distance education research topics

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• Published: 25 January 2021

Online education in the post-COVID era

• Barbara B. Lockee 1  

Nature Electronics volume  4 ,  pages 5–6 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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The coronavirus pandemic has forced students and educators across all levels of education to rapidly adapt to online learning. The impact of this — and the developments required to make it work — could permanently change how education is delivered.

The COVID-19 pandemic has forced the world to engage in the ubiquitous use of virtual learning. And while online and distance learning has been used before to maintain continuity in education, such as in the aftermath of earthquakes 1 , the scale of the current crisis is unprecedented. Speculation has now also begun about what the lasting effects of this will be and what education may look like in the post-COVID era. For some, an immediate retreat to the traditions of the physical classroom is required. But for others, the forced shift to online education is a moment of change and a time to reimagine how education could be delivered 2 .

Looking back

Online education has traditionally been viewed as an alternative pathway, one that is particularly well suited to adult learners seeking higher education opportunities. However, the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic has required educators and students across all levels of education to adapt quickly to virtual courses. (The term ‘emergency remote teaching’ was coined in the early stages of the pandemic to describe the temporary nature of this transition 3 .) In some cases, instruction shifted online, then returned to the physical classroom, and then shifted back online due to further surges in the rate of infection. In other cases, instruction was offered using a combination of remote delivery and face-to-face: that is, students can attend online or in person (referred to as the HyFlex model 4 ). In either case, instructors just had to figure out how to make it work, considering the affordances and constraints of the specific learning environment to create learning experiences that were feasible and effective.

The use of varied delivery modes does, in fact, have a long history in education. Mechanical (and then later electronic) teaching machines have provided individualized learning programmes since the 1950s and the work of B. F. Skinner 5 , who proposed using technology to walk individual learners through carefully designed sequences of instruction with immediate feedback indicating the accuracy of their response. Skinner’s notions formed the first formalized representations of programmed learning, or ‘designed’ learning experiences. Then, in the 1960s, Fred Keller developed a personalized system of instruction 6 , in which students first read assigned course materials on their own, followed by one-on-one assessment sessions with a tutor, gaining permission to move ahead only after demonstrating mastery of the instructional material. Occasional class meetings were held to discuss concepts, answer questions and provide opportunities for social interaction. A personalized system of instruction was designed on the premise that initial engagement with content could be done independently, then discussed and applied in the social context of a classroom.

These predecessors to contemporary online education leveraged key principles of instructional design — the systematic process of applying psychological principles of human learning to the creation of effective instructional solutions — to consider which methods (and their corresponding learning environments) would effectively engage students to attain the targeted learning outcomes. In other words, they considered what choices about the planning and implementation of the learning experience can lead to student success. Such early educational innovations laid the groundwork for contemporary virtual learning, which itself incorporates a variety of instructional approaches and combinations of delivery modes.

Online learning and the pandemic

Fast forward to 2020, and various further educational innovations have occurred to make the universal adoption of remote learning a possibility. One key challenge is access. Here, extensive problems remain, including the lack of Internet connectivity in some locations, especially rural ones, and the competing needs among family members for the use of home technology. However, creative solutions have emerged to provide students and families with the facilities and resources needed to engage in and successfully complete coursework 7 . For example, school buses have been used to provide mobile hotspots, and class packets have been sent by mail and instructional presentations aired on local public broadcasting stations. The year 2020 has also seen increased availability and adoption of electronic resources and activities that can now be integrated into online learning experiences. Synchronous online conferencing systems, such as Zoom and Google Meet, have allowed experts from anywhere in the world to join online classrooms 8 and have allowed presentations to be recorded for individual learners to watch at a time most convenient for them. Furthermore, the importance of hands-on, experiential learning has led to innovations such as virtual field trips and virtual labs 9 . A capacity to serve learners of all ages has thus now been effectively established, and the next generation of online education can move from an enterprise that largely serves adult learners and higher education to one that increasingly serves younger learners, in primary and secondary education and from ages 5 to 18.

The COVID-19 pandemic is also likely to have a lasting effect on lesson design. The constraints of the pandemic provided an opportunity for educators to consider new strategies to teach targeted concepts. Though rethinking of instructional approaches was forced and hurried, the experience has served as a rare chance to reconsider strategies that best facilitate learning within the affordances and constraints of the online context. In particular, greater variance in teaching and learning activities will continue to question the importance of ‘seat time’ as the standard on which educational credits are based 10 — lengthy Zoom sessions are seldom instructionally necessary and are not aligned with the psychological principles of how humans learn. Interaction is important for learning but forced interactions among students for the sake of interaction is neither motivating nor beneficial.

While the blurring of the lines between traditional and distance education has been noted for several decades 11 , the pandemic has quickly advanced the erasure of these boundaries. Less single mode, more multi-mode (and thus more educator choices) is becoming the norm due to enhanced infrastructure and developed skill sets that allow people to move across different delivery systems 12 . The well-established best practices of hybrid or blended teaching and learning 13 have served as a guide for new combinations of instructional delivery that have developed in response to the shift to virtual learning. The use of multiple delivery modes is likely to remain, and will be a feature employed with learners of all ages 14 , 15 . Future iterations of online education will no longer be bound to the traditions of single teaching modes, as educators can support pedagogical approaches from a menu of instructional delivery options, a mix that has been supported by previous generations of online educators 16 .

Also significant are the changes to how learning outcomes are determined in online settings. Many educators have altered the ways in which student achievement is measured, eliminating assignments and changing assessment strategies altogether 17 . Such alterations include determining learning through strategies that leverage the online delivery mode, such as interactive discussions, student-led teaching and the use of games to increase motivation and attention. Specific changes that are likely to continue include flexible or extended deadlines for assignment completion 18 , more student choice regarding measures of learning, and more authentic experiences that involve the meaningful application of newly learned skills and knowledge 19 , for example, team-based projects that involve multiple creative and social media tools in support of collaborative problem solving.

In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, technological and administrative systems for implementing online learning, and the infrastructure that supports its access and delivery, had to adapt quickly. While access remains a significant issue for many, extensive resources have been allocated and processes developed to connect learners with course activities and materials, to facilitate communication between instructors and students, and to manage the administration of online learning. Paths for greater access and opportunities to online education have now been forged, and there is a clear route for the next generation of adopters of online education.

Before the pandemic, the primary purpose of distance and online education was providing access to instruction for those otherwise unable to participate in a traditional, place-based academic programme. As its purpose has shifted to supporting continuity of instruction, its audience, as well as the wider learning ecosystem, has changed. It will be interesting to see which aspects of emergency remote teaching remain in the next generation of education, when the threat of COVID-19 is no longer a factor. But online education will undoubtedly find new audiences. And the flexibility and learning possibilities that have emerged from necessity are likely to shift the expectations of students and educators, diminishing further the line between classroom-based instruction and virtual learning.

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Lockee, B.B. Online education in the post-COVID era. Nat Electron 4 , 5–6 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41928-020-00534-0

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Research Topics & Ideas: Education

170+ Research Ideas To Fast-Track Your Project

If you’re just starting out exploring education-related topics for your dissertation, thesis or research project, you’ve come to the right place. In this post, we’ll help kickstart your research topic ideation process by providing a hearty list of research topics and ideas , including examples from actual dissertations and theses..

PS – This is just the start…

We know it’s exciting to run through a list of research topics, but please keep in mind that this list is just a starting point . To develop a suitable education-related research topic, you’ll need to identify a clear and convincing research gap , and a viable plan of action to fill that gap.

If this sounds foreign to you, check out our free research topic webinar that explores how to find and refine a high-quality research topic, from scratch. Alternatively, if you’d like hands-on help, consider our 1-on-1 coaching service .

Overview: Education Research Topics

• How to find a research topic (video)
• List of 50+ education-related research topics/ideas
• List of 120+ level-specific research topics 
• Examples of actual dissertation topics in education
• Tips to fast-track your topic ideation (video)
• Free Webinar : Topic Ideation 101
• Where to get extra help

Education-Related Research Topics & Ideas

Below you’ll find a list of education-related research topics and idea kickstarters. These are fairly broad and flexible to various contexts, so keep in mind that you will need to refine them a little. Nevertheless, they should inspire some ideas for your project.

• The impact of school funding on student achievement
• The effects of social and emotional learning on student well-being
• The effects of parental involvement on student behaviour
• The impact of teacher training on student learning
• The impact of classroom design on student learning
• The impact of poverty on education
• The use of student data to inform instruction
• The role of parental involvement in education
• The effects of mindfulness practices in the classroom
• The use of technology in the classroom
• The role of critical thinking in education
• The use of formative and summative assessments in the classroom
• The use of differentiated instruction in the classroom
• The use of gamification in education
• The effects of teacher burnout on student learning
• The impact of school leadership on student achievement
• The effects of teacher diversity on student outcomes
• The role of teacher collaboration in improving student outcomes
• The implementation of blended and online learning
• The effects of teacher accountability on student achievement
• The effects of standardized testing on student learning
• The effects of classroom management on student behaviour
• The effects of school culture on student achievement
• The use of student-centred learning in the classroom
• The impact of teacher-student relationships on student outcomes
• The achievement gap in minority and low-income students
• The use of culturally responsive teaching in the classroom
• The impact of teacher professional development on student learning
• The use of project-based learning in the classroom
• The effects of teacher expectations on student achievement
• The use of adaptive learning technology in the classroom
• The impact of teacher turnover on student learning
• The effects of teacher recruitment and retention on student learning
• The impact of early childhood education on later academic success
• The impact of parental involvement on student engagement
• The use of positive reinforcement in education
• The impact of school climate on student engagement
• The role of STEM education in preparing students for the workforce
• The effects of school choice on student achievement
• The use of technology in the form of online tutoring

Level-Specific Research Topics

Looking for research topics for a specific level of education? We’ve got you covered. Below you can find research topic ideas for primary, secondary and tertiary-level education contexts. Click the relevant level to view the respective list.

Research Topics: Pick An Education Level

Primary education.

• Investigating the effects of peer tutoring on academic achievement in primary school
• Exploring the benefits of mindfulness practices in primary school classrooms
• Examining the effects of different teaching strategies on primary school students’ problem-solving skills
• The use of storytelling as a teaching strategy in primary school literacy instruction
• The role of cultural diversity in promoting tolerance and understanding in primary schools
• The impact of character education programs on moral development in primary school students
• Investigating the use of technology in enhancing primary school mathematics education
• The impact of inclusive curriculum on promoting equity and diversity in primary schools
• The impact of outdoor education programs on environmental awareness in primary school students
• The influence of school climate on student motivation and engagement in primary schools
• Investigating the effects of early literacy interventions on reading comprehension in primary school students
• The impact of parental involvement in school decision-making processes on student achievement in primary schools
• Exploring the benefits of inclusive education for students with special needs in primary schools
• Investigating the effects of teacher-student feedback on academic motivation in primary schools
• The role of technology in developing digital literacy skills in primary school students
• Effective strategies for fostering a growth mindset in primary school students
• Investigating the role of parental support in reducing academic stress in primary school children
• The role of arts education in fostering creativity and self-expression in primary school students
• Examining the effects of early childhood education programs on primary school readiness
• Examining the effects of homework on primary school students’ academic performance
• The role of formative assessment in improving learning outcomes in primary school classrooms
• The impact of teacher-student relationships on academic outcomes in primary school
• Investigating the effects of classroom environment on student behavior and learning outcomes in primary schools
• Investigating the role of creativity and imagination in primary school curriculum
• The impact of nutrition and healthy eating programs on academic performance in primary schools
• The impact of social-emotional learning programs on primary school students’ well-being and academic performance
• The role of parental involvement in academic achievement of primary school children
• Examining the effects of classroom management strategies on student behavior in primary school
• The role of school leadership in creating a positive school climate Exploring the benefits of bilingual education in primary schools
• The effectiveness of project-based learning in developing critical thinking skills in primary school students
• The role of inquiry-based learning in fostering curiosity and critical thinking in primary school students
• The effects of class size on student engagement and achievement in primary schools
• Investigating the effects of recess and physical activity breaks on attention and learning in primary school
• Exploring the benefits of outdoor play in developing gross motor skills in primary school children
• The effects of educational field trips on knowledge retention in primary school students
• Examining the effects of inclusive classroom practices on students’ attitudes towards diversity in primary schools
• The impact of parental involvement in homework on primary school students’ academic achievement
• Investigating the effectiveness of different assessment methods in primary school classrooms
• The influence of physical activity and exercise on cognitive development in primary school children
• Exploring the benefits of cooperative learning in promoting social skills in primary school students

Secondary Education

• Investigating the effects of school discipline policies on student behavior and academic success in secondary education
• The role of social media in enhancing communication and collaboration among secondary school students
• The impact of school leadership on teacher effectiveness and student outcomes in secondary schools
• Investigating the effects of technology integration on teaching and learning in secondary education
• Exploring the benefits of interdisciplinary instruction in promoting critical thinking skills in secondary schools
• The impact of arts education on creativity and self-expression in secondary school students
• The effectiveness of flipped classrooms in promoting student learning in secondary education
• The role of career guidance programs in preparing secondary school students for future employment
• Investigating the effects of student-centered learning approaches on student autonomy and academic success in secondary schools
• The impact of socio-economic factors on educational attainment in secondary education
• Investigating the impact of project-based learning on student engagement and academic achievement in secondary schools
• Investigating the effects of multicultural education on cultural understanding and tolerance in secondary schools
• The influence of standardized testing on teaching practices and student learning in secondary education
• Investigating the effects of classroom management strategies on student behavior and academic engagement in secondary education
• The influence of teacher professional development on instructional practices and student outcomes in secondary schools
• The role of extracurricular activities in promoting holistic development and well-roundedness in secondary school students
• Investigating the effects of blended learning models on student engagement and achievement in secondary education
• The role of physical education in promoting physical health and well-being among secondary school students
• Investigating the effects of gender on academic achievement and career aspirations in secondary education
• Exploring the benefits of multicultural literature in promoting cultural awareness and empathy among secondary school students
• The impact of school counseling services on student mental health and well-being in secondary schools
• Exploring the benefits of vocational education and training in preparing secondary school students for the workforce
• The role of digital literacy in preparing secondary school students for the digital age
• The influence of parental involvement on academic success and well-being of secondary school students
• The impact of social-emotional learning programs on secondary school students’ well-being and academic success
• The role of character education in fostering ethical and responsible behavior in secondary school students
• Examining the effects of digital citizenship education on responsible and ethical technology use among secondary school students
• The impact of parental involvement in school decision-making processes on student outcomes in secondary schools
• The role of educational technology in promoting personalized learning experiences in secondary schools
• The impact of inclusive education on the social and academic outcomes of students with disabilities in secondary schools
• The influence of parental support on academic motivation and achievement in secondary education
• The role of school climate in promoting positive behavior and well-being among secondary school students
• Examining the effects of peer mentoring programs on academic achievement and social-emotional development in secondary schools
• Examining the effects of teacher-student relationships on student motivation and achievement in secondary schools
• Exploring the benefits of service-learning programs in promoting civic engagement among secondary school students
• The impact of educational policies on educational equity and access in secondary education
• Examining the effects of homework on academic achievement and student well-being in secondary education
• Investigating the effects of different assessment methods on student performance in secondary schools
• Examining the effects of single-sex education on academic performance and gender stereotypes in secondary schools
• The role of mentoring programs in supporting the transition from secondary to post-secondary education

Tertiary Education

• The role of student support services in promoting academic success and well-being in higher education
• The impact of internationalization initiatives on students’ intercultural competence and global perspectives in tertiary education
• Investigating the effects of active learning classrooms and learning spaces on student engagement and learning outcomes in tertiary education
• Exploring the benefits of service-learning experiences in fostering civic engagement and social responsibility in higher education
• The influence of learning communities and collaborative learning environments on student academic and social integration in higher education
• Exploring the benefits of undergraduate research experiences in fostering critical thinking and scientific inquiry skills
• Investigating the effects of academic advising and mentoring on student retention and degree completion in higher education
• The role of student engagement and involvement in co-curricular activities on holistic student development in higher education
• The impact of multicultural education on fostering cultural competence and diversity appreciation in higher education
• The role of internships and work-integrated learning experiences in enhancing students’ employability and career outcomes
• Examining the effects of assessment and feedback practices on student learning and academic achievement in tertiary education
• The influence of faculty professional development on instructional practices and student outcomes in tertiary education
• The influence of faculty-student relationships on student success and well-being in tertiary education
• The impact of college transition programs on students’ academic and social adjustment to higher education
• The impact of online learning platforms on student learning outcomes in higher education
• The impact of financial aid and scholarships on access and persistence in higher education
• The influence of student leadership and involvement in extracurricular activities on personal development and campus engagement
• Exploring the benefits of competency-based education in developing job-specific skills in tertiary students
• Examining the effects of flipped classroom models on student learning and retention in higher education
• Exploring the benefits of online collaboration and virtual team projects in developing teamwork skills in tertiary students
• Investigating the effects of diversity and inclusion initiatives on campus climate and student experiences in tertiary education
• The influence of study abroad programs on intercultural competence and global perspectives of college students
• Investigating the effects of peer mentoring and tutoring programs on student retention and academic performance in tertiary education
• Investigating the effectiveness of active learning strategies in promoting student engagement and achievement in tertiary education
• Investigating the effects of blended learning models and hybrid courses on student learning and satisfaction in higher education
• The role of digital literacy and information literacy skills in supporting student success in the digital age
• Investigating the effects of experiential learning opportunities on career readiness and employability of college students
• The impact of e-portfolios on student reflection, self-assessment, and showcasing of learning in higher education
• The role of technology in enhancing collaborative learning experiences in tertiary classrooms
• The impact of research opportunities on undergraduate student engagement and pursuit of advanced degrees
• Examining the effects of competency-based assessment on measuring student learning and achievement in tertiary education
• Examining the effects of interdisciplinary programs and courses on critical thinking and problem-solving skills in college students
• The role of inclusive education and accessibility in promoting equitable learning experiences for diverse student populations
• The role of career counseling and guidance in supporting students’ career decision-making in tertiary education
• The influence of faculty diversity and representation on student success and inclusive learning environments in higher education

Education-Related Dissertations & Theses

While the ideas we’ve presented above are a decent starting point for finding a research topic in education, they are fairly generic and non-specific. So, it helps to look at actual dissertations and theses in the education space to see how this all comes together in practice.

Below, we’ve included a selection of education-related research projects to help refine your thinking. These are actual dissertations and theses, written as part of Master’s and PhD-level programs, so they can provide some useful insight as to what a research topic looks like in practice.

• From Rural to Urban: Education Conditions of Migrant Children in China (Wang, 2019)
• Energy Renovation While Learning English: A Guidebook for Elementary ESL Teachers (Yang, 2019)
• A Reanalyses of Intercorrelational Matrices of Visual and Verbal Learners’ Abilities, Cognitive Styles, and Learning Preferences (Fox, 2020)
• A study of the elementary math program utilized by a mid-Missouri school district (Barabas, 2020)
• Instructor formative assessment practices in virtual learning environments : a posthumanist sociomaterial perspective (Burcks, 2019)
• Higher education students services: a qualitative study of two mid-size universities’ direct exchange programs (Kinde, 2020)
• Exploring editorial leadership : a qualitative study of scholastic journalism advisers teaching leadership in Missouri secondary schools (Lewis, 2020)
• Selling the virtual university: a multimodal discourse analysis of marketing for online learning (Ludwig, 2020)
• Advocacy and accountability in school counselling: assessing the use of data as related to professional self-efficacy (Matthews, 2020)
• The use of an application screening assessment as a predictor of teaching retention at a midwestern, K-12, public school district (Scarbrough, 2020)
• Core values driving sustained elite performance cultures (Beiner, 2020)
• Educative features of upper elementary Eureka math curriculum (Dwiggins, 2020)
• How female principals nurture adult learning opportunities in successful high schools with challenging student demographics (Woodward, 2020)
• The disproportionality of Black Males in Special Education: A Case Study Analysis of Educator Perceptions in a Southeastern Urban High School (McCrae, 2021)

As you can see, these research topics are a lot more focused than the generic topic ideas we presented earlier. So, in order for you to develop a high-quality research topic, you’ll need to get specific and laser-focused on a specific context with specific variables of interest.  In the video below, we explore some other important things you’ll need to consider when crafting your research topic.

Get 1-On-1 Help

If you’re still unsure about how to find a quality research topic within education, check out our Research Topic Kickstarter service, which is the perfect starting point for developing a unique, well-justified research topic.

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A systematic review of research on online teaching and learning from 2009 to 2018

Associated data.

