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How to carry out great interviews in qualitative research.
11 min read An interview is one of the most versatile methods used in qualitative research. Here’s what you need to know about conducting great qualitative interviews.
What is a qualitative research interview?
Qualitative research interviews are a mainstay among q ualitative research techniques, and have been in use for decades either as a primary data collection method or as an adjunct to a wider research process. A qualitative research interview is a one-to-one data collection session between a researcher and a participant. Interviews may be carried out face-to-face, over the phone or via video call using a service like Skype or Zoom.
There are three main types of qualitative research interview – structured, unstructured or semi-structured.
- Structured interviews Structured interviews are based around a schedule of predetermined questions and talking points that the researcher has developed. At their most rigid, structured interviews may have a precise wording and question order, meaning that they can be replicated across many different interviewers and participants with relatively consistent results.
- Unstructured interviews Unstructured interviews have no predetermined format, although that doesn’t mean they’re ad hoc or unplanned. An unstructured interview may outwardly resemble a normal conversation, but the interviewer will in fact be working carefully to make sure the right topics are addressed during the interaction while putting the participant at ease with a natural manner.
- Semi-structured interviews Semi-structured interviews are the most common type of qualitative research interview, combining the informality and rapport of an unstructured interview with the consistency and replicability of a structured interview. The researcher will come prepared with questions and topics, but will not need to stick to precise wording. This blended approach can work well for in-depth interviews.
Free eBook: The qualitative research design handbook
What are the pros and cons of interviews in qualitative research?
As a qualitative research method interviewing is hard to beat, with applications in social research, market research, and even basic and clinical pharmacy. But like any aspect of the research process, it’s not without its limitations. Before choosing qualitative interviewing as your research method, it’s worth weighing up the pros and cons.
Pros of qualitative interviews:
- provide in-depth information and context
- can be used effectively when their are low numbers of participants
- provide an opportunity to discuss and explain questions
- useful for complex topics
- rich in data – in the case of in-person or video interviews , the researcher can observe body language and facial expression as well as the answers to questions
Cons of qualitative interviews:
- can be time-consuming to carry out
- costly when compared to some other research methods
- because of time and cost constraints, they often limit you to a small number of participants
- difficult to standardize your data across different researchers and participants unless the interviews are very tightly structured
- As the Open University of Hong Kong notes, qualitative interviews may take an emotional toll on interviewers
Qualitative interview guides
Semi-structured interviews are based on a qualitative interview guide, which acts as a road map for the researcher. While conducting interviews, the researcher can use the interview guide to help them stay focused on their research questions and make sure they cover all the topics they intend to.
An interview guide may include a list of questions written out in full, or it may be a set of bullet points grouped around particular topics. It can prompt the interviewer to dig deeper and ask probing questions during the interview if appropriate.
Consider writing out the project’s research question at the top of your interview guide, ahead of the interview questions. This may help you steer the interview in the right direction if it threatens to head off on a tangent.
Avoid bias in qualitative research interviews
According to Duke University , bias can create significant problems in your qualitative interview.
- Acquiescence bias is common to many qualitative methods, including focus groups. It occurs when the participant feels obliged to say what they think the researcher wants to hear. This can be especially problematic when there is a perceived power imbalance between participant and interviewer. To counteract this, Duke University’s experts recommend emphasizing the participant’s expertise in the subject being discussed, and the value of their contributions.
- Interviewer bias is when the interviewer’s own feelings about the topic come to light through hand gestures, facial expressions or turns of phrase. Duke’s recommendation is to stick to scripted phrases where this is an issue, and to make sure researchers become very familiar with the interview guide or script before conducting interviews, so that they can hone their delivery.
What kinds of questions should you ask in a qualitative interview?
The interview questions you ask need to be carefully considered both before and during the data collection process. As well as considering the topics you’ll cover, you will need to think carefully about the way you ask questions.
Open-ended interview questions – which cannot be answered with a ‘yes’ ‘no’ or ‘maybe’ – are recommended by many researchers as a way to pursue in depth information.
An example of an open-ended question is “What made you want to move to the East Coast?” This will prompt the participant to consider different factors and select at least one. Having thought about it carefully, they may give you more detailed information about their reasoning.
A closed-ended question , such as “Would you recommend your neighborhood to a friend?” can be answered without too much deliberation, and without giving much information about personal thoughts, opinions and feelings.
Follow-up questions can be used to delve deeper into the research topic and to get more detail from open-ended questions. Examples of follow-up questions include:
- What makes you say that?
- What do you mean by that?
- Can you tell me more about X?
- What did/does that mean to you?
As well as avoiding closed-ended questions, be wary of leading questions. As with other qualitative research techniques such as surveys or focus groups, these can introduce bias in your data. Leading questions presume a certain point of view shared by the interviewer and participant, and may even suggest a foregone conclusion.
An example of a leading question might be: “You moved to New York in 1990, didn’t you?” In answering the question, the participant is much more likely to agree than disagree. This may be down to acquiescence bias or a belief that the interviewer has checked the information and already knows the correct answer.
Other leading questions involve adjectival phrases or other wording that introduces negative or positive connotations about a particular topic. An example of this kind of leading question is: “Many employees dislike wearing masks to work. How do you feel about this?” It presumes a positive opinion and the participant may be swayed by it, or not want to contradict the interviewer.
Harvard University’s guidelines for qualitative interview research add that you shouldn’t be afraid to ask embarrassing questions – “if you don’t ask, they won’t tell.” Bear in mind though that too much probing around sensitive topics may cause the interview participant to withdraw. The Harvard guidelines recommend leaving sensitive questions til the later stages of the interview when a rapport has been established.
More tips for conducting qualitative interviews
Observing a participant’s body language can give you important data about their thoughts and feelings. It can also help you decide when to broach a topic, and whether to use a follow-up question or return to the subject later in the interview.
Be conscious that the participant may regard you as the expert, not themselves. In order to make sure they express their opinions openly, use active listening skills like verbal encouragement and paraphrasing and clarifying their meaning to show how much you value what they are saying.
Remember that part of the goal is to leave the interview participant feeling good about volunteering their time and their thought process to your research. Aim to make them feel empowered , respected and heard.
Unstructured interviews can demand a lot of a researcher, both cognitively and emotionally. Be sure to leave time in between in-depth interviews when scheduling your data collection to make sure you maintain the quality of your data, as well as your own well-being .
Recording and transcribing interviews
Historically, recording qualitative research interviews and then transcribing the conversation manually would have represented a significant part of the cost and time involved in research projects that collect qualitative data.
Fortunately, researchers now have access to digital recording tools, and even speech-to-text technology that can automatically transcribe interview data using AI and machine learning. This type of tool can also be used to capture qualitative data from qualitative research (focus groups,ect.) making this kind of social research or market research much less time consuming.
Data analysis
Qualitative interview data is unstructured, rich in content and difficult to analyze without the appropriate tools. Fortunately, machine learning and AI can once again make things faster and easier when you use qualitative methods like the research interview.
Text analysis tools and natural language processing software can ‘read’ your transcripts and voice data and identify patterns and trends across large volumes of text or speech. They can also perform khttps://www.qualtrics.com/experience-management/research/sentiment-analysis/
which assesses overall trends in opinion and provides an unbiased overall summary of how participants are feeling.
Another feature of text analysis tools is their ability to categorize information by topic, sorting it into groupings that help you organize your data according to the topic discussed.
All in all, interviews are a valuable technique for qualitative research in business, yielding rich and detailed unstructured data. Historically, they have only been limited by the human capacity to interpret and communicate results and conclusions, which demands considerable time and skill.
When you combine this data with AI tools that can interpret it quickly and automatically, it becomes easy to analyze and structure, dovetailing perfectly with your other business data. An additional benefit of natural language analysis tools is that they are free of subjective biases, and can replicate the same approach across as much data as you choose. By combining human research skills with machine analysis, qualitative research methods such as interviews are more valuable than ever to your business.
Related resources
Market intelligence 10 min read, marketing insights 11 min read, ethnographic research 11 min read, qualitative vs quantitative research 13 min read, qualitative research questions 11 min read, qualitative research design 12 min read, primary vs secondary research 14 min read, request demo.
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30 Academic Researcher Interview Questions and Answers
Common Academic Researcher interview questions, how to answer them, and example answers from a certified career coach.
Embarking on a career as an academic researcher requires more than just a passion for knowledge. It demands critical thinking, meticulous attention to detail, and the ability to communicate complex ideas effectively. As you prepare for your interview, it’s essential to showcase not only your research skills but also your commitment to contributing valuable insights to your chosen field.
In this article, we will delve into some of the commonly asked questions in an academic researcher interview. We’ll provide tips on how best to answer these questions and help you articulate your unique approach to conducting rigorous, impactful research.
1. Can you describe a research project you’ve led and the impact it had on your field of study?
This question is probing your ability to manage complex tasks, complete them, and see the bigger picture of your work. As an academic researcher, your goal is not just to finish projects, but to contribute meaningfully to your field. Therefore, hiring committees want to see that you have a track record of doing just that. They’re also interested in your ability to convey complex ideas to a broader audience— a key skill when you’re trying to secure funding or present your findings.
Example: “One of my most impactful research projects was developing a novel algorithm to predict disease progression in patients with Parkinson’s.
I led a team that collected and analyzed data from over 5000 patients worldwide, which we used to train our machine learning model. Our algorithm outperformed existing models by 15% in terms of accuracy.
This project not only advanced our understanding of Parkinson’s but also provided doctors with a more accurate tool for predicting disease progression. This can significantly improve patient care by allowing for earlier intervention and more personalized treatment plans.”
2. What methods do you typically use to keep your research organized and how have these methods evolved over time?
As an academic researcher, it’s paramount that you manage your data, references, and findings meticulously. Interviewers want to understand your approach to staying organized throughout the research process. They’re interested in not just your current methods, but also how you’ve adapted and improved them over time, as this gives insight into your ability to learn, grow, and handle the complex, evolving demands of research.
Example: “I utilize digital tools like reference management software, such as EndNote and Zotero, to keep track of sources. I also use project management platforms like Trello for task organization. Over time, I’ve found cloud-based solutions like Google Drive invaluable for real-time collaboration and easy access to data anywhere.
In terms of evolution, I initially relied heavily on physical note-taking but transitioned to digital methods for efficiency. The ability to quickly search and categorize information digitally has significantly improved my research process.”
3. Can you discuss a time when your research findings did not align with your initial hypothesis? How did you handle this?
Research is not about proving what you think is right—it’s about finding the truth. Sometimes, that means disproving your own ideas. Your ability to adapt to unexpected results, draw new conclusions from them, and pivot your research efforts accordingly is a critical skill in academia. This is why hiring panels often ask this question—to gauge your flexibility, objectivity, and resilience in the face of unexpected research outcomes.
Example: “During my PhD, I hypothesized that a specific gene mutation would lead to increased cancer susceptibility. However, the data showed no significant correlation.
I initially double-checked my methodology and data analysis to ensure there were no errors. Once confirmed, I embraced these unexpected results as they challenged pre-existing assumptions in the field.
This led me to explore other potential factors influencing cancer risk. My findings eventually contributed to a more nuanced understanding of genetic influences on disease. It was a valuable lesson in scientific humility and adaptability.”
4. How do you approach the process of writing and submitting a research grant proposal?
This question is designed to assess your strategic thinking and planning skills in relation to securing funding for research. As an academic researcher, a significant part of your role is to secure the financial resources necessary to conduct your studies. Your ability to write a compelling, thorough, and successful grant proposal is key to your success and the success of your research.
Example: “Writing a research grant proposal requires strategic planning and clear communication. I start by thoroughly understanding the funding agency’s goals, aligning my project with their objectives. Then, I develop a compelling narrative that outlines the problem, its significance, and how my research will address it.
In crafting the proposal, I focus on clarity and conciseness, ensuring each section directly supports the overall aim. I also include a detailed budget and timeline to demonstrate feasibility.
Before submitting, I seek feedback from colleagues to refine the proposal. Finally, I ensure all guidelines are strictly adhered to for successful submission.”
5. What steps do you take to ensure your research is ethical and follows the guidelines set by the institution?
Ethics forms the backbone of academic research. It’s the cornerstone of credibility, validity, and respect for any contributions made in the field. As such, hiring committees want to ensure that potential researchers are not only aware of the ethical guidelines and principles in their field but also have a proven track record of adhering to them. This question helps ascertain that you’re committed to maintaining the highest standards of integrity and ethical conduct in your research.
Example: “To ensure my research is ethical and adheres to institutional guidelines, I start by familiarizing myself with the institution’s ethics policy. This includes understanding the principles of informed consent, confidentiality, and non-maleficence.
Then, I design my study in a way that respects these principles. For instance, I make sure participants are fully informed about the purpose of the research and their rights before they participate.
I also seek approval from the relevant ethics committee before commencing any research. They provide an external review to confirm my research meets all ethical standards.
Lastly, throughout the research process, I maintain transparency and honesty in data collection, analysis and reporting. This ensures integrity and credibility in my work.”
6. Describe your most challenging research project. What made it difficult and how did you overcome those challenges?
This question is designed to probe your problem-solving skills and perseverance in the face of adversity. Conducting academic research is often a long, arduous process, filled with unforeseen challenges and complications. By asking this question, the interviewer wants to understand your approach to overcoming obstacles and how you adapt when unexpected difficulties arise. They are also interested in learning about your analytical skills, and how you apply them to solve complex problems.
Example: “One of the most challenging research projects I undertook was a comparative analysis of climate change policies across different countries. The difficulty lay in gathering accurate and up-to-date data from various sources, given the language barriers and differences in reporting standards.
To overcome this, I collaborated with international researchers for data verification and translation. Additionally, I developed a standardised template to ensure consistency while comparing diverse policy frameworks. This experience taught me the importance of collaboration and adaptability in overcoming research challenges.”
7. How have you handled disagreements or conflicts with collaborators during a research project?
Conflict is a natural part of any job that involves working with others, and academic research is no exception. Whether it’s a disagreement over the direction of the research, the interpretation of data, or the division of labor, it’s not a question of if you’ll face conflict, but when. By asking this question, hiring managers are looking for evidence that you can handle conflicts professionally and constructively, while still contributing effectively to the team’s goals.
Example: “In my experience, disagreements are often due to miscommunication or differing perspectives. When conflicts arise during a research project, I believe in addressing them promptly and openly.
I usually start by listening to the other party’s viewpoint to understand their perspective. This not only helps me gain insight into their thought process but also demonstrates respect for their opinions.
Once I have understood their stance, I share mine as well. The goal is not to prove who is right or wrong, but rather to find common ground where we both can agree.
If we cannot reach an agreement independently, I am open to involving a third-party mediator or our supervisor. Their neutral perspective often helps resolve the conflict effectively.
This approach has always helped me maintain positive relationships with collaborators while ensuring the success of our projects.”
8. Can you provide an example of a time when you had to alter your research methodology due to unforeseen circumstances?
Research is seldom a straight path. Unexpected roadblocks, sudden changes in conditions, or surprising results can necessitate a shift in methodology. Interviewers want to know if you are flexible, adaptable, and resourceful in the face of these unexpected challenges. Your ability to alter your research methodology while maintaining the integrity of your work is a key skill in the ever-evolving world of academic research.
Example: “During my PhD, I was working on a project that involved analyzing large sets of genetic data. Initially, we planned to use traditional statistical methods for analysis. However, as the dataset grew larger and more complex, it became clear that this approach would not be sufficient.
We had to shift our strategy and incorporate machine learning techniques to handle the complexity and volume of the data. This required me to quickly learn new skills and adapt to using different software tools.
Despite the challenge, this change in methodology led to more accurate results and contributed significantly to the success of the research project. It underscored the importance of flexibility and adaptability in research.”
9. How do you prioritize your research projects and manage your time effectively?
As an academic researcher, you’ll often find yourself juggling multiple projects, each with their own set of deadlines and demands. Hence, your potential employer wants to be assured that you have the ability to organize your workload, prioritize tasks and manage your time effectively. Your response to this question will provide insight into your project management skills and your ability to maintain productivity even under pressure.
Example: “Prioritizing research projects depends on their urgency, impact, and alignment with my areas of expertise. I often use project management tools to track progress and deadlines. For time management, I divide my day into blocks dedicated to specific tasks such as data analysis or writing. This approach helps me stay focused and productive.
Moreover, I believe in regular communication with team members and stakeholders. It ensures everyone is aligned and aware of any changes or challenges that may affect the timeline or outcome of the project.
Finally, it’s crucial to maintain a balance between work and personal life. Taking breaks and ensuring adequate rest can significantly improve productivity and creativity.”
10. How do you approach the peer review process, both as a reviewer and as a researcher receiving feedback?
Peer reviews are a cornerstone in maintaining the credibility and quality of academic research. When hiring for an academic researcher, it’s critical to understand a candidate’s approach to both giving and receiving feedback. The way you handle critiques of your own work, as well as your ability to provide constructive feedback to others, speaks volumes about your professionalism, integrity, and commitment to advancing knowledge in your field.
Example: “As a reviewer, I approach the process with an open mind and focus on providing constructive criticism. My aim is to help improve the quality of research rather than finding faults.
When receiving feedback, I view it as an opportunity for growth. It’s about understanding different perspectives that can enhance my work. I welcome all comments and take time to reflect upon them before making revisions.
In both roles, respect, professionalism, and communication are key elements in ensuring a productive peer review process.”
11. In what ways have you used technology or software tools to assist in your research?
The academic landscape is brimming with an array of technologies and software tools designed to streamline and enhance research activities. When hiring an academic researcher, your potential employer wants to know that you are comfortable and proficient in using these tools. This not only ensures you can keep pace with the dynamic academic environment, but it also indicates your ability to leverage technology to yield more accurate, efficient, and comprehensive research results.
Example: “I have utilized various technology tools to streamline and enhance my research. For instance, I used software like NVivo for qualitative data analysis, which helped in organizing and interpreting complex datasets.
For literature reviews, EndNote was instrumental in managing citations and bibliographies. Moreover, Google Scholar and databases like JSTOR were essential for sourcing relevant academic articles.
Moreover, I employed project management tools such as Trello to track progress and ensure timely completion of tasks. These digital tools not only increased efficiency but also improved the accuracy of my work.”
12. Can you discuss a time when you had to explain complex research findings to a non-technical audience?
This question is critical as it helps the interviewer understand your ability to communicate complicated ideas with clarity and simplicity. In the world of academia, it’s not enough to just produce significant research. You also need to be able to translate your findings in a way that people without technical expertise can understand. This skill is particularly important when presenting research to stakeholders, funders, or the general public.
Example: “During my PhD, I conducted research on genetic algorithms which was quite complex. However, I had to present these findings at a university open day to prospective students and their parents. To make it comprehensible, I used the analogy of evolution – survival of the fittest. I explained that just as nature selects the best traits for survival, genetic algorithms select the best solutions to a problem. This simplified explanation helped them understand the concept without delving into technical jargon or intricate details. The feedback was positive, indicating they found the talk engaging and informative.”
13. How do you handle the pressure and stress associated with meeting research deadlines?
Research work is often driven by strict timelines and high expectations, whether it’s a funding cycle, a conference submission deadline, or the pace of a competitive field. Potential employers want to be confident in your ability to manage stress, prioritize tasks, and maintain quality work under pressure. Your response will give them insight into your time management skills, resilience, and overall suitability for the rigorous world of academic research.
