sharing and co-sleeping, extended breastfeeding , positive discipline, and other attachment-based approaches to raising children.

A study by the American Academy of Pediatrics found an association between sensitive-responsive parenting and children’s language skills. Specifically, kids of parents with higher levels of responsiveness and warmth had more than two times better language skills than children whose parents were less responsive. On the other hand, this parenting style is demanding and can sometimes feel out of balance when parents are less flexible in their approach.

Often displaying rigid and harsh characteristics, tiger parents expect obedience and success. This term gained mainstream attention due to Amy Chua's book, Battle Hymn of the Tiger Mom , where she describes tiger parenting as an authoritarian method commonly used in Chinese culture.

Some research has found a correlation between tiger parenting and anxiety in children , possibly due to their parent's high demands and constant expectations for perfection.

Additional reporting by Amy Morin, LCSW  

Parenting and Boundary Setting: Pediatric Mental Health Minute Series . American Academy of Pediatrics .

Parenting Styles: A Closer Look at a Well-Known Concept .  J Child Fam Stud. 2019.

Psychosocial consequences of parenting .  IOSR J Hum Soc Sci . 2016.

Types of Parenting Styles and Effects On Children .  StatPearls  [Internet]. Updated 2022.

Role of parenting styles in adolescent substance use: results from a Swedish longitudinal cohort study . BMJ Open.  2016.

Authoritarian parenting and youth depression: Results from a national study .  Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the Community.  2016.

Role of Parenting Style in Children’s Behavioral Problems through the Transition from Preschool to Elementary School According to Gender in Japan . Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health . 2019.

Parenting Styles: A Closer Look at a Well-Known Concept .  J Child Fam Stud . 2019.

Consequences of parenting on adolescent outcomes .  Societies . 2014.

Psychosocial Consequences of Parenting . IOSR Journal Of Humanities And Social Science . 2016.

Helicopter Parenting May Negatively Affect Children’s Emotional Well-Being, Behavior . American Psychological Association . 2018.

Investigations of College Admissions and Testing Bribery Scheme . United States Attorney's Office . Updated 2023.

Parenting Behavior and Child Language: A Meta-analysis . American Academy of Pediatrics . 2019.

The moderating effects of positive psychological strengths on the relationship between tiger parenting and child anxiety . Children and Youth Services Review . 2018.

Related Articles

Home — Essay Samples — Life — Family — Parenting Styles

Essays on Parenting Styles

As a pivotal aspect of developmental psychology, understanding the impact of various parenting approaches on child development is crucial. These essays serve as exemplary models for students, offering insights into authoritarian, permissive, authoritative, and uninvolved parenting styles, among others.

The Influence of Parenting ... Read More As a pivotal aspect of developmental psychology, understanding the impact of various parenting approaches on child development is crucial. These essays serve as exemplary models for students, offering insights into authoritarian, permissive, authoritative, and uninvolved parenting styles, among others. The Influence of Parenting Styles on Child Development

Our essays delve into the psychological theories that underpin different parenting styles and their respective outcomes on children’s behavior, emotional well-being, and academic achievement . Students can explore the nuances of how each parenting approach fosters unique traits in children, from independence and self-esteem to obedience and self-regulation.

Cultural Perspectives on Parenting

Recognizing the diversity of family structures and cultural backgrounds, our samples also highlight how parenting styles are influenced by cultural norms and values. Essays encourage readers to consider the broader societal and environmental factors that shape parenting practices, offering a global perspective on child-rearing.

Parenting Styles and Their Adaptation Over Time

Amidst the ever-changing social landscapes, our essays examine how modern challenges such as digital technology, social media, and changing family dynamics have influenced contemporary parenting styles. Discussions on the balance between guidance and autonomy in the digital age provide students with a current view on the evolution of parenting strategies.

Practical Applications and Parenting Advice

Beyond theoretical exploration, our collection includes essays that offer practical advice for parents and caregivers seeking to adopt the most effective parenting style for their family’s needs. By presenting research-based recommendations, these essays serve as a resource for readers looking to apply developmental psychology principles in real-life parenting scenarios.

Fostering Healthy Parent-Child Relationships

Concluding with a focus on the ultimate goal of parenting, these essays emphasize the importance of fostering healthy, supportive, and nurturing relationships between parents and children. Through critical analysis and reflection, students are invited to consider how effective parenting styles contribute to the overall well-being and future success of children.

The Debate Over Strict Parenting: Rearing Children

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The Effect of Parenting Styles on Social and Emotional Development in Adolescents

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Exploring Parenting Styles Patterns and Children’s Socio-Emotional Skills

Aikaterini vasiou.

1 Department of Primary Education, University of Crete, 74100 Rethymno, Greece

Wassilis Kassis

2 Department of Research & Development, School of Education, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, 5210 Windisch, Switzerland; [email protected] (W.K.); [email protected] (D.A.); [email protected] (C.A.F.)

Anastasia Krasanaki

3 School of Humanities, Hellenic Open University, 26335 Patras, Greece; moc.liamtoh@ikanasarka

Dilan Aksoy

Céline anne favre, spyridon tantaros.

4 Department of Psychology, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 15784 Athens, Greece; rg.aou.hcysp@natgs

Associated Data

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

In this study, we adopted parenting styles as a multidimensional and latent construct that includes different aspects of parenting, rather than solely focusing on a single parenting style. In a Web-based survey with 1203 Greek parents, we identified parenting styles and their SDQ reports on their children. According to our results by Latent Profile Analysis, we must use a more complex approach concerning parenting styles. We identified a “Highly Authoritative style” profile with high levels of authoritative, low levels of authoritarian and middle levels of permissive parenting styles. We additionally identified a profile called “Relaxed Authoritative style”, with still high but lower levels of authoritative style, low but slightly heightened levels of authoritarian style, and middle levels of permissive style. A further profile, named “Permissive Focused Authoritative style”, had a mix of high levels of authoritative, moderate levels of permissive, and elevated levels of authoritarian parenting styles. Finally, in a profile named “Inconsistent Parenting style”, we identified parents with a blend of still high, but the lowest of all four levels of authoritative and highest levels of permissive and authoritarian parenting styles. When combining the four identified parenting patterns with the SDQ results, we identified the “highly authoritative parenting style” profile to be the least connected to internalizing or externalizing problems of the respective children.

1. Introduction

Bronfenbrenner’s socioecological framework [ 1 ], understanding development as a social process, as a result of the interaction between people and their environment, suggests that, among the proximal (microsystem) socialization agents, parents play the most pivotal role in children’s development [ 2 ]. As such, researchers have conducted numerous empirical investigations which focused on isolating the contribution of parenting styles to children’s and adolescents’ behavior, such as externalizing and internalizing problems and prosocial behavior [ 3 , 4 , 5 ]. Nevertheless, most studies have adopted variable-centric perspectives to explore the overall strength of associations between the examined variables in a larger population. Additionally, this approach primarily used single parenting styles, such as authoritarian, permissive, or authoritative, to understand the effects of particular parental behavior. This led to the understanding that parents apply a specific and characteristic style. Nevertheless, the use of analytical techniques, such as latent profile analysis, focused on people characteristics, often intervenes with the possibility of developing a fully realized understanding of the predictors and outcomes of within-subject variation in parenting styles [ 6 , 7 , 8 ]. Consequently, the present study is conducted to identify unique parenting style profiles and considers parenting styles as a multidimensional and latent construct that includes different aspects of parenting, not just a single one. Using latent profile analysis and exploring the possible relationship between the identified profiles and children’s and adolescents’ externalizing and internalizing problems and prosocial behavior, we attempt to develop a more complex and adequate picture of parenting styles and their effects on children’s behavior.

1.1. Parenting Styles

Parenting style is a collection of parents’ attitudes, behaviors, and emotions [ 9 ]. Therefore, we can conceptualize parenting styles as representing general types of child-rearing that characterize parents’ typical strategies and responses [ 10 ]. In particular, parental behavior is established in four specific behavioral dimensions: control, maturity demands, clarity of communication, and nurturance [ 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 ]. Baumrind [ 15 , 16 ], resulting from a blending of these dimensions and not from any single one of them, identified three primary parenting styles: Authoritarian (high levels of control and maturity demands, and low levels of nurturance and clarity of communication), Permissive (high levels of nurturance and clarity of communication, and low levels of control and maturity demand) and Authoritative (control, nurturance, clarity of communication, and maturity demands).