Systematic reviews were conducted in the nineties and early 2000's on online learning research. However, there is no review examining the broader aspect of research themes in online learning in the last decade. This systematic review addresses this gap by examining 619 research articles on online learning published in twelve journals in the last decade. These studies were examined for publication trends and patterns, research themes, research methods, and research settings and compared with the research themes from the previous decades. While there has been a slight decrease in the number of studies on online learning in 2015 and 2016, it has then continued to increase in 2017 and 2018. The majority of the studies were quantitative in nature and were examined in higher education. Online learning research was categorized into twelve themes and a framework across learner, course and instructor, and organizational levels was developed. Online learner characteristics and online engagement were examined in a high number of studies and were consistent with three of the prior systematic reviews. However, there is still a need for more research on organization level topics such as leadership, policy, and management and access, culture, equity, inclusion, and ethics and also on online instructor characteristics.

• • Twelve online learning research themes were identified in 2009–2018.
• • A framework with learner, course and instructor, and organizational levels was used.
• • Online learner characteristics and engagement were the mostly examined themes.
• • The majority of the studies used quantitative research methods and in higher education.
• • There is a need for more research on organization level topics.

1. Introduction

Online learning has been on the increase in the last two decades. In the United States, though higher education enrollment has declined, online learning enrollment in public institutions has continued to increase ( Allen & Seaman, 2017 ), and so has the research on online learning. There have been review studies conducted on specific areas on online learning such as innovations in online learning strategies ( Davis et al., 2018 ), empirical MOOC literature ( Liyanagunawardena et al., 2013 ; Veletsianos & Shepherdson, 2016 ; Zhu et al., 2018 ), quality in online education ( Esfijani, 2018 ), accessibility in online higher education ( Lee, 2017 ), synchronous online learning ( Martin et al., 2017 ), K-12 preparation for online teaching ( Moore-Adams et al., 2016 ), polychronicity in online learning ( Capdeferro et al., 2014 ), meaningful learning research in elearning and online learning environments ( Tsai, Shen, & Chiang, 2013 ), problem-based learning in elearning and online learning environments ( Tsai & Chiang, 2013 ), asynchronous online discussions ( Thomas, 2013 ), self-regulated learning in online learning environments ( Tsai, Shen, & Fan, 2013 ), game-based learning in online learning environments ( Tsai & Fan, 2013 ), and online course dropout ( Lee & Choi, 2011 ). While there have been review studies conducted on specific online learning topics, very few studies have been conducted on the broader aspect of online learning examining research themes.

2. Systematic Reviews of Distance Education and Online Learning Research

Distance education has evolved from offline to online settings with the access to internet and COVID-19 has made online learning the common delivery method across the world. Tallent-Runnels et al. (2006) reviewed research late 1990's to early 2000's, Berge and Mrozowski (2001) reviewed research 1990 to 1999, and Zawacki-Richter et al. (2009) reviewed research in 2000–2008 on distance education and online learning. Table 1 shows the research themes from previous systematic reviews on online learning research. There are some themes that re-occur in the various reviews, and there are also new themes that emerge. Though there have been reviews conducted in the nineties and early 2000's, there is no review examining the broader aspect of research themes in online learning in the last decade. Hence, the need for this systematic review which informs the research themes in online learning from 2009 to 2018. In the following sections, we review these systematic review studies in detail.

Comparison of online learning research themes from previous studies.

2.1. Distance education research themes, 1990 to 1999 ( Berge & Mrozowski, 2001 )

Berge and Mrozowski (2001) reviewed 890 research articles and dissertation abstracts on distance education from 1990 to 1999. The four distance education journals chosen by the authors to represent distance education included, American Journal of Distance Education, Distance Education, Open Learning, and the Journal of Distance Education. This review overlapped in the dates of the Tallent-Runnels et al. (2006) study. Berge and Mrozowski (2001) categorized the articles according to Sherry's (1996) ten themes of research issues in distance education: redefining roles of instructor and students, technologies used, issues of design, strategies to stimulate learning, learner characteristics and support, issues related to operating and policies and administration, access and equity, and costs and benefits.

In the Berge and Mrozowski (2001) study, more than 100 studies focused on each of the three themes: (1) design issues, (2) learner characteristics, and (3) strategies to increase interactivity and active learning. By design issues, the authors focused on instructional systems design and focused on topics such as content requirement, technical constraints, interactivity, and feedback. The next theme, strategies to increase interactivity and active learning, were closely related to design issues and focused on students’ modes of learning. Learner characteristics focused on accommodating various learning styles through customized instructional theory. Less than 50 studies focused on the three least examined themes: (1) cost-benefit tradeoffs, (2) equity and accessibility, and (3) learner support. Cost-benefit trade-offs focused on the implementation costs of distance education based on school characteristics. Equity and accessibility focused on the equity of access to distance education systems. Learner support included topics such as teacher to teacher support as well as teacher to student support.

2.2. Online learning research themes, 1993 to 2004 ( Tallent-Runnels et al., 2006 )

Tallent-Runnels et al. (2006) reviewed research on online instruction from 1993 to 2004. They reviewed 76 articles focused on online learning by searching five databases, ERIC, PsycINFO, ContentFirst, Education Abstracts, and WilsonSelect. Tallent-Runnels et al. (2006) categorized research into four themes, (1) course environment, (2) learners' outcomes, (3) learners’ characteristics, and (4) institutional and administrative factors. The first theme that the authors describe as course environment ( n  = 41, 53.9%) is an overarching theme that includes classroom culture, structural assistance, success factors, online interaction, and evaluation.

Tallent-Runnels et al. (2006) for their second theme found that studies focused on questions involving the process of teaching and learning and methods to explore cognitive and affective learner outcomes ( n  = 29, 38.2%). The authors stated that they found the research designs flawed and lacked rigor. However, the literature comparing traditional and online classrooms found both delivery systems to be adequate. Another research theme focused on learners’ characteristics ( n  = 12, 15.8%) and the synergy of learners, design of the online course, and system of delivery. Research findings revealed that online learners were mainly non-traditional, Caucasian, had different learning styles, and were highly motivated to learn. The final theme that they reported was institutional and administrative factors (n  = 13, 17.1%) on online learning. Their findings revealed that there was a lack of scholarly research in this area and most institutions did not have formal policies in place for course development as well as faculty and student support in training and evaluation. Their research confirmed that when universities offered online courses, it improved student enrollment numbers.

2.3. Distance education research themes 2000 to 2008 ( Zawacki-Richter et al., 2009 )

Zawacki-Richter et al. (2009) reviewed 695 articles on distance education from 2000 to 2008 using the Delphi method for consensus in identifying areas and classified the literature from five prominent journals. The five journals selected due to their wide scope in research in distance education included Open Learning, Distance Education, American Journal of Distance Education, the Journal of Distance Education, and the International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning. The reviewers examined the main focus of research and identified gaps in distance education research in this review.

Zawacki-Richter et al. (2009) classified the studies into macro, meso and micro levels focusing on 15 areas of research. The five areas of the macro-level addressed: (1) access, equity and ethics to deliver distance education for developing nations and the role of various technologies to narrow the digital divide, (2) teaching and learning drivers, markets, and professional development in the global context, (3) distance delivery systems and institutional partnerships and programs and impact of hybrid modes of delivery, (4) theoretical frameworks and models for instruction, knowledge building, and learner interactions in distance education practice, and (5) the types of preferred research methodologies. The meso-level focused on seven areas that involve: (1) management and organization for sustaining distance education programs, (2) examining financial aspects of developing and implementing online programs, (3) the challenges and benefits of new technologies for teaching and learning, (4) incentives to innovate, (5) professional development and support for faculty, (6) learner support services, and (7) issues involving quality standards and the impact on student enrollment and retention. The micro-level focused on three areas: (1) instructional design and pedagogical approaches, (2) culturally appropriate materials, interaction, communication, and collaboration among a community of learners, and (3) focus on characteristics of adult learners, socio-economic backgrounds, learning preferences, and dispositions.

The top three research themes in this review by Zawacki-Richter et al. (2009) were interaction and communities of learning ( n  = 122, 17.6%), instructional design ( n  = 121, 17.4%) and learner characteristics ( n  = 113, 16.3%). The lowest number of studies (less than 3%) were found in studies examining the following research themes, management and organization ( n  = 18), research methods in DE and knowledge transfer ( n  = 13), globalization of education and cross-cultural aspects ( n  = 13), innovation and change ( n  = 13), and costs and benefits ( n  = 12).

2.4. Online learning research themes

These three systematic reviews provide a broad understanding of distance education and online learning research themes from 1990 to 2008. However, there is an increase in the number of research studies on online learning in this decade and there is a need to identify recent research themes examined. Based on the previous systematic reviews ( Berge & Mrozowski, 2001 ; Hung, 2012 ; Tallent-Runnels et al., 2006 ; Zawacki-Richter et al., 2009 ), online learning research in this study is grouped into twelve different research themes which include Learner characteristics, Instructor characteristics, Course or program design and development, Course Facilitation, Engagement, Course Assessment, Course Technologies, Access, Culture, Equity, Inclusion, and Ethics, Leadership, Policy and Management, Instructor and Learner Support, and Learner Outcomes. Table 2 below describes each of the research themes and using these themes, a framework is derived in Fig. 1 .

Research themes in online learning.

Online learning research themes framework.

The collection of research themes is presented as a framework in Fig. 1 . The themes are organized by domain or level to underscore the nested relationship that exists. As evidenced by the assortment of themes, research can focus on any domain of delivery or associated context. The “Learner” domain captures characteristics and outcomes related to learners and their interaction within the courses. The “Course and Instructor” domain captures elements about the broader design of the course and facilitation by the instructor, and the “Organizational” domain acknowledges the contextual influences on the course. It is important to note as well that due to the nesting, research themes can cross domains. For example, the broader cultural context may be studied as it pertains to course design and development, and institutional support can include both learner support and instructor support. Likewise, engagement research can involve instructors as well as learners.

In this introduction section, we have reviewed three systematic reviews on online learning research ( Berge & Mrozowski, 2001 ; Tallent-Runnels et al., 2006 ; Zawacki-Richter et al., 2009 ). Based on these reviews and other research, we have derived twelve themes to develop an online learning research framework which is nested in three levels: learner, course and instructor, and organization.

2.5. Purpose of this research

In two out of the three previous reviews, design, learner characteristics and interaction were examined in the highest number of studies. On the other hand, cost-benefit tradeoffs, equity and accessibility, institutional and administrative factors, and globalization and cross-cultural aspects were examined in the least number of studies. One explanation for this may be that it is a function of nesting, noting that studies falling in the Organizational and Course levels may encompass several courses or many more participants within courses. However, while some research themes re-occur, there are also variations in some themes across time, suggesting the importance of research themes rise and fall over time. Thus, a critical examination of the trends in themes is helpful for understanding where research is needed most. Also, since there is no recent study examining online learning research themes in the last decade, this study strives to address that gap by focusing on recent research themes found in the literature, and also reviewing research methods and settings. Notably, one goal is to also compare findings from this decade to the previous review studies. Overall, the purpose of this study is to examine publication trends in online learning research taking place during the last ten years and compare it with the previous themes identified in other review studies. Due to the continued growth of online learning research into new contexts and among new researchers, we also examine the research methods and settings found in the studies of this review.

The following research questions are addressed in this study.

• 1. What percentage of the population of articles published in the journals reviewed from 2009 to 2018 were related to online learning and empirical?
• 2. What is the frequency of online learning research themes in the empirical online learning articles of journals reviewed from 2009 to 2018?
• 3. What is the frequency of research methods and settings that researchers employed in the empirical online learning articles of the journals reviewed from 2009 to 2018?

This five-step systematic review process described in the U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, What Works Clearinghouse Procedures and Standards Handbook, Version 4.0 ( 2017 ) was used in this systematic review: (a) developing the review protocol, (b) identifying relevant literature, (c) screening studies, (d) reviewing articles, and (e) reporting findings.

3.1. Data sources and search strategies

The Education Research Complete database was searched using the keywords below for published articles between the years 2009 and 2018 using both the Title and Keyword function for the following search terms.

“online learning" OR "online teaching" OR "online program" OR "online course" OR “online education”

3.2. Inclusion/exclusion criteria

The initial search of online learning research among journals in the database resulted in more than 3000 possible articles. Therefore, we limited our search to select journals that focus on publishing peer-reviewed online learning and educational research. Our aim was to capture the journals that published the most articles in online learning. However, we also wanted to incorporate the concept of rigor, so we used expert perception to identify 12 peer-reviewed journals that publish high-quality online learning research. Dissertations and conference proceedings were excluded. To be included in this systematic review, each study had to meet the screening criteria as described in Table 3 . A research study was excluded if it did not meet all of the criteria to be included.

Inclusion/Exclusion criteria.

3.3. Process flow selection of articles

Fig. 2 shows the process flow involved in the selection of articles. The search in the database Education Research Complete yielded an initial sample of 3332 articles. Targeting the 12 journals removed 2579 articles. After reviewing the abstracts, we removed 134 articles based on the inclusion/exclusion criteria. The final sample, consisting of 619 articles, was entered into the computer software MAXQDA ( VERBI Software, 2019 ) for coding.

Flowchart of online learning research selection.

3.4. Developing review protocol

A review protocol was designed as a codebook in MAXQDA ( VERBI Software, 2019 ) by the three researchers. The codebook was developed based on findings from the previous review studies and from the initial screening of the articles in this review. The codebook included 12 research themes listed earlier in Table 2 (Learner characteristics, Instructor characteristics, Course or program design and development, Course Facilitation, Engagement, Course Assessment, Course Technologies, Access, Culture, Equity, Inclusion, and Ethics, Leadership, Policy and Management, Instructor and Learner Support, and Learner Outcomes), four research settings (higher education, continuing education, K-12, corporate/military), and three research designs (quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods). Fig. 3 below is a screenshot of MAXQDA used for the coding process.

Codebook from MAXQDA.

3.5. Data coding

Research articles were coded by two researchers in MAXQDA. Two researchers independently coded 10% of the articles and then discussed and updated the coding framework. The second author who was a doctoral student coded the remaining studies. The researchers met bi-weekly to address coding questions that emerged. After the first phase of coding, we found that more than 100 studies fell into each of the categories of Learner Characteristics or Engagement, so we decided to pursue a second phase of coding and reexamine the two themes. Learner Characteristics were classified into the subthemes of Academic, Affective, Motivational, Self-regulation, Cognitive, and Demographic Characteristics. Engagement was classified into the subthemes of Collaborating, Communication, Community, Involvement, Interaction, Participation, and Presence.

3.6. Data analysis

Frequency tables were generated for each of the variables so that outliers could be examined and narrative data could be collapsed into categories. Once cleaned and collapsed into a reasonable number of categories, descriptive statistics were used to describe each of the coded elements. We first present the frequencies of publications related to online learning in the 12 journals. The total number of articles for each journal (collectively, the population) was hand-counted from journal websites, excluding editorials and book reviews. The publication trend of online learning research was also depicted from 2009 to 2018. Then, the descriptive information of the 12 themes, including the subthemes of Learner Characteristics and Engagement were provided. Finally, research themes by research settings and methodology were elaborated.

4.1. Publication trends on online learning

Publication patterns of the 619 articles reviewed from the 12 journals are presented in Table 4 . International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning had the highest number of publications in this review. Overall, about 8% of the articles appearing in these twelve journals consisted of online learning publications; however, several journals had concentrations of online learning articles totaling more than 20%.

Empirical online learning research articles by journal, 2009–2018.

Note . Journal's Total Article count excludes reviews and editorials.

The publication trend of online learning research is depicted in Fig. 4 . When disaggregated by year, the total frequency of publications shows an increasing trend. Online learning articles increased throughout the decade and hit a relative maximum in 2014. The greatest number of online learning articles ( n  = 86) occurred most recently, in 2018.

Online learning publication trends by year.

4.2. Online learning research themes that appeared in the selected articles

The publications were categorized into the twelve research themes identified in Fig. 1 . The frequency counts and percentages of the research themes are provided in Table 5 below. A majority of the research is categorized into the Learner domain. The fewest number of articles appears in the Organization domain.

Research themes in the online learning publications from 2009 to 2018.

The specific themes of Engagement ( n  = 179, 28.92%) and Learner Characteristics ( n  = 134, 21.65%) were most often examined in publications. These two themes were further coded to identify sub-themes, which are described in the next two sections. Publications focusing on Instructor Characteristics ( n  = 21, 3.39%) were least common in the dataset.

4.2.1. Research on engagement

The largest number of studies was on engagement in online learning, which in the online learning literature is referred to and examined through different terms. Hence, we explore this category in more detail. In this review, we categorized the articles into seven different sub-themes as examined through different lenses including presence, interaction, community, participation, collaboration, involvement, and communication. We use the term “involvement” as one of the terms since researchers sometimes broadly used the term engagement to describe their work without further description. Table 6 below provides the description, frequency, and percentages of the various studies related to engagement.

Research sub-themes on engagement.

In the sections below, we provide several examples of the different engagement sub-themes that were studied within the larger engagement theme.

Presence. This sub-theme was the most researched in engagement. With the development of the community of inquiry framework most of the studies in this subtheme examined social presence ( Akcaoglu & Lee, 2016 ; Phirangee & Malec, 2017 ; Wei et al., 2012 ), teaching presence ( Orcutt & Dringus, 2017 ; Preisman, 2014 ; Wisneski et al., 2015 ) and cognitive presence ( Archibald, 2010 ; Olesova et al., 2016 ).

Interaction . This was the second most studied theme under engagement. Researchers examined increasing interpersonal interactions ( Cung et al., 2018 ), learner-learner interactions ( Phirangee, 2016 ; Shackelford & Maxwell, 2012 ; Tawfik et al., 2018 ), peer-peer interaction ( Comer et al., 2014 ), learner-instructor interaction ( Kuo et al., 2014 ), learner-content interaction ( Zimmerman, 2012 ), interaction through peer mentoring ( Ruane & Koku, 2014 ), interaction and community building ( Thormann & Fidalgo, 2014 ), and interaction in discussions ( Ruane & Lee, 2016 ; Tibi, 2018 ).

Community. Researchers examined building community in online courses ( Berry, 2017 ), supporting a sense of community ( Jiang, 2017 ), building an online learning community of practice ( Cho, 2016 ), building an academic community ( Glazer & Wanstreet, 2011 ; Nye, 2015 ; Overbaugh & Nickel, 2011 ), and examining connectedness and rapport in an online community ( Bolliger & Inan, 2012 ; Murphy & Rodríguez-Manzanares, 2012 ; Slagter van Tryon & Bishop, 2012 ).

Participation. Researchers examined engagement through participation in a number of studies. Some of the topics include, participation patterns in online discussion ( Marbouti & Wise, 2016 ; Wise et al., 2012 ), participation in MOOCs ( Ahn et al., 2013 ; Saadatmand & Kumpulainen, 2014 ), features that influence students’ online participation ( Rye & Støkken, 2012 ) and active participation.

Collaboration. Researchers examined engagement through collaborative learning. Specific studies focused on cross-cultural collaboration ( Kumi-Yeboah, 2018 ; Yang et al., 2014 ), how virtual teams collaborate ( Verstegen et al., 2018 ), types of collaboration teams ( Wicks et al., 2015 ), tools for collaboration ( Boling et al., 2014 ), and support for collaboration ( Kopp et al., 2012 ).

Involvement. Researchers examined engaging learners through involvement in various learning activities ( Cundell & Sheepy, 2018 ), student engagement through various measures ( Dixson, 2015 ), how instructors included engagement to involve students in learning ( O'Shea et al., 2015 ), different strategies to engage the learner ( Amador & Mederer, 2013 ), and designed emotionally engaging online environments ( Koseoglu & Doering, 2011 ).

Communication. Researchers examined communication in online learning in studies using social network analysis ( Ergün & Usluel, 2016 ), using informal communication tools such as Facebook for class discussion ( Kent, 2013 ), and using various modes of communication ( Cunningham et al., 2010 ; Rowe, 2016 ). Studies have also focused on both asynchronous and synchronous aspects of communication ( Swaggerty & Broemmel, 2017 ; Yamagata-Lynch, 2014 ).

4.2.2. Research on learner characteristics

The second largest theme was learner characteristics. In this review, we explore this further to identify several aspects of learner characteristics. In this review, we categorized the learner characteristics into self-regulation characteristics, motivational characteristics, academic characteristics, affective characteristics, cognitive characteristics, and demographic characteristics. Table 7 provides the number of studies and percentages examining the various learner characteristics.

Research sub-themes on learner characteristics.