Example: “I believe in proactive planning and organization to manage research deadlines. I start by breaking down the project into manageable tasks, setting realistic goals for each task, and prioritizing them based on their importance and urgency.
To handle stress, I ensure a balanced work-life routine with regular exercise and relaxation activities. This helps me maintain focus and productivity during work hours.
Moreover, I use mindfulness techniques to stay calm under pressure. It enables me to make rational decisions even when facing tight deadlines.
In case of unexpected obstacles, I am flexible enough to adapt my plan quickly without compromising the quality of work.”
14. What strategies do you use to stay updated with the latest developments in your field of research?
The field of academic research is constantly evolving, with new discoveries, methods, and theories emerging all the time. It’s important for a researcher to stay at the forefront of these developments to ensure their work is as accurate, relevant, and innovative as possible. Therefore, hiring committees are keen to know how you plan to stay informed and adapt to the shifting landscape of your research area.
Example: “Staying updated in my research field is crucial. I regularly read academic journals and attend webinars or conferences related to my area of study. This not only provides me with new insights but also allows me to network with other researchers.
I also subscribe to relevant newsletters and follow influential figures on social media platforms for real-time updates. Furthermore, participating in online forums and discussions helps me understand different perspectives on emerging trends.
Lastly, I engage in continuous learning through courses and workshops which enhance my knowledge base and skills. These strategies ensure that I am always at the forefront of developments in my research field.”
15. How do you ensure the quality and accuracy of your data collection and analysis?
Accuracy and integrity are the backbone of academic research. Therefore, potential employers want to ensure that you have robust strategies in place for collecting, analyzing and interpreting data. They are interested in learning about your attention to detail, your understanding of statistical methods, and your ability to minimize bias and error to produce reliable and valid results.
Example: “To ensure the quality and accuracy of data collection, I use a systematic approach. This involves clearly defining research objectives, using reliable sources, and implementing rigorous data validation techniques.
For analysis, I employ statistical software to minimize human error. Cross-validation methods are used to check for consistency in results.
Regular audits help identify any discrepancies early on, allowing for timely corrections.
Lastly, peer reviews provide an additional layer of scrutiny, ensuring objectivity and validity in my work.”
16. Discuss an instance where your research significantly contributed to your field?
As an academic researcher, your value is often measured in terms of your contributions to your field. The interviewer wants to understand the depth of your experience and how your research has made a difference. This question provides an opportunity to demonstrate your expertise, your ability to find innovative solutions, and your impact on knowledge advancement within your area of research.
Example: “One significant contribution I made was during my PhD research on climate change impacts on agriculture. My team and I developed a predictive model that could forecast crop yields under various climate scenarios.
This breakthrough allowed farmers to make informed decisions about their farming strategies, potentially saving them from financial losses due to unpredictable weather patterns. Our findings were published in a top-tier journal, which led to further research in this area. This work also influenced policy discussions around agricultural adaptation to climate change.”
17. How have you incorporated interdisciplinary perspectives into your research?
The academic world is increasingly recognizing the value of interdisciplinary perspectives in research. This approach often results in innovative solutions and fresh insights into complex problems. Hence, hiring committees want to know if you can think beyond the confines of your own discipline, collaborate with researchers from different fields and integrate diverse methodologies and theories into your work.
Example: “Incorporating interdisciplinary perspectives into my research has been crucial in broadening the scope and enhancing the depth of my findings. For instance, while researching climate change impacts, I integrated insights from environmental science, economics, and sociology. This allowed me to analyze not only the ecological effects but also the economic implications and societal responses.
By engaging with different disciplines, I ensure a more comprehensive understanding of complex issues. It also fosters creativity and innovation, as it encourages the cross-pollination of ideas between fields. This approach has significantly enriched my research outcomes and its relevance for diverse stakeholders.”
18. What is your experience with securing funding for your research projects?
Securing funding is a critical part of academic research, and it’s a task that often falls to the researcher themselves. A potential employer would want to know that you have the skills and experience to successfully seek out, apply for, and secure the funding necessary to carry out your proposed projects. This question probes your ability to navigate this complex and often competitive process.
Example: “I have a solid track record in securing funding for research projects. I’ve successfully obtained grants from various sources including government bodies, private organizations and academic institutions. My approach involves identifying suitable funders, tailoring proposals to their specific interests, and demonstrating the potential impact of the research.
My expertise lies in crafting compelling narratives that highlight the significance of the project. This includes showcasing its originality, feasibility, and relevance to current societal or academic challenges.
Moreover, I maintain strong relationships with past funders which often leads to repeat funding. These connections also serve as valuable networks for collaborative research opportunities.”
19. How do you approach the process of publishing your research findings?
The process of getting research findings published is a critical part of an academic researcher’s job. It’s not just about doing the research, but also communicating your findings effectively to the wider scientific community. This question aims to understand your experience and approach in this area, ensuring you have the skills and perseverance to navigate the often complex and lengthy process of academic publishing.
Example: “Publishing research findings begins with selecting the most appropriate journal. I consider factors such as the relevance of my topic to the journal’s focus, its impact factor, and audience.
After selection, I prepare my manuscript in line with the specific guidelines provided by that journal. This includes structuring it into sections like abstract, introduction, methodology, results, and conclusion.
Once the draft is ready, I seek feedback from colleagues or mentors before submitting. Upon receiving reviewers’ comments, I revise accordingly ensuring all concerns are adequately addressed.
The process requires patience and resilience due to possible rejections or requests for revisions. It’s a continuous cycle of learning and improving.”
20. Can you provide an example of a research project where you encountered ethical dilemmas? How did you address them?
Ethics are the backbone of credible, responsible research. As an academic researcher, you’ll often be dealing with sensitive data, groundbreaking discoveries, or contentious topics. The interviewer wants to assess your understanding of research ethics, your ability to navigate ethical dilemmas, and your commitment to maintaining the highest standards of integrity in your work.
Example: “In a previous research project, we were studying the effects of certain medications on mental health. One ethical dilemma was whether to continue the study despite negative side-effects experienced by some participants.
We addressed this by conducting an interim analysis and consulting with our ethics committee. We decided to modify the dosage for those experiencing adverse effects while ensuring they were fully informed about potential risks. This balanced the need for valuable data with respect for participant welfare.”
21. What experience do you have with teaching or mentoring students in a research context?
A large part of being an academic researcher is often about passing on your knowledge and expertise to the next generation of scholars. Whether you’re guiding PhD students through their dissertations or helping undergraduates get their first taste of research, your ability to mentor and teach is key. This question allows interviewers to assess your suitability for this crucial aspect of the role.
Example: “I have had the opportunity to mentor several undergraduate and graduate students during my PhD. I guided them in developing their research proposals, conducting experiments, analyzing data, and writing reports. This involved regular meetings to discuss progress, troubleshoot issues, and provide feedback.
In addition, I’ve also supervised interns on specific research projects. My focus was not just on imparting knowledge but also nurturing critical thinking skills to enable them to conduct independent research.
Overall, these experiences have honed my ability to communicate complex ideas effectively and foster a productive learning environment.”
22. How do you approach collaborations with researchers from different fields or institutions?
Collaboration is the lifeblood of academic research. Not only does it allow for the exchange of ideas, but it also often leads to breakthroughs that wouldn’t have been possible otherwise. As such, hiring committees want to know that you have the ability to work well with others, even if they come from different disciplines or institutions. Your ability to navigate these relationships can greatly impact the success of your research.
Example: “Collaborating with researchers from different fields or institutions requires a blend of open-mindedness, effective communication, and respect for diversity. I approach such collaborations by first understanding their expertise and research methodologies. This helps in identifying common grounds and potential areas of synergy.
I believe in maintaining clear and regular communication to ensure that everyone is on the same page regarding objectives, roles, and timelines. Using collaborative tools can facilitate this process.
Respecting diverse perspectives is crucial as it often leads to innovative solutions. Therefore, I always value inputs from all team members, fostering an environment where everyone feels heard and appreciated.
In essence, my approach is centered around mutual respect, proactive communication, and leveraging collective intelligence to achieve our shared goals.”
23. Can you discuss a time when your research findings had practical implications or real-world applications?
Researchers are not just confined to the world of theory, they play an essential role in shaping our society, economy, and environment. Practical implications and real-world applications of research findings are often what drive societal advancements. Interviewers ask this question to gauge whether you understand the importance of research translation, and to assess your ability to create meaningful impact through your work.
Example: “During my PhD, I was part of a team researching the impact of climate change on agricultural yield. Our findings highlighted specific regions that would be most affected by changing weather patterns.
These results were not only published in academic journals, but also caught the attention of policy makers and NGOs working towards food security. They used our research to prioritize their efforts and resources in those vulnerable areas.
This experience showed me how academic research can directly influence real-world decisions and policies. It reinforced my belief in the importance of practical applications for research outcomes.”
24. How do you ensure your research is accessible and comprehensible to the broader academic community?
The art of research isn’t just about generating new knowledge—it’s also about making that knowledge accessible and comprehensible. Your ability to communicate your findings in a clear, plain language that can be understood by a variety of audiences is key. It ensures that your work has the potential to influence other researchers, policy-makers, and even the public. This question is asked to understand your skills and strategies in presenting your research in an accessible and comprehensible manner.
Example: “To ensure my research is accessible and comprehensible, I use clear language and avoid unnecessary jargon. I also provide a concise abstract that summarizes the key points of my work.
I believe in the power of visual aids like graphs, charts, and diagrams to present complex data in an easily digestible format.
Moreover, I make it a point to publish in open-access journals whenever possible, ensuring maximum reach.
Lastly, I engage with the academic community through seminars, webinars, and conferences to explain my work and receive feedback. This two-way communication helps me understand if my research is being understood correctly and what improvements can be made.”
25. What strategies do you employ to handle the challenges of conducting fieldwork, if applicable?
The essence of a researcher’s job is to navigate the uncharted territories of knowledge, and fieldwork can pose a myriad of challenges, from logistical issues to unexpected findings. Therefore, it’s critical to know that you have strategic problem-solving skills and can adapt on the fly, ensuring the validity and reliability of your research work while managing resources efficiently.
Example: “Conducting fieldwork can indeed present unique challenges. I prioritize meticulous planning, which involves understanding the environment and potential obstacles, then developing contingency plans.
Equally important is building relationships with local communities or stakeholders as they often provide valuable insights that enhance the research quality.
I also employ technological tools for data collection and analysis to ensure accuracy and efficiency. Lastly, maintaining ethical standards throughout the process is non-negotiable to uphold the integrity of the research.”
26. Discuss a time when you had to defend your research findings against criticism.
As an academic researcher, you’re often required to present your findings to a range of audiences, including peers, who may not always agree with your conclusions. Therefore, your ability to defend your research and handle criticism is a significant part of your role. Interviewers want to assess your problem-solving skills, your ability to handle conflict, and your commitment to the integrity and quality of your research.
Example: “During my PhD, I conducted research on the impact of climate change on crop yield. My findings suggested a significant negative effect, which was criticized by some peers who believed the impact was negligible.
I defended my findings by systematically presenting the robustness of my methodology and data sources. I also highlighted previous literature that supported my conclusions. Furthermore, I welcomed their critique as an opportunity to further refine my study, resulting in a more comprehensive paper.
This experience taught me the importance of open dialogue and constructive criticism in academic research.”
27. How do you approach the process of developing a new research question or project?
The heart of an academic researcher’s job is to create and explore new research questions or projects. A prospective employer needs to understand how you approach this task, as it will provide insight into your critical thinking abilities, creativity, and command of the research process. Your answer will help them determine if your research style aligns with the institution’s goals and values.
Example: “Developing a new research question or project begins with identifying gaps in the current body of knowledge. I dive into existing literature, noting areas that lack clarity or require further exploration.
Once an area of interest is identified, I formulate a preliminary research question. This question must be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant and time-bound (SMART).
The next step involves designing a methodology suitable for investigating this question. The method should align with the nature of the question and could involve quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods approaches.
Throughout this process, it’s crucial to maintain flexibility as initial plans may need adjustment based on findings or unforeseen challenges. Rigorous review and refinement ensure the final research question is robust and valuable.”
28. What is your experience with interdisciplinary research and how has it influenced your work?
This query is designed to gauge your collaborative abilities and your versatility as a researcher. Interdisciplinary research is increasingly important in academia as it allows for a more comprehensive understanding of complex issues. It also testifies to your ability to adapt and learn new methodologies or theories outside your primary research area, thus indicating intellectual flexibility and curiosity.
Example: “I have actively participated in interdisciplinary research throughout my academic career, collaborating with experts from fields such as psychology, sociology, and computer science. This approach has enriched my perspective, allowing me to tackle complex problems using diverse methodologies.
The influence of this experience is evident in my work’s depth and breadth. It encourages innovative thinking and fosters a holistic understanding of the research topic. I believe that integrating knowledge across disciplines leads to more robust findings and impactful solutions.”
29. Can you describe a situation where you had to adapt your research methods due to resource constraints?
The path to knowledge discovery is rarely straightforward. As a researcher, you’re constantly required to improvise and adapt to unforeseen challenges, whether it’s a sudden budget cut, unexpected results, or difficulties in data collection. This question is designed to gauge your problem-solving skills and your ability to think on your feet, both of which are critical for success in academic research.
Example: “During my PhD, I was studying the impact of climate change on certain species. However, due to budget constraints, we couldn’t afford extensive fieldwork.
I adapted by leveraging online databases and remote sensing data for preliminary analysis, thus reducing the need for physical site visits. This not only saved costs but also allowed us to cover a larger geographical area in our research.
It was challenging to ensure the accuracy of secondary data, but it taught me how to be resourceful and adaptable in conducting rigorous academic research.”
30. How do you handle situations where research findings might be controversial or unpopular?
Scientific integrity is paramount in any research role, and sometimes, the truth that research uncovers isn’t what people want to hear. Hiring managers ask this question to gauge whether you can stand by your work, even in the face of adversity or resistance. They want to know if you have the courage and conviction to present your findings honestly, regardless of public opinion or external pressures.
Example: “In research, it’s crucial to uphold integrity and transparency, regardless of the potential controversy or unpopularity of findings. My approach involves presenting data objectively and ensuring that my methodology is robust and replicable.
I believe in fostering open dialogue around controversial topics. This includes acknowledging different perspectives while maintaining a firm commitment to scientific rigor.
If faced with backlash, I would engage critics constructively, addressing their concerns directly and professionally. After all, science thrives on discourse and scrutiny. It’s about discovering truth, not winning popularity contests.”
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Introduction to Primary Research: Observations, Surveys, and Interviews
Primary Research: Definitions and Overview
How research is defined varies widely from field to field, and as you progress through your college career, your coursework will teach you much more about what it means to be a researcher within your field.* For example, engineers, who focus on applying scientific knowledge to develop designs, processes, and objects, conduct research using simulations, mathematical models, and a variety of tests to see how well their designs work. Sociologists conduct research using surveys, interviews, observations, and statistical analysis to better understand people, societies, and cultures. Graphic designers conduct research through locating images for reference for their artwork and engaging in background research on clients and companies to best serve their needs. Historians conduct research by examining archival materials—newspapers, journals, letters, and other surviving texts—and through conducting oral history interviews. Research is not limited to what has already been written or found at the library, also known as secondary research. Rather, individuals conducting research are producing the articles and reports found in a library database or in a book. Primary research, the focus of this essay, is research that is collected firsthand rather than found in a book, database, or journal.
Primary research is often based on principles of the scientific method, a theory of investigation first developed by John Stuart Mill in the nineteenth century in his book Philosophy of the Scientific Method . Although the application of the scientific method varies from field to field, the general principles of the scientific method allow researchers to learn more about the world and observable phenomena. Using the scientific method, researchers develop research questions or hypotheses and collect data on events, objects, or people that is measurable, observable, and replicable. The ultimate goal in conducting primary research is to learn about something new that can be confirmed by others and to eliminate our own biases in the process.
Essay Overview and Student Examples
The essay begins by providing an overview of ethical considerations when conducting primary research, and then covers the stages that you will go through in your primary research: planning, collecting, analyzing, and writing. After the four stages comes an introduction to three common ways of conducting primary research in first year writing classes:
Observations . Observing and measuring the world around you, including observations of people and other measurable events.
Interviews . Asking participants questions in a one-on-one or small group setting.
Surveys . Asking participants about their opinions and behaviors through a short questionnaire.
In addition, we will be examining two student projects that used substantial portions of primary research:
Derek Laan, a nutrition major at Purdue University, wanted to learn more about student eating habits on campus. His primary re-search included observations of the campus food courts, student behavior while in the food courts, and a survey of students’ daily food intake. His secondary research included looking at national student eating trends on college campuses, information from the United States Food and Drug Administration, and books on healthy eating.
Jared Schwab, an agricultural and biological engineering major at Purdue, was interested in learning more about how writing and communication took place in his field. His primary research included interviewing a professional engineer and a student who was a senior majoring in engineering. His secondary research included examining journals, books, professional organizations, and writing guides within the field of engineering.
Ethics of Primary Research
Both projects listed above included primary research on human participants; therefore, Derek and Jared both had to consider research ethics throughout their primary research process. As Earl Babbie writes in The Practice of Social Research , throughout the early and middle parts of the twentieth century researchers took advantage of participants and treated them unethically. During World War II, Nazi doctors performed heinous experiments on prisoners without their consent, while in the U.S., a number of medical and psychological experiments on caused patients undue mental and physical trauma and, in some cases, death. Because of these and other similar events, many nations have established ethical laws and guidelines for researchers who work with human participants. In the United States, the guidelines for the ethical treatment of human research participants are described in The Belmont Report , released in 1979. Today, universities have Institutional Review Boards (or IRBs) that oversee research. Students conducting research as part of a class may not need permission from the university’s IRB, although they still need to ensure that they follow ethical guidelines in research. The following provides a brief overview of ethical considerations:
- Voluntary participation . The Belmont Report suggests that, in most cases, you need to get permission from people before you involve them in any primary research you are conducting. If you are doing a survey or interview, your participants must first agree to fill out your survey or to be interviewed. Consent for observations can be more complicated, and is dis-cussed later in the essay.
Confidentiality and anonymity . Your participants may reveal embarrassing or potentially damaging information such as racist comments or unconventional behavior. In these cases, you should keep your participants’ identities anonymous when writing your results. An easy way to do this is to create a “pseudonym” (or false name) for them so that their identity is protected.
Researcher bias . There is little point in collecting data and learning about something if you already think you know the answer! Bias might be present in the way you ask questions, the way you take notes, or the conclusions you draw from the data you collect.
The above are only three of many considerations when involving human participants in your primary research. For a complete under-standing of ethical considerations please refer to The Belmont Report .
Now that we have considered the ethical implications of research, we will examine how to formulate research questions and plan your primary research project.
Planning Your Primary Research Project
The primary research process is quite similar to the writing process, and you can draw upon your knowledge of the writing process to understand the steps involved in a primary research project. Just like in the writing process, a successful primary research project begins with careful planning and background research. This section first describes how to create a research timeline to help plan your research. It then walks you through the planning stages by examining when primary research is useful or appropriate for your first year composition course, narrowing down a topic, and developing research questions.
The Research Timeline
When you begin to conduct any kind of primary research, creating a timeline will help keep you on task. Because students conducting primary research usually focus on the collection of data itself, they often overlook the equally important areas of planning (invention), analyzing data, and writing. To help manage your time, you should create a research timeline, such as the sample timeline presented here.