The behavior of authoritarian parents, which is not characterized by parental responsiveness and emotional availability, but by parental control, leads to limiting the independence of the children, valuing blind obedience, as well as adopting aggressive one-way communication [ 17 , 18 , 19 ]. In contrast to the authoritarian parenting style, permissive parents encourage responsiveness in the absence of parental control and maturity requirements as well as clear, consistent discipline and communication [ 17 , 19 , 20 ]. Permissive parenting style includes loose or contradictory discipline, indifference to the child’s disobedience, and lack of confidence regarding the parental role [ 18 ]. Permissive parents rarely punish, encourage independence, and offer unconditional support to their children [ 17 , 19 ]. On the other hand, authoritative parents emphasize responsiveness and control. They avoid, however, interacting with their children by being intrusive, criticizing, scolding, and threatening, as authoritarian parents are wont to do [ 17 , 21 ]. In addition, they try to understand the needs of their children. They behave warmly, lovingly, and dialogically. They also provide guidance and direction through suggestions, explanations, and argumentation. In addition, they set developmentally appropriate expectations while demonstrating receptivity and flexibility by offering children opportunities to practice independence and autonomy [ 17 , 22 , 23 ].

1.2. Children’s Behavior Problems

Empirically formulated classifications of child behavior have distinguished social-emotional and behavior problems as externalizing and internalizing [ 24 ]. Externalizing problem behaviors are considered aggressive and dysfunctional conducts aimed at others, while internalizing problem behaviors refer to negative emotions and moods such as depression, anxiety, and guilt [ 25 , 26 , 27 ]. Both aspects of dysfunction are related to impaired academic, social, and emotional development in children, such as the risk of several poor outcomes, including poor peer relationships, underachievement at school, poor personal adjustment, and poor mental health [ 28 , 29 , 30 ].

In detail, externalizing problems include the most common childhood disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), in which a wide range of cognitive, interpersonal, social, emotional, and behavioral difficulties exist. Its main characteristics are aggression and disobedience, while other Disruptive Behavioral Disorders often coexist [ 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 ]. In addition, externalizing problems include conduct problems and behavioral disorders, in which the child comes into conflict with the environment, such as aggression, violence, reactivity, disobedience, drug use, and delinquency, problems which are observed when there is a lack of parental support [ 18 , 35 , 36 , 37 ]. Parental supervision, parental care, and normative parental expectations constitute the three dimensions of parenting that are systematically related to multiple behavioral problems in children and adolescents [ 38 ]. Research found associations between extreme types of control (harsh parenting, physical punishment, psychological control, overprotection, overactive parenting) or lack of control and supervision, and a strong presence of externalizing problems, such as conduct problems [ 33 , 39 ]. It is further considered that ineffective parenting (corporal punishment, inconsistency, poor supervision, and low involvement) and specific personal characteristics, such as sentimentality, also lead to externalizing problems [ 40 ]. Especially for girls, the lack of parental support is an essential factor in developing behavioral problems [ 41 ]. Moreover, the manifestation of externalizing problems leads to peer victimization and vice versa [ 42 ].

Conversely, problems related to depression, anxiety, shyness, irritability, withdrawal, low self-esteem, poor physical health, negative relationships with peers and emotional problems are recognized as internalizing problems [ 18 , 36 , 37 , 43 ], which possibly stem from early experiences of rejection [ 23 ]. Regarding peer relationships, research shows that children without close friends have internalizing problems, while peer rejection and victimization are associated with internalizing and externalizing problems [ 44 ]. The lack of parental supervision regarding their friends is associated with internalizing problems in girls. In contrast, the lack of parental supervision during free time is associated with internalizing problems for both sexes [ 43 ].

1.3. Children’s Prosocial Behavior

Prosocial behavior is the critical component in development that contributes to positive children’s and adolescents’ development and thriving [ 45 ]. Recent decades’ research has shown associations between prosocial behavior and social, emotional, and psychological benefits in children and adolescents, including better relationships with peers and adults [ 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 ], optimal functioning in terms of well-being [ 51 ], academic success [ 47 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 ], and positive mental health [ 57 , 58 ].

Prosocial behavior refers to all voluntary behaviors aimed to benefit others [ 57 ]. They are positive social acts that promote the well-being of others and self-motivated behaviors that benefit others, demonstrating the existence of social conscience [ 22 , 58 , 59 , 60 ]. Some manifestations of positive social behavior can be caring, comforting, sharing, cooperating, volunteering, donating, and offering physical or emotional help to others [ 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 ]. The demonstration of prosocial behavior by children and adolescents, however, is influenced by factors such as parents, peers, school, teachers, and culture [ 22 , 62 ].

1.4. Parenting Styles and Children’s Behavior

For many years, parenting style’s role in children’s and adolescents’ problem behavior was the main focus of research [ 63 , 64 ]. In particular, studies have examined the role of parenting styles in internalizing and externalizing problem behavior [ 65 ], both during childhood [ 66 , 67 ] and adolescence [ 68 , 69 ]. Prior studies also proposed that parenting styles are associated with adolescents’ prosocial behavior [ 70 , 71 ]. Specifically, warm and supportive parenting reinforces self-regulatory abilities, strengthens prosocial behavior and moral values, and enhances adolescents’ acceptance of others’ needs [ 72 , 73 ].

Regarding the influence of parental factors on children’s social behavior, it is considered that the mother–child relationship and parenting practices play an important role in children’s overall development and the development of externalizing and internalizing problems specifically, regardless of gender, during early adolescence [ 74 , 75 ]. Some research suggests that parental support may predict a reduction in adolescent anxiety and depression in addition to preventing future depressive behavior [ 76 , 77 ], whereas parental support also appears to influence the development of prosocial behavior in children and adolescents [ 78 , 79 ].

Regarding the authoritative parenting style, its high responsiveness and demandingness have been scientifically associated with fewer behavioral problems [ 36 ]. In particular, authoritative parents promote the development of social and academic skills during childhood and adolescence [ 80 ]. The authoritative parenting style also has associations with less disobedience, reduced tendency to internalize problems and dangerous behaviors, high ability to regulate behavior, increased self-perception for acceptance by peers, and better adjustment [ 23 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 80 , 81 ]. Moreover, the authoritative parenting style continues to have a positive effect on children’s development from childhood until later adulthood [ 36 , 79 ]. Finally, an authoritative parenting style helps children become more compassionate, helpful, and kind to other people [ 79 ].

Conversely, due to their high responsiveness and low demandingness, permissive parents do not seek control and authority over their children, guide them to regulate their behavior, and let them decide for themselves [ 36 ]. Thus, children of permissive parents learn to be passive and unresponsive in their interactions with others, developing antisocial behavior. As a result, they become dependent and present low levels of cognitive development and self-control, as well as low self-concept for acceptance by peers, especially in girls [ 36 , 80 ]. In addition, a permissive parenting style positively correlates with externalizing and internalizing behavioral problems and delinquency [ 36 ].

Concerning the authoritarian parenting style, which is characterized by low responsiveness and high demandingness, it is significantly positively correlated with reduced ability to regulate behavior, reduced self-esteem and self-confidence, low social skills, adjustment difficulties, depression, delinquency, externalizing and internalizing problems, aggression in boys and hyperactivity in girls, as well as problems in interactions with peers [ 23 , 36 , 80 , 81 ]. Thus, authoritarianism and corporal punishment, especially during childhood, can lead to suicide, depression in adulthood, or problems in the later stages of the child’s life [ 36 ]. Furthermore, regardless of the intramarital conflicts in the family, socioeconomic level, and children’s temperament, harsh punitive discipline predicts child aggression at school [ 82 ]. However, a ten-year longitudinal study [ 83 ] showed no relationship between early parental punitiveness and subsequent aggression. Furthermore, Moore and Eisenberg [ 84 ] found no negative relationship between authoritarian parenting style and children’s positive social development. Finally, according to research, psychologically controlling parenting has detrimental effects on the psychosocial development of adolescents, increasing the risk of externalizing and internalizing behavioral problems [ 85 , 86 ].