Online learning has elements that are different from the traditional face-to-face classroom and so the characteristics of the online learners are also different. Yukselturk and Top (2013) categorized online learner profile into ten aspects: gender, age, work status, self-efficacy, online readiness, self-regulation, participation in discussion list, participation in chat sessions, satisfaction, and achievement. Their categorization shows that there are differences in online learner characteristics in these aspects when compared to learners in other settings. Some of the other aspects such as participation and achievement as discussed by Yukselturk and Top (2013) are discussed in different research themes in this study. The sections below provide examples of the learner characteristics sub-themes that were studied.

Self-regulation. Several researchers have examined self-regulation in online learning. They found that successful online learners are academically motivated ( Artino & Stephens, 2009 ), have academic self-efficacy ( Cho & Shen, 2013 ), have grit and intention to succeed ( Wang & Baker, 2018 ), have time management and elaboration strategies ( Broadbent, 2017 ), set goals and revisit course content ( Kizilcec et al., 2017 ), and persist ( Glazer & Murphy, 2015 ). Researchers found a positive relationship between learner's self-regulation and interaction ( Delen et al., 2014 ) and self-regulation and communication and collaboration ( Barnard et al., 2009 ).

Motivation. Researchers focused on motivation of online learners including different motivation levels of online learners ( Li & Tsai, 2017 ), what motivated online learners ( Chaiprasurt & Esichaikul, 2013 ), differences in motivation of online learners ( Hartnett et al., 2011 ), and motivation when compared to face to face learners ( Paechter & Maier, 2010 ). Harnett et al. (2011) found that online learner motivation was complex, multifaceted, and sensitive to situational conditions.

Academic. Several researchers have focused on academic aspects for online learner characteristics. Readiness for online learning has been examined as an academic factor by several researchers ( Buzdar et al., 2016 ; Dray et al., 2011 ; Wladis & Samuels, 2016 ; Yu, 2018 ) specifically focusing on creating and validating measures to examine online learner readiness including examining students emotional intelligence as a measure of student readiness for online learning. Researchers have also examined other academic factors such as academic standing ( Bradford & Wyatt, 2010 ), course level factors ( Wladis et al., 2014 ) and academic skills in online courses ( Shea & Bidjerano, 2014 ).

Affective. Anderson and Bourke (2013) describe affective characteristics through which learners express feelings or emotions. Several research studies focused on the affective characteristics of online learners. Learner satisfaction for online learning has been examined by several researchers ( Cole et al., 2014 ; Dziuban et al., 2015 ; Kuo et al., 2013 ; Lee, 2014a ) along with examining student emotions towards online assessment ( Kim et al., 2014 ).

Cognitive. Researchers have also examined cognitive aspects of learner characteristics including meta-cognitive skills, cognitive variables, higher-order thinking, cognitive density, and critical thinking ( Chen & Wu, 2012 ; Lee, 2014b ). Lee (2014b) examined the relationship between cognitive presence density and higher-order thinking skills. Chen and Wu (2012) examined the relationship between cognitive and motivational variables in an online system for secondary physical education.

Demographic. Researchers have examined various demographic factors in online learning. Several researchers have examined gender differences in online learning ( Bayeck et al., 2018 ; Lowes et al., 2016 ; Yukselturk & Bulut, 2009 ), ethnicity, age ( Ke & Kwak, 2013 ), and minority status ( Yeboah & Smith, 2016 ) of online learners.

4.2.3. Less frequently studied research themes

While engagement and learner characteristics were studied the most, other themes were less often studied in the literature and are presented here, according to size, with general descriptions of the types of research examined for each.

Evaluation and Quality Assurance. There were 38 studies (6.14%) published in the theme of evaluation and quality assurance. Some of the studies in this theme focused on course quality standards, using quality matters to evaluate quality, using the CIPP model for evaluation, online learning system evaluation, and course and program evaluations.

Course Technologies. There were 35 studies (5.65%) published in the course technologies theme. Some of the studies examined specific technologies such as Edmodo, YouTube, Web 2.0 tools, wikis, Twitter, WebCT, Screencasts, and Web conferencing systems in the online learning context.

Course Facilitation. There were 34 studies (5.49%) published in the course facilitation theme. Some of the studies in this theme examined facilitation strategies and methods, experiences of online facilitators, and online teaching methods.

Institutional Support. There were 33 studies (5.33%) published in the institutional support theme which included support for both the instructor and learner. Some of the studies on instructor support focused on training new online instructors, mentoring programs for faculty, professional development resources for faculty, online adjunct faculty training, and institutional support for online instructors. Studies on learner support focused on learning resources for online students, cognitive and social support for online learners, and help systems for online learner support.

Learner Outcome. There were 32 studies (5.17%) published in the learner outcome theme. Some of the studies that were examined in this theme focused on online learner enrollment, completion, learner dropout, retention, and learner success.

Course Assessment. There were 30 studies (4.85%) published in the course assessment theme. Some of the studies in the course assessment theme examined online exams, peer assessment and peer feedback, proctoring in online exams, and alternative assessments such as eportfolio.

Access, Culture, Equity, Inclusion, and Ethics. There were 29 studies (4.68%) published in the access, culture, equity, inclusion, and ethics theme. Some of the studies in this theme examined online learning across cultures, multi-cultural effectiveness, multi-access, and cultural diversity in online learning.

Leadership, Policy, and Management. There were 27 studies (4.36%) published in the leadership, policy, and management theme. Some of the studies on leadership, policy, and management focused on online learning leaders, stakeholders, strategies for online learning leadership, resource requirements, university policies for online course policies, governance, course ownership, and faculty incentives for online teaching.

Course Design and Development. There were 27 studies (4.36%) published in the course design and development theme. Some of the studies examined in this theme focused on design elements, design issues, design process, design competencies, design considerations, and instructional design in online courses.

Instructor Characteristics. There were 21 studies (3.39%) published in the instructor characteristics theme. Some of the studies in this theme were on motivation and experiences of online instructors, ability to perform online teaching duties, roles of online instructors, and adjunct versus full-time online instructors.

4.3. Research settings and methodology used in the studies

The research methods used in the studies were classified into quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods ( Harwell, 2012 , pp. 147–163). The research setting was categorized into higher education, continuing education, K-12, and corporate/military. As shown in Table A in the appendix, the vast majority of the publications used higher education as the research setting ( n  = 509, 67.6%). Table B in the appendix shows that approximately half of the studies adopted the quantitative method ( n  = 324, 43.03%), followed by the qualitative method ( n  = 200, 26.56%). Mixed methods account for the smallest portion ( n  = 95, 12.62%).

Table A shows that the patterns of the four research settings were approximately consistent across the 12 themes except for the theme of Leaner Outcome and Institutional Support. Continuing education had a higher relative frequency in Learner Outcome (0.28) and K-12 had a higher relative frequency in Institutional Support (0.33) compared to the frequencies they had in the total themes (0.09 and 0.08 respectively). Table B in the appendix shows that the distribution of the three methods were not consistent across the 12 themes. While quantitative studies and qualitative studies were roughly evenly distributed in Engagement, they had a large discrepancy in Learner Characteristics. There were 100 quantitative studies; however, only 18 qualitative studies published in the theme of Learner Characteristics.

In summary, around 8% of the articles published in the 12 journals focus on online learning. Online learning publications showed a tendency of increase on the whole in the past decade, albeit fluctuated, with the greatest number occurring in 2018. Among the 12 research themes related to online learning, the themes of Engagement and Learner Characteristics were studied the most and the theme of Instructor Characteristics was studied the least. Most studies were conducted in the higher education setting and approximately half of the studies used the quantitative method. Looking at the 12 themes by setting and method, we found that the patterns of the themes by setting or by method were not consistent across the 12 themes.

The quality of our findings was ensured by scientific and thorough searches and coding consistency. The selection of the 12 journals provides evidence of the representativeness and quality of primary studies. In the coding process, any difficulties and questions were resolved by consultations with the research team at bi-weekly meetings, which ensures the intra-rater and interrater reliability of coding. All these approaches guarantee the transparency and replicability of the process and the quality of our results.

5. Discussion

This review enabled us to identify the online learning research themes examined from 2009 to 2018. In the section below, we review the most studied research themes, engagement and learner characteristics along with implications, limitations, and directions for future research.

5.1. Most studied research themes

Three out of the four systematic reviews informing the design of the present study found that online learner characteristics and online engagement were examined in a high number of studies. In this review, about half of the studies reviewed (50.57%) focused on online learner characteristics or online engagement. This shows the continued importance of these two themes. In the Tallent-Runnels et al.’s (2006) study, the learner characteristics theme was identified as least studied for which they state that researchers are beginning to investigate learner characteristics in the early days of online learning.

One of the differences found in this review is that course design and development was examined in the least number of studies in this review compared to two prior systematic reviews ( Berge & Mrozowski, 2001 ; Zawacki-Richter et al., 2009 ). Zawacki-Richter et al. did not use a keyword search but reviewed all the articles in five different distance education journals. Berge and Mrozowski (2001) included a research theme called design issues to include all aspects of instructional systems design in distance education journals. In our study, in addition to course design and development, we also had focused themes on learner outcomes, course facilitation, course assessment and course evaluation. These are all instructional design focused topics and since we had multiple themes focusing on instructional design topics, the course design and development category might have resulted in fewer studies. There is still a need for more studies to focus on online course design and development.

5.2. Least frequently studied research themes

Three out of the four systematic reviews discussed in the opening of this study found management and organization factors to be least studied. In this review, Leadership, Policy, and Management was studied among 4.36% of the studies and Access, Culture, Equity, Inclusion, and Ethics was studied among 4.68% of the studies in the organizational level. The theme on Equity and accessibility was also found to be the least studied theme in the Berge and Mrozowski (2001) study. In addition, instructor characteristics was the least examined research theme among the twelve themes studied in this review. Only 3.39% of the studies were on instructor characteristics. While there were some studies examining instructor motivation and experiences, instructor ability to teach online, online instructor roles, and adjunct versus full-time online instructors, there is still a need to examine topics focused on instructors and online teaching. This theme was not included in the prior reviews as the focus was more on the learner and the course but not on the instructor. While it is helpful to see research evolving on instructor focused topics, there is still a need for more research on the online instructor.

5.3. Comparing research themes from current study to previous studies

The research themes from this review were compared with research themes from previous systematic reviews, which targeted prior decades. Table 8 shows the comparison.

Comparison of most and least studied online learning research themes from current to previous reviews.

L = Learner, C=Course O=Organization.

5.4. Need for more studies on organizational level themes of online learning

In this review there is a greater concentration of studies focused on Learner domain topics, and reduced attention to broader more encompassing research themes that fall into the Course and Organization domains. There is a need for organizational level topics such as Access, Culture, Equity, Inclusion and Ethics, and Leadership, Policy and Management to be researched on within the context of online learning. Examination of access, culture, equity, inclusion and ethics is very important to support diverse online learners, particularly with the rapid expansion of online learning across all educational levels. This was also least studied based on Berge and Mrozowski (2001) systematic review.

The topics on leadership, policy and management were least studied both in this review and also in the Tallent-Runnels et al. (2006) and Zawacki-Richter et al. (2009) study. Tallent-Runnels categorized institutional and administrative aspects into institutional policies, institutional support, and enrollment effects. While we included support as a separate category, in this study leadership, policy and management were combined. There is still a need for research on leadership of those who manage online learning, policies for online education, and managing online programs. In the Zawacki-Richter et al. (2009) study, only a few studies examined management and organization focused topics. They also found management and organization to be strongly correlated with costs and benefits. In our study, costs and benefits were collectively included as an aspect of management and organization and not as a theme by itself. These studies will provide research-based evidence for online education administrators.

6. Limitations

As with any systematic review, there are limitations to the scope of the review. The search is limited to twelve journals in the field that typically include research on online learning. These manuscripts were identified by searching the Education Research Complete database which focuses on education students, professionals, and policymakers. Other discipline-specific journals as well as dissertations and proceedings were not included due to the volume of articles. Also, the search was performed using five search terms “online learning" OR "online teaching" OR "online program" OR "online course" OR “online education” in title and keyword. If authors did not include these terms, their respective work may have been excluded from this review even if it focused on online learning. While these terms are commonly used in North America, it may not be commonly used in other parts of the world. Additional studies may exist outside this scope.

The search strategy also affected how we presented results and introduced limitations regarding generalization. We identified that only 8% of the articles published in these journals were related to online learning; however, given the use of search terms to identify articles within select journals it was not feasible to identify the total number of research-based articles in the population. Furthermore, our review focused on the topics and general methods of research and did not systematically consider the quality of the published research. Lastly, some journals may have preferences for publishing studies on a particular topic or that use a particular method (e.g., quantitative methods), which introduces possible selection and publication biases which may skew the interpretation of results due to over/under representation. Future studies are recommended to include more journals to minimize the selection bias and obtain a more representative sample.

Certain limitations can be attributed to the coding process. Overall, the coding process for this review worked well for most articles, as each tended to have an individual or dominant focus as described in the abstracts, though several did mention other categories which likely were simultaneously considered to a lesser degree. However, in some cases, a dominant theme was not as apparent and an effort to create mutually exclusive groups for clearer interpretation the coders were occasionally forced to choose between two categories. To facilitate this coding, the full-texts were used to identify a study focus through a consensus seeking discussion among all authors. Likewise, some studies focused on topics that we have associated with a particular domain, but the design of the study may have promoted an aggregated examination or integrated factors from multiple domains (e.g., engagement). Due to our reliance on author descriptions, the impact of construct validity is likely a concern that requires additional exploration. Our final grouping of codes may not have aligned with the original author's description in the abstract. Additionally, coding of broader constructs which disproportionately occur in the Learner domain, such as learner outcomes, learner characteristics, and engagement, likely introduced bias towards these codes when considering studies that involved multiple domains. Additional refinement to explore the intersection of domains within studies is needed.

7. Implications and future research

One of the strengths of this review is the research categories we have identified. We hope these categories will support future researchers and identify areas and levels of need for future research. Overall, there is some agreement on research themes on online learning research among previous reviews and this one, at the same time there are some contradicting findings. We hope the most-researched themes and least-researched themes provide authors a direction on the importance of research and areas of need to focus on.

The leading themes found in this review is online engagement research. However, presentation of this research was inconsistent, and often lacked specificity. This is not unique to online environments, but the nuances of defining engagement in an online environment are unique and therefore need further investigation and clarification. This review points to seven distinct classifications of online engagement. Further research on engagement should indicate which type of engagement is sought. This level of specificity is necessary to establish instruments for measuring engagement and ultimately testing frameworks for classifying engagement and promoting it in online environments. Also, it might be of importance to examine the relationship between these seven sub-themes of engagement.

Additionally, this review highlights growing attention to learner characteristics, which constitutes a shift in focus away from instructional characteristics and course design. Although this is consistent with the focus on engagement, the role of the instructor, and course design with respect to these outcomes remains important. Results of the learner characteristics and engagement research paired with course design will have important ramifications for the use of teaching and learning professionals who support instruction. Additionally, the review also points to a concentration of research in the area of higher education. With an immediate and growing emphasis on online learning in K-12 and corporate settings, there is a critical need for further investigation in these settings.

Lastly, because the present review did not focus on the overall effect of interventions, opportunities exist for dedicated meta-analyses. Particular attention to research on engagement and learner characteristics as well as how these vary by study design and outcomes would be logical additions to the research literature.

8. Conclusion

This systematic review builds upon three previous reviews which tackled the topic of online learning between 1990 and 2010 by extending the timeframe to consider the most recent set of published research. Covering the most recent decade, our review of 619 articles from 12 leading online learning journal points to a more concentrated focus on the learner domain including engagement and learner characteristics, with more limited attention to topics pertaining to the classroom or organizational level. The review highlights an opportunity for the field to clarify terminology concerning online learning research, particularly in the areas of learner outcomes where there is a tendency to classify research more generally (e.g., engagement). Using this sample of published literature, we provide a possible taxonomy for categorizing this research using subcategories. The field could benefit from a broader conversation about how these categories can shape a comprehensive framework for online learning research. Such efforts will enable the field to effectively prioritize research aims over time and synthesize effects.

Credit author statement

Florence Martin: Conceptualization; Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing Preparation, Supervision, Project administration. Ting Sun: Methodology, Formal analysis, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing. Carl Westine: Methodology, Formal analysis, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing, Supervision

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

1 Includes articles that are cited in this manuscript and also included in the systematic review. The entire list of 619 articles used in the systematic review can be obtained by emailing the authors.*

Appendix B Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2020.104009 .

Appendix A. 

Research Themes by the Settings in the Online Learning Publications

Research Themes by the Methodology in the Online Learning Publications

Appendix B. Supplementary data

The following are the Supplementary data to this article:

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A Systematic Review of the Research Topics in Online Learning During COVID-19: Documenting the Sudden Shift

• Min Young Doo Kangwon National University http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3565-2159
• Meina Zhu Wayne State University
• Curtis J. Bonk Indiana University Bloomington

Since most schools and learners had no choice but to learn online during the pandemic, online learning became the mainstream learning mode rather than a substitute for traditional face-to-face learning. Given this enormous change in online learning, we conducted a systematic review of 191 of the most recent online learning studies published during the COVID-19 era. The systematic review results indicated that the themes regarding “courses and instructors” became popular during the pandemic, whereas most online learning research has focused on “learners” pre-COVID-19. Notably, the research topics “course and instructors” and “course technology” received more attention than prior to COVID-19. We found that “engagement” remained the most common research theme even after the pandemic. New research topics included parents, technology acceptance or adoption of online learning, and learners’ and instructors’ perceptions of online learning.

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Research Trends in Open, Distance, and Digital Education

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• First Online: 06 May 2022
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• Olaf Zawacki-Richter 3 &
• Aras Bozkurt 4  

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This chapter sets out to explore the research field of open, distance, and digital education (ODDE) building upon the 3 M-Framework developed in the context of distance education along three broad lines of research: ODDE systems and theories (global macro-level); management, organization, and technology (institutional meso-level); and teaching and learning in ODDE (individual micro-level). Based on various bibliographic analyses, the flow of research areas and trends is described. The COVID-19 pandemic is discussed as a turning point that already has a huge impact on research and practice of the entire field of ODDE. According to thematic similarities and dissimilarities in the academic fields of educational technology (EdTech), distance education (DE), and instructional design (ID), four clusters of academic journals are identified with different thematic foci in various educational contexts. This information can be used to guide researchers to choose an appropriate journal in which to submit their work.

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• Academic journals
• 3M-Framework
• Scientific networks
• Systematic review
• Meta-analysis and synthesis
• Bibliometrics

Introduction

Research into open and distance education and the application of educational technologies have matured over the last 70 years. In the foreword of the book Online Distance Education: Towards a Research Agenda , Otto Peters ( 2014 ), one of the pioneers who witnessed the development of the field since the 1950s, describes four periods of distance education: the first was characterized by the complete absence of research (except for the works by Charles A. Wedemeyer), the second in the 1960s by the dominance of comparative studies to prove that correspondence education is at least as good as conventional face-to-face education, the third in the 1970s which was shaped by a focus on educational technology and the emergence of open universities, and the fourth in the 1990s which was marked by the emergence of online learning and teaching. Digital technologies have shaped research and development in education substantially by the late 1990s and 2000 onwards. In recent decades, the academic fields of educational technology, distance education, and instructional design have been established with a number of academic journals, conferences, and scholarly societies, as well as universities offering study programs in those areas. To describe this situation, Peters ( 2014 ) states: “Looking back at the stark absence of academic research in the 1950s and its modest beginning in the 1960s, we become keenly aware of the enormous progress achieved in online distance education in a relatively short time” (p. xii).

This chapter sets out to explore this progress that has been made in the research field of open, distance, and digital education (ODDE) and to look ahead in the light of experiences and the shift in 2020/2021 towards online learning and teaching due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

The 3 M-Framework of Research Areas in ODDE

Research into ODDE is a relatively young scholarly discipline emerging in the 1960s and 1970s. High-quality academic journals have existed for only about 40 or 50 years (e.g., the British Journal of Educational Technology or Distance Education ). Around 20 years ago, distance education research was subject to critique (see Saba, 2000 ) and characterized as “atheoretical and predominantly descriptive” (Perraton, 2000 , p. 1). Given that research questions should be posed within a theoretical framework and embedded in a holistic structure of research areas within a discipline, Mishra ( 1998 ) called for “a comprehensive and cohesive structure internationally to provide a strong foundation to the discipline” (p. 281). However, in the field of ODDE, there was no validated meta-structure of research topics around that time, i.e., the absence of a map of research areas that would help to organize the body of knowledge in the field. The structure of a research discipline forms the foundation for identifying gaps and priority areas for researchers.