When Primary Research Is Useful or Appropriate
In Evaluating Scientific Research: Separating Fact from Fiction , Fred Leavitt explains that primary research is useful for questions that can be answered through asking others and direct observation. For first year writing courses, primary research is particularly useful when you want to learn about a problem that does not have a wealth of published information. This may be because the problem is a recent event or it is something not commonly studied. For example, if you are writing a paper on a new political issue, such as changes in tax laws or healthcare, you might not be able to find a wealth of peer-reviewed research because the issue is only several weeks old. You may find it necessary to collect some of your own data on the issue to supplement what you found at the library. Primary research is also useful when you are studying a local problem or learning how a larger issue plays out at the local level. Although you might be able to find information on national statistics for healthy eating, whether or not those statistics are representative of your college campus is something that you can learn through primary research.
However, not all research questions and topics are appropriate for primary research. As Fred Leavitt writes, questions of an ethical, philosophical, or metaphysical nature are not appropriate because these questions are not testable or observable. For example, the question “Does an afterlife exist?” is not a question that can be answered with primary research. However, the question “How many people in my community believe in an afterlife?” is something that primary research can answer.
Narrowing Your Topic
Just like the writing process, you should start your primary research process with secondary (library) research to learn more about what is already known and what gaps you need to fill with your own data. As you learn more about the topic, you can narrow down your interest area and eventually develop a research question or hypothesis, just as you would with a secondary research paper.
Developing Research Questions or Hypotheses
As John Stuart Mill describes, primary research can use both inductive and deductive approaches, and the type approach is usually based on the field of inquiry. Some fields use deductive reasoning , where researchers start with a hypothesis or general conclusion and then collect specific data to support or refute their hypothesis. Other fields use inductive reasoning , where researchers start with a question and collect information that eventually leads to a conclusion.
Once you have spent some time reviewing the secondary research on your topic, you are ready to write a primary research question or hypothesis. A research question or hypothesis should be something that is specific, narrow, and discoverable through primary research methods. Just like a thesis statement for a paper, if your research question or hypothesis is too broad, your research will be unfocused and your data will be difficult to analyze and write about. Here is a set of sample research questions:
Poor Research Question : What do college students think of politics and the economy?
Revised Research Question : What do students at Purdue University believe about the current economic crisis in terms of economic recoverability?
The poor research question is unspecific as to what group of students the researcher is interested in—i.e. students in the U.S.? In a particular state? At their university? The poor research question was also too broad; terms like “politics” and the “economy” cover too much ground for a single project. The revised question narrows down the topic to students at a particular university and focuses on a specific issue related to the economy: economic recoverability. The research question could also be rephrased as a testable hypothesis using deductive reasoning: “Purdue University college students are well informed about economic recoverability plans.” Because they were approaching their projects in an exploratory, inductive manner, both Derek and Jared chose to ask research questions:
Derek: Are students’ eating habits at Purdue University healthy or unhealthy? What are the causes of students’ eating behavior?
Jared: What are the major features of writing and communication in agricultural and biological engineering? What are the major controversies?
A final step in working with a research question or hypothesis is determining what key terms you are using and how you will define them. Before conducting his research, Derek had to define the terms “healthy” and “unhealthy”; for this, he used the USDA’s Food Pyramid as a guide. Similarly, part of what Jared focused on in his interviews was learning more about how agricultural and biological engineers defined terms like “writing” and “communication.” Derek and Jared thought carefully about the terms within their research questions and how these terms might be measured.
Choosing a Data Collection Method
Once you have formulated a research question or hypothesis, you will need to make decisions about what kind of data you can collect that will best address your research topic. Derek chose to examine eating habits by observing both what students ate at lunch and surveying students about eating behavior. Jared decided that in-depth interviews with experienced individuals in his field would provide him with the best information.
To choose a data collection method for your research question, read through the next sections on observations, interviews, and surveys.
Observations
Observations have lead to some of the most important scientific discoveries in human history. Charles Darwin used observations of the animal and marine life at the Galapagos Islands to help him formulate his theory of evolution that he describes in On the Origin of Species . Today, social scientists, natural scientists, engineers, computer scientists, educational researchers, and many others use observations as a primary research method.
Observations can be conducted on nearly any subject matter, and the kinds of observations you will do depend on your research question. You might observe traffic or parking patterns on campus to get a sense of what improvements could be made. You might observe clouds, plants, or other natural phenomena. If you choose to observe people, you will have several additional considerations including the manner in which you will observe them and gain their consent.
If you are observing people, you can choose between two common ways to observe: participant observation and unobtrusive observation. Participant observation is a common method within ethnographic research in sociology and anthropology. In this kind of observation, a researcher may interact with participants and become part of their community. Margaret Mead, a famous anthropologist, spent extended periods of time living in, and interacting with, communities that she studied. Conversely, in unobtrusive observation, you do not interact with participants but rather simply record their behavior. Although in most circumstances people must volunteer to be participants in research, in some cases it is acceptable to not let participants know you are observing them. In places that people perceive as public, such as a campus food court or a shopping mall, people do not expect privacy, and so it is generally acceptable to observe without participant consent. In places that people perceive as private, which can include a church, home, classroom, or even an intimate conversation at a restaurant, participant consent should be sought.
The second issue about participant consent in terms of unobtrusive observation is whether or not getting consent is feasible for the study. If you are observing people in a busy airport, bus station, or campus food court, getting participant consent may be next to impossible. In Derek’s study of student eating habits on campus, he went to the campus food courts during meal times and observed students purchasing food. Obtaining participant consent for his observations would have been next to impossible because hundreds of students were coming through the food court during meal times. Since Derek’s research was in a place that participants would perceive as public, it was not practical to get their consent, and since his data was anonymous, he did not violate their privacy.
Eliminating Bias in Your Observation Notes
The ethical concern of being unbiased is important in recording your observations. You need to be aware of the difference between an observation (recording exactly what you see) and an interpretation (making assumptions and judgments about what you see). When you observe, you should focus first on only the events that are directly observable. Consider the following two example entries in an observation log:
- The student sitting in the dining hall enjoys his greasy, oil-soaked pizza. He is clearly oblivious of the calorie content and damage it may do to his body.
- The student sits in the dining hall. As he eats his piece of pizza, which drips oil, he says to a friend, “This pizza is good.”
The first entry is biased and demonstrates judgment about the event. First, the observer makes assumptions about the internal state of the student when she writes “enjoys” and “clearly oblivious to the calorie content.” From an observer’s standpoint, there is no way of ascertaining what the student may or may not know about pizza’s nutritional value nor how much the student enjoys the pizza. The second entry provides only the details and facts that are observable.
To avoid bias in your observations, you can use something called a “double-entry notebook.” This is a type of observation log that encourages you to separate your observations (the facts) from your feelings and judgments about the facts.
- Observations Thoughts
- The student sits in the dining hall. As he eats his piece of pizza, which drips oil, he says to a friend, "this pizza is good." It seems like the student really enjoys the high-calorie-content pizza.
- I observed cash register #1 for 15 minutes. During that time, 22 students paid for meals. Of those 22 students, 15 grabbed a candy bar or granola bar. 3 of the 22 students had a piece of fruit on their plate Fruit is less accessible than candy bars (it is further back in the dining court). Is this why more students are reaching for candy bars?
Figure 3: Two sample entries from a double-entry notebook.
Observations are only one strategy in collecting primary research. You may also want to ask people directly about their behaviors, beliefs, or attitudes—and for this you will need to use surveys or interviews.
Surveys and Interviews: Question Creation
Sometimes it is very difficult for a researcher to gain all of the necessary information through observations alone. Along with his observations of the dining halls, Derek wanted to know what students ate in a typical day, and so he used a survey to have them keep track of their eating habits. Likewise, Jared wanted to learn about writing and communication in engineering and decided to draw upon expert knowledge by asking experienced individuals within the field.
Interviews and surveys are two ways that you can gather information about people’s beliefs or behaviors. With these methods, the information you collect is not first-hand (like an observation) but rather “self-reported” data, or data collected in an indirect manner. William Shadish, Thomas Cook, and Donald Campbell argued that people are inherently biased about how they see the world and may report their own actions in a more favorable way than they may actually behave. Despite the issues in self-reported data, surveys and interviews are an excellent way to gather data for your primary research project.
Survey or Interview?
How do you choose between conducting a survey or an interview? It depends on what kind of information you are looking for. You should use surveys if you want to learn about a general trend in people’s opinions, experiences, and behavior. Surveys are particularly useful to find small amounts of information from a wider selection of people in the hopes of making a general claim. Interviews are best used when you want to learn detailed information from a few specific people. Interviews are also particularly useful if you want to interview experts about their opinions, as Jared did. In sum, use interviews to gain de-tails from a few people, and surveys to learn general patterns from many people.
Writing Good Questions
One of the greatest challenges in conducting surveys and interviews is writing good questions. As a researcher, you are always trying to eliminate bias, and the questions you ask need to be unbiased and clear. Here are some suggestions on writing good questions:
Ask about One Thing at a Time
A poorly written question can contain multiple questions, which can confuse participants or lead them to answer only part of the question you are asking. This is called a “double-barreled question” in journalism. The following questions are taken from Jared’s research:
Poor question: What kinds of problems are being faced in the field today and where do you see the search for solutions to these problems going?
Revised question #1: What kinds of problems are being faced in the field today?
Revised question #2: Where do you see the search for solutions to these problems going?
Avoid Leading Questions
A leading question is one where you prompt the participant to respond in a particular way, which can create bias in the answers given:
Leading question: The economy is clearly in a crisis, wouldn’t you agree?
Revised question: Do you believe the economy is currently in a crisis? Why or why not?
Understand When to Use Open and Closed Questions
Closed questions, or questions that have yes/no or other limited responses, should be used in surveys. However, avoid these kinds of questions in interviews because they discourage the interviewee from going into depth. The question sample above, “Do you believe the economy currently is in a crisis?” could be answered with a simple yes or no, which could keep a participant from talking more about the issue. The “why or why not?” portion of the question asks the participant to elaborate. On a survey, the question “Do you believe the economy currently is in a crisis?” is a useful question because you can easily count the number of yes and no answers and make a general claim about participant responses.
Write Clear Questions
When you write questions, make sure they are clear, concise, and to the point. Questions that are too long, use unfamiliar vocabulary, or are unclear may confuse participants and you will not get quality responses.
Now that question creation has been addressed, we will next examine specific considerations for interviews and surveys.
Interviews, or question and answer sessions with one or more people, are an excellent way to learn in-depth information from a person for your primary research project. This section presents information on how to conduct a successful interview, including choosing the right person, ways of interviewing, recording your interview, interview locations, and transcribing your interview.
Choosing the Right Person
One of the keys to a successful interview is choosing the right person to interview. Think about whom you would like to interview and whom you might know. Do not be afraid to ask people you do not know for interviews. When asking, simply tell them what the interview will be about, what the interview is for, and how much time it will take. Jared used his Purdue University connection to locate both of the individuals that he ended up interviewing—an advanced Purdue student and a Purdue alum working in an Engineering firm.
Face-to-Face and Virtual Interviews
When interviewing, you have a choice of conducting a traditional, face-to-face interview or an interview using technology over the Internet. Face-to-face interviews have the strength that you can ask follow-up questions and use non-verbal communication to your advantage. Individuals are able to say much more in a face-to-face interview than in an email, so you will get more information from a face-to-face interview. However, the Internet provides a host of new possibilities when it comes to interviewing people at a distance. You may choose to do an email interview, where you send questions and ask the person to respond. You may also choose to use a video or audio conferencing program to talk with the person virtually. If you are choosing any Internet-based option, make sure you have a way of recording the interview. You may also use a chat or instant messaging program to interview your participant—the benefit of this is that you can ask follow-up questions during the interview and the interview is already transcribed for you. Because one of his interviewees lived several hours away, Jared chose to interview the Purdue student face-to-face and the Purdue alum via email.
Finding a Suitable Location
If you are conducting an in-person interview, it is essential that you find a quiet place for your interview. Many universities have quiet study rooms that can be reserved (often found in the university library). Do not try to interview someone in a coffee shop, dining hall, or other loud area, as it is difficult to focus and get a clear recording.
Recording Interviews
One way of eliminating bias in your research is to record your interviews rather than rely on your memory. Recording interviews allows you to directly quote the individual and re-read the interview when you are writing. It is recommended that you have two recording devices for the interview in case one recording device fails. Most computers, MP3 players, and even cell phones come with recording equipment built in. Many universities also offer equipment that students can check out and use, including computers and recorders. Before you record any interview, be sure that you have permission from your participant.
Transcribing Your Interview
Once your interview is over, you will need to transcribe your interview to prepare it for analysis. The term transcribing means creating a written record that is exactly what was said—i.e. typing up your interviews. If you have conducted an email or chat interview, you already have a transcription and can move on to your analysis stage.
Other than the fact that they both involve asking people questions, interviews and surveys are quite different data collection methods. Creating a survey may seem easy at first, but developing a quality survey can be quite challenging. When conducting a survey, you need to focus on the following areas: survey creation, survey testing, survey sampling, and distributing your survey.
Survey Creation: Length and Types of Questions
One of the keys to creating a successful survey is to keep your survey short and focused. Participants are unlikely to fill out a survey that is lengthy, and you’ll have a more difficult time during your analysis if your survey contains too many questions. In most cases, you want your survey to be something that can be filled out within a few minutes. The target length of the survey also depends on how you will distribute the survey. If you are giving your survey to other students in your dorm or classes, they will have more time to complete the survey. Therefore, five to ten minutes to complete the survey is reasonable. If you are asking students as they are walking to class to fill out your survey, keep it limited to several questions that can be answered in thirty seconds or less. Derek’s survey took about ten minutes and asked students to describe what they ate for a day, along with some demographic information like class level and gender.
Use closed questions to your advantage when creating your survey. A closed question is any set of questions that gives a limited amount of choices (yes/no, a 1–5 scale, choose the statement that best describes you). When creating closed questions, be sure that you are accounting for all reasonable answers in your question creation. For example, asking someone “Do you believe you eat healthy?” and providing them only “yes” and “no” options means that a “neutral” or “undecided” option does not exist, even though the survey respondent may not feel strongly either way. Therefore, on closed questions you may find it helpful to include an “other” category where participants can fill in an answer. It is also a good idea to have a few open-ended questions where participants can elaborate on certain points or earlier responses. How-ever, open-ended questions take much longer to fill out than closed questions.
Survey Creation: Testing Your Survey
To make sure your survey is an appropriate length and that your questions are clear, you can “pilot test” your survey. Prior to administering your survey on a larger scale, ask several classmates or friends to fill it out and give you feedback on the survey. Keep track of how long the survey takes to complete. Ask them if the questions are clear and make sense. Look at their answers to see if the answers match what you wanted to learn. You can revise your survey questions and the length of your survey as necessary.
Sampling and Access to Survey Populations
“Sampling” is a term used within survey research to describe the subset of people that are included in your study. Derek’s first research question was: “Are students’ eating habits at Purdue University healthy or unhealthy?” Because it was impossible for Derek to survey all 38,000 students on Purdue’s campus, he had to choose a representative sample of students. Derek chose to survey students who lived in the dorms because of the wide variety of student class levels and majors in the dorms and his easy access to this group. By making this choice, however, he did not account for commuter students, graduate students, or those who live off campus. As Derek’s case demonstrates, it is very challenging to get a truly representative sample.
Part of the reason that sampling is a challenge is that you may find difficulty in finding enough people to take your survey. In thinking about how get people to take your survey, consider both your everyday surroundings and also technological solutions. Derek had access to many students in the dorms, but he also considered surveying students in his classes in order to reach as many people as possible. Another possibility is to conduct an online survey. Online surveys greatly increase your access to different kinds of people from across the globe, but may decrease your chances of having a high survey response rate. An email or private message survey request is more likely to be ignored due to the impersonal quality and high volume of emails most people receive.
Analyzing and Writing About Primary Research
Once you collect primary research data, you will need to analyze what you have found so that you can write about it. The purpose of analyzing your data is to look at what you collected (survey responses, interview answers to questions, observations) and to create a cohesive, systematic interpretation to help answer your research question or examine the validity of your hypothesis.
When you are analyzing and presenting your findings, remember to work to eliminate bias by being truthful and as accurate as possible about what you found, even if it differs from what you expected to find. You should see your data as sources of information, just like sources you find in the library, and you should work to represent them accurately.
The following are suggestions for analyzing different types of data.
If you’ve counted anything you were observing, you can simply add up what you counted and report the results. If you’ve collected descriptions using a double-entry notebook, you might work to write thick descriptions of what you observed into your writing. This could include descriptions of the scene, behaviors you observed, and your overall conclusions about events. Be sure that your readers are clear on what were your actual observations versus your thoughts or interpretations of those observations.
If you’ve interviewed one or two people, then you can use your summary, paraphrasing, and quotation skills to help you accurately describe what was said in the interview. Just like in secondary research when working with sources, you should introduce your interviewees and choose clear and relevant quotes from the interviews to use in your writing. An easy way to find the important information in an interview is to print out your transcription and take a highlighter and mark the important parts that you might use in your paper. If you have conducted a large number of interviews, it will be helpful for you to create a spreadsheet of responses to each question and compare the responses, choosing representative answers for each area you want to describe.
Surveys can contain quantitative (numerical) and qualitative (written answers/descriptions) data. Quantitative data can be analyzed using a spreadsheet program like Microsoft Excel to calculate the mean (average) answer or to calculate the percentage of people who responded in a certain way. You can display this information in a chart or a graph and also describe it in writing in your paper. If you have qualitative responses, you might choose to group them into categories and/or you may choose to quote several representative responses.
Writing about Primary Research
In formal research writing in a variety of fields, it is common for research to be presented in the following format: introduction/background; methods; results; discussions; conclusion. Not all first year writing classes will require such an organizational structure, although it is likely that you will be required to present many of these elements in your paper. Because of this, the next section examines each of these in depth.
Introduction (Review of Literature)
The purpose of an introduction and review of literature in a research paper is to provide readers with information that helps them under-stand the context, purpose, and relevancy of your research. The introduction is where you provide most of your background (library) research that you did earlier in the process. You can include articles, statistics, research studies, and quotes that are pertinent to the issues at hand. A second purpose in an introduction is to establish your own credibility (ethos) as a writer by showing that you have researched your topic thoroughly. This kind of background discussion is required in nearly every field of inquiry when presenting research in oral or written formats.
Derek provided information from the Food and Drug Administration on healthy eating and national statistics about eating habits as part of his background information. He also made the case for healthy eating on campus to show relevancy:
Currently Americans are more overweight than ever. This is coming at a huge cost to the economy and government. If current trends in increasing rates of overweight and obesity continue it is likely that this generation will be the first one to live shorter lives than their parents did. Looking at the habits of university students is a good way to see how a new generation behaves when they are living out on their own for the first time.
Describing What You Did (Methods)
When writing, you need to provide enough information to your readers about your primary research process for them to understand what you collected and how you collected it. In formal research papers, this is often called a methods section. Providing information on your study methods also adds to your credibility as a writer. For surveys, your methods would include describing who you surveyed, how many surveys you collected, decisions you made about your survey sample, and relevant demographic information about your participants (age, class level, major). For interviews, introduce whom you interviewed and any other relevant information about interviewees such as their career or expertise area. For observations, list the locations and times you observed and how you recorded your observations (i.e. double-entry notebook). For all data types, you should describe how you analyzed your data.