1.5. Recent Studies on Parenting Styles Using a Person-Centered Approach

The importance of exploring naturally occurring patterns of parenting styles is increasingly recognized by recent empirical studies. These studies use a person-centered approach, which permits researchers to include multiple parenting types and expand their understanding of the determinants and outcomes of parenting styles. For example, Carpenter and Mendez [ 87 ] examined longitudinal parenting profile differences in children’s behavioral adjustment by measuring aggression and hyperactive behavior of preschool children twice during the academic year. In their study, Bowers et al. [ 6 ], based on latent profiles of youth-reported parenting styles, examined the effect of parenting profiles in promoting positive youth development [ 6 ]. Kim et al. also used latent profile analyses in a three-wave longitudinal study lasting eight years, from early adolescence to emerging adulthood, to identify parenting profiles in Chinese American families and explore their consequences on adolescent adjustment [ 7 ], while Zhang et al. examined subtypes and their stability, and changes in Chinese maternal parenting style during early adolescence [ 88 ]. Grounded in Self-Determination Theory, multigroup latent profile analyses showed that the high monitoring–high autonomy support profile yielded the most optimal outcomes on adolescent adjustment, while the low monitoring–high psychological control profile yielded the worst [ 89 ]. More recently, Teuber et al. used longitudinal person-oriented perspectives to examine the stability and possible changes in autonomy-related parenting profiles and to further explore their consequences on adolescents’ academic and psychological functioning [ 8 ].

1.6. The Current Study

In the current study, to investigate children’s and adolescents’ behavior, we used the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) [ 90 ], which is globally the most widely used tool for assessing children’s social, emotional, and behavioral problems and has also been translated into over 60 languages [ 91 ]. The parent version of the scale has interestingly indicated good psychometric properties: validity evidence based on internal structure (i.e., internal consistency), test–retest reliability of the scores, and inter-rater agreement on the scores [ 92 ]. In addition, recent findings from nationally representative data from the United Kingdom (UK) demonstrated that parent SDQ ratings show measurement invariance across the broad developmental period from preschool to adolescence [ 93 , 94 ]. Supportive evidence for measurement invariance of the parent version of the SDQ have also been provided across informants [ 95 , 96 ], community and clinical samples [ 89 ], gender and age of the child [ 97 ] and parent education level [ 98 ]. Specifically, we chose the three-factor model, which makes a broader distinction between prosocial, internalizing, and externalizing behaviors and indicated the best-fitting model in a sample of parents with 4- to 17-years old children in the US [ 99 ]. Recent results [ 100 ] reveal that the parent-version of the SDQ was a suitable tool for use and comparison across different contexts during the COVID-19 pandemic.

In addition, to explore how the dimensions of control, maturity demands, clarity of communication, and nurturance are combined with different parenting profiles, we examined how specific parenting profiles are related to children’s and adolescents’ behavior problems and prosocial behavior, expanding previous research in this area [ 6 , 7 , 88 ]. A review of the existing literature indicates a lack of research that follows a person-centered approach to examine the effects of parenting styles on children’s and adolescents’ behavioral problems and prosocial behavior. Therefore, the current study was designed to address this gap by stiving to isolate unique parental profiles using latent profile analysis. We used the Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire (PSDQ) [ 101 , 102 , 103 ] which is known as one of the few psychometrically robust scales measuring parenting practices [ 104 ] and has also been used in multiple different cultural groups [ 105 ]. This choice is justified by the idea that parents can engage in practices that align with any parenting style at different moments to different degrees [ 106 ].

Based on prior research using person-centered analytic approaches, we hypothesize that we will identify distinct parental profiles using latent profile analysis (H1). Aiming to define the predictive utility of the identified parental profiles, we also hypothesize that types of parenting profiles will display statistically significant differences in children’s and adolescents’ externalizing/internalizing behavior problems and prosocial behavior (H2). Finally, attempting to isolate personal and demographic characteristics that predict parental profiles, we expected that demographic factors such as parents age [ 107 , 108 ] and education [ 109 , 110 ] would be associated with children’s and adolescents’ externalizing/internalizing behavior problems and prosocial behavior profile membership (H3) and expected that younger and more educated parents would be more authoritative and less authoritarian.

2. Materials and Methods

The study is a web-based survey conducted in Greece via the Internet, in the framework of the third author’s master thesis, which was approved by the Hellenic Open University. Participants were recruited to voluntarily fill in an electronic form questionnaire created on Google Forms and posted in parent groups on social media by the same author. To achieve a sufficient response rate [ 111 ], the questionnaire was distributed multiple times for a period of 1 month; November until December 2019. Participants were instructed through a debrief describing the objective of the study and the confidential nature of their participation. In addition, to remove potential biases, the form elaborated on issues of protection of privacy and ethics and provided contact details for the third author. Participants were asked to confirm that they had read the form and were willing to participate in the study. Upon receipt of this confirmation, they were directed to the measures described below. Participants were asked to respond to all the answers and informed that participation would be anonymous. Participation duration was 15 min.

One of the reasons for choosing this kind of survey is the nature of the characteristics of population support, as groups are frequently established in which personal experiences are shared [ 112 ]. This research method was selected to ensure a diverse group of participants with varying levels of education, social status, and age. Online surveys were chosen for their convenience in reaching potential respondents who may be spread out over a large geographic area [ 113 ].

1203 parents participated in the study; 90.9% were women, while 9.1% were men. A total of 54% were 41–50 years old, 34.8% were 31–40, 9% were 51–60, 2% were 20–30, and 0.2% were over 60 years old. Regarding marital status, 88% were married, 8% were divorced, 1.4% were cohabiting, 1.3% were unmarried, 0.9% were widowed, and 0.4% were separated. Regarding their educational level, 41.8% were University or Applied sciences graduates, 28.4% PhD or master’s degree holders, 16.9% were general or vocational high school graduates, 9.9% were vocational training graduates, 2% were high school or technical school graduates, and 1% students. In terms of their occupational status, 83.3% were employed, and 16.7% were unemployed. Regarding their children’s gender, 47.8% were female. Finally, in regard to their children’ s age, the children were 6–12 (61.3%) and 13–18 (38.7%). By the DETECTANOMALY-procedure in SPSS (IBM, 2021), an option for detecting anomalies, we identified two cases out of 1205, which had to be removed because of their high anomaly index (case 933 = 9.70, respectively, for case 987 = 13.20) regarding the three parenting styles. Due to this, the analyses were performed with N = 1203 participants.

3. Measures

3.1. parenting styles.

The Greek version of the Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire (PSDQ) by Robinson, Mandleco, Olsen, and Hart [ 101 , 102 , 103 ] was used, adapted to the Greek population by Maridaki-Kassotaki [ 102 ]. It is a self-administered questionnaire, grounded in Baumrind’s model of parental types based on two dimensions of parental behavior: responsiveness and demandingness [ 103 ]. It explores the parent–child relationship, communication, and parenting methods, distinguishing parents into three dominant parental types: the authoritative, the authoritarian, and the permissive types [ 102 ]. The sub-scale “authoritative parenting style” includes 12 statements (e.g., I understand my child’s feelings), the sub-scale “authoritarian parenting style” includes four statements (e.g., I use punishment as a means of discipline), and the sub-scale “permissive parenting style” includes three statements (e.g., I think it is hard to teach my child to discipline). All parenting scales had the same response format: 1 = never, 2 = sometimes, 3 = often, and 4 = always. Finally, regarding the internal consistency of the three parenting scales, Cronbach’s α was good for the authoritative type at 0.82, for the permissive type 0.75, and just satisfactory for the authoritarian type at 0.68.