In order to meet this need and to better describe the broad and interdisciplinary nature of the field, Zawacki-Richter ( 2009 ) carried out an international Delphi study to develop a validated framework of research topics that became later known as the 3 M-Framework. Three broad categories of research were identified from the Delphi study:

Macro-level: distance education systems and theories (the global system level)

Meso-level: management, organization, and technology (the level of educational institutions)

Micro-level: teaching and learning in distance education (the individual learner and teacher level)

Along those lines, 15 research areas were identified on the 3 levels that were further elaborated by a team of international scholars, administrators, and practitioners in the book Online Distance Education: Towards a Research Agenda (Zawacki-Richter & Anderson, 2014 ) (see Table 1 ).

According to Anderson and Zawacki-Richter ( 2014 ), a research agenda in any given discipline can be defined as an ongoing, iterative process consisting of six interdependent activities:

Quantify what research has previously been done.

Review and evaluate that research.

Describe new research needs on the basis of the quantification and evaluation.

Prioritize the research needs in a research agenda.

Perform and evaluate the new research, and by doing so…

Redefine the research agenda. (p. 486)

The structure of the 3 M-Framework is an important foundation for developing research agendas for individual researchers and scholars, research departments and institutions, and even national and international research cooperations. It is especially helpful to complete the first three tasks – to quantify what has been done in each area of the discipline, to review that research, and to identify gaps and priority areas for future research.

Before we look into the content of research publications to describe trends and research priorities, we provide an overview of the different academic journals in ODDE.

Thematic Scope of Academic Journals in ODDE

Research and development in the field of ODDE is addressed by a wide range of researchers, from a variety of disciplines. In the following section, we report hitherto unpublished findings from a cluster analysis of journals that was conducted in a research project led by the first author of this chapter. The study assumed that there are separate research communities in the broader field of ODDE, i.e., researchers with a background in distance education, educational technology, and instructional design. The identification of these clusters helps to understand the structure of the discipline(s). Furthermore, it may further help guide researchers new to publishing in ODDE, such as doctoral students and early-career researchers, to choose an appropriate journal in which to submit their work.

The analysis was based on 10,827 articles published between 2007 and 2016 in 26 educational technology, instructional design, and distance education journals (see full list of the journals in Appendix A). The journals were selected based on their high reputation and impact in the field. Twenty journals were listed in the 2016 Thomson Reuters Journal Citation Report in the “Education and Educational Research” category. A further six journals were chosen according to West’s ( 2016 ) list of important and prestigious journals in the field of instructional design and technology. At this point we have to acknowledge a bias towards English language journals that are indexed in international databases, e.g., journals like Distances et Savoirs (French), Revista de Educación a Distancia (Spanish), or Distance Education in China (Chinese) were not included in this study.

The aim of the analysis was to identify similarities and dissimilarities in the thematic scope of the journals. The cluster analysis is based on the mean correlation of the journals in terms of the relative frequencies of the topics (“concepts” retrieved with a text-mining tool) covered in the publications. For example, a high correlation with the other journals was calculated for the British Journal of Educational Technology (BJET; \( \overline{r}=0.84 \) ), making it a very representative journal for the field.

The dendrogram in Fig. 1 presents evidence that a four-cluster solution is appropriate to group the journals based on their thematic similarities.

Dendrogram of journal clusters, 2007–2016 (N = 10,827) (for abbreviations see Appendix A)

Table 2 provides an overview of the journals in each of the four clusters, which are sorted according to their size. Table 3 lists the ten most frequent concepts in each cluster. Figure 2 reports the relative frequencies of the 20 most frequent concepts over the 4 clusters. This content-related information is used for the interpretation of the four journal clusters.

The 20 most frequent concepts, unweighted over the 4 clusters

Journal Cluster 1: Educational Technology, Learning, and Computer Science

The first and biggest cluster (with over 7000 articles) contains leading, high-impact educational technology journals that cover a broad range of topics associated with instructional design, technology, and computer-supported teaching and learning in all levels of education, among them Computers & Education (CAE), the British Journal of Educational Technology (BJET), and Educational Technology and Society (ETS). There is also a focus on instructional and cognitive psychology research, represented by Learning and Instruction (LI), the Journal of the Learning Sciences (JLS), and Instructional Science (IS). In addition, the more technology-centered and computer science-related journals such as the IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies (IEEETLT) and Educational Technology Research & Development (ETRD) are also in this cluster.

Journal Cluster 2: Educational Technology from K-12 to Higher Education

The second cluster is characterized by general, but smaller, educational technology journals representing about 16% of the articles in the sample, including Learning, Media and Technology (LMT); Technology, Pedagogy and Education (TPE); and the Journal of Computing in Higher Education (JCHE). The scope of these journals is related to the application of educational technologies ranging from K-12 to higher education settings. However, in contrast to cluster 1, these journals have a stronger focus on the school context: teacher , school , and teaching are among the ten most frequent concepts (see Table 3 ).

Journal Cluster 3: Distance Education in the Context of Higher Education

This cluster is characterized by journals that focus on research into distance education and student learning in online courses, such as Distance Education (DE) or the American Journal of Distance Education (AJDE). In terms of their relative frequencies (see Fig. 2 ), students , online, and course are the most prevalent terms in these journals. The concept of distance does not appear in the upper 20 concepts in the other clusters at all. Contrary to prior assumptions, the journal Internet and Higher Education (IHE) is categorized in this cluster. It does not share the same distance education background as the other journals; however, its content-related proximity may be explained by the fact that the other journals in this cluster also focus on the higher education context. Another reason may be the widespread use of distance education and online learning in higher education and the frequent use of technologies such as the Internet in these processes.

Journal Cluster 4: Technology-Enhanced Learning in School Settings

The two journals that constitute the smallest cluster, Contemporary Issues in Technology & Teacher Education (CITTE) and the Journal of Technology and Teacher Education (JTTE), clearly stand out, as they explicitly deal with topics related to teacher development and the design of technology-enhanced learning in school settings and subjects. The concepts of teacher and classroom show the highest relative frequencies (see Fig. 2 ), and the terms professional and development are among the ten most frequent concepts, together with teacher on the top of this list (see Table 3 ). Neither journal is listed in the Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI).

Journals are one of the crucial means for the diffusion of scientific knowledge, and they can be considered “as indicators of the intellectual state of any given branch of knowledge and can be further used to identify the epistemic status of any discipline” (Bozkurt, 2019 , p. 497). The results of the analysis confirm that ODDE is an interdisciplinary field and a discipline with many intersection points with educational technology (Bozkurt, 2019 ; Bozkurt & Zawacki-Richter, 2021 ).

With this understanding of the overall landscape of academic journals in ODDE, we can now turn towards reviewing the research trends, patterns, and areas covered in the scholarly publications.

Research Trends Emerging in Content Analysis and Systematic Reviews

The 3 M-Framework was the starting point for a number of bibliographic studies to quantify and review ODDE research. The first review that followed the Delphi study was published by Zawacki-Richter, Baecker, and Vogt ( 2009 ), who reviewed 695 articles in the time period between 2000 and 2008 in 5 major peer-reviewed journals: Open Learning (OL), Distance Education (DE), the American Journal of Distance Education (AJDE), the Journal of Distance Education/International Journal of E-Learning & Distance Education (JDE/IJEDE), and the International Review of Research in Open and Distance/Distributed Learning (IRRODL).

The major outcome of this study was a frequency tabulation of the research areas covered in the publications revealing a strong imbalance: the micro-perspective (teaching and learning in distance education) is highly overrepresented. Over 50% of all articles deal with the top three issues, interaction and communication in learning communities (17.6%), instructional design (17.4%), and learner characteristics (16.3%), whereas other important areas (e.g., costs and benefits, innovation and change management, or intercultural aspects of distance learning) are dreadfully neglected. This finding was also confirmed by other studies, for example, in a follow-up systematic review study of 861 articles published between 2009 and 2013 (Bozkurt et al., 2015 ). The results of these studies demonstrate that while some research areas are used widely, some others are neglected (see Fig. 3 ). Besides, the top three research areas identified by Zawacki-Richter et al. ( 2009 ) remain unchanged in Bozkurt et al.’s ( 2015 ) study. This view implies that there is a need to pay close attention to the ignored research areas if the field intends to explore different domains and build a solid basis for further growth. It is noteworthy to highlight that the educational technology research area is listed with the highest score on the meso-level which justifies the close relationship between the distance education and educational technology journals.

The trends of 3 M-Framework (adopted from Bozkurt et al., 2015 ; Zawacki-Richter et al., 2009 )

Quantitative Content Analysis and Text-Mining

Moving beyond the quantification of research areas and topics and the mapping of publication and authorship patterns, content analysis, text-mining, and topic modelling (see Krippendorff, 2013 ; Silge & Robinson, 2016 ) of academic journals allow for deeper insights into the development and flow of research trends over time. Content analysis examines the conceptual structure of text-based information and detects the most frequently occurring themes within large amounts of data. Fisk, Cherney, Hornsey, and Smith ( 2012 ) conclude that computer-aided content analysis is a suitable method by which to map a field of research. Thus, content analysis is an invaluable means of interpreting and coding the content of a research discipline and identifying gaps and priority areas for future research.

As West ( 2011 ) observes:

There is practical value to understanding where we are right now, and where we have been in the very recent past. To understand this, it can be helpful to review some of the journals in our field to see what conversations are being held, research being conducted, tools being developed, and theories being accepted. (p. 60)

Special software is available to support the analysis of huge amounts of text-based data, for example, the text-mining tool Leximancer™. The software locates core concepts within textual data (conceptual analysis) and identifies how these concepts interrelate (relational analysis) by the frequency with which words co-occur in the text. Leximancer™ then produces a visual map, which clusters similar concepts that co-occur in close proximity (thematic regions). Packages for text-mining and topic modelling are also available for the open and free statistical programming language R (see: https://www.r-project.org ), e.g., the tidytext package (Silge & Robinson, 2016 ).

Content analysis and text-mining studies in the field of ODDE are available based on publications in the major and most influential journals. By analyzing 515 research articles published in the journal Distance Education between 1980 and 2014, Zawacki-Richter and Naidu ( 2016 ) were able to identify the following main themes over seven 5-year time periods: professionalization and institutional consolidation (1980–1984); instructional design and educational technology (1985–1989); quality assurance in distance education (1990–1994); student support and early stages of online learning (1995–1999); the emergence of the virtual university (2000–2004); collaborative learning and online interaction patterns (2005–2009); and interactive learning, massive open online courses (MOOCs), and open educational resources (OER) (2010–2014). The concept map in Fig. 4 shows the major topics (concepts in five thematic regions) covered in the articles published over 35 years (1980–2014). Not surprisingly, the journal publishes research on open and distance education with a focus in the higher education context. The other two major topics covered in the articles (i.e., students and learning ) are connected via the theme interaction . Learning is seen among these articles as a social process that is facilitated by interaction among participants. Furthermore, the provision of opportunities for interaction, communication, and collaboration between students and their teachers, as well as among students via two-way media, is proposed as constituent element of distance education. In such settings, teaching and learning are seen as the result of careful design and orchestration of the learning environment, communication processes, learner support, and use of learning materials.

Concept map of 515 articles published between 1980 and 2014 in the journal Distance Education (Zawacki-Richter & Naidu, 2016 , p. 249)

A similar review was conducted for the journal International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning (IRRODL). Zawacki-Richter, Alturki, and Aldraiweesh ( 2017 ) analyzed 580 articles published between 2000 and 2015 and identified 3 broad themes emerging over this 15-year period: the establishment of online learning and distance education institutions (2000–2005); widening access to education and online learning support (2006–2010); and the emergence of MOOCs and OER (2011–2015). In the field of educational technology, Zawacki-Richter and Latchem ( 2018 ) reviewed 40 years of publications in the leading journal Computers & Education . The content analysis of abstracts and titles of 3674 full articles published between 1976 and 2016 revealed that research progressed through 4 distinct stages, reflecting major developments in educational technology and theories of learning with media: the advancement and growth of computer-based instruction (1976–1986); stand-alone multimedia learning (1987–1996); networked computers as tools for collaborative learning (1997–2006); and online learning in a digital age (2007–2016).

Mishra ( 2019 ) used a combination of bibliometrics and thematic content analysis to review contributions in the first 10 years to the Journal of Learning for Development (JL4D). He reports that JL4D’s major focus is placed on student learning, teachers and teaching, and contextual needs in education, while citation analysis shows that “the contributions are by and large influenced from the field of educational technology in general and experts in the field of open and distance learning” (Mishra, 2019 , p. 173). Thus, the journal is rooted in the field of open and distance learning, addressing a niche of research in the area of innovations in learning leading to development.

Citation and Journal Network Analysis

Social network analysis (SNA; Wasserman & Faust, 1994 ) of citations is another technique to explore relationships in scholarly knowledge networks. Garfield ( 1972 ) described journal networks as a “communication system” that reveals the intellectual structure of a discipline. In journal network analysis, the nodes in the scientific network are journals (actors), and the relations (ties) are based on citations (Narin, Carpenter, & Berlt, 1972 ). Bozkurt et al. ( 2015 ) used SNA to visualize the relationships between keywords of articles in distance education journals and found that the majority of published research deals with research on the micro-level, covering topics and issues such as ‘teaching’ and ‘learning’ processes in online distance education. Wolf, Andrzejewski, Clark, and Forney ( 2020 ) analyzed the qualitative research literature in distance education by constructing a two-mode network matrix of qualitative articles by theories and methodologies They showed how the theories and methodologies co-occurred. For example, case studies are often linked with social constructivism, the Community of Inquiry, transactional distance, and self-regulated learning. Park and Shea ( 2020 ) applied co-citation and cluster analysis to identify trends in online, distance, and blended learning research based on 5699 articles with 159,891 references retrieved from the Web of Science (WoS). The dataset was divided into two time spans from 2008 to 2012 and from 2013 to 2017. The study revealed that literature reviews, meta-studies on distance education, and research into communication patterns in asynchronous discussion were most cited in the first time period. In the second period, researchers turned their attention to online learner’s satisfaction and self-regulation, informal learning, and MOOCs. In the entire 10-year period, the Community of Inquiry framework was the most prevalent theoretical foundation in the publications, a finding confirmed by Bozkurt ( 2019 ) and Bozkurt and Zawacki-Richter ( 2021 ).

Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis Studies

Drilling further down into content and research findings, systematic reviews (Gough, Oliver, & Thomas, 2017 ; Petticrew & Roberts, 2006 ; for systematic reviews in education, see Zawacki-Richter et al., 2020 ), including or not including meta-analysis (Borenstein, Hedges, Higgins, & Rothstein, 2009 ), are the gold standard to synthesize research to inform evidence-based policy and practice. As Hammersley ( 2020 ) noted, systematic reviews became influential “in the context of the longstanding, and challenging, issue of how to ‘translate’ research findings into reliable guidance for practical decision-making – to determine which policies, programs, and strategies should (and should not) be adopted” (p. 23). The methodological approach of systematic reviewing became influential by the emergence of the evidence-based medicine movement in the second half of the twentieth century. Systematic reviews are also being carried out more and more frequently in the educational sciences. Dowd and Johnson ( 2020 ) report an increase in the number of systematic reviews published in the leading journal Review of Educational Research with a proportion of 41% in 2017 and 43% in 2018.

Rather than providing a general overview of research trends and scholarly networks in a given discipline, systematic reviews aggregate findings of primary studies to answer a review question, indicate the direction or size of effect in a meta-analysis, or qualitatively arrange research findings in a configurative synthesis: “Rather than looking at any study in isolation, we need to look at the body of evidence” (Nordenbo, 2010 , p. 22). In contrast to traditional or narrative literature reviews, which are criticized as being biased and arbitrary, the aim of a systematic review is to carry out a review that is rigorous and transparent in each step of the review process, thereby making it reproducible and updatable.

Meta-analysis has a long tradition in ODDE research (see Bernard, Borokhovski, & Tamim, 2019 ) in comparing distance education with traditional face-to-face education (Bernard et al., 2004 ) or comparing learning outcomes (Zhao, Lei, Yan, Lai, & Tan, 2005 ) and learner performance (Means, Toyama, Murphy, Bakia, & Jones, 2009 ) between these two modes. Previous meta-analysis studies have focused on the impact of media on learning (e.g., see the second order meta-analysis by Tamim, Bernard, Borokhovski, Abrami, & Schmid, 2011 ), while meta-synthesis studies focused on factors influencing students’ experiences (Blackmon & Major, 2012 ), course environments, learning outcomes, learners’ characteristics, and institutional and administrative aspects (Tallent-Runnels et al., 2006 ).

Historically, it has often been the case that a triggering event at the macro- or meso-level has led to a new research direction at the micro-level. The next section will deal with these alternating research waves in ODDE.

Alternating Research Waves

Based on the different levels of 3 M-Framework, waves of alternating institutional and individual research perspectives were proposed by Zawacki-Richter and Naidu ( 2016 ). As an extended and updated version, four waves covering the past 40 years are presented in Fig. 5 . Responding to a triggering event such as the foundation of open universities, quality problems at distance teaching institutions, or the emergence of virtual universities, researchers turned their attention to issues on the micro-level of teaching and learning. The four waves can be labelled as follows: (1) the consolidation of distance teaching institutions and instructional design; (2) quality assurance and student support; (3) virtual universities, online interaction, and learning; and 4) artificial intelligence, big data, and intelligent support systems.

Alternating research waves over time (based on Zawacki-Richter & Naidu, 2016 )

The First Wave: Institutional Consolidation and Instructional Design

The establishment of open universities and distance teaching institutions around the world in the 1970s and 1980s was a critical milestone in the history of ODDE. This revolutionary new form of educational practice posed an enormous challenge on organizational management and professional practice. The idea of ODDE was embodied by these developments and found an opportunity to apply its theory and practice through a systems view (Moore & Kearsley, 2005 ). The temporal, spatial, and transactional distance between learners and learning sources (i.e., other learners, instructors, and learning materials) required the development of curriculum and instructional design strategies to effectively and efficiently deliver education.

The Second Wave: Quality Assurance and Student Support

With the removal of temporal and spatial barriers, more learners had the opportunity to access education. This situation also led to the emergence of massification in ODDE with mega universities (Daniel, 1996 ) of more than 100,000 or even millions of students. With the growth of distance teaching provision, quality problems emerged, resulting in low completion rates and dropout. It is not surprising to see that research focused on quality assurance and the implementation of learner support services along the student life cycle (see Reid, 1995 ). The ultimate purpose of quality assurance is to provide the best possible solutions to learners, and this requires a systematic approach, internal and external quality mechanisms, and policies and strategies in place. The nature and characteristics of learning processes in ODDE require a comprehensive and operational learner support system.

The Third Wave: Virtual Universities, Online Interaction, and Learning

The proliferation of information and communication technologies around the new millennium, and more specifically online networked technologies, allowed ODDE to expand its boundaries. Online learning is beginning to be seen as the new face of distance education. Researchers are fascinated by the enormous opportunities that the new information and communication technologies afford for collaborative online learning and teaching. The capacity increase that emerged with digital solutions has expanded the boundaries of not only education but also many concepts. For instance, openness, flexibility, and accessibility took new forms such as MOOCs, OER, and practices. With the integration of online distance learning, the boundaries between distance education institutions and conventional education providers are blurring, moving ODDE into the mainstream of education (Xiao, 2018 ).

The Fourth Wave: AI, Big Data, and Intelligent Support Systems

With the increasing digitalization and the spread of online technologies, a massive volume of (big) data has been produced that can be managed, processed, and analyzed. Artificial intelligence (AI) methods such as machine learning or deep learning are already used for learning analytics to identify students at risk (early warning systems), for automated assessment, and to design adaptive learning environments and intelligent tutoring systems (Zawacki-Richter, Marín, Bond, & Gouverneur, 2019 ). Despite the enormous potential of AI in education, challenges remain in terms of ethical implications and issues of privacy and data protection.

COVID-19 Pandemic: The Turning Point

As noted earlier, alternating research waves are shaped by significant developments in the history of the ODDE triggered by technological advances in the society. In this sense, we consider the COVID-19 pandemic as a turning point for many dimensions of our lives including ODDE. This section, thus, provides reflections from the recent articles which probably affect the future scenarios and identify possible future waves in ODDE.