The following is a sample from Jared about his participants:
In order to gain a better understanding of the discourse community in environmental and resource engineering, I interviewed Anne Dare, a senior in environmental and natural resource engineering, and Alyson Keaton an alumnus of Purdue University. Alyson is a current employee of the Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS), which is a division of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA).
Here is a sample from Derek’s methods section:
I conducted a survey so that I could find out what students at Purdue actually eat on a typical day. I handed out surveys asking students to record what they ate for a day . . . I received 29 back and averaged the results based on average number of servings from each food group on the old food guide pyramid. The group included students from the freshman to the graduate level and had 8 women and 21 men respond.
Describing Your Study Findings (Results)
In a formal research paper, the results section is where you describe what you found. The results section can include charts, graphs, lists, direct quotes, and overviews of findings. Readers find it helpful if you are able to provide the information in different formats. For example, if you have any kind of numbers or percentages, you can talk about them in your written description and then present a graph or chart showing them visually. You should provide specific details as supporting evidence to back up your findings. These details can be in the form of direct quotations, numbers, or observations.
Jared describes some of his interview results:
Alyson also mentioned the need for phone conversation. She stated, “The phone is a large part of my job. I am communicating with other NRCS offices daily to find out the status of our jobs.” She needs to be in constant contact in order to insure that everything is running smoothly. This is common with those overseeing projects. In these cases, the wait for a response to an email or a memo can be too long to be effective.
Interpreting What You Learned (Discussion)
In formal research papers, the discussion section presents your own interpretation of your results. This may include what you think the results mean or how they are useful to your larger argument. If you are making a proposal for change or a call to action, this is where you make it. For example, in Derek’s project about healthy eating on campus, Derek used his primary research on students’ unhealthy eating and observations of the food courts to argue that the campus food courts needed serious changes. Derek writes, “Make healthy food options the most accessible in every dining hall while making unhealthy foods the least. Put nutrition facts for everything that is served in the dining halls near the food so that students can make more informed decisions on what to eat.”
Jared used the individuals he interviewed as informants that helped him learn more about writing in agricultural and biological engineering. He integrated the interviews he conducted with secondary research to form a complete picture of writing and communication in agricultural and biological engineering. He concludes:
Writing takes so many forms, and it is important to know about all these forms in one way or another. The more forms of writing you can achieve, the more flexible you can be. This ability to be flexible can make all the difference in writing when you are dealing with a field as complex as engineering.
Primary Research and Works Cited or References Pages
The last part of presenting your primary research project is a works cited or references page. In general, since you are working with data you collected yourself, there is no source to cite an external source. Your methods section should describe in detail to the readers how and where the data presented was obtained. However, if you are working with interviews, you can cite these as “personal communication.” The MLA and APA handbooks both provide clear listings of how to cite personal communication in a works cited/references page.
This essay has presented an overview to three commonly used methods of primary research in first year writing courses: observations, interviews, and surveys. By using these methods, you can learn more about the world around you and craft meaningful written discussions of your findings.
- Primary research techniques show up in more places than just first year writing courses. Where else might interviews, surveys, or observations be used? Where have you seen them used?
- The chapter provides a brief discussion of the ethical considerations of research. Can you think of any additional ethical considerations when conducting primary research? Can you think of ethical considerations unique to your own research project?
- Primary research is most useful for first year writing students if it is based in your local community or campus. What are some current issues on your campus or in your community that could be investigated using primary research methods?
- In groups or as a class, make a list of potential primary research topics. After each topic on the list, consider what method of inquiry (observation, interview, or survey) you would use to study the topic and answer why that method is a good choice.
Suggested Resources
For more information on the primary methods of inquiry described here, please see the following sources:
Works Cited
This essay was written by Dana Lynn Driscoll and was published as a chapter in Writing Spaces: Readings on Writing , Volume 2, a peer-reviewed open textbook series for the writing classroom. This work is licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) . Please keep this information on this material if you use, adapt, and/or share it.
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Methodology
- Primary Research | Definition, Types, & Examples
Primary Research | Definition, Types, & Examples
Published on January 14, 2023 by Tegan George . Revised on January 12, 2024.
Primary research is a research method that relies on direct data collection , rather than relying on data that’s already been collected by someone else. In other words, primary research is any type of research that you undertake yourself, firsthand, while using data that has already been collected is called secondary research .
Primary research is often used in qualitative research , particularly in survey methodology, questionnaires, focus groups, and various types of interviews . While quantitative primary research does exist, it’s not as common.
Table of contents
When to use primary research, types of primary research, examples of primary research, advantages and disadvantages of primary research, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions.
Primary research is any research that you conduct yourself. It can be as simple as a 2-question survey, or as in-depth as a years-long longitudinal study . The only key is that data must be collected firsthand by you.
Primary research is often used to supplement or strengthen existing secondary research. It is usually exploratory in nature, concerned with examining a research question where no preexisting knowledge exists. It is also sometimes called original research for this reason.
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Primary research can take many forms, but the most common types are:
- Surveys and questionnaires
- Observational studies
- Interviews and focus groups
Surveys and questionnaires collect information about a group of people by asking them questions and analyzing the results. They are a solid choice if your research topic seeks to investigate something about the characteristics, preferences, opinions, or beliefs of a group of people.
Surveys and questionnaires can take place online, in person, or through the mail. It is best to have a combination of open-ended and closed-ended questions, and how the questions are phrased matters. Be sure to avoid leading questions, and ask any related questions in groups, starting with the most basic ones first.
Observational studies are an easy and popular way to answer a research question based purely on what you, the researcher, observes. If there are practical or ethical concerns that prevent you from conducting a traditional experiment , observational studies are often a good stopgap.
There are three types of observational studies: cross-sectional studies , cohort studies, and case-control studies. If you decide to conduct observational research, you can choose the one that’s best for you. All three are quite straightforward and easy to design—just beware of confounding variables and observer bias creeping into your analysis.
Similarly to surveys and questionnaires, interviews and focus groups also rely on asking questions to collect information about a group of people. However, how this is done is slightly different. Instead of sending your questions out into the world, interviews and focus groups involve two or more people—one of whom is you, the interviewer, who asks the questions.
There are 3 main types of interviews:
- Structured interviews ask predetermined questions in a predetermined order.
- Unstructured interviews are more flexible and free-flowing, proceeding based on the interviewee’s previous answers.
- Semi-structured interviews fall in between, asking a mix of predetermined questions and off-the-cuff questions.
While interviews are a rich source of information, they can also be deceptively challenging to do well. Be careful of interviewer bias creeping into your process. This is best mitigated by avoiding double-barreled questions and paying close attention to your tone and delivery while asking questions.
Alternatively, a focus group is a group interview, led by a moderator. Focus groups can provide more nuanced interactions than individual interviews, but their small sample size means that external validity is low.
Primary research can often be quite simple to pursue yourself. Here are a few examples of different research methods you can use to explore different topics.
Primary research is a great choice for many research projects, but it has distinct advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages of primary research
Advantages include:
- The ability to conduct really tailored, thorough research, down to the “nitty-gritty” of your topic . You decide what you want to study or observe and how to go about doing that.
- You maintain control over the quality of the data collected, and can ensure firsthand that it is objective, reliable , and valid .
- The ensuing results are yours, for you to disseminate as you see fit. You maintain proprietary control over what you find out, allowing you to share your findings with like-minded individuals or those conducting related research that interests you for replication or discussion purposes.
Disadvantages of primary research
Disadvantages include:
- In order to be done well, primary research can be very expensive and time consuming. If you are constrained in terms of time or funding, it can be very difficult to conduct your own high-quality primary research.
- Primary research is often insufficient as a standalone research method, requiring secondary research to bolster it.
- Primary research can be prone to various types of research bias . Bias can manifest on the part of the researcher as observer bias , Pygmalion effect , or demand characteristics . It can occur on the part of participants as a Hawthorne effect or social desirability bias .
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If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.
- Chi square goodness of fit test
- Degrees of freedom
- Null hypothesis
- Discourse analysis
- Control groups
- Mixed methods research
- Non-probability sampling
- Quantitative research
- Inclusion and exclusion criteria
Research bias
- Rosenthal effect
- Implicit bias
- Cognitive bias
- Selection bias
- Negativity bias
- Status quo bias
The 3 main types of primary research are:
Exploratory research aims to explore the main aspects of an under-researched problem, while explanatory research aims to explain the causes and consequences of a well-defined problem.
There are several methods you can use to decrease the impact of confounding variables on your research: restriction, matching, statistical control and randomization.
In restriction , you restrict your sample by only including certain subjects that have the same values of potential confounding variables.
In matching , you match each of the subjects in your treatment group with a counterpart in the comparison group. The matched subjects have the same values on any potential confounding variables, and only differ in the independent variable .
In statistical control , you include potential confounders as variables in your regression .
In randomization , you randomly assign the treatment (or independent variable) in your study to a sufficiently large number of subjects, which allows you to control for all potential confounding variables.
A questionnaire is a data collection tool or instrument, while a survey is an overarching research method that involves collecting and analyzing data from people using questionnaires.
When conducting research, collecting original data has significant advantages:
- You can tailor data collection to your specific research aims (e.g. understanding the needs of your consumers or user testing your website)
- You can control and standardize the process for high reliability and validity (e.g. choosing appropriate measurements and sampling methods )
However, there are also some drawbacks: data collection can be time-consuming, labor-intensive and expensive. In some cases, it’s more efficient to use secondary data that has already been collected by someone else, but the data might be less reliable.
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Research Interviews: An effective and insightful way of data collection
Research interviews play a pivotal role in collecting data for various academic, scientific, and professional endeavors. They provide researchers with an opportunity to delve deep into the thoughts, experiences, and perspectives of an individual, thus enabling a comprehensive understanding of complex phenomena. It is important for researchers to design an effective and insightful method of data collection on a particular topic. A research interview is typically a two-person meeting conducted to collect information on a certain topic. It is a qualitative data collection method to gain primary information.
The three key features of a research interview are as follows:
Table of Contents
The Significance of Research Interviews in Gathering Primary Data
The role of research interviews in gathering first-hand information is invaluable. Additionally, they allow researchers to interact directly with participants, enabling them to collect unfiltered primary data.
1. Subjective Experience
Research interviews facilitate in-depth exploration of a research topic. Thus, by engaging in one-to-one conversation with participants, researchers can delve into the nuances and complexities of their experiences, perspectives, and opinions. This allows comprehensive understanding of the research subject that may not be possible through other methods. Also, research interviews offer the unique advantage of capturing subjective experiences through personal narratives. Moreover, participants can express their thoughts, feelings, and beliefs, which add depth to the findings.
2. Personal Insights
Research interviews offer an opportunity for participants to share their views and opinions on the objective they are being interviewed for. Furthermore, participants can express their thoughts and experiences, providing rich qualitative data . Consequently, these personal narratives add a human element to the research, thus enhancing the understanding of the topic from the participants’ perspectives. Research interviews offer the opportunity to uncover unanticipated insights or emerging themes. Additionally, open-ended questions and active listening can help the researchers to identify new perspectives, ideas, or patterns that may not have been initially considered. As a result, these factors can lead to new avenues for exploration.
3. Clarification and Validation
Researchers can clarify participants’ responses and validate their understanding during an interview. This ensures accurate data collection and interpretation. Additionally, researchers can probe deeper into participants’ statements and seek clarification on any ambiguity in the information.
4. Contextual Information
Research interviews allow researchers to gather contextual information that offers a comprehensive understanding of the research topic. Additionally, participants can provide insights into the social, cultural, or environmental factors that shape their experiences, behaviors, and beliefs. This contextual information helps researchers place the data in a broader context and facilitates a more nuanced analysis.
5. Non-verbal Cues
In addition to verbal responses, research interviews allow researchers to observe non-verbal cues such as body language, facial expressions, and tone of voice. Additionally, non-verbal cues can convey information, such as emotions, attitudes, or levels of comfort. Furthermore, integrating non-verbal cues with verbal responses provides a more holistic understanding of participants’ experiences and enriches the data collection process.
Research interviews offer several advantages, making them a reliable tool for collecting information. However, choosing the right type of research interview is essential for collecting useful data.
Types of Research Interviews
There are several types of research interviews that researchers can use based on their research goals , the nature of their study, and the data they aim to collect. Here are some common types of research interviews:
1. Structured Interviews
- Structured interviews are standardized and follow a fixed format.
- Therefore, these interviews have a pre-determined set of questions.
- All the participants are asked the same set of questions in the same order.
- Therefore, this type of interview facilitates standardization and allows easy comparison and quantitative analysis of responses.
- As a result, structured interviews are used in surveys or studies which aims for a high level of standardization and comparability.
2. Semi-structured Interviews
- Semi-structured interviews offer a flexible framework by combining pre-determined questions.
- So, this gives an opportunity for follow-up questions and open-ended discussions.
- Researchers have a list of core questions but can adapt the interview depending on the participant’s responses.
- Consequently, this allows for in-depth exploration while maintaining some level of consistency across interviews.
- As a result, semi-structured interviews are widely used in qualitative research, where content-rich data is desired.
3. Unstructured Interviews
- Unstructured interviews provide the greatest flexibility and freedom in the interview process.
- This type do not have a pre-determined set of questions.
- Thus, the conversation flows naturally based on the participant’s responses and the researcher’s interests.
- Moreover, this type of interview allows for open-ended exploration and encourages participants to share their experiences, thoughts, and perspectives freely.
- Unstructured interviews useful to explore new or complex research topics, with limited preconceived questions.
4. Group Interviews (Focus Groups)
- Group interviews involve multiple participants who engage in a facilitated discussion on a specific topic.
- This format allows the interaction and exchange of ideas among participants, generating a group dynamic.
- Therefore, group interviews are beneficial for capturing diverse perspectives, and generating collective insights.
- They are often used in market research, social sciences, or studies demanding shared experiences.
5. Narrative Interviews
- Narrative interviews focus on eliciting participants’ personal stories, views, experiences, and narratives. Researchers aim to look into the individual’s life journey.
- As a result, this type of interview allows participants to construct and share their own narratives, providing rich qualitative data.
- Qualitative research, oral history, or studies focusing on individual experiences and identities uses narrative interviews.
6. Ethnographic Interviews
- Ethnographic interviews are conducted within the context of ethnographic research, where researchers immerse themselves in a specific social or cultural setting.
- These interviews aim to understand participants’ experiences, beliefs, and practices within their cultural context, thereby understanding diversity in different ethnic groups.
- Furthermore, ethnographic interviews involve building rapport, observing the participants’ daily lives, and engaging in conversations that capture the nuances of the culture under study.
It must be noted that these interview types are not mutually exclusive. Therefore, researchers often employ a combination of approaches to gather the most comprehensive data for their research. The choice of interview type depends on the research objectives and the nature of the research topic.
Steps of Conducting a Research Interview
Research interviews offer several benefits, and thus careful planning and execution of the entire process are important to gather in-depth information from the participants. While conducting an interview, it is essential to know the necessary steps to follow for ensuring success. The steps to conduct a research interview are as follows:
- Identify the objectives and understand the goals
- Select an appropriate interview format
- Organize the necessary materials for the interview
- Understand the questions to be addressed
- Analyze the demographics of interviewees
- Select the interviewees
- Design the interview questions to gather sufficient information
- Schedule the interview
- Explain the purpose of the interview
- Analyze the interviewee based on his/her responses
Considerations for Research Interviews
Since the flexible nature of research interviews makes them an invaluable tool for data collection, researchers must consider certain factors to make the process effective. They should avoid bias and preconceived notion against the participants. Furthermore, researchers must comply with ethical considerations and respect the cultural differences between them and the participants. Also, they should ensure careful tailoring of the questions to avoid making them offensive or derogatory. The interviewers must respect the privacy of the participants and ensure the confidentiality of their details.
By ensuring due diligence of these considerations associated with research interviews, researchers can maximize the validity and reliability of the collected data, leading to robust and meaningful research outcomes.
Have you ever conducted a research interview? What was your experience? What factors did you consider when conducting a research interview? Share it with researchers worldwide by submitting your thought piece on Enago Academy’s Open Blogging Platform .
Frequently Asked Questions
• Identify the objectives of the interview • State and explain the purpose of the interview • Select an appropriate interview format • Organize the necessary materials for the Interview • Check the demographics of the participants • Select the Interviewees or the participants • Prepare the list of questions to gather maximum useful data from the participants • Schedule the Interview • Analyze the participant based on his/ her Responses
Interviews are important in research as it helps to gather elaborative first-hand information. It helps to draw conclusions from the non-verbal views and personal experiences. It reduces the ambiguity of data through detailed discussions.
The advantages of research interviews are: • It offers first-hand information • Offers detailed assessment which can result in elaborate conclusions • It is easy to conduct • Provides non-verbal cues The disadvantages of research interviews are: • There is a risk of personal bias • It can be time consuming • The outcomes might be unpredictable
The difference between structured and unstructured interview are: • Structured interviews have well-structured questions in a pre-determined order; while unstructured interviews are flexible and do not have a pre-planned set of questions. • Structured interview is more detailed; while unstructured interviews are exploratory in nature. • Structured interview is easier to replicate as compared to unstructured interview.
Focus groups is a group of multiple participants engaging in a facilitated discussion on a specific topic. This format allows for interaction and exchange of ideas among participants.
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Research Methods Guide: Interview Research
- Introduction
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Tutorial Videos: Interview Method
Interview as a Method for Qualitative Research
Goals of Interview Research
- Preferences
- They help you explain, better understand, and explore research subjects' opinions, behavior, experiences, phenomenon, etc.
- Interview questions are usually open-ended questions so that in-depth information will be collected.
Mode of Data Collection
There are several types of interviews, including:
- Face-to-Face
- Online (e.g. Skype, Googlehangout, etc)
FAQ: Conducting Interview Research
What are the important steps involved in interviews?
- Think about who you will interview
- Think about what kind of information you want to obtain from interviews
- Think about why you want to pursue in-depth information around your research topic
- Introduce yourself and explain the aim of the interview
- Devise your questions so interviewees can help answer your research question
- Have a sequence to your questions / topics by grouping them in themes
- Make sure you can easily move back and forth between questions / topics
- Make sure your questions are clear and easy to understand
- Do not ask leading questions
- Do you want to bring a second interviewer with you?
- Do you want to bring a notetaker?
- Do you want to record interviews? If so, do you have time to transcribe interview recordings?
- Where will you interview people? Where is the setting with the least distraction?
- How long will each interview take?
- Do you need to address terms of confidentiality?
Do I have to choose either a survey or interviewing method?
No. In fact, many researchers use a mixed method - interviews can be useful as follow-up to certain respondents to surveys, e.g., to further investigate their responses.
Is training an interviewer important?
Yes, since the interviewer can control the quality of the result, training the interviewer becomes crucial. If more than one interviewers are involved in your study, it is important to have every interviewer understand the interviewing procedure and rehearse the interviewing process before beginning the formal study.
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Semistructured interviewing in primary care research: a balance of relationship and rigour
Melissa dejonckheere.