3.2. Children’s and Adolescents’ Behavior

The parents’ version of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) [ 90 ] was completed by participants, created to assess children’s and adolescents’ behavioral and emotional problems in their everyday life. Specifically, the Greek version of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire—SDQ [ 90 ] was used and completed by parents of children and adolescents. The questionnaire has been adapted to the Greek population by Bibou-Nakou et al. [ 114 ]. It includes 25 statements and three answers (not true, somewhat true, and true). The main scale (of 25 statements) is made up of five sub-scales with five items each: 1. Hyperactivity/attention deficit (e.g., (S)He is restless and hyperactive, cannot remain calm, still for long periods of time), 2. Conduct disorder (e.g., (S)He often has tantrums or is irritable), 3. Relationships with peers (e.g., (S)He is rather lonely, tends to play alone), 4. Emotional disorders (e.g., (S)He often complains of headaches, stomach aches, or feeling sick) and 5. Positive social behavior with five items (e.g., (S)He takes into account the feelings of others). The subscales “Hyperactivity/attention deficit” and “Conduct disorder” make up the SDQ-dimension “Externalizing problems”. In contrast, the subscales “Relationships with peers” and “Emotional disorders” make up the SDQ-dimension “Internalizing problems”. The positive social behavior scale makes the SDQ-dimension “prosocial behavior”. As for internal consistency, Cronbach’s α was suitable for all three SDQ-dimensions: for the positive social behavior, 0.70; for externalizing problems, 0.76 and for internalizing problems, 0.71.

We performed the multinomial computations of banding scores, enabling us to identify non-clinical or “at risk/clinical” cases. To achieve this, we followed the same criteria employed by Goodman in the original version of the SDQ [ 90 ], supported by empirical research on the detection and prevalence of mental health issues [ 24 , 115 ]. Based on the fact that approximately 10% of children and adolescents exhibit some form of mental health problem, and another 10% have a borderline problem, we designated threshold values as follows: scores above the 80th percentile fall into the “at risk/clinical = 1” range, scores, and scores below the 80th percentile fall into the “non-clinical = 0” category [ 90 , 116 , 117 ]. This categorization was applied to all subscales except for Prosocial behavior, where scores equal to or below the 20th percentile was considered “at risk/clinical = 1” and scores below the 20th percentile were considered “non-clinical = 0”.

3.3. Covariates

Parents Education: To assess parents’ education level, we asked for the following six educational levels: University or Applied sciences graduates, PhD, or master’s degree holders, general or vocational high school graduates, vocational training graduates, high school or technical school graduates, and students.

Parents Age: Parents’ age was assessed by five categories: 20–30 years, 31–40 years, 41–50 years, 51–60 years, and over 60 years old.

4.1. Analytic Strategy

The statistical analysis for this study was conducted in four steps: in step one, sociodemographic differences in the applied measures were examined using t -tests. In step two, because we regrouped the items to the scales, we performed a confirmatory factor analysis to test construct validity. In step three, parents’ parenting style patterns were identified by computing latent profile analyses (LPA) using three classification variables. In step four, we ran a multinomial regression analysis of the identified parenting style patterns related to SDQ to understand children and adolescents’ social behavior. For the conducted confirmatory factor analysis and the LPA, we used Mplus version 8.9 [ 118 ]. For the t -test and multinomial regression, SPSS 28 was used.

4.1.1. Results Analytic Step One: Sociodemographic Differences of All Measures and Intercorrelations

We ran t -tests (see Table 1 ) to analyze for mean differences in the SDQ dimensions and parenting styles by age group of the respective children and adolescents. Referring first to the three introduced SDQ dimensions, we identified only small but still significant effects (displayed Cohen’s d is low) between children and adolescents, with children having higher externalizing problems. When comparing the levels of the three parenting styles, we identified significantly higher levels for younger children than older children for both authoritarian and permissive parenting styles.

Sample Mean Levels (and Standard Deviations) of the SDQ-Dimensions and Parenting Styles by Age Group of the Respective Child.

Note. * = p < 0.05, ** = p < 0.01, *** = p < 0.001. between younger and older children.

When looking at the connections between the SDQ dimensions and the parenting styles that were found (as shown in Table 2 ), there were low to moderate intercorrelations, which means there was no issue with multicollinearity.

Intercorrelations of the SDQ-Dimensions and Parenting Styles.

Note. *** = p < 0.001.

4.1.2. Results Analytic Step Two: Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) for Testing Construct Validity

To test for construct validity and to verify the factor structure we performed a confirmatory factor analysis. CFA allows testing of the assumption that a hypothesized relationship between observed variables and their underlying latent constructs exists. The RMSEA, TLI, and CFI are deemed particularly important for accurately estimating CFAs [ 119 ]. Following Marsh et al. [ 120 ], we established the benchmark for a satisfactory model fit as RMSEA values below 0.08, coupled with CFI and TLI values above 0.90 and SRMR values below 0.08, indicating a strong fit for the model. The fit indices obtained from the confirmatory factor analysis applied were sufficient for the three parenting style scales, as evidenced by the following: (χ 2 (149) = 453.384, p < 0.001; RMSEA = 0.041 [90% CI = 0.037–0.046]; SRMR = 0.028 CFI = 0.923; TLI = 0.912), as for the five SDQ-parents sub-scales (χ 2 (231) = 587.411, p < 0.001; RMSEA = 0.036 [90% CI = 0.032–0.039]; SRMR = 0.042 CFI = 0.926; TLI = 0.903). This confirms the construct validity for each scale of the study.

4.1.3. Analysis Step Three: Identifying Parenting Style Patterns by Latent Profile Analysis (LPA)

We utilized three indicators, namely authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative parenting style, to group parents into distinct parenting style classes through the statistical application of Latent Profile Analysis (LPA). This allowed us to examine patterns of latent parenting styles, which encompassed multiple indicators and their interrelationships within the parenting style classes. By employing LPA as a comprehensive method, our objective was to assess the continuity of parenting style levels. The primary goal of this study was to use LPA to examine the proposed conceptualization of parenting styles, considering three aspects of parenting within an overarching latent structure, and to empirically classify latent variables into subgroups based on similar observations.

The models used in this study were non-nested. To determine the best model, different criteria were applied [ 121 ], including the entropy value, as well as information criteria such as the Akaike information criterion (AIC), Bayesian information criterion (BIC), and Sample-Adjusted BIC (ABIC). The smaller values indicate a better fit [ 122 ]. Entropy was also considered, with values above 0.7 deemed sufficient to indicate certainty in the estimation, but with models of entropy of 1.0 being overidentified [ 123 , 124 ]. The final latent profile analysis (LPA) model was chosen based on various statistical indicators and theoretical considerations. Additionally, model fit criteria such as the Vuong-Lo-Mendell-Rubin Likelihood Ration test (LMR-LRT), the Lo-Mendell-Rubin Adjusted Likelihood Ratio test (aLMR-LRT), and the Bootstrapped Likelihood Ratio test (BLRT) were used for the LPA. A significant p -value indicated an improvement to the previous model with k − 1 profiles. The ultimate model for an LPA, which determines the number of profiles, is selected based on a combination of statistical measures and pre-existing theoretical frameworks and the rule of the most parsimonious solution [ 125 ], which means that the interpretability and the additional information provided by a more complex solution has to be established. There are currently no established guidelines for determining the appropriate size of profiles [ 121 ]. Following Nylund [ 124 ], we are arguing against having profile sizes with less than 50 cases or these profiles being less than 5% of the total sample.

The analysis was conducted for a range of two to six latent patterns. Statistical tests of model fit can be found in Table 3 . A model consisting of four profiles was selected, as it had a lower aBIC score than a profile 3 solution, and the entropy was higher. For the comparison between the profile 3 the profile 4 solutions, we additionally applied model fit criteria with significant p -values for profile 3 over the profile two solutions, indicating an improvement to the previous model, but non-significant p -values on LMR-LRT and aLMR-LRT when comparing profile 3 and profile 4 but with still significant p -values on the BLRT, indicating an improvement for the profile 4 to the profile three models. When comparing the profile 4 to the 5 or 6 profile solution, we noticed several criteria decreasing. In comparison to the profile 4 solutions, we detected for profile 5 (aBIC Delta to profile 4 = 777) and 6 (aBIC Delta to profile 5 = 948) solutions a significant drop in aBIC differences, and for both solutions an Entropy of 1.0, which suggested weak evidence [ 126 ] and an overidentification of the model [ 127 ], leading us favoring the profile 4 solution.

Model Fit Indices for Latent Profile Analysis on Parenting Styles, N = 1203.