The COVID-19 pandemic was a wake-up call for all walks of life across the globe, including open, distance, and digital education. The pandemic and its consequences indicate a new future that we can call the new normal where radical changes and paradigm shifts are ahead of us (Bozkurt & Sharma, 2020a , 2020b ; Xiao, 2021 ). A recent systematic review about emergency remote teaching and learning in schools during the COVID-19 pandemic reports that the studies were “heavily focused on the impact of lockdown and the COVID-19 pandemic on schools and learning, but particularly on the challenges experienced by teachers as a result of switching to online forms of teaching and learning” (Bond, 2020 , p. 204). These challenges were echoed in different studies and included social, psychological, and technological aspects. For instance, Crompton, Burke, Jordan, and Wilson ( 2021 ) reported that educational practices, ranging from digital to analog and from online to offline, were mostly dependent on educational technologies. Bozkurt ( 2022 ) examined impact of the Covıd-19 pabdemic and identifed three broad themes: (1) educational crisis and higher education in the new normal: resilience, adaptability, and sustainability, (2) psychological pressures, social uncertainty, and mental well-being of learners, and (3) the rise of online distance education and blended-hybrid modes. Bozkurt ( 2022 ) further noted that the future of education is being shaped in the present time and there is a need to focus on issues such as digital pedagogies, care and empathy-oriented pedagogies, equity and social justice, and new educational roles in the new normal. In a similar study, Mishra, Sahoob, and Pandey ( 2021 ) reviewed research trends in distance and online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic using co-citation analysis and keyword analysis with 330 peer-reviewed research articles and conference papers retrieved from the Scopus database. According to Mishra et al. ( 2021 ), the articles mostly cover post-secondary education (67.9%), whereas research in the context of K-12 education (10.3%) and workplace training and lifelong learning (7.6%) is lacking. They found that the field has focused on remote teaching and learning as a new term to describe online distance education. There has been a focus on educational technologies and their capabilities to support online learners.

These studies show that the COVID-19 pandemic was a turning point and an opportunity to reimagine and redesign education, including ODDE. It is also emphasized that considering teaching and learning are “primarily about human beings, for human beings, and by human beings” (Xiao, 2021 , p. 3), there is a need for care and empathy-oriented human-centered pedagogies (Bozkurt & Sharma, 2021 ).

Conclusions

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the flow and development of research in ODDE over time based on the 3 M-Framework of research areas on the macro-, meso-, and micro-level. Earlier bibliographic content analysis and systematic reviews report that ODDE has a clear focus and high research interest on interaction and communication in learning communities, learner characteristics, instructional design (micro-level), and educational technology (meso-level). These results also show which research areas we have examined sufficiently, and which research areas we should focus more on, hence offering clues for setting a future research agenda. Content analysis and text-mining studies demonstrate how the field of ODDE has been advancing and addressing emergent and diverse issues to ensure its sustainability. Through citation and journal network analysis studies, the intellectual growth of ODDE can be tracked, which in turn can guide new studies to build on previous research. In this process, systematic reviews, meta-analyses, and syntheses are conducive to identifying research gaps and priority areas and to informing evidence-based practice and interventions.

The onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 was certainly a global game-changer that has led to the application of ODDE across the globe in all education sectors. Driven by the societal transformation of digitalization, ODDE had been in the spotlight even before the COVID-19 pandemic – now ODDE has fully entered the mainstream of education. ODDE is now practiced in its different forms across all disciplines and on all educational levels from pre-school to higher education.

Even though the trigger from the COVID-19 pandemic is horrific, the future of ODDE looks bright and promising. In light of this development, it is important to build upon the theory, research, and practice in ODDE to prevent that the wheel is reinvented.

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Zawacki-Richter, O., Bozkurt, A. (2022). Research Trends in Open, Distance, and Digital Education. In: Handbook of Open, Distance and Digital Education. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-0351-9_12-1

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Students’ perceptions on distance education: A multinational study

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• José Alberto Lencastre 4  

International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education volume  17 , Article number:  18 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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Many universities offer Distance Education (DE) courses and programs to address the diverse educational needs of students and to stay current with advancing technology. Some Institutions of Higher Education (IHE) that do not offer DE find it difficult to navigate through the steps that are needed to provide such courses and programs. Investigating learners’ perceptions, attitudes and willingness to try DE can provide guidance and recommendations for IHEs that are considering expanding use of DE formats. A survey was distributed to undergraduate students in Portugal, UAE and Ukraine. The results of this pilot study showed that in all three countries, students’ major concerns about such programs were time management, motivation, and English language skills. Although students were somewhat apprehensive many indicated they were interested in taking DE courses. Six recommendations informed by interpretation of students’ responses and the literature, are offered to assist institutions who want to offer DE as part of their educational strategy.

Introduction

The World Wide Web has made information access and distribution of educational content available to a large fraction of the world’s population and helped to move Distance Education (DE) to the digital era. DE has become increasingly common in many universities worldwide (Allen & Seaman, 2017 ). Nonetheless, there are still many universities that do not provide this opportunity because it is not part of their institutional culture. As DE becomes more prevalent, countries and Institutions of Higher Education (IHE) that do not provide DE courses will need to look at this option to retain and expand their student population. (Keegan, 1994 ; Nakamura, 2017 ).

In order to develop such programs, it is useful to determine if students are receptive to taking such online courses and are prepared to do so. This study addresses students’ perceptions and their interest in DE. In addition, it provides a comparative analysis across three countries whose IHEs do not have extensive offerings in DE. The results of this research provide some strategies to encourage and support students to take DE courses.

Literature review

A seminal article by Keegan ( 1980 ) presents key aspects of DE. Some of the elements are: physical separation of teacher and learner, learning occurs in the context of an educational institution, technical media are used, teacher and learner communicate, face to face meetings are possible, and an industrial model of providing education is used. More recently varying definitions of DE seem to be based on the perspective of various educators and to reflect the educational culture of each country and IHE. However, some common descriptors seem to be accepted by most stakeholders in the field. Distance education is an educational experience where instructors and learners are separated in time and space (Keegan, 2002 ) which means it can happen away from an academic institution and can lead to a degree or credential (Gunawardena, McIsaac, & Jonassen, 2008 ).

Although there are different types of DE, this research focuses on online learning. The following types of online learning will be investigated: synchronous, asynchronous, blended, massive online open courses (MOOC), and open schedule online courses. In synchronous instruction, teachers and learners meet (usually online) for a session at a predetermined time. According to Watts ( 2016 ) live streaming video and/or audio are used for synchronous interaction. Although videoconferencing allows participants to see each other this is not considered a face-to-face interaction because of the physical separation (Keegan, 1980 ).

Asynchronous instruction means that teachers and learners do not have synchronous sessions and that students have access to course content through the Internet at any time they want or need. Communication among the participants occurs mainly through email and online forums and is typically moderated by the instructor (Watts, 2016 ). According to Garrison ( 2000 ) “Asynchronous collaborative learning may well be the defining technology of the postindustrial era of distance education.” (p.12) Yet another type of DE is blended learning (BL). Garrison and Kanuka ( 2004 ) define BL as combining face-to-face classroom time with online learning experiences. Although it is not clear as to how much time is allocated to online in the blended model “the real test of blended learning is the effective integration of the two main components (face-to-face and Internet technology) such that we are not just adding on to the existing dominant approach or method.” (p.97) In the BL format different teaching strategies and instructional technology can be used to help individuals who have different learning styles, needs and interests (Tseng & Walsh Jr., 2016 ).

Another type of DE is MOOCs (Massive Online Open Courses). This format was first introduced in 2006 and offers distributed open online courses that are available without cost to a very large number of participants (Cormier, McAuley, Siemens, & Stewart, 2010 ). MOOCs origins can be traced to the Open Access Initiative in 2002 which advocates sharing knowledge freely through the Internet. By providing educational opportunities MOOCs can address the increasing demand for training and education (Zawacki-Richter & Naidu, 2016 ). Finally, in open schedule online courses students work asynchronously with all the materials being provided digitally. Although there are deadlines for submitting assignments, students working at their own pace have some independence as to when they do their coursework (Campus Explorer, 2019 ).

There are advantages and disadvantages in taking DE courses. Some of the advantages are self-paced study, time and space flexibility, time saving (no commute between home and school) and the fact that a distance learning course often costs less. Disadvantages include a sense of isolation, the struggle with staying motivated, lack of face-to-face interaction, difficulty in getting immediate feedback, the need for constant and reliable access to technology, and occasionally some difficulty with accreditation (De Paepe, Zhu, & Depryck, 2018 ; Lei & Gupta, 2010 ; Venter, 2003 ; Zuhairi, Wahyono, & Suratinah, 2006 ).

Most of the literature concerning student perception of DE courses, both blended and entirely online, involves students who have enrolled in online courses. Some articles address comparisons of perceptions between face-to-face and online students regarding DE (Daniels & Feather, 2002 ; Dobbs, del Carmen, & Waid-Lindberg, 2017 ; Hannay & Newvine, 2006 ; Lanier, 2006 ). Additional studies address adult and undergraduate students and cover many aspects of the online experience (Dobbs et al., 2017 ; Horspool & Lange, 2012 ; Seok, DaCosta, Kinsell, & Tung, 2010b , a ). However, little, if any research has been conducted that only addresses perceptions of students who live in countries in which few IHEs offer online courses.

In a study comparing online and face-to-face learning, Horspool and Lange ( 2012 ) found that students chose to take online courses to avoid travel time to class and scheduling problems. A majority of both face-to-face and online students did not experience technological issues. Both groups also found that communication with the instructor was adequate. Online students indicated that instructor response time to questions was prompt. By contrast online students perceived peer communication as occurring much less often. Course satisfaction was comparable for both formats (Horspool & Lange, 2012 ). Responses to another survey concerning online and traditional course formats found that students’ reasons for taking online courses included flexibility to accommodate work and family schedules, the ability to avoid commuting to the university and more online courses being available to them (Dobbs et al., 2017 ). Both online and traditional students agreed that traditional courses were easier, and they learned more in that format. They also concurred that online courses required more effort. Experienced online students indicated that the quality of their courses was good while traditional students who had never taken an online course felt that the quality of online courses was lower.

There is additional research that focuses on students including those enrolled in community colleges, MOOCs, blended learning as well as adult learners. Community college students’ and instructors’ perceptions of effectiveness of online courses were compared by Seok et al. ( 2010b , a ). The researchers focused on pedagogical characteristics (management, Universal Design for Learning, interaction, teaching design and content) and technical features (interface, navigation and support). In addition, responses were examined based on various aspects of the subjects’ demographics. Two surveys with 99 items were distributed electronically. One survey was for instructors and the other for students. In general, instructors and students indicated that teaching and learning online was effective. Female students responded more positively to most questions concerning effectiveness, and instructors also found it more positive (Seok et al., 2010b , a ).

Students who enrolled in a MOOC were motivated to take other courses in this format based on their perception that it was useful for achieving their goals. In addition, their motivation was high if the course was posted on a platform that was easy to use (Aharony & Bar-Ilan, 2016 ). This study also found that as students proceeded through the course, they gained confidence.

Blended learning was examined by Kurt and Yildirim ( 2018 ) to determine student satisfaction and what they considered to be important features of the blended format. The results indicated that the Turkish students who participated, almost unanimously felt that BL was beneficial and that their own role and the instructors’ role was central to their satisfaction. The authors stated, “the prominent components in the process have been identified as face-to-face lessons, the features of online course materials, LMS used, design-specific activities, process-based measurement and evaluation, student-student interaction and out-of-class sharing respectively.” (p. 439) DE has a growth potential and offers the opportunity to reach many people (Fidalgo, 2012 ), hence it can be used as a technique for mass education (Perraton, 2008 ). According to Perraton ( 2008 ) DE can be adapted to the needs of current and previous generations who did not complete their education. DE can also reach individuals who live in remote locations and do not have the means to attend school.

Methodology

Study goals.

The goal of this pilot study is to examine what undergraduate students’ perceptions are concerning DE and their willingness to enroll in this type of course. This study focuses on three countries that do not offer extensive DE accredited programs. By comparing three countries with similar DE profiles, commonalties and differences that are relevant and useful can be found. When the IHEs from these countries decide or have the conditions to move towards DE, the results of this study may help them adapt this format to their particular context and students’ needs. Results may also help IHEs plan their strategy for offering online courses to current and future students and attract prospective students who otherwise would not be able to enroll in the face-to-face courses that are available.

Research questions

Have undergraduate students taken an online course previously?

What are undergraduate students’ perceptions of distance education?

What are the reasons for undergraduate students to enroll/not enroll is distance education courses?

What preparation do undergraduate students feel they need to have before taking distance education courses?

What is the undergraduate students’ receptivity towards enrolling in distance education courses?

What types of distance education would undergraduate students be interested in taking?

This research was conducted at IHEs in three countries (Portugal, Ukraine and UAE). A description of each country’s sociodemographic and technological use provides a context for this study.

Portugal, a country located at the western end of the European continent, has a resident population of just over 10 million people (Instituto Nacional de Estatistica, 2019 ). Data collected by Instituto Nacional de Estatistica in 2019 indicated that almost 81% of households in Portugal had Internet access at home. According to the Portuguese National Statistical Institute ( 2019 ), the rate of Internet use by the adult population is about 76%. Among this population, people who attend or have completed secondary and higher education have a higher percentage of Internet use (98%) (Instituto Nacional de Estatistica, 2019 ).

The most used devices to access the Internet are smartphones and laptops. Regarding computer tasks, the most frequent ones are copying and moving files and folders and transferring files from the computer to other devices (PORDATA - Base de Dados Portugal Contemporâneo, 2017 ).

Among Internet users, 80% use social networks, which is a higher percentage than the European Union (EU) average. Mobile Internet access (outside the home and workplace and on portable devices) is 84% and maintains a strong growth trend (Instituto Nacional de Estatistica, 2019 ).

Ukraine is one of the post-soviet countries located in Eastern Europe and it strives to be integrated in economic and political structures of the EU. The current population of the country is 42 million. Despite the low incomes of many Ukrainians, modern technological devices are widespread among the population. The State Statistics Service of Ukraine ( 2019 ) reported that there were 26 million Internet subscribers in the country in the beginning of 2019. However, Ukrainians do not have a high level of digital literacy yet. According to the Digital Transformation Ministry of Ukraine (Communications Department of the Secretariat of the CMU, 2019 ), almost 38% of Ukrainian people aged from 18 to 70 have poor skills in computer literacy and 15.1% of the citizens have no computer skills.

According to the survey conducted by the Digital Transformation Ministry of Ukraine (The Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine, 2019 ) 27.5% Ukrainian families have a tablet, and 30.6% have one smart phone, 26.4% have two smart phones, 16.5% have three smart phones and 10.8% have four and more smart phones. As for laptops, 42.7% Ukrainian families have a laptop and 45.6% have a desktop computer (The Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine, 2019 ). The data from the ministry did not indicate if families have multiple devices, however the data shows that technological devices are widespread.

The United Arab Emirates (UAE) is a country located in the Persian Gulf that borders with Oman and Saudi Arabia. The UAE has a population of 9.77 million and is one of the richest countries in the world based on gross domestic product (GDP) per capita. The resident population consists of 11,5% Emiratis and the remaining residents are expats from countries such as India, Pakistan, Philippines, Egypt and others (Global Media Insight, 2020 ).

Regarding technology use, 91% of the residents use mobile Internetand over 98% of the households have Internet access (Knoema, 2018 ). Mobile devices such as smartphones are used to access the Internet mainly at home or at work (Federal Competitiveness and Statistics Authority, 2017 ).

In 2017 the most frequent Internet activities were: sending/receiving emails (61%), posting information or instant messaging (55%), getting information about goods or services (45%), reading or downloading online newspapers, magazines or electronic books (41%) and telephoning over the Internet/VOIP (33%). Downloading movies, images, music, watching TV or video, or listening to radio or music is also a frequent activity performed by 27% of the Internet users followed by Internet banking (25%) and purchasing or ordering good and services (22%) (Federal Competitiveness and Statistics Authority, 2017 ).

While these three countries were selected due to the location of the researchers and thus provided convenience samples, the three countries have a similar lack of DE offerings. Online surveys were emailed to students enrolled in a variety of undergraduate face-to-face courses during the fall semester of 2018. The students in Portugal and the UAE were enrolled in a teacher education program and the survey was emailed to two course sections in Portugal (73 students) and four course sections in the UAE (108 students). At the IHE in Ukraine, students were majoring in applied mathematics, philology, diagnostics, social work and philosophy, and surveys were emailed to 102 students who were enrolled in five course sections. In Portugal and Ukraine, the URL for the online survey was emailed by the instructor of all the course sections. In the UAE the instructor who emailed the URL for the survey taught two of the course sections. The students in the other two sections knew this instructor from taking courses with her previously. The students participating in this study were a convenience sample based on the disciplines taught by the researchers.

Data collection

An online survey with 10 closed questions about undergraduate students’ perception and receptivity towards enrolling in DE courses was developed by the researchers. Ary, Jacobs, Sorensen, and Walker ( 2010 ) compared traditional methods (i.e. face-to-face, paper and pencil) with web-based surveys and found the latter to be are more effective for gathering data from many participants. The questions designed by the researchers were informed by their experience/practice as well as in-depth literature review. The survey was created to respond to the research questions that guided this study. Response choices to the multiple-choice questions were based on issues and concerns related to DE. Students’ responses were collected towards the end of the first semester of the 2018/19 academic year.

The survey was developed to address research questions that assess undergraduate students’ perceptions of DE and students’ receptivity towards enrolling in DE courses (c.f. Appendix ). The use of surveys allows researchers to “obtain information about thoughts, feelings, attitudes, beliefs, values, perceptions, personality and behavioral intentions of research participants.” (Johnson & Christensen, 2014 , p. 192) The survey questions included multiple response formats: Likert scale, select more than one response and multiple choice. Surveys for Portugal were presented in Portuguese. In Ukraine the surveys were translated into Ukrainian. Since English is the language of instruction at the UAE institution, their survey was in English. The URL for the survey was emailed to students by their instructors and was available in an online Google Form. The survey took approximately 10 min to complete. The study consisted of a “self-selected” convenience sample.

Data analysis

Survey results were recorded in Google Forms and an Excel spreadsheet was used to collect students’ responses. Descriptive statistics of the responses to the survey are presented in graphs and tables with percentages of responses displayed. The descriptive statistics provide summaries about the sample’s answers to each of the questions as well as measures of variability (or spread) and central tendency.

Research approval and data management

The research proposal was submitted to the Research and Grants Committee and approved by the Institutional Review Board of the college in the UAE. No personal information (name, College ID number or any other type of information that allows the identification of students) was asked from the students in the surveys. The surveys were anonymous. Only the Principal Investigator (PI) had access to all the data collected. The data will be stored in the PI’s password protected computer for 5 years.

Fifty five of the 73 Portuguese students who received the survey responded and 98 of the 108 UAE students responded. In the Ukraine 102 students were sent surveys and 70 responded. Below are participants’ responses to questions concerning age, gender, as well as level of confidence using the computer and the Internet.

Students’ age range was from 17 to 50 years old. Most students’ age ranges were between 17 and 29 years. Survey responses indicated that 7% of the students in the UAE were male and 93% female, in the Ukraine 43% were male and 57% female and in Portugal 9% male, and 91% female.

Participants were asked about their level of confidence using a computer and the Internet. Results are presented in Table  1 .

The use of participants from three countries allows the study of trends and to determine differences and/or similarities of perceptions about DE. Although the students were enrolled in courses in diverse content areas, they were all undergraduates, almost all under 30 years old, and most were confident using the computer and Internet. These demographic similarities provided a relatively cohesive group for this study while allowing a comparison across countries.

A range of questions were asked about students’ attitudes towards and experience with DE. To determine the participants’ experience with DE two questions were asked.

The data indicates that out of 223 students who responded to the survey, a total of 63 students have taken DE courses. Half of the Ukraine students, about one quarter of the UAE students and only 5% of students in the group from Portugal had taken DE courses (Fig.  1 ). As shown in Fig.  2 , of the students who have had previous experience in DE, most Ukraine students have taken one or two online courses, most UAE students have taken one course and a few Portuguese students have taken one course.

Students that have taken distance education courses

Number of distance education courses taken

More than half of Portuguese students, about two thirds of the Ukraine students and a little over one third of UAE students had a Very favorable or Favorable attitude towards DE. Approximately one third of Portuguese and Ukraine students were Neutral/Unable to judge their attitude. A little less than half of UAE students also indicated this. A small percentage of Portuguese, and one fifth of UAE students indicated their attitude was Very unfavorable or Unfavorable and no Ukraine students reported this (Table 2 ).