1 Department of Family Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
Lisa M Vaughn
2 Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
3 Division of Emergency Medicine, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
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fmch-2018-000057supp001.pdf
Semistructured in-depth interviews are commonly used in qualitative research and are the most frequent qualitative data source in health services research. This method typically consists of a dialogue between researcher and participant, guided by a flexible interview protocol and supplemented by follow-up questions, probes and comments. The method allows the researcher to collect open-ended data, to explore participant thoughts, feelings and beliefs about a particular topic and to delve deeply into personal and sometimes sensitive issues. The purpose of this article was to identify and describe the essential skills to designing and conducting semistructured interviews in family medicine and primary care research settings. We reviewed the literature on semistructured interviewing to identify key skills and components for using this method in family medicine and primary care research settings. Overall, semistructured interviewing requires both a relational focus and practice in the skills of facilitation. Skills include: (1) determining the purpose and scope of the study; (2) identifying participants; (3) considering ethical issues; (4) planning logistical aspects; (5) developing the interview guide; (6) establishing trust and rapport; (7) conducting the interview; (8) memoing and reflection; (9) analysing the data; (10) demonstrating the trustworthiness of the research; and (11) presenting findings in a paper or report. Semistructured interviews provide an effective and feasible research method for family physicians to conduct in primary care research settings. Researchers using semistructured interviews for data collection should take on a relational focus and consider the skills of interviewing to ensure quality. Semistructured interviewing can be a powerful tool for family physicians, primary care providers and other health services researchers to use to understand the thoughts, beliefs and experiences of individuals. Despite the utility, semistructured interviews can be intimidating and challenging for researchers not familiar with qualitative approaches. In order to elucidate this method, we provide practical guidance for researchers, including novice researchers and those with few resources, to use semistructured interviewing as a data collection strategy. We provide recommendations for the essential steps to follow in order to best implement semistructured interviews in family medicine and primary care research settings.
Introduction
Semistructured interviews can be used by family medicine researchers in clinical settings or academic settings even with few resources. In contrast to large-scale epidemiological studies, or even surveys, a family medicine researcher can conduct a highly meaningful project with interviews with as few as 8–12 participants. For example, Chang and her colleagues, all family physicians, conducted semistructured interviews with 10 providers to understand their perspectives on weight gain in pregnant patients. 1 The interviewers asked questions about providers’ overall perceptions on weight gain, their clinical approach to weight gain during pregnancy and challenges when managing weight gain among pregnant patients. Additional examples conducted by or with family physicians or in primary care settings are summarised in table 1 . 1–6
Examples of research articles using semistructured interviews in primary care research
From our perspective as seasoned qualitative researchers, conducting effective semistructured interviews requires: (1) a relational focus, including active engagement and curiosity, and (2) practice in the skills of interviewing. First, a relational focus emphasises the unique relationship between interviewer and interviewee. To obtain quality data, interviews should not be conducted with a transactional question-answer approach but rather should be unfolding, iterative interactions between the interviewer and interviewee. Second, interview skills can be learnt. Some of us will naturally be more comfortable and skilful at conducting interviews but all aspects of interviews are learnable and through practice and feedback will improve. Throughout this article, we highlight strategies to balance relationship and rigour when conducting semistructured interviews in primary care and the healthcare setting.
Qualitative research interviews are ‘attempts to understand the world from the subjects’ point of view, to unfold the meaning of peoples’ experiences, to uncover their lived world prior to scientific explanations’ (p 1). 7 Qualitative research interviews unfold as an interviewer asks questions of the interviewee in order to gather subjective information about a particular topic or experience. Though the definitions and purposes of qualitative research interviews vary slightly in the literature, there is common emphasis on the experiences of interviewees and the ways in which the interviewee perceives the world (see table 2 for summary of definitions from seminal texts).
Definitions of qualitative interviews
The most common type of interview used in qualitative research and the healthcare context is semistructured interview. 8 Figure 1 highlights the key features of this data collection method, which is guided by a list of topics or questions with follow-up questions, probes and comments. Typically, the sequencing and wording of the questions are modified by the interviewer to best fit the interviewee and interview context. Semistructured interviews can be conducted in multiple ways (ie, face to face, telephone, text/email, individual, group, brief, in-depth), each of which have advantages and disadvantages. We will focus on the most common form of semistructured interviews within qualitative research—individual, face-to-face, in-depth interviews.
Key characteristics of semistructured interviews.
Purpose of semistructured interviews
The overall purpose of using semistructured interviews for data collection is to gather information from key informants who have personal experiences, attitudes, perceptions and beliefs related to the topic of interest. Researchers can use semistructured interviews to collect new, exploratory data related to a research topic, triangulate other data sources or validate findings through member checking (respondent feedback about research results). 9 If using a mixed methods approach, semistructured interviews can also be used in a qualitative phase to explore new concepts to generate hypotheses or explain results from a quantitative phase that tests hypotheses. Semistructured interviews are an effective method for data collection when the researcher wants: (1) to collect qualitative, open-ended data; (2) to explore participant thoughts, feelings and beliefs about a particular topic; and (3) to delve deeply into personal and sometimes sensitive issues.
Designing and conducting semistructured interviews
In the following section, we provide recommendations for the steps required to carefully design and conduct semistructured interviews with emphasis on applications in family medicine and primary care research (see table 3 ).
Steps to designing and conducting semistructured interviews
Steps for designing and conducting semistructured interviews
Step 1: determining the purpose and scope of the study.
The purpose of the study is the primary objective of your project and may be based on an anecdotal experience, a review of the literature or previous research finding. The purpose is developed in response to an identified gap or problem that needs to be addressed.
Research questions are the driving force of a study because they are associated with every other aspect of the design. They should be succinct and clearly indicate that you are using a qualitative approach. Qualitative research questions typically start with ‘What’, ‘How’ or ‘Why’ and focus on the exploration of a single concept based on participant perspectives. 10
Step 2: identifying participants
After deciding on the purpose of the study and research question(s), the next step is to determine who will provide the best information to answer the research question. Good interviewees are those who are available, willing to be interviewed and have lived experiences and knowledge about the topic of interest. 11 12 Working with gatekeepers or informants to get access to potential participants can be extremely helpful as they are trusted sources that control access to the target sample.
Sampling strategies are influenced by the research question and the purpose of the study. Unlike quantitative studies, statistical representativeness is not the goal of qualitative research. There is no calculation of statistical power and the goal is not a large sample size. Instead, qualitative approaches seek an in-depth and detailed understanding and typically use purposeful sampling. See the study of Hatch for a summary of various types of purposeful sampling that can be used for interview studies. 12
‘How many participants are needed?’ The most common answer is, ‘it depends’—it depends on the purpose of the study, what kind of study is planned and what questions the study is trying to answer. 12–14 One common standard in qualitative sample sizes is reaching thematic saturation, which refers to the point at which no new thematic information is gathered from participants. Malterud and colleagues discuss the concept of information power , or a qualitative equivalent to statistical power, to determine how many interviews should be collected in a study. They suggest that the size of a sample should depend on the aim, homogeneity of the sample, theory, interview quality and analytic strategy. 14
Step 3: considering ethical issues
An ethical attitude should be present from the very beginning of the research project even before you decide who to interview. 15 This ethical attitude should incorporate respect, sensitivity and tact towards participants throughout the research process. Because semistructured interviewing often requires the participant to reveal sensitive and personal information directly to the interviewer, it is important to consider the power imbalance between the researcher and the participant. In healthcare settings, the interviewer or researcher may be a part of the patient’s healthcare team or have contact with the healthcare team. The researchers should ensure the interviewee that their participation and answers will not influence the care they receive or their relationship with their providers. Other issues to consider include: reducing the risk of harm; protecting the interviewee’s information; adequately informing interviewees about the study purpose and format; and reducing the risk of exploitation. 10
Step 4: planning logistical aspects
Careful planning particularly around the technical aspects of interviews can be the difference between a great interview and a not so great interview. During the preparation phase, the researcher will need to plan and make decisions about the best ways to contact potential interviewees, obtain informed consent, arrange interview times and locations convenient for both participant and researcher, and test recording equipment. Although many experienced researchers have found themselves conducting interviews in less than ideal locations, the interview location should avoid (or at least minimise) interruptions and be appropriate for the interview (quiet, private and able to get a clear recording). 16 For some research projects, the participants’ homes may make sense as the best interview location. 16
Initial contacts can be made through telephone or email and followed up with more details so the individual can make an informed decision about whether they wish to be interviewed. Potential participants should know what to expect in terms of length of time, purpose of the study, why they have been selected and who will be there. In addition, participants should be informed that they can refuse to answer questions or can withdraw from the study at any time, including during the interview itself.
Audio recording the interview is recommended so that the interviewer can concentrate on the interview and build rapport rather than being distracted with extensive note taking 16 (see table 4 for audio-recording tips). Participants should be informed that audio recording is used for data collection and that they can refuse to be audio recorded should they prefer.
Suggestions for successful audio recording of interviews
Most researchers will want to have interviews transcribed verbatim from the audio recording. This allows you to refer to the exact words of participants during the analysis. Although it is possible to conduct analyses from the audio recordings themselves or from notes, it is not ideal. However, transcription can be extremely time consuming and, if not done yourself, can be costly.
In the planning phase of research, you will want to consider whether qualitative research software (eg, NVivo, ATLAS.ti, MAXQDA, Dedoose, and so on) will be used to assist with organising, managing and analysis. While these tools are helpful in the management of qualitative data, it is important to consider your research budget, the cost of the software and the learning curve associated with using a new system.
Step 5: developing the interview guide
Semistructured interviews include a short list of ‘guiding’ questions that are supplemented by follow-up and probing questions that are dependent on the interviewee’s responses. 8 17 All questions should be open ended, neutral, clear and avoid leading language. In addition, questions should use familiar language and avoid jargon.
Most interviews will start with an easy, context-setting question before moving to more difficult or in-depth questions. 17 Table 5 gives details of the types of guiding questions including ‘grand tour’ questions, 18 core questions and planned and unplanned follow-up questions.
Questions and prompts in semistructured interviewing
To illustrate, online supplementary appendix A presents a sample interview guide from our study of weight gain during pregnancy among young women. We start with the prompt, ‘Tell me about how your pregnancy has been so far’ to initiate conversation about their thoughts and feelings during pregnancy. The subsequent questions will elicit responses to help answer our research question about young women’s perspectives related to weight gain during pregnancy.
Supplementary data
After developing the guiding questions, it is important to pilot test the interview. Having a good sense of the guide helps you to pace the interview (and not run out of time), use a conversational tone and make necessary adjustments to the questions.
Like all qualitative research, interviewing is iterative in nature—data collection and analysis occur simultaneously, which may result in changes to the guiding questions as the study progresses. Questions that are not effective may be replaced with other questions and additional probes can be added to explore new topics that are introduced by participants in previous interviews. 10
Step 6: establishing trust and rapport
Interviews are a special form of relationship, where the interviewer and interviewee converse about important and often personal topics. The interviewer must build rapport quickly by listening attentively and respectfully to the information shared by the interviewee. 19 As the interview progresses, the interviewer must continue to demonstrate respect, encourage the interviewee to share their perspectives and acknowledge the sensitive nature of the conversation. 20
To establish rapport, it is important to be authentic and open to the interviewee’s point of view. It is possible that the participants you recruit for your study will have preconceived notions about research, which may include mistrust. As a result, it is important to describe why you are conducting the research and how their participation is meaningful. In an interview relationship, the interviewee is the expert and should be treated as such—you are relying on the interviewee to enhance your understanding and add to your research. Small behaviours that can enhance rapport include: dressing professionally but not overly formal; avoiding jargon or slang; and using a normal conversational tone. Because interviewees will be discussing their experience, having some awareness of contextual or cultural factors that may influence their perspectives may be helpful as background knowledge.
Step 7: conducting the interview
Location and set-up.
The interview should have already been scheduled at a convenient time and location for the interviewee. The location should be private, ideally with a closed door, rather than a public place. It is helpful if there is a room where you can speak privately without interruption, and where it is quiet enough to hear and audio record the interview. Within the interview space, Josselson 15 suggests an arrangement with a comfortable distance between the interviewer and interviewee with a low table in between for the recorder and any materials (consent forms, questionnaires, water, and so on).
Beginning the interview
Many interviewers start with chatting to break the ice and attempt to establish commonalities, rapport and trust. Most interviews will need to begin with a brief explanation of the research study, consent/assent procedures, rationale for talking to that particular interviewee and description of the interview format and agenda. 11 It can also be helpful if the interviewer shares a little about who they are and why they are interested in the topic. The recording equipment should have already been tested thoroughly but interviewers may want to double-check that the audio equipment is working and remind participants about the reason for recording.
Interviewer stance
During the interview, the interviewer should adopt a friendly and non-judgemental attitude. You will want to maintain a warm and conversational tone, rather than a rote, question-answer approach. It is important to recognise the potential power differential as a researcher. Conveying a sense of being in the interview together and that you as the interviewer are a person just like the interviewee can help ease any discomfort. 15
Active listening
During a face-to-face interview, there is an opportunity to observe social and non-verbal cues of the interviewee. These cues may come in the form of voice, body language, gestures and intonation, and can supplement the interviewee’s verbal response and can give clues to the interviewer about the process of the interview. 21 Listening is the key to successful interviewing. 22 Listening should be ‘attentive, empathic, nonjudgmental, listening in order to invite, and engender talk’ 15 15 (p 66). Silence, nods, smiles and utterances can also encourage further elaboration from the interviewee.
Continuing the interview
As the interview progresses, the interviewer can repeat the words used by the interviewee, use planned and unplanned follow-up questions that invite further clarification, exploration or elaboration. As DiCicco-Bloom and Crabtree 10 explain: ‘Throughout the interview, the goal of the interviewer is to encourage the interviewee to share as much information as possible, unselfconsciously and in his or her own words’ (p 317). Some interviewees are more forthcoming and will offer many details of their experiences without much probing required. Others will require prompting and follow-up to elicit sufficient detail.
As a result, follow-up questions are equally important to the core questions in a semistructured interview. Prompts encourage people to continue talking and they can elicit more details needed to understand the topic. Examples of verbal probes are repeating the participant’s words, summarising the main idea or expressing interest with verbal agreement. 8 11 See table 6 for probing techniques and example probes we have used in our own interviewing.
Probing techniques for semistructured interviews (modified from Bernard 30 )
Step 8: memoing and reflection
After an interview, it is essential for the interviewer to begin to reflect on both the process and the content of the interview. During the actual interview, it can be difficult to take notes or begin reflecting. Even if you think you will remember a particular moment, you likely will not be able to recall each moment with sufficient detail. Therefore, interviewers should always record memos —notes about what you are learning from the data. 23 24 There are different approaches to recording memos: you can reflect on several specific ideas, or create a running list of thoughts. Memos are also useful for improving the quality of subsequent interviews.
Step 9: analysing the data
The data analysis strategy should also be developed during planning stages because analysis occurs concurrently with data collection. 25 The researcher will take notes, modify the data collection procedures and write reflective memos throughout the data collection process. This begins the process of data analysis.
The data analysis strategy used in your study will depend on your research question and qualitative design—see the study of Creswell for an overview of major qualitative approaches. 26 The general process for analysing and interpreting most interviews involves reviewing the data (in the form of transcripts, audio recordings or detailed notes), applying descriptive codes to the data and condensing and categorising codes to look for patterns. 24 27 These patterns can exist within a single interview or across multiple interviews depending on the research question and design. Qualitative computer software programs can be used to help organise and manage interview data.
Step 10: demonstrating the trustworthiness of the research
Similar to validity and reliability, qualitative research can be assessed on trustworthiness. 9 28 There are several criteria used to establish trustworthiness: credibility (whether the findings accurately and fairly represent the data), transferability (whether the findings can be applied to other settings and contexts), confirmability (whether the findings are biased by the researcher) and dependability (whether the findings are consistent and sustainable over time).
Step 11: presenting findings in a paper or report
When presenting the results of interview analysis, researchers will often report themes or narratives that describe the broad range of experiences evidenced in the data. This involves providing an in-depth description of participant perspectives and being sure to include multiple perspectives. 12 In interview research, the participant words are your data. Presenting findings in a report requires the integration of quotes into a more traditional written format.
Conclusions
Though semistructured interviews are often an effective way to collect open-ended data, there are some disadvantages as well. One common problem with interviewing is that not all interviewees make great participants. 12 29 Some individuals are hard to engage in conversation or may be reluctant to share about sensitive or personal topics. Difficulty interviewing some participants can affect experienced and novice interviewers. Some common problems include not doing a good job of probing or asking for follow-up questions, failure to actively listen, not having a well-developed interview guide with open-ended questions and asking questions in an insensitive way. Outside of pitfalls during the actual interview, other problems with semistructured interviewing may be underestimating the resources required to recruit participants, interview, transcribe and analyse the data.
Despite their limitations, semistructured interviews can be a productive way to collect open-ended data from participants. In our research, we have interviewed children and adolescents about their stress experiences and coping behaviours, young women about their thoughts and behaviours during pregnancy, practitioners about the care they provide to patients and countless other key informants about health-related topics. Because the intent is to understand participant experiences, the possible research topics are endless.
Due to the close relationships family physicians have with their patients, the unique settings in which they work, and in their advocacy, semistructured interviews are an attractive approach for family medicine researchers, even if working in a setting with limited research resources. When seeking to balance both the relational focus of interviewing and the necessary rigour of research, we recommend: prioritising listening over talking; using clear language and avoiding jargon; and deeply engaging in the interview process by actively listening, expressing empathy, demonstrating openness to the participant’s worldview and thanking the participant for helping you to understand their experience.
Further Reading
- Edwards R, & Holland J. (2013). What is qualitative interviewing?: A&C Black.
- Josselson R. Interviewing for qualitative inquiry: A relational approach. Guilford Press, 2013.
- Kvale S. InterViews: An Introduction to Qualitative Research Interviewing. SAGE, London, 1996.
- Pope C, & Mays N. (Eds). (2006). Qualitative research in health care.
Correction notice: This article has been corrected. Reference details have been updated.
Contributors: Both authors contributed equally to this work.
Funding: The authors have not declared a specific grant for this research from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.
Competing interests: None declared.
Patient consent for publication: Not required.
Provenance and peer review: Not commissioned; internally peer reviewed.
Interviews can be defined as a qualitative research technique which involves “conducting intensive individual interviews with a small number of respondents to explore their perspectives on a particular idea, program or situation.” [1]
There are three different formats of interviews: structured, semi-structured and unstructured.
Structured interviews consist of a series of pre-determined questions that all interviewees answer in the same order. Data analysis usually tends to be more straightforward because researcher can compare and contrast different answers given to the same questions.
Unstructured interviews are usually the least reliable from research viewpoint, because no questions are prepared prior to the interview and data collection is conducted in an informal manner. Unstructured interviews can be associated with a high level of bias and comparison of answers given by different respondents tends to be difficult due to the differences in formulation of questions.
Semi-structured interviews contain the components of both, structured and unstructured interviews. In semi-structured interviews, interviewer prepares a set of same questions to be answered by all interviewees. At the same time, additional questions might be asked during interviews to clarify and/or further expand certain issues.
Advantages of interviews include possibilities of collecting detailed information about research questions. Moreover, in in this type of primary data collection researcher has direct control over the flow of process and she has a chance to clarify certain issues during the process if needed. Disadvantages, on the other hand, include longer time requirements and difficulties associated with arranging an appropriate time with perspective sample group members to conduct interviews.
When conducting interviews you should have an open mind and refrain from displaying disagreements in any forms when viewpoints expressed by interviewees contradict your own ideas. Moreover, timing and environment for interviews need to be scheduled effectively. Specifically, interviews need to be conducted in a relaxed environment, free of any forms of pressure for interviewees whatsoever.