Note. AIC = Akaike information criterion; BIC = Bayesian information criterion; ABIC = Sample-size adjusted BIC; LMR LR = Vuong-Lo-Mendell-Rubin Likelihood Ratio Test; ALMR LR = Lo-Mendell-Rubin Adjusted LRT Test; BLRT = Bootstrap likelihood ratio test.

For the 5 (one profile with n = 18 participants, 2.3% of the sample) and 6 profile (one profile with n = 49, 3.9% of the sample; one profile with n = 44, 3.6% of the sample; one profile with n = 9, 0.7% of the sample), solutions had far too small sample sizes [ 124 , 128 ]. Additionally, for both the 5 and 6 profile solutions, the new profiles did not offer new theoretical insights. but merely split already existing small profiles. Based on the abovementioned criteria and the principle of favoring more restricted and simple models, the profile 4 solutions were ultimately chosen. Along with empirical measures, the selection of the profile 4 solutions was also influenced by its interpretability and alignment with existing theoretical frameworks.

By the three introduced parenting styles and the consecutive tests on a different number of profiles (two to six profiles), we identified the four-profile solution as the best fitting. Regarding the distribution of the four profiles (see Figure 1 ), we identified a profile (profile 1, 66.6% of the participants) called Highly Authoritative style (HA) with high levels of authoritative, the lowest levels of authoritarian and middle levels of permissive parenting styles. We additionally identified a profile called Relaxed Authoritative style (RA) (profile 2, 16.3% of the participants) with still high but lower levels of authoritative style than in profile 1, low but elevated levels of authoritarian style, and middle levels of permissive style. Profile 4 (12.4% of the participants), named Permissive Focused Authoritative style (PFA), had a mix of the second highest levels of authoritative and middle levels of permissive and slightly higher levels of authoritarian parenting styles. Finally, in profile 3 (4.4% of the participants), named Inconsistent Parenting style (IP), we identified parents with a blend of higher levels of authoritative and middle levels of permissive and authoritarian parenting levels. From the solution chosen, we could detect that parenting styles are a complex mix and multidimensional latent construct encompassing authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive styles, rather than a distinct single parenting style as commonly assumed.

Diagrammatic Representation of the four identified parenting style profiles by LPA.

We analyzed if there were differences in the patterns concerning parental education and parents’ age to control for any effects caused by these two covariates by using multinomial-regression analysis. Neither for education (Wald chi2(12) = 9.830, p = 0.631) nor for age (Wald chi2(6) = 6.091, p = 0.413) have significant effects been identified.

4.1.4. Analysis Step Four: Multinomial Regression Analysis on the Identified Parenting Patterns Related to the Three SDQ Dimensions to Understand the Social Behavior of the Respective Children

For the three SDQ dimensions (internalizing problems, externalizing problems, and prosocial behavior), we identified significantly lower levels of problems when comparing the “highly authoritative style” profile to the other three parenting profiles (see Table 4 ). This was especially the case when comparing the “highly authoritative style” profile to the “permissive focused authoritative style” or the “inconsistent parenting style” profile. No significant differences were identified (see Table 4 ) when comparing the levels of prosocial behavior of the four parenting profiles. In summary, we identified the “highly authoritative parenting style” profile to be the least connected to internalizing or externalizing problems of the respective children when studying the answers by their parents.

Multinomial logistic regression of SDQ-dimensions in the four LPA profiles.

Note: S.E. = Standard Error; OR = Odds Ratio. Reference LPA profile is the profile we called “Highly Authoritative style”. For all three SDQ-dimensions: (0 normal; 1 at risk/clinical).

5. Discussion

Given the lack of studies that capture parenting styles as a heterogeneous construct and therefore solely focus on the individual and the well-known parenting styles, i.e., authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive, we pursued the research question as to whether there are distinct parenting style profiles. We conceptualized parenting style as a multidimensional and latent construct encompassing diverse aspects of parenting rather than a single one. We, therefore, defined parenting style as a collection, a mix of parents’ attitudes, behaviors, and emotions [ 9 ].

By using latent profile analysis and examining the association between the identified profiles and adolescents’ externalizing and internalizing behavior problems and prosocial behavior, our study is able to confirm the relevance of presenting the different parenting dimensions in a more complex and appropriate picture of parenting profiles and their influence on adolescents’ socio-emotional skills. Person-centered approaches extend beyond commonly used methods for establishing these parenting styles or profiles, such as the scale-mean or median-split methods, which can be problematic when dealing with multiple dimensions [ 129 ].

The present study adopted a person-oriented method to overcome these limitations and address the complex interplay of multiple dimensions. This approach allowed, following Hypotheses 1, identification of distinct parental profiles using latent profile analysis, for an adequate representation of the combinations of parenting styles. Interestingly, previous studies using person-centered approaches have revealed different combinations of parenting styles but have not confirmed distinct forms of permissive parenting profiles [ 88 , 110 ] or authoritarian profiles [ 130 , 131 ]. Our results supported these findings by considering parenting styles as a multidimensional construct rather than mere forms of distinct parenting styles. These findings build on previous research and demonstrate how person-oriented methods can provide insights that are difficult to achieve with variable-oriented techniques. Detecting the latent profiles used in this study to identify parenting styles would be challenging, if not impossible, to confirm using traditional variable-oriented analyses.

Confirming Hypothesis 1, we found four distinct profiles regarding a mix of all three parenting styles. We could not identify a parenting style that was uniquely focused on authoritarian, authoritative, or permissive styles, demonstrating that parenting styles should be captured as a multidimensional, latent concept. Interestingly, all four patterns were very high in the authoritative style, suggesting that some form of responsiveness and control characterizes all profiles. This finding is in line with other studies [ 87 ], which also found several parenting profiles consisted of authoritative (i.e., adaptive) parenting practices. Additionally, in our research, most parents had middle levels of authoritarian style (i.e., negative features). Specifically, three out of four profiles showed some authoritarian parenting style combined with authoritative and permissive styles. This means that a third of the children and adolescents do experience intrusive, critical, scolding, and threatening behaviors common to authoritarian parents [ 17 , 22 , 23 ], in addition to some levels of warm, loving, and dialogical behaviors [ 17 , 21 ], as well as loose or contradictory discipline [ 18 ].

Notably, analyses of the latent profile frequencies indicated that most parents in our sample perceived their practices as exhibiting a relatively positive parenting style/profile. Given that the concept of equifinality (i.e., different early experiences in life) is helpful for interpreting how parenting styles are associated with adaptive or maladaptive behavioral outcomes over time [ 87 ], the results of the current study extend the research on multiple manifestations of adaptive parenting by Greek parents of children and adolescents. We found it surprising that the permissive style was present to a moderate degree in all four profiles. This means that, although permissiveness alone is negative for socio-emotional development in children and adolescents, our results demonstrate that it was not determinant for profile affiliation in combination with high authoritative and low authoritarian styles.

Confirming Hypothesis 2, the present study demonstrated that the socio-emotional development in childhood and adolescence is strongly linked to the parenting style experienced. Children and adolescents with parents with primarily authoritative parenting styles, characterized by high levels of behavioral control and support and lower levels of psychological control, show a positive developmental status. In contrast, adolescents with affective controlling parents manifest problems in externalizing and internalizing behavior. This aligns with the existing empirical evidence, which consistently shows that the authoritative parenting style is positive for adaptive socio-emotional development, while the others are not [ 132 , 133 , 134 ]. These findings propose that children and adolescents have fewer behavioral problems [ 36 ] and a reduced tendency to internalize problems and dangerous behaviors [ 80 , 81 ].