More than one third of Portuguese students shared that managing class and study time, saving time by choosing study location and working at their own pace were reasons to enroll in DE. About two thirds of the students from Ukraine reported that working at their own pace and managing their study time were reasons to enroll. A little more than half of these students reported that reasons for enrolling in DE included managing class time, saving time by selecting study location and not having to travel to school as well as having more options for courses or colleges to attend. Almost half of the UAE students had similar reasons for enrolling in a DE courses including managing class and study time, saving time by choosing study location and working at their own pace. In addition, a little more than half of the UAE students also shared that having more options for courses or colleges to attend were reasons to enroll. The reasons that were selected the least by all three groups were that courses were less expensive and enrolling in a preferred program (Tables  3 and 4 ).

Students were given eleven options as to why they would not enroll in DE courses, which are displayed in Tables  5 and 6 . Two reasons that were chosen most often were difficulty staying motivated and preferring face-to-face classes. A small number of Ukraine students reported this as a reason to not enroll in DE courses. Difficulty getting immediate feedback was also a concern for UAE students. Close to one third in the three groups indicated that difficulty contacting the instructor and interacting with peers as well as missing campus life are reasons for not enrolling. About one tenth of Portuguese, one fifth of Ukraine and one fifth of the UAE students reported difficulty getting accreditation as a reason for not enrolling. Not knowing enough about DE was indicated by one tenth of Portuguese, one fifth of Ukraine and one fifth of the UAE students. Only a small number of all the students indicated three categories that are frequently cited in the literature as preventing students from enrolling, these include access to technology, feeling of isolation and too great an expense.

Tables  7 and 8 show student responses to a question regarding the preparation they think they would need before enrolling in a DE course. A little over one tenth of the Portuguese students indicated that they needed better computer equipment, writing skills and a dedicated study space. About one quarter of these students reported they need better skills in the following areas: time management, computer and English language skills, as well as needing to have learning goals and objectives. Having a better Internet connection and the need to develop a study plan was shared by approximately one third of these students. Finally, the highest rated prerequisite for these Portuguese students was to be more motivated.

Few of the Ukraine students felt that they needed better computer equipment or skills, a dedicated study space or a better Internet connection at home. Their concerns focused on their behaviors as students since half or a little more than half felt they needed to be more motivated, have learning objectives and goals, a study plan and better management skills. About one third of these students also reported that they needed better English language skills.

The UAE students were less confident than the Ukraine students about computer skills and needing better equipment and a better Internet connection at home. Almost half of these UAE students reported their need for a study plan and motivation as their most pressing needs. Better management and English language skills were recorded by about one third of the students. One quarter of the UAE students felt they needed better writing skills and a dedicated study space.

Table 9 shows students’ interest in enrolling in DE courses. Almost one quarter of the Ukraine students are Extremely interested in taking DE courses and almost half are Somewhat interested. This contrasts with the students from Portugal who indicated that only 5% are Extremely interested and almost a quarter Somewhat interested. The UAE students’ interest in enrolling fell in between the students from the two other countries. One fifth to almost one third of all three groups were Neutral/Unable to judge. About one tenth of students from Ukraine reported Not being very interested or Not at all interested which contrasts with the Portuguese and UAE students whose numbers were about one half and one quarter respectively.

Tables  10 and 11 show the types of DE that the students were interested in trying. Portuguese students favored Open schedule courses, followed by Blended learning and Synchronous. Few of these students were interested in MOOCs and Asynchronous. More than half of the students from Ukraine were interested in MOOCs and Blended learning followed by Open schedule. About one third of these students were interested in Synchronous and Asynchronous. UAE students most popular formats were Open schedule and Blended learning followed by Synchronous and Asynchronous. There was little interest in MOOCs by the UAE students. Few Portuguese and Ukraine students indicated that they would not take a DE course, however, almost a quarter of the UAE students indicated this.

Data indicates close to a 100% of the UAE residents use the Internet at home or on their mobile devices (Knoema, 2018 ). By contrast a smaller percentage of individuals use the Internet in Portugal and the Ukraine (Infographics, 2019 ). Internet use in each country does not seem to greatly impact UAE students’ opinions regarding DE.

Students’ perceptions of DE vary across the participants from the three countries. Portuguese and Ukrainian students rated DE more favorably than UAE students. Half of the Ukrainian students have experience with DE which might account for their favorable attitude. In contrast, in Portugal only a very small percentage of the students had experience. However, this does not seem to have negatively influenced their attitude towards DE. The interest level and engagement with new technologies by Portuguese students may help explain the favorable perception the participants had toward DE. A study by Costa, Faria, and Neto ( 2018 ) found that 90% of Portuguese students use new technologies and 69% of them use new technologies more than an hour and a half a day. Based on three European studies, Diário de Noticias ( 2011 ) stated that Portuguese students “appear at the forefront of those who best master information and communication technologies (ICT).” (para.1) Another factor influencing respondents might be that currently, and for the first time, the Portuguese government has passed a law that will regulate DE in the country. This new law will open the possibility for other IHEs to provide DE courses that lead to a degree.

Ukrainian students reported a high level of confidence in operating technological devices. The reason for this may be, in part, because of state educational requirements. Since the end of the 1990s, all Ukrainian students in secondary schools have at least one computer course as a mandatory element of their curriculum. This course covers a wide range of issues, which vary from information society theory to applied aspects of computer usage. Among the seven learning goals of this course three address digital literacy (Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine, 2017 ). Ukrainian students who responded to the survey have taken computer courses for at least 5 years.

In the UAE, most DE courses and programs are not accredited by the Ministry of Education (United Arab Emirates Ministry of Education, 2016 ), which may account for UAE students lack of experience and their inability to judge this type of instruction.

It is worth analyzing the reasons why students enrolled or would enroll in DE courses. The reasons for taking DE courses, such as time management issues, are supported by studies concerning self-regulation and higher retention rates (Bradley, Browne, & Kelley, 2017 ; Peck, Stefaniak, & Shah, 2018 ). Students’ interest in having more control of their study time is also mentioned as one of the primary benefits of DE (Alahmari, 2017 ; Lei & Gupta, 2010 ). Regarding the reasons for not enrolling in DE courses, participants from the three countries mentioned difficulty contacting instructors and peers. Also, more than half of the students in Portugal and the UAE indicated they preferred face-to-face classes. Most students have spent their entire academic lives in traditional classes where interaction and immediate feedback from instructors and peers are more common. These concerns may be why students perceive they would lose a familiar type of interaction and have to engage with classroom participants in a new and different way (Carver & Kosloski Jr., 2015 ; Morris & Clark, 2018 ; Robinson & Hullinger, 2008 ; Summers, Waigandt, & Whittaker, 2005 ). It should be noted that the Portuguese and UAE students were enrolled in teacher education programs and are training to be face-to-face teachers. They may not understand the potential of DE format and are not preparing or expecting to use DE in their professional careers.

Difficulty being motivated was another reason chosen by the participants of the three countries to not enroll in DE courses. The lack of experience in this type of educational format may help explain student lack of confidence with their ability to study and stay on task. This response contrasts with the reasons reported for enrolling in DE courses such as controlling their study time. On one hand, participants like the prospect of having the ability to manage their own time. On the other hand, they are concerned they may lack the discipline they need to be successful.

Although the literature indicates that access to technology, isolation and expense are reasons frequently cited as preventing students from enrolling in DE courses (Lei & Gupta, 2010 ; Venter, 2003 ; Zuhairi et al., 2006 ), these reasons were selected by a very small percentage of the participants of this study. Access and affordability of technology has rapidly increased over the last decade which may help explain this inconsistency. Students may understand that DE courses are now less expensive than traditional university courses (Piletic, 2018 ) and they do not cite this as a reason for not enrolling. Relatively few students indicated they would feel isolated. Since this generation is in constant communication using technology (Diário de Notícias, 2011 ) they may not associate DE learning with isolation. However, it is interesting to note that there was a greater concern for interacting with instructors and peers than isolation.

The Ukrainian students are the most receptive to enrolling in DE courses. This is consistent with their positive perception of this type of learning. In addition, the previous experience of half of the participants may influence their interest as well as encourage their peers’ receptivity. UAE students do not have much experience and fewer than half are open to enrolling in DE courses. This may be due to their lack of experience and other concerns previously mentioned. Only one third of the Portuguese participants indicated their interest in enrolling in DE courses. This is in contrast with almost two thirds saying they had a favorable or very favorable attitude. The reasons for this inconsistency are not evident.

In terms of preparation needed to take DE courses, technical concerns were less of an issue for the participants of all three countries than skills and behaviors. Most participants’ answers focused on student skills including computer, English language and time management. Behaviors such as developing a study plan, having learning goals and objectives and being more motivated were also mentioned. The perceived need for better English language skills was expressed by about one third of the participants, none of whom have English as their native language. English speaking countries have been dominant in DE making English the most commonly used language in online learning (Sadykova & Dautermann, 2009 ). Regarding time management, half of the Ukrainian students expressed their need for improvement in contrast to approximately one third of the participants from the other countries. The difference among responses may be because the Ukrainian students are more self-reflective, or the others are more disciplined. Although both DE and face-to-face courses have deadlines for tasks and assessments, in the face-to-face courses, students meet in person with their instructors who may support and press them to do their work. Lack of in person contact may account for the participants feeling they need to improve these skills when taking DE courses (De Paepe et al., 2018 ). Students expressed concerns about lacking certain skills and having certain behaviors that would lead them to be reluctant to enroll in DE courses. The need for help and preparation are some of the concerns that participants reported. Perceived needs may account for the students’ apprehensions regarding taking DE courses. To promote this type of instruction, IHEs could address students’ concerns (Mahlangu, 2018 ).

Open schedule and blended learning courses were the two preferred formats stated by the participants. The reason that Open schedule is the most popular may be that it provides more freedom than other types of courses. Blended learning offers the familiar face-to-face instruction and some of the conveniences of DE which may be why participants are interested in this model.

Studies regarding the use of MOOCs in all three countries have been conducted indicating that researchers in these locations are aware that this course format is of potential interest to local students (Eppard & Reddy, 2017 ; Gallacher, 2014 ; Gonçalves, Chumbo, Torres, & Gonçalves, 2016 ; Sharov, Liapunova, & Sharova, 2019 ; Strutynska & Umryk, 2016 ). Ukrainian students selected MOOCs much more than students in the other countries. The reason for this may be that these students are more knowledgeable about MOOCs, because this type of course is usually at no cost and/or offered by prestigious IHEs (Cormier et al., 2010 ). However, this study did not ask why students were interested in MOOCs or other types of DE courses.

Limitations and future research

While this study offers useful information regarding undergraduate students’ perception and receptivity in taking DE courses, it has limited generalizability because of the size of the sample and the type of statistical analysis performed. Participants from two of the countries were enrolled in teacher education programs and were primarily female, thus future studies would benefit from including more students in diverse programs and a more equitable gender distribution.

Since many IHEs also offer programs for graduate students it would be useful to survey these students about their opinion and availability to enroll in DE courses. This would provide additional information for IHEs that are interested in developing DE programs.

There were some inconsistencies in the students’ responses such as Portuguese students’ interest in enrolling in DE courses not matching their favorable/ very favorable attitude towards DE. It would be helpful to conduct future research regarding this and other inconsistencies.

A study is currently being planned to collect data that will provide a larger and more diverse sample and include additional IHEs. This future research will potentially increase the available knowledge on how to provide DE for a greater number of students.

Conclusion and recommendations

Further development of DE courses and programs at IHEs in countries such as Portugal, UAE and Ukraine have good prospects. The students’ primary concerns regarding taking DE courses were similar among the three countries. These concerns included time management, motivation, and English language skills. However, this did not totally diminish participants interest in taking online courses especially for the Ukrainian students.

Based on this research, there are some obstacles that can be addressed to support the expansion of DE in the three countries that were studied and in other countries. The following recommendations may assist IHEs in promoting DE.

Recommendations for preparation within IHEs

IHEs can take proactive steps to prepare DE offerings, however, a one-size fit all model may not be appropriate for all countries and IHEs. Each institution needs to develop their own plan that meets the needs of their students and faculty. Data from this pilot study and the literature (Elbaum, McIntyre, & Smith, 2002 ; Hashim & Tasir, 2014 ; Hux et al., 2018 ) suggest that following steps might be taken:

Assess readiness to take DE courses through a survey and have students speak with counselors.

Provide pre-DE courses to build skills and behaviors based on students’ concerns.

Train instructors to develop and deliver DE courses that help to overcome obstacles such as motivation and time management.

Offer courses in a blended learning format to familiarize students with online learning which may provide a transitional model.

Recommendations for IHE outreach

This study shows that there is some student interest in enrolling in online courses. It is not sufficient for IHEs to make changes internally within their own institution. IHEs need to develop external strategies and actions that help advance the development of DE:

Promote DE in social media to target potential students and encourage them to take courses.

Urge government agencies to accredit DE courses and programs.

This pilot study provides some background information that may help IHEs to offer DE courses. Additional research about students’ preferences and needs regarding DE should be conducted. The sample size, IHEs included and participating countries could be expanded in order to gain a greater understanding.

Different cultural characteristics need to be taken into account in the development of online courses and programs. DE is being increasingly included by IHEs all around the world. To stay current, universities will need to find ways to offer DE to their current and prospective students.

Acknowledgements

Not applicable.

This research was not funded.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Curriculum and Instruction Division, Emirates College for Advanced Education, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

Patricia Fidalgo

Educational Technology Division, Lesley University, Cambridge, MA, USA

Joan Thormann

Philosophy Department, Oles Honchar Dnipro National University, Dnipropetrovs’ka oblast, Ukraine

Oleksandr Kulyk

Department of Curricular Studies and Educational Technology, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal

José Alberto Lencastre

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Patricia Fidalgo: design of the work, data collection, analysis, interpretation of data, and draft of the work. Joan Thormann: design of the work, analysis, interpretation of data, and draft of the work. Oleksandr Kulyk: data collection, interpretation of data, and draft of the work. José Alberto Lencastre: data collection. The author(s) read and approved the final manuscript.

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Online Survey Questions

1. If the students have taken any distance education courses previously and if yes, how many;

2. What are the students’ perceptions of distance education;

3. What are the reasons students would enroll in distance education courses;

4. What are the reasons students would not enroll in a distance education course;

5. What preparation do students feel they need before taking distance education courses;

6. What is the level of students’ interest towards enrolling in distance education courses;

7. What types of distance education would students be interested in trying;

8. What is the students’ age;

9. What is the students’ gender;

10. How confident do students feel using a computer and the Internet.

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Fidalgo, P., Thormann, J., Kulyk, O. et al. Students’ perceptions on distance education: A multinational study. Int J Educ Technol High Educ 17 , 18 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-020-00194-2

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113 Distance Education Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best distance education topic ideas & essay examples, 👍 good essay topics on distance education, ⭐ interesting topics to write about distance education, ✅ simple & easy distance education essay titles.