Respected scholars warn that “in conducting an interview the interviewer should attempt to create a friendly, non-threatening atmosphere. Much as one does with a cover letter, the interviewer should give a brief, casual introduction to the study; stress the importance of the person’s participation; and assure anonymity, or at least confidentiality, when possible.” [2]
There is a risk of interviewee bias during the primary data collection process and this would seriously compromise the validity of the project findings. Some interviewer bias can be avoided by ensuring that the interviewer does not overreact to responses of the interviewee. Other steps that can be taken to help avoid or reduce interviewer bias include having the interviewer dress inconspicuously and appropriately for the environment and holding the interview in a private setting. [3]
My e-book, The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Dissertation in Business Studies: a step by step assistance offers practical assistance to complete a dissertation with minimum or no stress. The e-book covers all stages of writing a dissertation starting from the selection to the research area to submitting the completed version of the work within the deadline.John Dudovskiy
[1] Boyce, C. & Neale, P. (2006) “Conducting in-depth Interviews: A Guide for Designing and Conducting In-Depth Interviews”, Pathfinder International Tool Series
[2] Connaway, L.S.& Powell, R.P.(2010) “Basic Research Methods for Librarians” ABC-CLIO
[3] Connaway, L.S.& Powell, R.P.(2010) “Basic Research Methods for Librarians” ABC-CLIO
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What is Primary Research and How do I get Started?
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Primary research involves collecting data about a given subject directly from the real world. This section includes information on what primary research is, how to get started, ethics involved with primary research and different types of research you can do. It includes details about interviews, surveys, observations, and analyses.
Primary research is any type of research that you collect yourself. Examples include surveys, interviews, observations, and ethnographic research. A good researcher knows how to use both primary and secondary sources in their writing and to integrate them in a cohesive fashion.
Conducting primary research is a useful skill to acquire as it can greatly supplement your research in secondary sources, such as journals, magazines, or books. You can also use it as the focus of your writing project. Primary research is an excellent skill to learn as it can be useful in a variety of settings including business, personal, and academic.
But I’m not an expert!
With some careful planning, primary research can be done by anyone, even students new to writing at the university level. The information provided on this page will help you get started.
What types of projects or activities benefit from primary research?
When you are working on a local problem that may not have been addressed before and little research is there to back it up.
When you are working on writing about a specific group of people or a specific person.
When you are working on a topic that is relatively new or original and few publications exist on the subject.
You can also use primary research to confirm or dispute national results with local trends.
What types of primary research can be done?
Many types of primary research exist. This guide is designed to provide you with an overview of primary research that is often done in writing classes.
Interviews: Interviews are one-on-one or small group question and answer sessions. Interviews will provide a lot of information from a small number of people and are useful when you want to get an expert or knowledgeable opinion on a subject.
Surveys: Surveys are a form of questioning that is more rigid than interviews and that involve larger groups of people. Surveys will provide a limited amount of information from a large group of people and are useful when you want to learn what a larger population thinks.
Observations: Observations involve taking organized notes about occurrences in the world. Observations provide you insight about specific people, events, or locales and are useful when you want to learn more about an event without the biased viewpoint of an interview.
Analysis: Analysis involves collecting data and organizing it in some fashion based on criteria you develop. They are useful when you want to find some trend or pattern. A type of analysis would be to record commercials on three major television networks and analyze gender roles.
Where do I start?
Consider the following questions when beginning to think about conducting primary research:
- What do I want to discover?
- How do I plan on discovering it? (This is called your research methods or methodology)
- Who am I going to talk to/observe/survey? (These people are called your subjects or participants)
- How am I going to be able to gain access to these groups or individuals?
- What are my biases about this topic?
- How can I make sure my biases are not reflected in my research methods?
- What do I expect to discover?
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10 Introduction to Primary Research: Observations, Surveys, and Interviews
Dana Lynn Driscoll
Primary Research: Definitions and Overview
How research is defined varies widely from field to field, and as you progress through your college career, your coursework will teach you much more about what it means to be a researcher within your field. [1] For example, engineers, who focus on applying scientific knowledge to develop designs, processes, and objects, conduct research using simulations, mathematical models, and a variety of tests to see how well their designs work. Sociologists conduct research using surveys, interviews, observations, and statistical analysis to better understand people, societies, and cultures. Graphic designers conduct research through locating images for reference for their artwork and engaging in background research on clients and companies to best serve their needs. Historians conduct research by examining archival materials— newspapers, journals, letters, and other surviving texts—and through conducting oral history interviews. Research is not limited to what has already been written or found at the library, also known as secondary research. Rather, individuals conducting research are producing the articles and reports found in a library database or in a book. Primary research, the focus of this essay, is research that is collected firsthand rather than found in a book, database, or journal.
Primary research is often based on principles of the scientific method, a theory of investigation first developed by John Stuart Mill in the nineteenth century in his book Philosophy of the Scientific Method . Although the application of the scientific method varies from field to field, the general principles of the scientific method allow researchers to learn more about the world and observable phenomena. Using the scientific method, researchers develop research questions or hypotheses and collect data on events, objects, or people that is measurable, observable, and replicable. The ultimate goal in conducting primary research is to learn about something new that can be confirmed by others and to eliminate our own biases in the process.
Essay Overview and Student Examples
The essay begins by providing an overview of ethical considerations when conducting primary research, and then covers the stages that you will go through in your primary research: planning, collecting, analyzing, and writing. After the four stages comes an introduction to three common ways of conducting primary research in first year writing classes:
- Observations . Observing and measuring the world around you, including observations of people and other measurable events.
- Interviews . Asking participants questions in a one-on-one or small group setting.
- Surveys . Asking participants about their opinions and behaviors through a short questionnaire.
In addition, we will be examining two student projects that used substantial portions of primary research:
Derek Laan, a nutrition major at Purdue University, wanted to learn more about student eating habits on campus. His primary research included observations of the campus food courts, student behavior while in the food courts, and a survey of students’ daily food intake. His secondary research included looking at national student eating trends on college campuses, information from the United States Food and Drug Administration, and books on healthy eating.
Jared Schwab, an agricultural and biological engineering major at Purdue, was interested in learning more about how writing and communication took place in his field. His primary research included interviewing a professional engineer and a student who was a senior majoring in engineering. His secondary research included examining journals, books, professional organizations, and writing guides within the field of engineering.
Ethics of Primary Research
Both projects listed above included primary research on human participants; therefore, Derek and Jared both had to consider research ethics throughout their primary research process. As Earl Babbie writes in The Practice of Social Research , throughout the early and middle parts of the twentieth century researchers took advantage of participants and treated them unethically. During World War II, Nazi doctors performed heinous experiments on prisoners without their consent, while in the U.S., a number of medical and psychological experiments on caused patients undue mental and physical trauma and, in some cases, death. Because of these and other similar events, many nations have established ethical laws and guidelines for researchers who work with human participants. In the United States, the guidelines for the ethical treatment of human research participants are described in The Belmont Report , released in 1979. Today, universities have Institutional Review Boards (or IRBs) that oversee research. Students conducting research as part of a class may not need permission from the university’s IRB, although they still need to ensure that they follow ethical guidelines in research. The following provides a brief overview of ethical considerations:
- Voluntary participation . The Belmont Report suggests that, in most cases, you need to get permission from people before you involve them in any primary research you are conducting. If you are doing a survey or interview, your participants must first agree to fill out your survey or to be interviewed. Consent for observations can be more complicated, and is discussed later in the essay.
- Confidentiality and anonymity . Your participants may reveal embarrassing or potentially damaging information such as racist comments or unconventional behavior. In these cases, you should keep your participants’ identities anonymous when writing your results. An easy way to do this is to create a “pseudonym” (or false name) for them so that their identity is protected.
- Researcher bias . There is little point in collecting data and learning about something if you already think you know the answer! Bias might be present in the way you ask questions, the way you take notes, or the conclusions you draw from the data you collect.
The above are only three of many considerations when involving human participants in your primary research. For a complete understanding of ethical considerations please refer to The Belmont Report .
Now that we have considered the ethical implications of research, we will examine how to formulate research questions and plan your primary research project.
Planning Your Primary Research Project
The primary research process is quite similar to the writing process, and you can draw upon your knowledge of the writing process to understand the steps involved in a primary research project. Just like in the writing process, a successful primary research project begins with careful planning and background research. This section first describes how to create a research timeline to help plan your research. It then walks you through the planning stages by examining when primary research is useful or appropriate for your first year composition course, narrowing down a topic, and developing research questions.
The Research Timeline
When you begin to conduct any kind of primary research, creating a timeline will help keep you on task. Because students conducting primary research usually focus on the collection of data itself, they often overlook the equally important areas of planning (invention), analyzing data, and writing. To help manage your time, you should create a research timeline, such as the sample timeline presented here.
When Primary Research Is Useful or Appropriate
In Evaluating Scientific Research: Separating Fact from Fiction , Fred Leavitt explains that primary research is useful for questions that can be answered through asking others and direct observation. For first year writing courses, primary research is particularly useful when you want to learn about a problem that does not have a wealth of published information. This may be because the problem is a recent event or it is something not commonly studied. For example, if you are writing a paper on a new political issue, such as changes in tax laws or healthcare, you might not be able to find a wealth of peer-reviewed research because the issue is only several weeks old. You may find it necessary to collect some of your own data on the issue to supplement what you found at the library. Primary research is also useful when you are studying a local problem or learning how a larger issue plays out at the local level. Although you might be able to find information on national statistics for healthy eating, whether or not those statistics are representative of your college campus is something that you can learn through primary research.
However, not all research questions and topics are appropriate for primary research. As Fred Leavitt writes, questions of an ethical, philosophical, or metaphysical nature are not appropriate because these questions are not testable or observable. For example, the question “Does an afterlife exist?” is not a question that can be answered with primary research. However, the question “How many people in my community believe in an afterlife?” is something that primary research can answer.
Narrowing Your Topic
Just like the writing process, you should start your primary research process with secondary (library) research to learn more about what is already known and what gaps you need to fill with your own data. As you learn more about the topic, you can narrow down your interest area and eventually develop a research question or hypothesis, just as you would with a secondary research paper.
Developing Research Questions or Hypotheses
As John Stuart Mill describes, primary research can use both inductive and deductive approaches, and the type approach is usually based on the field of inquiry. Some fields use deductive reasoning , where researchers start with a hypothesis or general conclusion and then collect specific data to support or refute their hypothesis. Other fields use inductive reasoning , where researchers start with a question and collect information that eventually leads to a conclusion.
Once you have spent some time reviewing the secondary research on your topic, you are ready to write a primary research question or hypothesis. A research question or hypothesis should be something that is specific, narrow, and discoverable through primary research methods. Just like a thesis statement for a paper, if your research question or hypothesis is too broad, your research will be unfocused and your data will be difficult to analyze and write about. Here is a set of sample research questions:
Poor Research Question : What do college students think of politics and the economy? Revised Research Question : What do students at Purdue University believe about the current economic crisis in terms of economic recoverability?
The poor research question is unspecific as to what group of students the researcher is interested in—i.e. students in the U.S.? In a particular state? At their university? The poor research question was also too broad; terms like “politics” and the “economy” cover too much ground for a single project. The revised question narrows down the topic to students at a particular university and focuses on a specific issue related to the economy: economic recoverability. The research question could also be rephrased as a testable hypothesis using deductive reasoning: “Purdue University college students are well informed about economic recoverability plans.” Because they were approaching their projects in an exploratory, inductive manner, both Derek and Jared chose to ask research questions:
Derek: Are students’ eating habits at Purdue University healthy or unhealthy? What are the causes of students’ eating behavior? Jared: What are the major features of writing and communication in agricultural and biological engineering? What are the major controversies?
A final step in working with a research question or hypothesis is determining what key terms you are using and how you will define them. Before conducting his research, Derek had to define the terms “healthy” and “unhealthy”; for this, he used the USDA’s Food Pyramid as a guide. Similarly, part of what Jared focused on in his interviews was learning more about how agricultural and biological engineers defined terms like “writing” and “communication.” Derek and Jared thought carefully about the terms within their research questions and how these terms might be measured.
Choosing a Data Collection Method
Once you have formulated a research question or hypothesis, you will need to make decisions about what kind of data you can collect that will best address your research topic. Derek chose to examine eating habits by observing both what students ate at lunch and surveying students about eating behavior. Jared decided that in-depth interviews with experienced individuals in his field would provide him with the best information.
To choose a data collection method for your research question, read through the next sections on observations, interviews, and surveys.
Observations
Observations have lead to some of the most important scientific discoveries in human history. Charles Darwin used observations of the animal and marine life at the Galapagos Islands to help him formulate his theory of evolution that he describes in On the Origin of Species . Today, social scientists, natural scientists, engineers, computer scientists, educational researchers, and many others use observations as a primary research method.
Observations can be conducted on nearly any subject matter, and the kinds of observations you will do depend on your research question. You might observe traffic or parking patterns on campus to get a sense of what improvements could be made. You might observe clouds, plants, or other natural phenomena. If you choose to observe people, you will have several additional considerations including the manner in which you will observe them and gain their consent.
If you are observing people, you can choose between two common ways to observe: participant observation and unobtrusive observation. Participant observation is a common method within ethnographic research in sociology and anthropology. In this kind of observation, a researcher may interact with participants and become part of their community. Margaret Mead, a famous anthropologist, spent extended periods of time living in, and interacting with, communities that she studied. Conversely, in unobtrusive observation, you do not interact with participants but rather simply record their behavior. Although in most circumstances people must volunteer to be participants in research, in some cases it is acceptable to not let participants know you are observing them. In places that people perceive as public, such as a campus food court or a shopping mall, people do not expect privacy, and so it is generally acceptable to observe without participant consent. In places that people perceive as private, which can include a church, home, classroom, or even an intimate conversation at a restaurant, participant consent should be sought.
The second issue about participant consent in terms of unobtrusive observation is whether or not getting consent is feasible for the study. If you are observing people in a busy airport, bus station, or campus food court, getting participant consent may be next to impossible. In Derek’s study of student eating habits on campus, he went to the campus food courts during meal times and observed students purchasing food. Obtaining participant consent for his observations would have been next to impossible because hundreds of students were coming through the food court during meal times. Since Derek’s research was in a place that participants would perceive as public, it was not practical to get their consent, and since his data was anonymous, he did not violate their privacy.
Eliminating Bias in Your Observation Notes
The ethical concern of being unbiased is important in recording your observations. You need to be aware of the difference between an observation (recording exactly what you see) and an interpretation (making assumptions and judgments about what you see). When you observe, you should focus first on only the events that are directly observable. Consider the following two example entries in an observation log:
- The student sitting in the dining hall enjoys his greasy, oil-soaked pizza. He is clearly oblivious of the calorie content and damage it may do to his body.
- The student sits in the dining hall. As he eats his piece of pizza, which drips oil, he says to a friend, “This pizza is good.”
The first entry is biased and demonstrates judgment about the event. First, the observer makes assumptions about the internal state of the student when she writes “enjoys” and “clearly oblivious to the calorie content.” From an observer’s standpoint, there is no way of ascertaining what the student may or may not know about pizza’s nutritional value nor how much the student enjoys the pizza. The second entry provides only the details and facts that are observable.
To avoid bias in your observations, you can use something called a “double-entry notebook.” This is a type of observation log that encourages you to separate your observations (the facts) from your feelings and judgments about the facts.
Observations are only one strategy in collecting primary research. You may also want to ask people directly about their behaviors, beliefs, or attitudes—and for this you will need to use surveys or interviews.
Surveys and Interviews: Question Creation
Sometimes it is very difficult for a researcher to gain all of the necessary information through observations alone. Along with his observations of the dining halls, Derek wanted to know what students ate in a typical day, and so he used a survey to have them keep track of their eating habits. Likewise, Jared wanted to learn about writing and communication in engineering and decided to draw upon expert knowledge by asking experienced individuals within the field.
Interviews and surveys are two ways that you can gather information about people’s beliefs or behaviors. With these methods, the information you collect is not first-hand (like an observation) but rather “self-reported” data, or data collected in an indirect manner. William Shadish, Thomas Cook, and Donald Campbell argued that people are inherently biased about how they see the world and may report their own actions in a more favorable way than they may actually behave. Despite the issues in self-reported data, surveys and interviews are an excellent way to gather data for your primary research project.
Survey or Interview?
How do you choose between conducting a survey or an interview? It depends on what kind of information you are looking for. You should use surveys if you want to learn about a general trend in people’s opinions, experiences, and behavior. Surveys are particularly useful to find small amounts of information from a wider selection of people in the hopes of making a general claim. Interviews are best used when you want to learn detailed information from a few specific people. Interviews are also particularly useful if you want to interview experts about their opinions, as Jared did. In sum, use interviews to gain details from a few people, and surveys to learn general patterns from many people.
Writing Good Questions
One of the greatest challenges in conducting surveys and interviews is writing good questions. As a researcher, you are always trying to eliminate bias, and the questions you ask need to be unbiased and clear. Here are some suggestions on writing good questions:
Ask about One Thing at a Time
A poorly written question can contain multiple questions, which can confuse participants or lead them to answer only part of the question you are asking. This is called a “double-barreled question” in journalism. The following questions are taken from Jared’s research:
Poor question: What kinds of problems are being faced in the field today and where do you see the search for solutions to these problems going? Revised question #1 : What kinds of problems are being faced in the field today? Revised question #2: Where do you see the search for solutions to these problems going?
Avoid Leading Questions
A leading question is one where you prompt the participant to respond in a particular way, which can create bias in the answers given:
Leading question: The economy is clearly in a crisis, wouldn’t you agree? Revised question: Do you believe the economy is currently in a crisis? Why or why not?
Understand When to Use Open and Closed Questions
Closed questions, or questions that have yes/no or other limited responses, should be used in surveys. However, avoid these kinds of questions in interviews because they discourage the interviewee from going into depth. The question sample above, “Do you believe the economy currently is in a crisis?” could be answered with a simple yes or no, which could keep a participant from talking more about the issue. The “why or why not?” portion of the question asks the participant to elaborate. On a survey, the question “Do you believe the economy currently is in a crisis?” is a useful question because you can easily count the number of yes and no answers and make a general claim about participant responses.
Write Clear Questions
When you write questions, make sure they are clear, concise, and to the point. Questions that are too long, use unfamiliar vocabulary, or are unclear may confuse participants and you will not get quality responses.
Now that question creation has been addressed, we will next examine specific considerations for interviews and surveys.
Interviews, or question and answer sessions with one or more people, are an excellent way to learn in-depth information from a person for your primary research project. This section presents information on how to conduct a successful interview, including choosing the right person, ways of interviewing, recording your interview, interview locations, and transcribing your interview.
Choosing the Right Person
One of the keys to a successful interview is choosing the right person to interview. Think about whom you would like to interview and whom you might know. Do not be afraid to ask people you do not know for interviews. When asking, simply tell them what the interview will be about, what the interview is for, and how much time it will take. Jared used his Purdue University connection to locate both of the individuals that he ended up interviewing—an advanced Purdue student and a Purdue alum working in an Engineering firm.