Although the majority of parenting programs aimed at parents have focused on improving communication with their children, there are limited studies addressing parenting strategies [ 6 , 7 , 8 ]. Thus, we assume that parents may need more support in coping with their children’s behavioral problems and improving their parenting abilities to decrease the problem behavior. By identifying different patterns of parenting styles, it becomes clear that not all parents have the same needs. Interventions can be tailored to parents’ individual needs and challenges based on their specific profile patterns. This is important because, if parents can learn to create a positive and supportive environment for their children, they can reduce the risk of externalizing and internalizing behavioral problems, especially as parent–child conflict starts early in a child’s life and is very stable over time [ 31 ]. Thus, we adopt Teuber’s et al. [ 8 ] suggestion that the person-oriented results pointed out that it is useful to reinforce parents with guidance on positive parenting skills through parenting programs that focus on adaptive parenting practices, and direct the several maladaptive effects of different forms of dysfunctional practices. Contrary to our expectations regarding prosocial behavior, no significant differences were identified when comparing the levels of prosocial behavior of the four parenting profiles, supposing that our findings are inconsistent with prior findings that indicated that parenting dimensions are related to adolescents’ prosocial behavior [ 70 , 71 ]. Considering that we used SDQ parent reports regarding their children’s prosocial behavior, our study examined prosocial behavior as a global construct, ignoring differentiation between the subtypes of this behavior (e.g., altruistic, compliant, emotional, and public) [ 57 ], as well as between the motivations underlying it.

While our research on Hypotheses 3 challenges the assumption that parents’ age and education are strong determinants of parenting patterns [ 108 , 109 , 110 ], it is essential to note that the existing literature suggests some weak associations. Therefore, it is crucial to interpret our findings with caution. Nonetheless, our study underscores the need for further investigation into the multifaceted factors that influence parenting behaviors and the potential role of intervention programs, such as the newly developed profiles, in shaping these behaviors.

The implications of our findings on Hypothesis 3 are twofold. Firstly, it is suggested that other factors not considered in our research may have a more substantial impact on parenting patterns. It is possible that aspects such as cultural influences, personal values, or individual experiences may play a more significant role in shaping how parents interact with their children. Secondly, the reduced effects of parents’ age and education observed in our study could be attributed to the effectiveness of the newly developed profiles. These profiles might have facilitated a greater homogenization of parenting practices, potentially minimizing the impact of individual characteristics, such as age and education.

6. Limitations

Even if the insights gained by the chosen analytic design clearly expand the previous knowledge on parenting styles, there are a few limitations. As patterns of parental styles are not traits but states, we needed, instead of the chosen cross-sectional approach, a full longitudinal design. In future research, a latent transition analysis (LTA) should be applied to indicate significant differences in the longitudinal classification of the identified parenting patterns. LTA, the longitudinal extension of LCA, is a statistical tool that models possible parenting style pattern transitions over time. Especially. the findings regarding the “highly authoritative parenting style” as the least connected to children’s internalizing or externalizing problems should be approached with caution. There may be other confounding factors not considered in the analysis that could influence these associations, such as autonomy support and controlling parenting [ 135 , 136 ] or child–parent communication [ 137 ]. We also used parents’ self-perceptions of their parenting styles. Including the children’s perceptions of the respective parenting styles would have been interesting. Given that relations with parents play a distinct role in children’s development, the respective qualities of the relationship between parents and children are significant predictors of children’s academic, personal, and social development [ 138 ].

In addition, as our sample only included participants from a specific cultural context (Greek parents), the generalization of the findings to other countries and cultural contexts is rather limited. Furthermore, the sample restrictions and our specific sampling approach via the Internet can be considered another study limitation, even if our sample was large enough to be considered stable against minor deviations. Nevertheless, Mann and Stewart [ 139 ] noticed the risk of losing sight of who responds to online questionnaires. For example, about 90% of mothers answered our questionnaire. Although these surveys do not represent the total population of internet users, non-probability samples can be valuable, as they may be representative of a subgroup of the total population [ 113 ]. Another limitation is that marital status did not indicate if the parents were single mothers or fathers. In a future study, we could ask for this additional information, because it may matter to the chosen parenting styles [ 5 ]. We also did not ask for family income or migration status, both conditions that can also affect parenting styles [ 91 , 140 ].

7. Conclusions

To sum up, our results succeeded in extending parental types beyond the traditional authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative styles. The current study brings to light the person-centered approach in which parenting styles are better expanded into four parenting profiles, with the authoritative style predominating. Given the importance of the finding that one-third of children and adolescents exhibit behavior problems, the socio-emotional development in childhood and adolescence reaffirms the necessity of parenting programs to guide parenting practices.

Funding Statement

This research was supported by The Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF) through the SNF-Project 100019_185481 “Understanding the resilience pathways of adolescent students with experience of physical family violence: The interplay of individual, family and school class risk and protective factors”, awarded to WK (University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland).

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.V. and W.K.; methodology, A.V., W.K. and A.K.; formal analysis, W.K.; data collection, A.K.; original draft preparation, A.V. and W.K.; writing—review and editing, A.V., W.K., A.K., D.A., C.A.F. and S.T.; funding acquisition, W.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and did not have to be approved by the Ethics Committee of the Hellenic Open University because of the sample (participants’ age) and the topic.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Parenting Styles Academic Essay

Type of paper: Essay

Topic: Law , United States , Sociology , Children , Family , Parents , New York , Parenting

Published: 11/22/2019

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Parenting styles

Growth of a child is usually a subject of different parenting styles. Parents play an integral role in the overall process of ensuring that a child adheres to specific desirable characters. Despite having a common goal of ensuring that their child obtain desirable characters and habits, research studies have shown that parents apply three different of parenting styles. These styles are authoritarian parenting style, authoritative parenting and neglecting-rejecting styles (Belsky, 2010).

Authoritarian parenting style entails adherence to strict rules and guidelines which have been stipulated by the parents. In such situations, children have no idea of why they adhere to such rules. It is usually one way traffic where parents give commands with less or no questionings from the children. In such a parenting style, parents are of high status in the child’s view (Davies, 2000). They are of high social and economic status with respectable cultural backgrounds where they are used to give orders in a take or leave situations. Children are there to adhere to these rules failure to which they receive punitive measures. In such a scenario, the child may grow to be a social deviant with a negative perception of those in administrative positions.

On the other hand, authoritative parenting involves adherence of the stipulated rules and regulations. However, these children have the democracy of expressing their side of the view (LaFollette, 2002). They explain to their children why they are expected to follow those stipulated or given commands. Such parents are more nurturing and forgiving unlike the authoritarian parents. Children grow with a respectable notch towards their parents especially on their social status.

Nevertheless, due to a mutual understanding created by the parent, children grow to understand the reasons and consequences which are associated with some actions. Children grow with a form of respect to those in authorities with an admiration concept. Of the two forms or styles of parenting, authoritative parenting style is much desirable since the child understands why he or she has to follow a given path as stipulated by the parents (Santrock, 2007).

Belsky, J. (2010). Experiencing the lifespan (2nd ed.). New York:

Worth Publishing. Chapters 6 and 7. Davies, M. (2000). The Blackwell encyclopedia of social work. New York: Wiley-Blackwell.

LaFollette, H. (2002). Ethics in practice: an anthology. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 25–26.

Santrock, J.W. (2007). A topical approach to life-span development, third Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.

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287 Parenting Essay Topics & Creative Research Titles + Examples