• Online Classes Vs. Traditional Classes Essay The essay shall endeavor to examine the differences between online classes and the traditional classes, with a preference for the later.
• Benefits of Online Learning This knowledge and skill one gains from online help the person to intermingle with others in a better way, progress their profession, or develop their business successfully.
• The Importance of Online Learning For this purpose, it is possible to conduct classes in real-time, when they can ask and receive the opinion of others.
• Traditional vs. Distance Learning Systems On the other hand, in online learning, the students partake learning individually, and in some cases, students doing the same course in the same college do not even get to know each other.
• Comparison of Stress Level Among Traditional Learning and Online Learning College Students The distance learners have been perceived to be enjoying a suitable environment of learning as opposed to the traditional classroom learners who experience high levels of stress.
• Distance Learning: Advantages and Limitations All three articles cover the topic of distance learning in the context of the coronavirus and everyday practice. Speaking of the advantages of distance learning, the author suggests that remote learning may not be ideal […]
• How to Succeed in Online Classes The time you attend the class has to coincide with the time of day when your brain is also most receptive to the information it receives.
• Online Learning and Classroom Learning Combining the two concepts then, we can define e-learning “as a learning environment that exists solely in the form of digital content that is stored, accessed and exchanged through networked computer and information systems” The […]
• Virtual Learning: Yes and No Argumentation The argument stems from the quality of the education that can be received via the internet and what the drawbacks are once there is no physical contact between students and the professors.
• Zoom for Online Learning Updates During the pandemic, the zoom was and is still the most downloaded App in the USA and globally compared to others.
• Personal Reflections for the MBA Distance Learning I was able to concentrate on various subjects, complete assignments, and liaise with different instructors throughout the learning process. The approach made the learning process desirable and capable of supporting my aims.
• The Impact of Distance Learning on the Mental State The argument of the supporters of the first perspective is based on the fact that online education reduces the ability of students to concentrate and deteriorates overall motivation.
• Administrative Progressivism in Relation to Online Learning The main idea of the discussion is to consider online learning from the perspective of administrative progressivism with identifying the advantages and disadvantages of using the mentioned approach along with the chosen method of study.
• Online Learning in Vocational Education and Training There are different variations in the process of learning on the basis of the types of combination and integration with the other technologies used for the teaching and learning process.
• The Roles of Families in Virtual Learning By analyzing the various roles that families play in virtual learning, the authors demonstrate that family involvement and support are critical to the success of their children The authors begin by discussing the impact of […]
• Distance Learning During the COVID-19 Pandemic The radical transition from the traditional system of obtaining knowledge to virtual education actualizes research related to the analysis of the specifics and dysfunctions of distance learning.
• The Need for Online Learning at St. Francis Elementary School This has led to the need to design an online learning platform suitable for interactive and critical learning experiences by the tutors and their learners.
• Online Learning Perception and Effectiveness While the solution allowed students to access information and continue their studies, there was apprehension in regard to the efficacy of online learning and the outcomes such shifts have on students’ academic performances.
• Distance Learning of Forest Management Considering that the goal of the research was to analyze the results and implications of a practical approach to the forest management course engagement and e-learning development, most information was derived from the expert team […]
• A Distance Learning Program: Strategies for Successful Starting or Expanding An institution has to identify the most appropriate communication tools and media to be used by students and teachers in a distance learning program.
• Starting and Expanding Distance Learning Program Therefore, decision-makers must grapple with the problem of distant learning planning, as institutions are caught between the desire to serve students online and the requirement to maintain traditional student services.
• Factors for Teachers’ Motivation in Distance Learning Efficient communication with the administration of an institution is a crucial factor that affects the motivation of teachers in distance learning.
• Strengths and Weaknesses of Online Learning Amidst that confusion, it would be important to take a deep look into the subject and see the disadvantages and the advantages of online learning.
• Pros and Cons of Distance Education On the one hand, modernization of education allows it to expand the usual boundaries of transmitting and receiving information in the educational process while retaining all the integral components.
• Rhetorical Analysis of the Distance Education The essay can be addressed both to the children and parents for whom the issues of health and psychology are important.
• Distance Learning Experiences of In-Service Music Teachers From Puerto Rico The study explores the experiences of in-service music teachers in distance learning. This paper examines the motivations of in-service teachers in distance learning.
• Design Thinking for Online Learning Project In this paper, attention will be paid to the problem of a lack of engagement with online learning and a reflection on design thinking as its solution.
• Maximizing the Effectiveness of Online Learning Flipped learning allows the teacher to provide the greatest amount of time for direct interaction with students, which is especially important in the framework of online learning.
• New Online Learning Platform: Market Analysis The goal of online education is to enhance the knowledge of people who want to pursue a particular career for a fee that is lesser when compared to offline studies in Universities.
• Software Engineering Online Learning Center However, it is not easy to tell what the website is promoting just by the look of the homepage and thus, visitors with less time might not be interested to click to the sub-sections and […]
• Distance Education Problem Overview Generally, distance education can be evaluated as a binary prospect: on one hand, it presents a row of advantages for the people who are busy with their work and family duties, and on the other […]
• Negotiation: Distance Learning and Social Change The conflict that arises, in this case, is that the Pirates are demanding ransom money from the owners of the tanker in order to release it and its crew. The essay has given a detailed […]
• Online Learning in Jordan Universities: Effectiveness and Obstruction For the quality learning process, e-learning has been developed to use different approaches to ease the process of learning. E-learning is a novel idea in most of the Arab world and it has come with […]
• Online Learning Institutions and Courses This account allows you to access the online learning institutions library. Which are the most reliable online learning institutions?
• Professional Development Methods: Distance Education Technologies Professional development at universities has included methods to assist faculty in improving course design and educational methods, as well as in becoming familiar with and applying educational technologies, such as distance education tools. These centers […]
• Why Distance Education Can Fulfill the Purpose of a True Education? The only reason I can see for professors to frown upon distance education is that it has removed their infallibility in the eyes of the students.
• Distance Education vs Traditional Institutions Though both foreign and traditional education institutions provide knowledge and skills to students in order to enable them become competent in their profession, the institutions vary in the quality of degree courses they provide to […]
• Distance Learning Fulfilling Education Purpose Distance learning mode of education, which is a kind of education that takes place when the teachers and the students are separated by space and time, does not entirely serve the purpose of education. The […]
• Distributed and Distance Learning Systems It is a system that can be of great impact to the researchers this is because one is able to get information that will help him or her get a cue for that group that […]
• Social Constructivism in Cooperative and Distance Learning As opposed to the behaviorist view of learning which gives more importance to the imitation aspects of the learner in the learning process, this constructivist theory gives greater room for the active interaction of the […]
• Online Learning and Learning Behaviours In such a way, the main reason for the creation of this project is the increased popularity of online learning and the need for the in-depth investigation of this phenomenon because of its increased demand.
• Nurses and Virtual Learning Environments: Understanding Limits in Nursing Education Despite the expected benefits and improvements in nursing education due to the use of virtual learning environments, this practice may create a number of challenges for students and teachers.
• Online Learning Design Specifications The rapid rise of technologies and the evolution of communication means resulted in the appearance of new approaches to the learning process.
• Innovative Social Networking in Online High School The preparedness of the school is also critical towards the success of this innovative technology. The school should also examine the benefits and bottlenecks of the new technology.
• Online Classes for High School Students I wish to submit to you that the need for extra input in terms of study has caused many parents to enroll their children in online study classes to supplement the knowledge they get from […]
• Online Learning Environments The questions will be posted to the group by the instructor. The learners are likely to face a number of challenges in the course of the module.
• Evaluating Online Learning Tools The learners can be referred to reliable wikis and blogs to integrate the ideas learnt from the class. In this manner, the desires of people to learn are not limited by distance and time.
• Online Learning Principles and Objectives In this way, the students will not only argue the purposes and significance of the course to their life, but also create an interactive session among the students and their instructor. As the instructor, I […]
• Online Learning Space Creating Process On the other hand, a community of practice has been known to mean a crowd of people who are in the same career or share the same interest.
• Distance Learning and Virtual High School This implies that district schools in lines with virtual High school are of much importance to both the educators and students.
• Distance Education: Best Practices and Approaches The study with the use of a case-based learning system undertaken by Cifuentes, Mercer, Alverez, and Bettati in 2010 demonstrated that students could remotely participate in the learning process without the need to be physically […]
• Learning Objectives Implementation With the advent of the internet, online courses have sprouted resulting in the debate on the two options, traditional class setting, and the online class.
• The Importance of Virtual Learning Communities The learning communities enable the instructors and the students to volunteer their questions. The virtual learning communities enable online degree programs to give students autonomy over the learning process.
• Distance Learning and Its Evolution Definitions of distance education are varied and diverse, but the main concept of distance learning can be summarized from the situation wherein the student and the educator are separated by distance and time and the […]
• Online Learning and Innovations in Pedagogy On the other hand, computer-based learning can be understood as a learning environment in which computers are used to mediate between learners and content without necessarily being online.
• Efficient Interaction in Distance Learning Classroom The problem is that the number of enrolments in the online form of education is augmenting, even as the knowledge regarding the factors that influence the effectiveness of distance education continues to be scarce.
• Virtual Learning Environments: Effective Use Tutors often face the challenge of effective delivery of lessons in the classroom given the diverse categories of students. Learning objects basically refer to blocks of content that can be interlinked to produce a course.
• Using Wikis to Encourage Online Classes Collaborative Work The problem is that the entire process seems to ignore the relevance of enabling students to interact and share their ideas in the learning environment.
• Technology Acceptance Model of Online Learning The findings of the study demonstrate the effectiveness of external variables related to online learning environments in predicting the ability of users to adopt online learning community.
• Formulating an Online Learning Course Reviewing is done from the student side where a person analyzes the content and readability of the information contained in the online learning program.
• Tone Impact in Distance Education Thus, in this paper, the tone will refer to the tone the instructor implies in the text material and the tone of conversations between the instructors and the students.
• Ethical Issues in Online Learning The online assessment methods should consider the ethical issues arising from the learning process. The assessment methods should be able to prevent all forms of dishonesty during the learning process.
• Virtual Learning Environment: Concord Consortium The problem is that this capitalization can be perceived as sign of rudeness, and it can make reluctant to take part in the discussion. Provided that a teacher can promote the involvement of students, they […]
• High School of Virtual Learning Environment The aim will be to see incorporation of the system, the opportunities, and the challenges faced while using Virtual Learning Environment.
• Transition From Traditional Education to Online Learning The speed of information transfer at any time and anywhere through the internet makes online learning relatively cheap compared to the traditional education system.
• Distance Learning OL and Interactive Video in Higher Education The two-way communication systems as well as the need to interact ‘physically’ between and among the participants are what propelled the adoption of this mode of learning.
• Distance Learning Foundational Concepts Another problem that arises as a result of distance learning is the lack of face to face or one on one contact between teachers or instructors and their students.
• Convenience and Flexibility of the Online Classes The advantage of online courses for full or part-time employed individuals is that you can plan how you take your courses. Online classes also introduce students to a variety of web-based tools and techniques that […]
• Concept of Distance Learning in Modern Education System The accessibility of the distance learning courses mainly depend on the awareness of the instructor to the accessibility issues and how the instructor can best handle the course with consideration of accessibility.
• Changes in Learning and Motivation With the Advent of Online Learning Institutions of learning have introduced online learning through improvement of infrastructure, incorporation of new technologies in learning, recruitment of professionals who are conversant with new technologies, and revision of curriculums in order to accommodate new […]
• Creating Student Engagement in Online Learning Environment To contribute to creating and stimulating student engagement in online learning environments, it is important to focus on such factors as the increase of students’ motivation, focus on independent and inquiry-based learning, the active role […]
• Online Learning Is a Superior Form of Education This paper will argue that online learning is a superior form of education since it helps students and learning institutes to overcome limitations imposed by the traditional learning environment.
• Computer and Internet Facilities Use in Distance Education
• Asynchronous Distance Education Issues
• Distance Education, Leadership, and Management
• Teaching and Learning Online: Contextualizing the Distance Education Classroom as a “Safe Space” for Learning
• Nursing and Distance Education: Regulation and Legislation
• Tertiary Distance Education and Student Adjustment
• Accreditation Need and Distance Education
• Adult Students’ Problems in the Distance Education and Online Learning
• Distance Education Student’s Experiences of Participation and Inclusion in Teaching and Learning in Higher Education
• Impact of Distance Education on Higher Education Across the World
• Factors That Influence Learning Outcomes of Adult Students Enrolled in Distance Education
• Computer and Long Distance Education
• Distance Education and Low Education
• Tips for Managers Setting up a Distance Education Program
• Distance Education Theory: Dialog, Structure, and Learner Autonomy
• The Benefits and Future of Distance Education
• Distance Education Investment Reasons
• How Distance Education Has Changed the World of Education
• Distance Education Practice: Methods and Benefits
• Rural Versus Urban Students – Differences in Accessing and Financing
• Academic Success Factors: Distance Education Versus Traditional
• Online Education Versus Distance Education Versus Face-To-Face Learning
• The Advantages and Disadvantages of Distance Education
• Theoretical Framework for Distance Education
• Measuring Perseverance and Passion in Distance Education Students: Psychometric Properties of the Grit Questionnaire and Associations With Academic Performance
• Distance Education and Its Impact on the World
• Face-To-Face and Distance Education Modalities in the Training of Healthcare Professional
• Distance Education Has Changed the World: Evolution of Online Learning
• Old Apprehensions, New Anxieties: A Study of Student ‘Psychological Cost’ in Traditional and Distance Education
• Distance Education Issue and Its Significance
• The Missing Borders: Pedagogical Reflections From Distance Education
• Distance Education and Telecommunications Technologies
• Time Management for Distance Education
• How Distance Education Can Help Poorer and Developing Countries
• College Distance Education Courses: Evaluating Benefits
• The Necessity for Distance Education and E-Learning
• Distance Education for Students With Disabilities
• Pros and Cons of Online Distance Education vs. Traditional Education
• Distance Education and the Isolation of Rural Schools
• Finding Determinants Affecting Distance Education Effectiveness in Terms of Learner Satisfaction and Application Achievement
• Teaching Philosophy Research Topics
• Social Development Essay Topics
• Brain-Based Learning Essay Titles
• Academic Achievements Research Topics
• Bilingualism Research Topics
• Classroom Management Essay Topics
• Machine Learning Ideas
• Online Community Essay Topics
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• International Journal of Distance Education Technologies A forum for researchers and practitioners to disseminate practical solutions to the automation of open and distance learning . from 01/01/2003 to present
• International Journal of e-Learning & Distance Education Aims are to promote and encourage scholarly work in e-learning and distance education and provide a forum for the dissemination of international scholarship. from 03/01/2014 to present
• Open Education: The Journal for Open Education & Educational Technology Publishes theoretical papers, original research, translations of articles, reviews and presentation of congress, symposiums, conferences, seminars and educational activities which are relevant to Open and Distance Education Technology. from 12/01/2009 to present
• Quarterly Review of Distance Education Publishes articles, research briefs, reviews, & editorials dealing with the theories, research, & practices of distance education. from 03/01/2002 to present
• Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education (TOJDE) Contains articles focusing on the issues and challenges of providing theory, research and information services to global learners in any kind of distance education or open learning applications. from 2000 to present
• Education Database This link opens in a new window Coverage spans the literature on primary, secondary and higher education as well as special education, home schooling and adult education. More Info
• LearnTechLib This link opens in a new window Contains over thirty years worth of peer-reviewed and published international journal articles and conference papers on the latest research, developments, and applications related to all aspects of Educational Technology and E-Learning. View a tutorial on this database here .

• EDUCAUSE A nonprofit association that helps higher education elevate the impact of Information Technology
• European Association for Distance Learning (EADL) EADL aims to improve the quality and acceptance of distance learning to ensure the maximum benefit for students. EADL provides its members with a forum for open discussion of all issues related to distance learning and for sharing ideas and good practice.
• International Council for Open and Distance Education (ICDE) Global membership organization for online, open and flexible education and draws its membership from institutions, educational authorities, commercial actors, and individuals.
• Online Learning Consortium Dedicated to quality digital education for anyone, anywhere, anytime.
• United States Distance Learning Association The first nonprofit distance learning association in the United States to support distance learning research, development and praxis across the complete arena of education, training and communications.
• Comprehensive Internationalization

This page links to resources related to issues in international higher education.  Including relevant:

• Comprehensive Internationalzation
• British Educational Research Journal International peer reviewed medium for the publication of articles of interest to researchers in education and has rapidly become a major focal point for the publication of educational research from throughout the world. from 1997 to present
• Education Research International An international journal aimed at facilitating the global exchange of education theory from 2011 to present
• International Journal of Educational Development Reports new insight and foster critical debate about the role that education plays in development. from 1981 to present
• Journal of Higher Education Publishes original research reporting on the academic study of higher education as a broad enterprise. from 01/01/1997 to present
• Journal of Studies in International Education (JSIE) Forum for higher education leaders, administrators, educators, researchers and policy makers interested in all facets of the internationalization of higher education. from 03/01/1997 to present

• Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law Online No longer available as of December 2023
• Social Sciences Citation Index This link opens in a new window A multidisciplinary database indexing more than 3,000 journals across 55 social science disciplines, as well as selected items from 3,500 of the world's leading scientific and technical journals
• Springer LINK This link opens in a new window Access over 480 journals, books, book series (including Lecture Notes in Computer Science and Topics in Current Chemistry), protocols, and reference works published by Springer and its partners. Covers subjects in computer science, engineering, humanities, social sciences, law, business and economics, biomedical and life sciences. Tutorial for the Springer LINK database.

Comprehensive Internationalization Framework

Comprehensive internationalization is defined by the American Council on Education (ACE) as a strategic, coordinated process that seeks to align and integrate policies, programs, and initiatives to position colleges and universities as more globally oriented and internationally connected institutions.

Based on its work colleges and universities in the  ACE Internationalization Laboratory  and other institutions, ACE has identify six interconnected target areas that require attention and resources in order to achieve truly comprehensive internationalization. Together, these comprise the  ACE Model for Comprehensive Internationalization :

For detailed information about the  six interconnected target areas pictured above, click on the following link:  Comprehensive internationalization Framework .

Visit the Internalization Toolkit   which includes e xamples of policies, programs, surveys, and information from participants in the Internalization Laboratory  program and other institutions.

• Alliance for International Exchange An association of 90 nongovernmental organizations comprising the international educational and cultural exchange community in the United States.
• American Council on Education (ACE) describe
• ACE Model for Comprehensive Internationalization Based on its work colleges and universities in the ACE Internationalization Laboratory and other institutions, ACE has identify six interconnected target areas that require attention and resources in order to achieve truly comprehensive internationalization. Together, these comprise the ACE Model for Comprehensive Internationalization:
• Consortium for North American Higher Education Collaboration CONAHEC advises and connects institutions interested in establishing or strengthening academic collaborative programs within the North American region and beyond.
• European Association for International Education (EAIE) The EAIE is the European centre for expertise, networking and resources in the internationalisation of higher education.
• IIE: The Power of International Education IIE’s mission is to help people and organizations leverage the power of international education to thrive in today’s interconnected world
• International Higher Education Teaching and Learning Association (HETL) The aim of HETL is to bring together higher education professionals and thought leaders from around the world to dialogue, network, and collaborate on issues relevant to teaching and learning in higher education.
• NAFSA: Association of International Educators the world's largest nonprofit association dedicated to international education and exchange, working to advance policies and practices that ensure a more interconnected, peaceful world today and for generations to come.
• Federal & State Resources

This page links to resources related to the role of legislation and law in higher education. Including relevant:

• Brigham Young University Education and Law Journal Articles, review articles, commentary and book reviews covering legal topics within the field of education. from 1993 to present
• Journal of College and University Law he only law review in the United States dedicated exclusively to the law of higher education. Since post-secondary education represents a microcosm of the greater community and world, virtually all legal issues of significant interest—race, gender, freedom of speech, religion and bioethics—arise on our campuses. from 1973 to present
• Journal of Law and Education Devoted exclusively to school law, with emphasis on critical current & emerging issues, serving both the legal & educational professions. from 1972 to present
• HeinOnline Very large image-based legal research database includes such collections as: Legal Classics, Law Journal Library, U.S. Supreme Court Library, U.S. Federal Legislative History Library, Treaties and Agreements Library and more.
• JSTOR Collection of core scholarly journals in the humanities, social sciences, and sciences digitized in most cases back to the first date of issue. JSTOR also includes selected books, primary sources and other materials for academic work.

JSTOR The complete text (full back runs) of core scholarly journals in Anthropology, Asian Studies, Ecology, Economics, Education, Finance, History, Mathematics, Philosophy, Political Science, Population Studies and Sociology.

PolicyFile Public policy research and analytical papers on governmental and legal topics can be accessed here, representing the work of think tanks, research groups and academic institutes.

Public Affairs Information Service Formerly PAIS Decade, this database consists of articles, books, conference proceedings, government documents, book chapters, and statistical directories.

• Code of Maryland Regulations (COMAR) The official compilation of all administrative regulations issued by agencies of the state of Maryland.
• Congress.gov Presented by the Library of Congress, Congress.gov is the official website for U.S. federal legislative information.
• Maryland Higher Education Commission Coordinating board responsible for establishing statewide policies for Maryland public and private colleges and universities and for-profit career schools. MHEC also administers state financial aid programs that affect students on a statewide basis.
• State Council of Higher Education for Virginia (SCHEV) SCHEV is the Commonwealth's coordinating body for higher education.
• U.S. Department of Education - Laws and Guidance Legislation, regulations, guidance, and other policy documents can be found here for the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), and other topics. NOTE: In the U.S., the federal role in education is limited. Because of the Tenth Amendment, most education policy is decided at the state and local levels.
• Virginia Codes, Rules and Statutes Includes bill tracking, browsing and searching, a comprehensive subject index of bills, resolutions and documents, and state code searching.

• Center for Excellence in Higher Education Law and Policy at Stetson Law School Provides a unique resource for both attorneys and non-attorneys alike in advancing a better understanding of the ever-changing realm of higher education.
• Education Law Association he premier association for practical knowledge, scholarship, and interdisciplinary dialogue about legal and policy issues affecting all levels of education.
• National Association for College and University Attorneys The Association's purpose is to enhance legal assistance to colleges and universities by educating attorneys and administrators as to the nature of campus legal issues.
• University of Houston Law Center: Institute for Higher Education Law and Governance It has as its primary aim providing information and publications to colleges and universities related to the field of higher education law, and also has a broader mission to be a focal point for discussion and thoughtful analysis of higher education legal issues
• Professesional Organizations

This page links to resources related to issues related to minorities and gender in higher education.  Including relevant:

• Diverse Issues in Higher Education Covers issues & events affecting diverse groups in higher education. from 8/25/2005 to present
• Equity and Excellence in Education Contains essays relating to implementing equality of learning and expanding understanding of its implications in a multicultural world; studies on schools in society. from 04/01/1997 to present
• Gender & Education Articles and viewpoints from around the world which contribute to feminist knowledge, theory, consciousness, action, and debate. from 03/01/1995 to present
• Gender, Work and Organization Dedicated to advancing theory, research and analytically driven applications concerning gender relations at work, the organization of gender and the gendering of organizations. Draws on organisation and management theory, cultural studies etc. from 01/01/1996 to present
• Journal of Diversity in Higher Education Offers research findings, theory, and promising practices to help guide the efforts of institutions of higher education in the pursuit of inclusive excellence. from 03/01/2008 to present
• Journal of Hispanic Higher Education Devoted to the advancement of knowledge and understanding of issues at Hispanic-serving institutions. from 01/01/2002 to present
• Women Studies Quarterly An interdisciplinary forum for the exchange of emerging perspectives on women, gender, and sexuality from 03/01/2008 to present
• GenderWatch This link opens in a new window Provides publications that focus on how gender impacts a broad spectrum of subject areas. Its archival material, dating back to 1970, focuses on the evolution of the women's movement, men's studies, the transgendered community and the changes in gender roles over the years.
• LGBTQ+ Source This link opens in a new window Historically significant Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender journals, magazines and regional newspapers, as well as full-text monographs/books. Scope includes traditional academic, cultural, lifestyle and regional material, as well as speeches, case studies, newsletters and more.
• Sociological Abstracts This link opens in a new window Abstracts and indexes the international literature of sociology and related disciplines in the social and behavioral sciences.

• American Association of University Professors Committed solely to college and university faculty members. It defends academic freedom and tenure, advocates collegial governance, and develops policies ensuring due process.
• American Association of University Women (AAUW) The nation’s leading voice promoting equity and education for women and girls.
• American Council on Education: Diversity & Inclusion Programs, resources and research to foster greater diversity and inclusion in higher education, particularly within the senior leadership ranks.
• Association on Higher Education & Disability (AHEAD) AHEAD has offered an unparalleled member experience to disability resource professionals, student affairs personnel, ADA coordinators, diversity officers, AT/IT staff, faculty and other instructional personnel, and colleagues who are invested in creating welcoming higher education experiences for disabled individuals.
• Consortium of Higher Education LGBT Resource Professionals Support individuals who work on campuses to educate and support people of diverse sexual orientations and gender identities, as well as advocate for more inclusive policies and practices through an intersectional and racial justice framework
• Hispanic Association of Colleges & Univeristies (HACU) HACU is committed to Hispanic success in education, from kindergarten through graduate school and into the work force of tomorrow.
• Planning journals
• Policy Journals

This page links to scholarly and empirical resources which examine: local, regional, state and federal higher education policies local, regional, state and federal higher education planning policies and practices related to the economics of higher education higher education legislation and the law

• Journal of Marketing for Higher Education Focuses on the marketing of higher education. from 02/01/1997 to present
• Perspectives: Policy and Practice in Higher Education Provides higher education managers and administrators with innovative material which analyses and informs their practice of management. from 03/01/1997
• Planning for Higher Education Covers trends and issues in academic planning and management, planning techniques and applied research of relevance to educational decision making. from 10/01/2008 to present
• Quality in Higher Education Aimed at those interested in the theory, practice and policies relating to the control, management and improvement of quality in higher education from 04/01/1997 to present
• Educational Policy Examines the relationship between educational policy and educational practice, and sheds new light on important debates and controversies within the field. from 03/01/1987 to present
• Education Policy Analysis and strategic research Contains analysis of education policy at all levels and in all nations. 01/15/2006 to present
• Higher Education Policy Focuses on issues of significance in higher education policy. from 01/01/1997 to present
• Higher Education Quarterly Articles concerned with policy, strategic management and ideas in higher education. from 1987 to present
• Journal of Education Policy Publishes original, critically and theoretically informed research that discusses, analyses and debates policymaking, policy implementation and the impact of policy at all levels and in all facets of formal and informal education from 01/01/1997 to present
• Journal of Higher Education Policy & Management The journal also aims to be of use to managers and senior academic staff who seek to place their work and interests in a broad context and influence educational policy and practice. from 05/01/1997 to present
• Studies in Higher Education The Journal welcomes contributions that seek to enhance understanding of higher education policy, institutional management and performance, teaching and learning, and the contribution of higher education to society and the economy. from 01/01/1976 to present
• PAIS Index This link opens in a new window Covers issues in the public debate through selective coverage of a variety of international sources including journal articles, books, government documents, statistical directories, grey literature, research reports, conference papers, web content, and more, from 1972 to present. Includes PAIS Archive, covering content published in print 1915-1976. Tutorial for PAIS Index database.