Face-to-Face and Virtual Interviews
When interviewing, you have a choice of conducting a traditional, face-to-face interview or an interview using technology over the Internet. Face-to-face interviews have the strength that you can ask follow-up questions and use non-verbal communication to your advantage. Individuals are able to say much more in a face-to-face interview than in an email, so you will get more information from a face-to-face interview. However, the Internet provides a host of new possibilities when it comes to interviewing people at a distance. You may choose to do an email interview, where you send questions and ask the person to respond. You may also choose to use a video or audio conferencing program to talk with the person virtually. If you are choosing any Internet-based option, make sure you have a way of recording the interview. You may also use a chat or instant messaging program to interview your participant—the benefit of this is that you can ask follow-up questions during the interview and the interview is already transcribed for you. Because one of his interviewees lived several hours away, Jared chose to interview the Purdue student face-to-face and the Purdue alum via email.
Finding a Suitable Location
If you are conducting an in-person interview, it is essential that you find a quiet place for your interview. Many universities have quiet study rooms that can be reserved (often found in the university library). Do not try to interview someone in a coffee shop, dining hall, or other loud area, as it is difficult to focus and get a clear recording.
Recording Interviews
One way of eliminating bias in your research is to record your interviews rather than rely on your memory. Recording interviews allows you to directly quote the individual and re-read the interview when you are writing. It is recommended that you have two recording devices for the interview in case one recording device fails. Most computers, MP3 players, and even cell phones come with recording equipment built in. Many universities also offer equipment that students can check out and use, including computers and recorders. Before you record any interview, be sure that you have permission from your participant.
Transcribing Your Interview
Once your interview is over, you will need to transcribe your interview to prepare it for analysis. The term transcribing means creating a written record that is exactly what was said—i.e. typing up your interviews. If you have conducted an email or chat interview, you already have a transcription and can move on to your analysis stage.
Other than the fact that they both involve asking people questions, interviews and surveys are quite different data collection methods. Creating a survey may seem easy at first, but developing a quality survey can be quite challenging. When conducting a survey, you need to focus on the following areas: survey creation, survey testing, survey sampling, and distributing your survey.
Survey Creation: Length and Types of Questions
One of the keys to creating a successful survey is to keep your survey short and focused. Participants are unlikely to fill out a survey that is lengthy, and you’ll have a more difficult time during your analysis if your survey contains too many questions. In most cases, you want your survey to be something that can be filled out within a few minutes. The target length of the survey also depends on how you will distribute the survey. If you are giving your survey to other students in your dorm or classes, they will have more time to complete the survey. Therefore, five to ten minutes to complete the survey is reasonable. If you are asking students as they are walking to class to fill out your survey, keep it limited to several questions that can be answered in thirty seconds or less. Derek’s survey took about ten minutes and asked students to describe what they ate for a day, along with some demographic information like class level and gender.
Use closed questions to your advantage when creating your survey. A closed question is any set of questions that gives a limited amount of choices (yes/no, a 1–5 scale, choose the statement that best describes you). When creating closed questions, be sure that you are accounting for all reasonable answers in your question creation. For example, asking someone “Do you believe you eat healthy?” and providing them only “yes” and “no” options means that a “neutral” or “undecided” option does not exist, even though the survey respondent may not feel strongly either way. Therefore, on closed questions you may find it helpful to include an “other” category where participants can fill in an answer. It is also a good idea to have a few open-ended questions where participants can elaborate on certain points or earlier responses. However, open-ended questions take much longer to fill out than closed questions.
Survey Creation: Testing Your Survey
To make sure your survey is an appropriate length and that your questions are clear, you can “pilot test” your survey. Prior to administering your survey on a larger scale, ask several classmates or friends to fill it out and give you feedback on the survey. Keep track of how long the survey takes to complete. Ask them if the questions are clear and make sense. Look at their answers to see if the answers match what you wanted to learn. You can revise your survey questions and the length of your survey as necessary.
Sampling and Access to Survey Populations
“Sampling” is a term used within survey research to describe the subset of people that are included in your study. Derek’s first research question was: “Are students’ eating habits at Purdue University healthy or unhealthy?” Because it was impossible for Derek to survey all 38,000 students on Purdue’s campus, he had to choose a representative sample of students. Derek chose to survey students who lived in the dorms because of the wide variety of student class levels and majors in the dorms and his easy access to this group. By making this choice, however, he did not account for commuter students, graduate students, or those who live off campus. As Derek’s case demonstrates, it is very challenging to get a truly representative sample.
Part of the reason that sampling is a challenge is that you may find difficulty in finding enough people to take your survey. In thinking about how get people to take your survey, consider both your everyday surroundings and also technological solutions. Derek had access to many students in the dorms, but he also considered surveying students in his classes in order to reach as many people as possible. Another possibility is to conduct an online survey. Online surveys greatly increase your access to different kinds of people from across the globe, but may decrease your chances of having a high survey response rate. An email or private message survey request is more likely to be ignored due to the impersonal quality and high volume of emails most people receive.
Analyzing and Writing About Primary Research
Once you collect primary research data, you will need to analyze what you have found so that you can write about it. The purpose of analyzing your data is to look at what you collected (survey responses, interview answers to questions, observations) and to create a cohesive, systematic interpretation to help answer your research question or examine the validity of your hypothesis.
When you are analyzing and presenting your findings, remember to work to eliminate bias by being truthful and as accurate as possible about what you found, even if it differs from what you expected to find. You should see your data as sources of information, just like sources you find in the library, and you should work to represent them accurately.
The following are suggestions for analyzing different types of data.
If you’ve counted anything you were observing, you can simply add up what you counted and report the results. If you’ve collected descriptions using a double-entry notebook, you might work to write thick descriptions of what you observed into your writing. This could include descriptions of the scene, behaviors you observed, and your overall conclusions about events. Be sure that your readers are clear on what were your actual observations versus your thoughts or interpretations of those observations.
If you’ve interviewed one or two people, then you can use your summary, paraphrasing, and quotation skills to help you accurately describe what was said in the interview. Just like in secondary research when working with sources, you should introduce your interviewees and choose clear and relevant quotes from the interviews to use in your writing. An easy way to find the important information in an interview is to print out your transcription and take a highlighter and mark the important parts that you might use in your paper. If you have conducted a large number of interviews, it will be helpful for you to create a spreadsheet of responses to each question and compare the responses, choosing representative answers for each area you want to describe.
Surveys can contain quantitative (numerical) and qualitative (written answers/descriptions) data. Quantitative data can be analyzed using a spreadsheet program like Microsoft Excel to calculate the mean (average) answer or to calculate the percentage of people who responded in a certain way. You can display this information in a chart or a graph and also describe it in writing in your paper. If you have qualitative responses, you might choose to group them into categories and/or you may choose to quote several representative responses.
Writing about Primary Research
In formal research writing in a variety of fields, it is common for research to be presented in the following format: introduction/background; methods; results; discussions; conclusion. Not all first year writing classes will require such an organizational structure, although it is likely that you will be required to present many of these elements in your paper. Because of this, the next section examines each of these in depth.
Introduction (Review of Literature)
The purpose of an introduction and review of literature in a research paper is to provide readers with information that helps them understand the context, purpose, and relevancy of your research. The introduction is where you provide most of your background (library) research that you did earlier in the process. You can include articles, statistics, research studies, and quotes that are pertinent to the issues at hand. A second purpose in an introduction is to establish your own credibility (ethos) as a writer by showing that you have researched your topic thoroughly. This kind of background discussion is required in nearly every field of inquiry when presenting research in oral or written formats.
Derek provided information from the Food and Drug Administration on healthy eating and national statistics about eating habits as part of his background information. He also made the case for healthy eating on campus to show relevancy:
Currently Americans are more overweight than ever. This is coming at a huge cost to the economy and government. If current trends in increasing rates of overweight and obesity continue it is likely that this generation will be the first one to live shorter lives than their parents did. Looking at the habits of university students is a good way to see how a new generation behaves when they are living out on their own for the first time.
Describing What You Did (Methods)
When writing, you need to provide enough information to your readers about your primary research process for them to understand what you collected and how you collected it. In formal research papers, this is often called a methods section. Providing information on your study methods also adds to your credibility as a writer. For surveys, your methods would include describing who you surveyed, how many surveys you collected, decisions you made about your survey sample, and relevant demographic information about your participants (age, class level, major). For interviews, introduce whom you interviewed and any other relevant information about interviewees such as their career or expertise area. For observations, list the locations and times you observed and how you recorded your observations (i.e. double-entry notebook). For all data types, you should describe how you analyzed your data.
The following is a sample from Jared about his participants:
In order to gain a better understanding of the discourse community in environmental and resource engineering, I interviewed Anne Dare, a senior in environmental and natural resource engineering, and Alyson Keaton an alumnus of Purdue University. Alyson is a current employee of the Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS), which is a division of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA).
Here is a sample from Derek’s methods section:
I conducted a survey so that I could find out what students at Purdue actually eat on a typical day. I handed out surveys asking students to record what they ate for a day . . . I received 29 back and averaged the results based on average number of servings from each food group on the old food guide pyramid. The group included students from the freshman to the graduate level and had 8 women and 21 men respond.
Describing Your Study Findings (Results)
In a formal research paper, the results section is where you describe what you found. The results section can include charts, graphs, lists, direct quotes, and overviews of findings. Readers find it helpful if you are able to provide the information in different formats. For example, if you have any kind of numbers or percentages, you can talk about them in your written description and then present a graph or chart showing them visually. You should provide specific details as supporting evidence to back up your findings. These details can be in the form of direct quotations, numbers, or observations.
Jared describes some of his interview results:
Alyson also mentioned the need for phone conversation. She stated, “The phone is a large part of my job. I am communicating with other NRCS offices daily to find out the status of our jobs.” She needs to be in constant contact in order to insure that everything is running smoothly. This is common with those overseeing projects. In these cases, the wait for a response to an email or a memo can be too long to be effective.
Interpreting What You Learned (Discussion)
In formal research papers, the discussion section presents your own interpretation of your results. This may include what you think the results mean or how they are useful to your larger argument. If you are making a proposal for change or a call to action, this is where you make it. For example, in Derek’s project about healthy eating on campus, Derek used his primary research on students’ unhealthy eating and observations of the food courts to argue that the campus food courts needed serious changes. Derek writes, “Make healthy food options the most accessible in every dining hall while making unhealthy foods the least. Put nutrition facts for everything that is served in the dining halls near the food so that students can make more informed decisions on what to eat.”
Jared used the individuals he interviewed as informants that helped him learn more about writing in agricultural and biological engineering. He integrated the interviews he conducted with secondary research to form a complete picture of writing and communication in agricultural and biological engineering. He concludes:
Writing takes so many forms, and it is important to know about all these forms in one way or another. The more forms of writing you can achieve, the more flexible you can be. This ability to be flexible can make all the difference in writing when you are dealing with a field as complex as engineering.
Primary Research and Works Cited or References Pages
The last part of presenting your primary research project is a works cited or references page. In general, since you are working with data you collected yourself, there is no source to cite an external source. Your methods section should describe in detail to the readers how and where the data presented was obtained. However, if you are working with interviews, you can cite these as “personal communication.” The MLA and APA handbooks both provide clear listings of how to cite personal communication in a works cited/references page.
This essay has presented an overview to three commonly used methods of primary research in first year writing courses: observations, interviews, and surveys. By using these methods, you can learn more about the world around you and craft meaningful written discussions of your findings.
- Primary research techniques show up in more places than just first year writing courses. Where else might interviews, surveys, or observations be used? Where have you seen them used?
- The chapter provides a brief discussion of the ethical considerations of research. Can you think of any additional ethical considerations when conducting primary research? Can you think of ethical considerations unique to your own research project?
- Primary research is most useful for first year writing students if it is based in your local community or campus. What are some current issues on your campus or in your community that could be investigated using primary research methods?
- In groups or as a class, make a list of potential primary research topics. After each topic on the list, consider what method of inquiry (observation, interview, or survey) you would use to study the topic and answer why that method is a good choice.
Suggested Resources
For more information on the primary methods of inquiry described here, please see the following sources:
Babbie, Earl. The Practice of Social Research . 10th edition. Wadsworth Publishing, 2003. Print.
Creswell, John. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches . 3rd ed. Sage publications, 2008. Print.
Rubin, Herbert and Irene Rubin. Qualitative Interviewing: The Art of Hearing Data . 2nd edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2004. Print.
Fink, Arlene. How to Conduct Surveys: A Step-by-Step Guide. 4th ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2008. Print.
Sanger, Jack. Compleat Observer? A Field Research Guide to Observation . New York: Routledge, 1996. Print.
The National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. The Belmont Report . 18 April 1979. Web. < http://ohsr.od.nih.gov/guidelines/belmont.html >.
Works Cited
Babbie, Earl. The Practice of Social Research . 10th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth publishing, 2003. Print.
Creswell, John. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches . 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage publications, 2008. Print.
Shadish, William, Thomas, Cook and Donald Campbell. Quasi-Experimentation: Design and Analysis Issues . Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1979. Print.
Darwin, Charles. On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection . New York: L Hurst and Company, No date. Print.
Lauer, Janice and William Asher. Composition Research: Empirical Designs . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988. Print.
Leavitt, Fred. Evaluating Scientific Research: Separating Fact from Fiction . Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press, 2004. Print.
Mead, Margaret. Growing Up in New Guinea: A Comparative Study of Primitive Education. New York: Morrow, 193. Print.
Mill, John Stuart. John Stuart Mill’s Philosophy of Scientific Method. Ernest Nagel, Ed. New York: Hafner Publishing Co, 1950. Print.
Rubin, Herbert and Irene Rubin. Qualitative Interviewing: The Art of Hearing Data . 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2004. Print.
- This work is licensed under the Creative Commons AttributionNoncommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 United States License and is subject to the Writing Spaces’ Terms of Use. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/us/ or send a letter to Creative Commons, 171 Second Street, Suite 300, San Francisco, California, 94105, USA. To view the Writing Spaces’ Terms of Use, visit http://writingspaces.org/terms-of-use . ↵
Introduction to Primary Research: Observations, Surveys, and Interviews Copyright © 2011 by Dana Lynn Driscoll is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.
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- Primary Research | Definition, Types, & Examples
Primary Research | Definition, Types, & Examples
Published on 15 January 2023 by Tegan George .
Primary research is a research method that relies on direct data collection , rather than relying on data that’s already been collected by someone else. In other words, primary research is any type of research that you undertake yourself, firsthand, while using data that has already been collected is called secondary research.
Primary research is often used in qualitative research , particularly in survey methodology, questionnaires, focus groups, and various types of interviews . While quantitative primary research does exist, it’s not as common.
Table of contents
When to use primary research, types of primary research, examples of primary research, advantages and disadvantages of primary research, frequently asked questions.
Primary research is any research that you conduct yourself. It can be as simple as a 2-question survey, or as in-depth as a years-long longitudinal study . The only key is that data must be collected firsthand by you.
Primary research is often used to supplement or strengthen existing secondary research. It is usually exploratory in nature, concerned with examining a research question where no preexisting knowledge exists. It is also sometimes called original research for this reason.
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Primary research can take many forms, but the most common types are:
- Surveys and questionnaire
- Observational studies
- Interviews and focus groups
- Surveys and questionnaires
Surveys and questionnaires collect information about a group of people by asking them questions and analyzing the results. They are a solid choice if your research topic seeks to investigate something about the characteristics, preferences, opinions, or beliefs of a group of people.
Surveys and questionnaires can take place online, in person, or through the mail. It is best to have a combination of open-ended and closed-ended questions, and how the questions are phrased matters. Be sure to avoid leading questions, and ask any related questions in groups, starting with the most basic ones first.
Observational studies are an easy and popular way to answer a research question based purely on what you, the researcher, observes. If there are practical or ethical concerns that prevent you from conducting a traditional experiment , observational studies are often a good stopgap.
There are three types of observational studies: cross-sectional studies , cohort studies, and case-control studies. If you decide to conduct observational research, you can choose the one that’s best for you. All three are quite straightforward and easy to design – just beware of confounding variables and observer bias creeping into your analysis.
Similarly to surveys and questionnaires, interviews and focus groups also rely on asking questions to collect information about a group of people. However, how this is done is slightly different. Instead of sending your questions out into the world, interviews and focus groups involve two or more people – one of whom is you, the interviewer, who asks the questions.
There are 3 main types of interviews:
- Structured interviews ask predetermined questions in a predetermined order.
- Unstructured interviews are more flexible and free-flowing, proceeding based on the interviewee’s previous answers.
- Semi-structured interviews fall in between, asking a mix of predetermined questions and off-the-cuff questions.
While interviews are a rich source of information, they can also be deceptively challenging to do well. Be careful of interviewer bias creeping into your process. This is best mitigated by avoiding double-barreled questions and paying close attention to your tone and delivery while asking questions.
Alternatively, a focus group is a group interview, led by a moderator. Focus groups can provide more nuanced interactions than individual interviews, but their small sample size means that external validity is low.
Primary research can often be quite simple to pursue yourself. Here are a few examples of different research methods you can use to explore different topics.
Primary research is a great choice for many research projects, but it has distinct advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages of primary research
Advantages include:
- The ability to conduct really tailored, thorough research, down to the ‘nitty-gritty’ of your topic . You decide what you want to study or observe and how to go about doing that.
- You maintain control over the quality of the data collected, and can ensure firsthand that it is objective, reliable , and valid .
- The ensuing results are yours, for you to disseminate as you see fit. You maintain proprietary control over what you find out, allowing you to share your findings with like-minded individuals or those conducting related research that interests you for replication or discussion purposes.
Disadvantages of primary research
Disadvantages include:
- In order to be done well, primary research can be very expensive and time consuming. If you are constrained in terms of time or funding, it can be very difficult to conduct your own high-quality primary research.
- Primary research is often insufficient as a standalone research method, requiring secondary research to bolster it.
- Primary research can be prone to various types of research bias . Bias can manifest on the part of the researcher as observer bias , Pygmalion effect , or demand characteristics . It can occur on the part of participants as a Hawthorne effect or social desirability bias .
The 3 main types of primary research are:
Exploratory research explores the main aspects of a new or barely researched question.
Explanatory research explains the causes and effects of an already widely researched question.
There are several methods you can use to decrease the impact of confounding variables on your research: restriction, matching, statistical control, and randomisation.
In restriction , you restrict your sample by only including certain subjects that have the same values of potential confounding variables.
In matching , you match each of the subjects in your treatment group with a counterpart in the comparison group. The matched subjects have the same values on any potential confounding variables, and only differ in the independent variable .
In statistical control , you include potential confounders as variables in your regression .
In randomisation , you randomly assign the treatment (or independent variable) in your study to a sufficiently large number of subjects, which allows you to control for all potential confounding variables.
A questionnaire is a data collection tool or instrument, while a survey is an overarching research method that involves collecting and analysing data from people using questionnaires.
When conducting research, collecting original data has significant advantages:
- You can tailor data collection to your specific research aims (e.g., understanding the needs of your consumers or user testing your website).
- You can control and standardise the process for high reliability and validity (e.g., choosing appropriate measurements and sampling methods ).
However, there are also some drawbacks: data collection can be time-consuming, labour-intensive, and expensive. In some cases, it’s more efficient to use secondary data that has already been collected by someone else, but the data might be less reliable.
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Primary Research: What It Is, Purpose & Methods + Examples
As we continue exploring the exciting research world, we’ll come across two primary and secondary data approaches. This article will focus on primary research – what it is, how it’s done, and why it’s essential.
We’ll discuss the methods used to gather first-hand data and examples of how it’s applied in various fields. Get ready to discover how this research can be used to solve research problems , answer questions, and drive innovation.
What is Primary Research: Definition
Primary research is a methodology researchers use to collect data directly rather than depending on data collected from previously done research. Technically, they “own” the data. Primary research is solely carried out to address a certain problem, which requires in-depth analysis .