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• Should Parents Be Held Accountable if Their Children Misbehave? This paper discusses whether parents should be held accountable if their children misbehave, commit crimes, or generally turn out to be a “bad seed”.
• The Effects of Homelessness on Single-Parent Families in Black Community The paper states that single-parent families can be adversely impacted by homelessness, especially during the current COVID-19 pandemic.
• Parents Music Resource Center in the United States Parents Music Resource Center was a group created by four women in 1985. The aim of this group was to control the music that was released.
• Evaluation of Training Program for Incoming Foster Parents A training program has been proposed which will instill vital skills in foster parents through a six-session program, each one lasting at least three hours.
• Surviving the Death of a Parent “The Death of a Parent Affects Even Grown Children Psychologically and Physically,” explains how parental loss affects adults.
• Two Parenting Approaches: Authoritative and Authoritarian This paper considers two parenting approaches: authoritative and authoritarian. The authoritative parenting style is one of the best, while the authoritarian is one of the worst.
• Parenting Styles and Children’s Social Competence The social competence of children is usually associated with authoritative parenting of all parenting styles, in which parents balance the demands of the child and responsiveness.
• Single-Parent Households Issues In preindustrial societies, kinship systems were the main form of social organization that provided members cooperated by marriage.
• Parental Caregiving Assumptions and Best Practices The right start and the proper introduction and guidance to the appeared challenges contribute in a positive way to providing parents with the proper care.
• Parenting Styles by Diana Baumrind Children exhibit behavioural characteristics depending on their upbringing. Diana Baumrind developed four parenting styles explaining children’s behaviour in specific situations.
• “Parenting and SES: Relative Values or Enduring Principles?” by Roubinov Parenting is one of the most critical aspects of social dynamics, where children’s development and growth are affected by the choices their parents make along the given process.
• “Fall or Fly”: Parents’ Problems in Foster Care One of the issues that foster parents will have to contend with is the wide range of parenting styles, environments, and circumstances that they are exposed to.
• Parental Listening, Encouraging, and Trusting Parents who know how to listen, encourage, and trust their kids can positively influence their children’s emotional stability and social success.
• Parental Incarceration’s Impact on a Child Parental incarceration is a significant issue, and though it is addressed on multiple levels, there are still some related imperfections that complicate children’s lives.
• Tort of Negligence and Parents-Drivers’ Responsibility The negligence lawsuit is an important part of the law system that considers crimes that are committed by persons who failed to use reasonable vigilance and caution.
• Parents and Children’s E-Safety Education During the Pandemic When it comes to children’s education from a Constructivist perspective, parents are to engage with the children’s activities online to make sense of the Internet knowledge.
• Ethical Principles: Parents’ Vaccination Concerns This case study reviews the ethical and moral choices of doctors who aim to convince parents to vaccinate their children.
• A Parent’s Right on Their Child Medication The rights of parents towards their children are spelled out in different acts of parliament regarding the lawful authority they have in given areas.
• Theoretical Approaches to Child Parenting Parenting is a discipline that includes branches from theories of the early stages of a child’s awareness of reality to future place in the world.
• Pride: Parents Who Teach Their Kids About Self-Worth The most important lesson any mother or father can teach is to give the child a great example of how to deal with difficulties.
• Parenting Techniques Analysis The current paper divides parenting into four styles according to the level of parental responsiveness and demandingness.
• Remarriages and Step-Parenting This paper discusses the challenges such types of families experience (remarriages and step-parenting), the stages of adjustments, and ways to deal with stepchildren.
• Tax Research Problem Parent Corporation The parent corporation must raise its ownership to eighty percent for it to qualify for the non-recognition requirement before the full liquidation of the subsidiary corporation.
• Study of a Parent-Child Relationship
• Family Law: Parent’s Right to Travel
• Adolescent Adjustment to Parental Divorce
• Efficacy of Punishment and Reinforcement In Parenting
• Types of Parenting Styles Analysis
• Effect of Parenting on Child’s Health Development
• The Lived Experiences of Native American Women Parenting on and off Reservations
• Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy in Parents
• Adoption: Can Same-Sex Parents Nurture a Stable Child?
• The Article: “Parental Perception of Child Weight: a Concept Analysis”
• Program to Build Parenting Skills in Teenage Parents
• Parent and Child Perspectives on Adaptation to Childhood Chronic Illness
• Liberal Stance on Child Care for Working Parents
• Dominant Parenting Styles: Gender-Differentiated Parenting Revisited
• Reasons to Become Parents in Middle Adulthood
• Parenting Styles Exemplified by the Molly Family
• The Adaptation to Childhood Chronic Illnesses: Parental and Child Perspectives
• Romantic Relationships and Parenting
• New Parent Guide: Breastfeeding and Attachment
• Negative Media Effects Mitigation: Parents’ Role
• Helping and Supporting Single-Parent Families
• The Influence of Parents in the Development of the Baby
• Infant’s Temperament Influences on the Parents Treat
• Baby Care Class for Expectant Parents
• The Five Biggest Ideas in Parenting
• Substance Use by Parents and the Effect on Kids
• How Can Parents Produce Important Behaviors in Disabled Family Members?
• Grand Parents Custody Rights Analysis
• Problems Experienced by Children That Are Reared by Heterosexual Parents
• The Impact of Absent Parents Gears More Towards Absent Fathers
• Why Do Parents Abuse Their Children: Discussion
• Sociological Research Evaluation: Effects of Parental Imprisonment on Children’s Social and Moral Aspects
• Parents’ Responsibilities: Child Support Obligations
• Critique of Articles on Parenting, ADHD, Child Psychology, and Development
• Parental Involvement in Urban School District
• The Impact of Parent’s Educational Level on College Students
• Medical and Christian Ethics: Ill Child and Parents
• When Parents Refuse to Give Up: Yusef Camp’s Case
• Childhood Obesity: Medication and Parent Education
• Postsecondary Enrolment and Parental Income
• Counseling for Healthy Relationships With Parents
• Parenting Style and Bullying Among Children
• Parents Shape Early Adolescents’ Eating Behaviors
• Are Parents Responsible for Their Children’s Crimes?
• The Issues of Childhood Obesity: Overweight and Parent Education
• Childhood Obesity and Parent Education: Ethical Issues
• Attachment Theories in Child-Parent Relationships
• Authoritative Parenting in Comparison to Other Styles
• Children’s Early Literacy Achievement and Parents’ Role
• Same-Sex Parenting Impact on Children’s Behavior
• Childhood Obesity, Medical and Parental Education
• Parenting Styles: Values and Standards Transmission
• Adolescent Obesity and Parental Education Study
• Single Afro-Americans Parenting Their Adolescents
• Parents’ Incomes and Children’s Camp Expenses
• Childhood Obesity: Parental Education vs. Medicaments
• Childhood Obesity: The Relationships Between Overweight and Parental Education
• Violence: Community Center for Children and Parents
• Air Pollution Threats: Parent Education
• Gender Stereotypes in Families: Parents’ Gender Roles and Children’s Aspirations
• Parents’ Gender Roles and Children’s Aspirations
• Parenting Styles Researching: Analytical Techniques
• Positive Parenting and Child Externalizing Behavior
• Children With Asthma: Risks Created by Smoking Parents
• Diagnosis Disclosure and Child-Parent Relationship
• Eight Steps of Effective Parent Participation
• Parents’ Education in Childhood Obesity Prevention
• Childhood Obesity and Independent Variable in Parents
• Childhood Obesity and Parent Education
• Family-Based Childhood Obesity and Parental Weight
• Parenting Style Comparison: Positive and Negative Impacts
• The Father’s Role in Parenting
• The Impact of Relationships With Parents on the Future
• Parental Exposure and Underage Drinking – Psychology
• Parental Education for Preventing Pneumonia in Children
• Te Single-Parent Homes Problems
• Developmental Psychology: Aggression Between Parents
• Parents Bear Responsibility for the Recreational Rioter – Psychology
• Psychology Issues: Childhood Development and Positive Parenting
• Corporal Punishment and Parents Position
• School Communication and Involvement of Parents in the School Activities
• Vaccines: Should Parents Avoid Vaccinating Their Children?
• What Are the Differences Between Chinese and Western Parenting Styles?
• Does Homosexual Parenting Have Negative Effects?
• Does Strength-Based Parenting Predict Academic Achievement?
• What Is an Example of Cultural Bias as It Relates to Parenting?
• What Is the Relationship Between Mothers’ and Fathers’ Parenting Practices?
• How Does Gender or Sexuality Condition Influence Parenting?
• How Parenting Styles Changed for Indian Immigrants?
• What Is Measure of Parenting Satisfaction and Efficacy?
• What Links Between Parenting and Social Competence in Children Are There?
• What Is the Relationship Between Parenting Style and Math Self-Efficacy?
• What Are the Multiple Determinants of Parenting?
• How Opioids Can Interfere With Parenting Instincts?
• What Is Developmental Contextual Perspective on Parenting?
• What Is the Relationship Between Parenting and Poverty?
• How Equally Shared Parenting Works?
• What Factors Are Related to Parenting Practices in Taiwan?
• What Are the Consequences of Parenting on Adolescent Outcomes?
• What Does the Term Systematic Training in Effective Parenting Mean?
• What Is Development of a Parenting Alliance Inventory and How Does It Help?
• What Are the Differences Between Collectivist and Individualist Parenting Styles?
• What Are the Protective Effects of Good Parenting on Adolescents?
• What Behavioral Observations of Parenting in Battered Women Are There?
• What Is the Changing Nature of Parenting in America and Why Is It Not Permanent?
• How to Overcome Parenting Stress in Raising Autistic Children?
• What Is the Intergenerational Transmission of Parenting?
• Should people be legally obliged to take parenting courses before having children?
• Does helicopter parenting hinder a child’s development?
• Should parents share equal responsibilities in childrearing?
• Is it ethical for parents to share the photos of their children without their consent?
• Should parents enforce strict limits on screen time for their children?
• Does co-sleeping harm a child’s sleep patterns and independence?
• Should parents allow teenagers to make vital decisions like getting tattoos?
• Is it ethical for parents to choose a child’s career path for them?
• Should parents be liable for their children’s cyberbullying behaviors?
• Should parents be allowed to choose not to vaccinate their children?