• Association for the Study of Higher Education romotes collaboration among its members and others engaged in the study of higher education through research, conferences, and publications, including its highly regarded journal,
• Brown Center on Education Policy at the Brookings Institution The Law Library collects all Brookings Institution publications; check GULLiver catalog for print versions. This site provides a subject arrangement of Brookings' publications on education. Topics included are: education equality, education finance, education research, education statistics, elementary and secondary education (K-12), higher education, school choice, teachers, testing and assessments.
• Society for College and University Planning (SCUP) community of higher education leaders responsible for the integration of planning on their campuses and for the professionals who support them.
• University Risk Management and Insurance Association (URMIA) URMIA's core purpose is to promote the advancement and application of effective risk management principles and practices in institutions of higher education.

This page links to resources related to issues in program evaluation in higher education.  Including relevant:

• American Journal of Evaluation Contains articles on techniques and methods of evaluation to assist evaluators to improve the theory and practice of their profession, to develop their skills, to encourage dialogue, and to improve their knowledege base. from 02/01/1981 to present
• Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education Provides current information about significant developments within the field of assessment & evaluation in higher education. from 03/01/1997 to present
• Educational Assessment, Evaluation & Accountability Original title: Journal of Personnel Evaluation in Education (2002 - 2007). Focuses on educational effectiveness from 2009 to present
• Evaluation & Program Planning Based on the principle that the techniques and methods of evaluation and planning transcend the boundaries of specific fields and that relevant contributions to these areas come from people representing many different positions, intellectual traditions, and interests. from 1978 to present

Cambridge Journals Online   Over 125 specialized journals from renowned research societies and associations in the sciences, social sciences, and humanities.

Education Full Text  Coverage of education-related English-language periodicals, monographs & yearbooks. Topics include: comparative education, educational technology, multicultural/ethnic education, teaching methods, literacy standards, school administration & others.

Education Research Complete   Education Research Complete covers all aspects of education including multilingual education, health education, testing, curriculum instruction, administration, policy, funding, and all levels of education from early childhood to higher education.

Educational Administration Abstracts   Abstracts of literature concerning educational administration, including educational leadership, educational management, and educational research.

Social Sciences Citation Index   A multidisciplinary database, with searchable author abstracts for over 60% of the articles, covering the journal literature of the social sciences

• The American Evaluation Association The American Evaluation Association is a professional association of evaluators devoted to the application and exploration of program evaluation, personnel evaluation, technology, and many other forms of evaluation. Evaluation involves assessing the strengths and weaknesses of programs, policies, personnel, products, and organizations to improve their effectiveness.
• Center for Measuring University Performance (MUP) A research enterprise focused on the competitive national context for major research universities. The MUP work relies heavily on the initiative and insight of its advisory board and draws on the insight and recommendations of many colleagues throughout the country who contribute data, information, and perspective.
• Council for Higher Education Accreditation A national advocate and institutional voice for promoting academic quality through accreditation,
• Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education (CAS} Pre-eminent force for promoting standards in student affairs, student services, and student development programs.
• National Institute for Learning Outcomes Assessment (NILOA) NILOA’s primary objective is to discover and disseminate ways that academic programs and institutions can productively use assessment data internally to inform and strengthen undergraduate education, and externally to communicate with policy makers, families and other stakeholders.
• Professional Oragnizations

This page links to resources related to issues in student services in higher education.  Including relevant:

• College Student Affairs Journal Focuses on concepts, practices, and research that have implications and applicability for practitioners involved in college student affairs work. from 03/01/2005 to present
• Journal of College & University Student Housing Features current research, literature reviews, & other scholarly material of interest to housing officers. from 06/01/2004 to present
• Journal of College Student Development Largest and leading source of research about college students and the field of student affairs, publishes scholarly articles and reviews from a wide range of academic fields. from 01/01/2003 to present
• Journal of Educational Administration & History The Journal publishes papers that contribute to and historicise debates on educational administration, leadership, management and policy in a range of settings. from 01/01/1997 to present
• Journal of Student Affairs Research & Practice (JSARP) Formerly known as NAPSA Journal. JSARP publishes the most rigorous, relevant, and well-respected research and practice making a difference in student affairs practice from 01/01/2010 to present
• New Directions for Student Services A series of thematic journals offering guidelines and programs for aiding students in their total development--emotional, social and physical as well as intellectual. from 01/01/1996 to present
• Sage Journals Online This link opens in a new window Provides online access (searching and browsing) to over 800 journals published by Sage in fields of Business, Humanities, Social Sciences, and Science, Technology and Medicine. Tutorial for the Sage Journals Online database.

• American Association of Collegiate Registrars & Admissions Officers Provides professional development, guidelines, and voluntary standards to be used by higher education officials regarding the best practices in records management, admissions, enrollment management, administrative information technology, and student services.
• American College Personnel Association (ACPA) Leading comprehensive student affairs association that advances student affairs and engages students for a lifetime of learning and discovery.
• Association for Student Conduct Administration (ASCA) The mission statement of ASCA is to advance the student conduct profession.
• National Academic Advising Association (NACADA) NACADA promotes and supports quality academic advising in institutions of higher education to enhance the educational development of students.
• National Association of Student Affairs Professionals (NASAP) The mission of NASAP is to promote professional development training, research, and advocacy for student affairs professionals and student leaders who serve at Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) and those professionals who serve in other diverse settings of higher education.
• National Association of Student Financial Aid Administrators (NASFAA) Provides professional development and services for financial aid administrators; advocates for public policies that increase student access and success; serves as a forum on student financial aid issues, and is committed to diversity throughout all activities.
• Teaching methods journals
• Theory & practice journals
• Searching for a specific journal

This page links to resources related to issues in teaching methods and curriculum in higher education.  Including relevant:

• Active Learning in Higher Education An international, refereed publication for all those who teach and support learning in higher education (HE) and those who undertake or use research into effective learning, teaching and assessment in universities and colleges. from 07/01/2000 to present
• Curriculum Inquiry Dedicated to studies of educational experience in schools, communities, families, and other local or transnational settings, using a range of theoretical and disciplinary approaches. from 01/01/1997 to present
• International Journal of Teaching & Learning in Higher Education Provides broad coverage of higher education pedagogy and the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning (SoTL) across diverse content areas, educational institutions, and levels of instructional expertise. from 2006 to present
• Journal of Computing in Higher Education Contributes to our understanding of the design, development, and implementation of instructional processes and technologies in higher education. from 01/01/1997 to present
• National Teaching & Learning Forum Covers the breadth of college teaching and learning issues including learning theory, class management, pedagogical innovation, technology and more from 1997 to present
• Teaching in Higher Education Addresses the roles of teaching, learning and the curriculum in higher education in order to explore and clarify the intellectual challenges which they present. from 03/01/1997 to present
• Action Learning: Research and Practice Publishes articles which advance knowledge and assist the development of practice through the processes of action learning. from 04/01/2004 to present
• Higher Education Research & Development Informs and challenges researchers, teachers, administrators, policy-makers and others concerned with the past, present and future of higher education. from 04/01/1997 to present
• Innovative Higher Education A refereed scholarly journal of articles presenting descriptions and evaluations of current innovations in higher education that strike a balance between practice and theory. from Fall 1983 to present
• Journal of Higher Education Theory and Practice Dedicated to the advancement and dissemination of academic and intellectual knowledge by publishing, through a blind, refereed process, ongoing results of research in accordance with international scientific or scholarly standards. from 04/01/2011 to present
• New Directions for Teaching & Learning A series of thematic journals presenting ideas and techniques for improving college teaching, based both on the practical expertise of seasoned instructors and on the latest research findings of educational and psychological researchers. from 01/01/1996 to present
• Professional Development in Education Publishes original contributions on professional learning and development (PLD) in its widest sense. from 03/01/2009 to present

• American Association of University Professors AAUP has helped to shape American higher education by developing the standards and procedures that maintain quality in education and academic freedom in this country's colleges and universities. We define fundamental professional values and standards for higher education, advance the rights of academics, particularly as those rights pertain to academic freedom and shared governance, and promote the interests of higher education teaching and research.
• American Educational Research Association The American Educational Research Association (AERA), a national research society, strives to advance knowledge about education, to encourage scholarly inquiry related to education, and to promote the use of research to improve education and serve the public good.
• Educause EDUCAUSE is a nonprofit association whose mission is to advance higher education through the use of information technology.
• National Education Association: Higher Education Faculty & Staff Provides a wealth of information on organizing, issues and advocacy, and much more
• Tomorrow's Professor Tomorrow’s Professor is a mailing list aimed at sharing diverse and world-wide teaching and learning topics among its 25,000+ subscribers. This initiative is sponsored by the Stanford Center for Teaching and Learning.
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94 Distance Education Essay Topics

Are you looking for the best distance learning essay topics? You’ve come to the right place! StudyCorgi has prepared plenty of research questions about online learning and e-learning ideas for essays and other writing assignments. Read on to get inspired!

🏆 Best Distance Learning Essay Topics

✍️ distance education essay topics for college, 🎓 most interesting online learning research topics, 💡 distance education research topics, ❓ research questions about online learning.

• Reasons Why Face-To-Face Education Is Better Than Online Learning
• Pros and Cons of Online Learning
• Online Learning vs. In-Person Learning
• Distance Learning: Advantages and Disadvantages
• Distance Learning vs. The Traditional Classroom
• Online Learning During the Pandemic
• Online Learning Technologies
• Traditional vs. Virtual Learning Environment With the development of the ICT system, the traditional learning environments are in the process of developing new virtual spaces designed for learning.
• Why More and More Students Are Taking Online Classes? In the recent days, online learning has acquired a lot of popularity in many countries. Online enrollment is convenient to most students and many people opt to apply this strategy.
• Online Classes: Computer Literacy and Knowledge The aim of the paper is to prove that educational establishments should change their policies to introduce online classes.
• Distance Learning and Social Change Distance learning can be defined as a form of education where learners can learn wherever they are through the use of technology.
• Online Learning and Students’ Mental Health Mental health is an aspect that attracts significant attention from researchers interested in investigating the connection between the lack of social interactions.
• Information Technology Enabled Online Learning This paper investigates on the aspect of Information Technology – enabled online learning and the relevant technologies that are utilized.
• Technology, Distance Education, and Its Quality This paper examines major issues associated with technology and distance learning and how they impact on the quality of education offered to learners.
• Learner Isolation in Distance Education Research demonstrates that distance education is the “magic bullet” in addressing nursing shortage issues and ensuring that nurses have the opportunity to advance their skills.
• Past and Current Trends in Distance Education Distance learning has been evolving as time goes by and this means that there are certain trends that need to be looked at.
• Learning Methods: Online Learning Online learning takes place without the physical presence of the instructor. It is a structured learning which involves online teaching in absence of the instructor.
• Education Theory for Online Learning Teaching online entails the development of instructions for students and delivering them through technological gadgets.
• Distance Learning for Addressing Nurse Shortage Distance education could be embraced to teach more individuals and address the current predicament of the nursing shortage.
• Benefits, Challenges, and Opportunities of Distance Learning This paper will explore the question of the extent distance learning can be used as an effective tool for promoting equal educational opportunities.
• Hidden Curriculum in Online Classes The hidden curriculum both for online and face-to-face classes specifies the necessity to obey rules, standards, and laws, listen to people who have more knowledge and experience.
• Online Learning as an Integral Component of the Education System The essay will examine how online learning has become an integral component of the education system and the benefits it offers compared to the physical classroom model.
• Theories, Tools, and Principles of Online Learning Modern technology has changed education designs. Using a range of new communications and network tools it is easy to design an online education platform.
• The Social Interaction in an Online Learning Community The modern online education needs adjustments related to the facilitation of independent learning, student collaboration, and minimization of the role of the teacher.
• The Benefits of Taking Online Classes The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic negatively impacted the majority of public and private sectors, including the education system.
• Analysis of Cultural Disconnect in Virtual Learning Environments There has been a cultural disconnect in learning environments in education. Language is the most significant contributor to cultural disconnect within the educational centers.
• Zines Distance Learning Education and Before You Go Magazine The review of zines Distance Learning Education and Before managed to underline their significance for the modern population in terms of their functions and characteristics.
• Online Learning and Education Course Reflections The course on online learning and the application of information technologies has demonstrated to me that educators should help students reduce extraneous processing.
• Adobe Connect GoToMeeting in Distance Learning The study has focused on the impacts of implementing Adobe Connect Gotomeeting in distance learning as a collaboration tool and its impact on instructions and learning.
• Open and Distance Education in India: In Which Direction Is the Wind Blowing in the 21st Century
• The Missing Borders: Pedagogical Reflections From Distance Education
• Zane Berge Viewpoint About the Future of Distance Education
• Tips for Managers Setting up a Distance Education Program
• Distance Education and Its Impact on the World
• Computer and Long Distance Education
• How Has Distance Education Changed the World of Education?
• Critical Thinking Distance Education and Traditional
• Technology and Teens Today: Neil Postman Distance Education
• Distance Education Investment Reasons
• Nursing and Distance Education
• Tertiary Distance Education Student Adjustment
• Distance Education and the Isolation of Rural Schools
• Assessing and Comparing Perceptions of Distance Education in the U.S. And Britain With Kazakhstan
• Theoretical Framework for Distance Education
• The Impact of Distance Education on the Process of Learning
• Distance Education for Students With Disabilities
• Financial Aid for Distance Education Students
• Time Management and Distance Education
• Good Critical Thinking About E-learning in Distance Education
• Distance Education for Adult Education and Self Enrichment Course
• Distance Education Student’s Experiences of Participation and Inclusion in Teaching and Learning in Higher Education
• Critical Thinking Distance Education and Traditional Education
• Distance Education Can Help Poorer Countries
• Accreditation Need and Distance Education
• Distance Education and Telecommunications Technologies
• College Distance Education Courses: Evaluating Benefits
• Improving Distance Education Programs
• Learning Communities and Distance Education
• Distance Education, Leadership, and Management
• How Technology Will Evolve Through Distance Education?
• Distance Education: Definition and Glossary of Terms Assignment
• Factors Contributing Toward Student Performance in a Distance Education Accounting Degree
• Academic Success Factors: Distance Education Versus Traditional
• The Role of Student Support in Open Distance Learning
• Education and Distance Education in Apartheid South Africa
• Exploring Acceptance Towards Environmental Sustainability of Distance Education in Malaysia
• The Demand for Distance Education
• Michael Foleys Viewpoint About the Future of Distance Education
• Sir Daniel’s Viewpoint About Future Distance Education
• How Should Distance Learning Be Implemented?
• What Are the Advantages and Disadvantages of Distance Learning?
• How Is Technology Beneficial to the Learning Success of Students in Distance Education?
• Why Choose Distance Learning?
• What Are the Disadvantages of Modular Distance Learning?
• Is Distance Learning Effective for Students?
• What Are the Main Challenges Facing Students and Teachers During Distance Learning?
• How Can Distance Learning Challenges Be Overcome?
• Why Is Distance Learning Difficult for Students?
• Has the Internet Transformed Distance Education?
• What Are the Effects of Distance Learning on Students?
• Is Distance Learning as Effective as Face to Face?
• What Are the Challenges of Distance Learning During the Coronavirus Pandemic?
• How Has Distance Education Changed Teaching?
• Which Is Better Distance Learning or Online Learning?
• What Is the Impact of Distance Learning on Student Engagement in Learning?
• Does Distance Education Have Value?
• What Is the Scope of Distance Education?
• Is Distance Education Valid for Teaching?
• Can Distance Education Be a Good Alternative to Classroom Education?
• Will Distance Education Replace Classroom Courses in the Future?
• Why Is Distance Education More Relevant in the Modern Education System?
• How Has the Internet Contributed to the Field of Distance Education?
• Why Is There a Need for Distance Education Both in Developed and Underdeveloped Countries?
• How Is Technology Helpful in Providing Distance Education?

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These essay examples and topics on Distance Education were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on December 28, 2023 .

86 Distance Education Research Topics & Essay Examples

📝 distance education research papers examples, 🏆 best distance education essay titles, 🎓 simple research topics about distance education, ❓ distance education research questions.

• Efficient Interaction in Distance Learning Classroom Recent trends indicate that learners and instructors have regarded distance-learning classrooms as efficient methods of learning, where technology supports active learning.
• Distance Learning Replacing Traditional Classes Amidst the COVID-19 pandemic there have been many discussions surrounding the future of online education replacing the traditional form of education.
• Distance Learning Overview While remote learning has become more popular due to developing technology and the necessity to keep the distance, it is still a work in progress.
• Distance Learning Replacing Traditional Classes The article presents the author's reasoning on the topic of whether online learning can replace traditional education.
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• Should Distance Learning Replace Traditional Education Distance learning provides safety, flexibility, and the customization of the learning experience, it should not replace traditional education that ensures effective communication.
• Education at WGU School Review WGU is the type of school that will allow the author to progress at a pace that is most suitable to the author, which will allow him to become the best teacher that he can be.
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• Online Education in Canada Before Covid-19 Pandemic Online education was already an established concept in many nations, including Canada, before 2020 and the advent of COVID-19.
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New $90 Million Project to Create Digital Research Hub Focused on K-12 Education

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The National Science Foundation has awarded Rice University $90 million to build what is being described as a first-of-its-kind education research hub that will leverage data from an array  of major digital learning platforms currently serving tens of millions of students. 

The university recently announced the investment as its largest ever federal research grant. OpenStax at Rice, a major publisher of open education resources, will build the research and development hub known as SafeInsights .

The project will focus on producing “research-informed insights about teaching and learning for educators, institutions and learning platforms to use to create tailored programs, pedagogies and policies that will equip learners to thrive.”

“Just like there are bigger telescopes that let astronomers see deeper into the night, SafeInsights’ goal is to have this large student population that will enable researchers to see deeper into the student learning experience,” Slavinsky said in an interview. 

The SafeInsights hub will take five years to build, he said, with early research projects b eginning in 16 to 18 months, and full-scale research operations starting in 2029. 

School districts’ commitment to seeking and using research-based educational strategies is uneven at best. Many district officials complain that academic and other scientifically based research is too abstract, disconnected from their work, and outdated to be of practical use in their decision-making.

When surveyed recently by EdWeek Market Brief on what sorts of research they value most when choosing products and services, district and school leaders were much more likely to point to data on student outcomes, or product usage data than they were rigorous, experimental research.

Data Security in Focus 

At $90 million, the award is NSF’s largest investment in research and development infrastructure for education at a national scale, the university said.

In the past, education research has been hampered by small study groups and short time frames, but the recent boom in digital learning can provide researchers with a plethora of data needed to better understand academic outcomes, Slavinsky said. 

SafeInsights’ goal is to have this large student population that will enable researchers to see deeper into the student learning experience. J.P. Slavinsky, Executive Director, SafeInsights

And research will not be limited to only STEM (science, technology, engineering, and math) areas. Schools, education companies, and researchers participating in SafeInsights will bring their own research agenda, Slavinsky said.

Protecting student data is a major concern within school districts, particularly as  schools’ and students’ reliance on technology  has steadily grown.

The data collected as part of the new project will remain secure, Slavinsky said. No student information will be revealed to researchers. 

Instead, researchers will submit their inquiries to SafeInsights, and the research hub will have the data in question analyzed where it is originally stored — by schools or on a digital platform — and provide researchers with aggregate results. 

The research and development project will be a central hub for 80 partners and collaborating institutions. That number is expected to grow, Slavinsky said. 

“One of the great things about SafeInsights is that it is very scalable,” he said. “And we want to build this community, so we can get a better and better picture of the students and the teachers we’re trying to help.” 

Follow  EdWeek Market Brief  on Twitter  @EdMarketBrief  or connect with us on  LinkedIn .

Image credit Stockyarder/DigitalVision/Getty

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