There are two forms of research:
- Primary Research
- Secondary Research
Businesses or organizations can conduct primary research or employ a third party to conduct research. One major advantage of primary research is this type of research is “pinpointed.” Research only focuses on a specific issue or problem and on obtaining related solutions.
For example, a brand is about to launch a new mobile phone model and wants to research the looks and features they will soon introduce.
Organizations can select a qualified sample of respondents closely resembling the population and conduct primary research with them to know their opinions. Based on this research, the brand can now think of probable solutions to make necessary changes in the looks and features of the mobile phone.
Primary Research Methods with Examples
In this technology-driven world, meaningful data is more valuable than gold. Organizations or businesses need highly validated data to make informed decisions. This is the very reason why many companies are proactive in gathering their own data so that the authenticity of data is maintained and they get first-hand data without any alterations.
Here are some of the primary research methods organizations or businesses use to collect data:
1. Interviews (telephonic or face-to-face)
Conducting interviews is a qualitative research method to collect data and has been a popular method for ages. These interviews can be conducted in person (face-to-face) or over the telephone. Interviews are an open-ended method that involves dialogues or interaction between the interviewer (researcher) and the interviewee (respondent).
Conducting a face-to-face interview method is said to generate a better response from respondents as it is a more personal approach. However, the success of face-to-face interviews depends heavily on the researcher’s ability to ask questions and his/her experience related to conducting such interviews in the past. The types of questions that are used in this type of research are mostly open-ended questions . These questions help to gain in-depth insights into the opinions and perceptions of respondents.
Personal interviews usually last up to 30 minutes or even longer, depending on the subject of research. If a researcher is running short of time conducting telephonic interviews can also be helpful to collect data.
2. Online surveys
Once conducted with pen and paper, surveys have come a long way since then. Today, most researchers use online surveys to send to respondents to gather information from them. Online surveys are convenient and can be sent by email or can be filled out online. These can be accessed on handheld devices like smartphones, tablets, iPads, and similar devices.
Once a survey is deployed, a certain amount of stipulated time is given to respondents to answer survey questions and send them back to the researcher. In order to get maximum information from respondents, surveys should have a good mix of open-ended questions and close-ended questions . The survey should not be lengthy. Respondents lose interest and tend to leave it half-done.
It is a good practice to reward respondents for successfully filling out surveys for their time and efforts and valuable information. Most organizations or businesses usually give away gift cards from reputed brands that respondents can redeem later.
3. Focus groups
This popular research technique is used to collect data from a small group of people, usually restricted to 6-10. Focus group brings together people who are experts in the subject matter for which research is being conducted.
Focus group has a moderator who stimulates discussions among the members to get greater insights. Organizations and businesses can make use of this method, especially to identify niche markets to learn about a specific group of consumers.
4. Observations
In this primary research method, there is no direct interaction between the researcher and the person/consumer being observed. The researcher observes the reactions of a subject and makes notes.
Trained observers or cameras are used to record reactions. Observations are noted in a predetermined situation. For example, a bakery brand wants to know how people react to its new biscuits, observes notes on consumers’ first reactions, and evaluates collective data to draw inferences .
Primary Research vs Secondary Research – The Differences
Primary and secondary research are two distinct approaches to gathering information, each with its own characteristics and advantages.
While primary research involves conducting surveys to gather firsthand data from potential customers, secondary market research is utilized to analyze existing industry reports and competitor data, providing valuable context and benchmarks for the survey findings.
Find out more details about the differences:
1. Definition
- Primary Research: Involves the direct collection of original data specifically for the research project at hand. Examples include surveys, interviews, observations, and experiments.
- Secondary Research: Involves analyzing and interpreting existing data, literature, or information. This can include sources like books, articles, databases, and reports.
2. Data Source
- Primary Research: Data is collected directly from individuals, experiments, or observations.
- Secondary Research: Data is gathered from already existing sources.
3. Time and Cost
- Primary Research: Often time-consuming and can be costly due to the need for designing and implementing research instruments and collecting new data.
- Secondary Research: Generally more time and cost-effective, as it relies on readily available data.
4. Customization
- Primary Research: Provides tailored and specific information, allowing researchers to address unique research questions.
- Secondary Research: Offers information that is pre-existing and may not be as customized to the specific needs of the researcher.
- Primary Research: Researchers have control over the research process, including study design, data collection methods, and participant selection.
- Secondary Research: Limited control, as researchers rely on data collected by others.
6. Originality
- Primary Research: Generates original data that hasn’t been analyzed before.
- Secondary Research: Involves the analysis of data that has been previously collected and analyzed.
7. Relevance and Timeliness
- Primary Research: Often provides more up-to-date and relevant data or information.
- Secondary Research: This may involve data that is outdated, but it can still be valuable for historical context or broad trends.
Advantages of Primary Research
Primary research has several advantages over other research methods, making it an indispensable tool for anyone seeking to understand their target market, improve their products or services, and stay ahead of the competition. So let’s dive in and explore the many benefits of primary research.
- One of the most important advantages is data collected is first-hand and accurate. In other words, there is no dilution of data. Also, this research method can be customized to suit organizations’ or businesses’ personal requirements and needs .
- I t focuses mainly on the problem at hand, which means entire attention is directed to finding probable solutions to a pinpointed subject matter. Primary research allows researchers to go in-depth about a matter and study all foreseeable options.
- Data collected can be controlled. I T gives a means to control how data is collected and used. It’s up to the discretion of businesses or organizations who are collecting data how to best make use of data to get meaningful research insights.
- I t is a time-tested method, therefore, one can rely on the results that are obtained from conducting this type of research.
Disadvantages of Primary Research
While primary research is a powerful tool for gathering unique and firsthand data, it also has its limitations. As we explore the drawbacks, we’ll gain a deeper understanding of when primary research may not be the best option and how to work around its challenges.
- One of the major disadvantages of primary research is it can be quite expensive to conduct. One may be required to spend a huge sum of money depending on the setup or primary research method used. Not all businesses or organizations may be able to spend a considerable amount of money.
- This type of research can be time-consuming. Conducting interviews and sending and receiving online surveys can be quite an exhaustive process and require investing time and patience for the process to work. Moreover, evaluating results and applying the findings to improve a product or service will need additional time.
- Sometimes, just using one primary research method may not be enough. In such cases, the use of more than one method is required, and this might increase both the time required to conduct research and the cost associated with it.
Every research is conducted with a purpose. Primary research is conducted by organizations or businesses to stay informed of the ever-changing market conditions and consumer perception. Excellent customer satisfaction (CSAT) has become a key goal and objective of many organizations.
A customer-centric organization knows the importance of providing exceptional products and services to its customers to increase customer loyalty and decrease customer churn. Organizations collect data and analyze it by conducting primary research to draw highly evaluated results and conclusions. Using this information, organizations are able to make informed decisions based on real data-oriented insights.
QuestionPro is a comprehensive survey platform that can be used to conduct primary research. Users can create custom surveys and distribute them to their target audience , whether it be through email, social media, or a website.
QuestionPro also offers advanced features such as skip logic, branching, and data analysis tools, making collecting and analyzing data easier. With QuestionPro, you can gather valuable insights and make informed decisions based on the results of your primary research. Start today for free!
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Extended Essay: Conducting Primary Research
- Extended Essay- The Basics
- Step 1. Choose a Subject
- Step 2. Educate yourself!
- Using Brainstorming and Mind Maps
- Identify Keywords
- Do Background Reading
- Define Your Topic
- Conduct Research in a Specific Discipline
- Step 5. Draft a Research Question
- Step 6. Create a Timeline
- Find Articles
- Find Primary Sources
- Get Help from Experts
- Search Engines, Repositories, & Directories
- Databases and Websites by Subject Area
- Create an Annotated Bibliography
- Advice (and Warnings) from the IB
- Chicago Citation Syle
- MLA Works Cited & In-Text Citations
- Step 9. Set Deadlines for Yourself
- Step 10. Plan a structure for your essay
- Evaluate & Select: the CRAAP Test
- Conducting Secondary Research
- Conducting Primary Research
- Formal vs. Informal Writing
- Presentation Requirements
- Evaluating Your Work
Primary Research - a Definition
Primary research is the collecting of original data.
Not all subjects permit the use of primary methods as part of the research process for the EE, so it is important to carefully check your subject guidelines before starting.
On this page, you can find information on:
Primary Research - What is Its Purpose? Primary Research - Preparation Before You Begin Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research Research Methods Considerations for Primary Research Ways That Primary Research Can Fail Video Tutorials
Primary Research - Purpose
After the literature review or secondary research is completed, you must analyze your findings and:
- determine to what extent they answer your research question
- find agreement between authors
- find disagreement, where the evidence reveals differences in points of view or findings.
At this point you may decide to investigate further by carrying out your own primary research , in other words by collecting your own data .
You will have to choose a method or methods that are appropriate to the research question and commonly used in the particular Diploma Programme subject. NOTE: although the method may be appropriate for the subject, in the instance of the EE it may not be permitted, so check the subject guide!
Possible data collection methods include:
- experiments
- investigations
- interviews
The details of how the data was collected are crucial to the validity of any argument based on the findings. You must put in the main body of your essay the details of any primary research you carry out. These include:
- the methods used
- the persons involved
- how and why these were selected
- the relevant results
- any limitations and biases that may have influenced the results
Primary Research - Preparation Before You Begin
Students must follow the accepted process for carrying out their chosen method of research—how the data is recorded, analysed and presented. Otherwise, their data will have little value.
Students need to plan carefully how to carry out their research. In most cases, there will be only one opportunity to collect primary data from a particular source.
It is extremely important that students approach their research in an ethical and legal manner. See:
Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research
Quantitative research follows a well-defined process that yields data that can be analyzed statistically. For example:
- outcomes from experiments
- data collected from surveys where responses involve closed or multiple-choice responses
Qualitative research collects information that may reflect opinions or personal perspectives on a particular situation. The data that is collected gives an overall impression and generally cannot be analyzed statistically. For example:
- responses in interviews
- open-ended questions in surveys
Videos: Primary Data, Conducting Surveys, Primary Research Methods
B2Bwhiteboard. What is primary data? 3 January 2012. YouTube, https://youtu.be/yZgCam-sjCw. Accessed January 2017.
Learn how to conduct an online survey. Topics include: Developing research questions; designing a good questionnaire; choosing the right online survey tool (Google Forms, Sosci Survey, Survey Monkey).
Ebster, Claus. How to conduct an online survey. 5 August 2014. YouTube, https://youtu.be/uTIWl76_klI. Accessed January 2017.
This video from Ivory Research provides information on the top 3 primary research methods for graduate students writing a dissertation - including questionnaires, interviews and focus groups: how to collect research and use it for maximum effectiveness.
IvoryResearch. Dissertation tutorial: Top 3 primary research methods. 12 August 2013. YouTube., https://youtu.be/_lR7oCjutZE. Accessed May 2015.
Research Methods
Experiments can be conducted and their data collected using systematic methods and well-defined processes. For example:
- using the scientific method in conducting science experiments
- simulating an experiment on using mobile phone technology to determine the location of a person.
Experiments usually involve quantitative processes to collect and analyze the resulting data.
Investigations
Types of investigation include:
- photographs
- historical documents
- company policies
- original art.
Investigations of original source material can reveal whether a particular situation exists or to what extent it does. Investigations can also extract and analyze data from original sources to demonstrate that a particular outcome does occur.
Interviews can be with one person or a small group, also called a focus group. Face-to-face interviews have the advantage of allowing the interviewer to ask follow-up questions during the interview.
- face-to-face
- by online chat
- developing questions related to the research question and the findings from secondary research
- doing a trial or test of the questions before the actual interview
- deciding on the best methodology for conducting and recording the interview
- making the purpose and use of the data collected well known in advance
- in some cases, providing the interviewee with the questions in advance
- assuring the anonymity of the interviewee if requested
Question design
Questions should be designed to elicit the responses required to help answer the overall research question.
Recording the interview
Another consideration is how to record the response. You must ask the permission of the interviewee if you wish to use any audio-visual equipment during an interview. Please note that electronic submissions are not acceptable, and so an example of a transcript will need to be attached in the appendix. Refer to the section of this guide on appendices for further information.
Surveys can be carried out:
- using a printed form distributed to a defined group of people under controlled conditions
The researcher is better able to control who is responding to the questions when using paper surveys than online.
Successful surveys require:
- knowing from the secondary research what areas need to be investigated
- forming well-stated questions that yield data that can be analyzed
- ttesting the questions before conducting the survey—this is called a pilot study
- assuring anonymity as requested by the participants
- conducting the survey and collecting the data in a well-defined manner
Quantitative vs qualitative data
To collect quantitative data the survey must ask closed or multiple-choice questions. These:
- have a limited number of responses or
- have scale choices or
- require the respondent to prioritize items
To collect qualitative data , the survey must ask open-ended questions, which allow the respondents to write their own answer.
Sample size and selection
When collecting data from groups of people, you must make certain that:
- the sample is large enough to generate meaningful data
- it is clear how and why she or he selected the participants
Considerations for Primary Research
Whichever method is used, your primary research must be well structured and collect data relating to people, events or objects.
The data collected must be:
- measurable or observable
Questions for you to consider are:
- What do you want to find out from your primary research?
- How will this relate to the findings from your secondary research?
- How will the data collected relate to the research question you have posed?
- What is the best method to collect relevant and reliable data and from where?
- Are there any ethical or legal considerations to using a primary method that must be taken into account?
The analysis of primary research includes:
- the analysis of the data collected
- the connections you will make between the different sources of information used—for example, your secondary and primary research
You time should be spent researching:
- what the different primary data collection methods are
- how to use the different methods to obtain reliable results
- how to use the results as evidence to support your essay’s argument.
Ways That Primary Research Can Fail
A badly designed or implemented experiment or investigation will lead to flawed results . The following list indicates some ways that primary research can fail.
- The survey sample is too small or badly controlled so you cannot reach any conclusions relevant to the research question.
- The survey/interview questions do not take proper account of the secondary research findings or the research question, and so do not lead to relevant conclusions.
- using a recording device without the interviewee being aware that the interview was being recorded
- taking photos in prohibited areas
- downloading copyrighted music to demonstrate how it is done.
- A student has used a research method that is not permitted or not appropriate for the subject in which they are submitting their EE.
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- Next: Writing Your Essay >>
- Last Updated: Feb 2, 2024 1:39 PM
- URL: https://libguides.westsoundacademy.org/ee
IMAGES
VIDEO
COMMENTS
9. Describe a time when you had to present your research findings in a clear and concise manner. Researchers often have to communicate their findings to colleagues, stakeholders, and the public. The ability to communicate complex research findings in an understandable way is a key skill for someone in this role.
There are several types of interviews, often differentiated by their level of structure. Structured interviews have predetermined questions asked in a predetermined order. Unstructured interviews are more free-flowing. Semi-structured interviews fall in between. Interviews are commonly used in market research, social science, and ethnographic ...
Primary research involves collecting data about a given subject directly from the real world. This section includes information on what primary research is, how to get started, ethics involved with primary research and different types of research you can do. It includes details about interviews, surveys, observations, and analysis.
Primary research involves collecting data about a given subject directly from the real world. This section includes information on what primary research is, how to get started, ethics involved with primary research and different types of research you can do. ... See the page on Creating good survey and interview questions for more information.
1 Define your research question. Before you start writing interview questions, you need to have a clear and specific research question. This is the problem or issue that you want to investigate ...
The first task is to figure out who to interview. Usually the research question specifies the participants. For example, a research question on the doctors' perception of their working conditions naturally suggests that doctors will make up the participant group. Following this example, doctors are the "population" this study is based on.
out any primary research. What questions should I ask? Before writing your interview questions, ask yourself 'What is it that I'm trying to find out? If you are clear on the purpose of your interview, this will help you create a set of interview questions. Open questions, questions which invite a range of responses, are more likely to give
A qualitative research interview is a one-to-one data collection session between a researcher and a participant. Interviews may be carried out face-to-face, over the phone or via video call using a service like Skype or Zoom. There are three main types of qualitative research interview - structured, unstructured or semi-structured.
This approach has significantly enriched my research outcomes and its relevance for diverse stakeholders.". 18. What is your experience with securing funding for your research projects? Securing funding is a critical part of academic research, and it's a task that often falls to the researcher themselves.
Conclusion. This essay has presented an overview to three commonly used methods of primary research in first year writing courses: observations, interviews, and surveys. By using these methods, you can learn more about the world around you and craft meaningful written discussions of your findings.
In your answer, describe the extent of involvement for each individual. Example: "The participant is the individual who is involved in the research from the initial investigative stages to the findings and conclusions. Collaborators are the individuals who contribute to the final report writing and finalization of the research.
Primary research is any research that you conduct yourself. It can be as simple as a 2-question survey, or as in-depth as a years-long longitudinal study. The only key is that data must be collected firsthand by you. Primary research is often used to supplement or strengthen existing secondary research.
Researchers aim to look into the individual's life journey. As a result, this type of interview allows participants to construct and share their own narratives, providing rich qualitative data. Qualitative research, oral history, or studies focusing on individual experiences and identities uses narrative interviews. 6.
Develop an interview guide. Introduce yourself and explain the aim of the interview. Devise your questions so interviewees can help answer your research question. Have a sequence to your questions / topics by grouping them in themes. Make sure you can easily move back and forth between questions / topics. Make sure your questions are clear and ...
From our perspective as seasoned qualitative researchers, conducting effective semistructured interviews requires: (1) a relational focus, including active engagement and curiosity, and (2) practice in the skills of interviewing. First, a relational focus emphasises the unique relationship between interviewer and interviewee.
Advantages of interviews include possibilities of collecting detailed information about research questions. Moreover, in in this type of primary data collection researcher has direct control over the flow of process and she has a chance to clarify certain issues during the process if needed.
3Write your interview questions. When writing your interview questions, ensure they are relevant, clear, concise, and unbiased. Align them with your research objective and scope, and cover the ...
What types of primary research can be done? Many types of primary research exist. This guide is designed to provide you with an overview of primary research that is often done in writing classes. Interviews: Interviews are one-on-one or small group question and answer sessions. Interviews will provide a lot of information from a small number of ...
10 Introduction to Primary Research: Observations, Surveys, and Interviews . Dana Lynn Driscoll. Primary Research: Definitions and Overview. How research is defined varies widely from field to field, and as you progress through your college career, your coursework will teach you much more about what it means to be a researcher within your field. [1] For example, engineers, who focus on ...
Primary research is any research that you conduct yourself. It can be as simple as a 2-question survey, or as in-depth as a years-long longitudinal study. The only key is that data must be collected firsthand by you. Primary research is often used to supplement or strengthen existing secondary research.
Here are some of the primary research methods organizations or businesses use to collect data: 1. Interviews (telephonic or face-to-face) Conducting interviews is a qualitative research method to collect data and has been a popular method for ages. These interviews can be conducted in person (face-to-face) or over the telephone.
Primary research is the collecting of original data. ... The survey sample is too small or badly controlled so you cannot reach any conclusions relevant to the research question. The survey/interview questions do not take proper account of the secondary research findings or the research question, and so do not lead to relevant conclusions. ...
The interview is a crucial step in the hiring process. For market research analyst positions, the employer may test several qualifications, including how you work with data sets and interpret statistics. Reviewing samples of interview questions and why hiring managers may ask them can help you practice delivering impactful responses.