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StudyCorgi. (2022, January 16). 287 Parenting Essay Topics & Creative Research Titles + Examples. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/parenting-essay-topics/

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StudyCorgi . "287 Parenting Essay Topics & Creative Research Titles + Examples." January 16, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/parenting-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . 2022. "287 Parenting Essay Topics & Creative Research Titles + Examples." January 16, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/parenting-essay-topics/.

These essay examples and topics on Parenting were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on January 8, 2024 .

Which Parenting Style Do You Have?

T here’s no task more challenging yet equally rewarding than becoming a parent. With parenting, there are different styles that can significantly influence a child’s development, affecting their psychological growth, emotional understanding, and social skills. While personality, personal experience, and cultural background are all factors that lead parents to develop a unique blend of different styles, there are four core parenting styles that psychologists have recognized and researched. Today, let’s have a little fun and explore these four types of parenting styles, taking a closer look to see how each one shapes our children.

Authoritarian Parenting

Often viewed as the “strict” parenting style, authoritarian parenting is characterized by high expectations and rigid rules. These are the types of parents who demand obedience and tend to use punishment rather than discipline. Authoritarian parents also expect their children to follow their rules at all times without asking any questions or having any complaints. 

While this style of parenting might instill a strong sense of discipline and responsibility in children, it can also have several negative impacts. These children are likely to develop lower self-esteem, difficulty in social situations, and a higher risk of mental health issues. In short, parents of this type appear too unapproachable to their kids, making it difficult for them to reach out. Children from authoritarian homes may also become either overly aggressive or overly submissive in their future relationships with others. While it’s important for children to understand that misbehaviour comes with consequences, authoritarian parenting can certainly take a toll on nurturing a child’s independence and creativity.

Permissive Parenting

On the other end of the spectrum, we have permissive parents who are often seen as too “lenient” or too “friend-like”. These types of parents provide very few guidelines or rules for their children in order to avoid confrontation. However, permissive parents are generally nurturing and communicative, often taking on more of a friend role rather than a parental figure.

While this parenting style can lead to a strong emotional bond between parent and child, the lack of rules and discipline can result in children becoming self-centered, resistant to authority, and struggling with self-control. Not used to being managed, these children may also have difficulty following orders, managing their time, and working towards achieving goals. While it’s definitely crucial that parents develop a friendly and deep relationship with their children, it’s important that they aim to maintain a good balance between strictness and understanding. After all, discipline is key to developing a well-rounded individual.

Neglectful Parenting

Neglectful parenting can almost be seen as a much more extreme form of permissive parenting – this style is characterized by a complete lack of responsiveness to a child’s needs. Neglectful parents don’t invest time into fulfilling their child’s basic needs, showing them little to no emotional involvement. This parenting style can often stem from parents being too overwhelmed by their own personal problems, which in turn, leads them to neglect their child’s needs. 

There are a wide array of problems that come with this parenting style. Children raised in such poor environments tend to struggle with self-esteem issues, perform poorly in school, and exhibit frequent behavioural problems. They likely feel neglected and struggle with feelings of abandonment, leading to future mental health issues. Although parents are surely dealing with their own set of struggles, it’s essential that you remain focused on prioritizing the emotional, psychological, and physical well-being of their child. It’s their responsibility to provide for someone who completely relies on them.

Authoritative Parenting

Containing both the best qualities of permissive and authoritarian parenting, authoritative parenting is often seen as the most balanced approach. While parents will set clear rules and guidelines for their children to follow, they also respect their independence. Although high expectations are set, authoritative parents will provide all the resources and support their children will need to succeed.

Children who are raised in this positive environment tend to grow up to be confident, successful, and socially adept. They are likely to have better emotional control, good problem-solving skills, and higher self-esteem. Furthermore, they often perform well academically and are comfortable with expressing their inner thoughts and feelings. Thanks to the balancing of discipline and warmth, authoritative parenting focuses on nurturing a child’s individuality all while maintaining the role of an effective parent.

As you can see, parenting styles can be very different from person to person, all leading to different outcomes for their children. For many parents, you may not just follow one type of parenting, but a combination of a few. At the end of the day, as parents, we have an immense responsibility of providing a nurturing and supportive environment for our children to grow up in. Always strive to find the perfect balance that works for your household, adjusting your approach depending on your child’s unique needs and personality.

I went to college at 40 while raising my 5 children. I had to make some parenting sacrifices.

• I decided to go to college at 40 when I was busy raising 5 children.
• My schedule was chaos, and the kids had to skip some events because of my studies. 
• Years later, I got my degree and have created the career I always wanted, and my kids look up to me.

My college journey began at 40 years old when I enrolled in a community college .

Not only was I starting college later in life, but I was also doing it as a mother of five children — ages 8 to 14. I decided it was time to start my education again because I wanted to prove my father wrong. When I was young, he told me I wasn't smart enough to attend college . I finally had the confidence to give it a go and majored in English and communications. I wanted to prove to myself and my children I could do it.

As my schoolwork ramped up, my family obligations didn't let up. I was finally a student, but I was also the taxi driver, the laundress, the cook, the teacher, and the religious educator. I drove my children to three different schools each morning.

With the help of my husband , here's how I got my college degree and raised my kids.

My schedule was chaos for years

Motherhood is a full-time job, but I had to find a way to fit my classes and schoolwork into my week.

I quickly learned that coursework is performed more outside of class than in, so I had to make time for reading, studying, written work, and research papers. I included the children in my studies, sharing what I learned in the classroom at dinner or while driving them to activities. It helped me to understand if I explained the material to someone else.

I didn't realize most colleges began classes before the public school system started their school year, which only complicated things. Plus, my spring breaks didn't coincide with the children's school breaks either. I used a neighbor to keep the children company while I was in class.

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Initially, I attended classes while my children were in school, praying no one got sick. Sometimes, I had a night course. Since my husband worked during the day, he was home at night. He took over helping the children in the evenings.

To make the schedule work, one thing had to go and that was cooking. I cooked only when absolutely necessary, which was on weekends. We reheated during the week or got pizza. Baking cookies and making bread as a family was a thing of the past for us.

I also had to say no to some of the children's activities. Sports, scouting events, and church functions disappeared. I just couldn't accomplish everything.

I had all my children help out around the house

From shopping and meal preparation to laundry and cleaning, everyone helped — regardless of their age. I had to discard those perfect housekeeping standards and just accept that my house wouldn't be perfect for a few years.

Whenever I did have to do something around the house, I multitasked. I recorded class notes on tapes and listened to them while doing laundry or preparing meals . When the children got tired of the recording, they left the room.

Food shopping became a family affair — performed only when the cupboards were almost bare. Since I used the time when the children were at school to attend classes and work on group projects with classmates, I had to go grocery shopping when they were all home. That meant they went with me to the store; it wasn't easy.

I'm glad it all worked out in the end

With the children growing up before my eyes, I decided to continue my education after community college. I earned a prestigious scholarship and enrolled at the University of Pennsylvania.

After 10 years, I earned my degree in English. I now write for magazines and anthologies and facilitate writing workshops.

Looking back, I can see my kids definitely looked up to me. They realized how I tried not to let my attending college interfere with family responsibility. For that, they are grateful, especially now that three of them are parents. And I helped all of them get into and excel in college.

I may have started college to help my children and to prove my father wrong, but I finished to help myself. I learned that college is worth the effort.

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