research paper about consumer buying behavior

The past, present, and future of consumer research

• Published: 13 June 2020
• Volume 31 , pages 137–149, ( 2020 )

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• Maayan S. Malter   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0383-7925 1 ,
• Morris B. Holbrook 1 ,
• Barbara E. Kahn 2 ,
• Jeffrey R. Parker 3 &
• Donald R. Lehmann 1  

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In this article, we document the evolution of research trends (concepts, methods, and aims) within the field of consumer behavior, from the time of its early development to the present day, as a multidisciplinary area of research within marketing. We describe current changes in retailing and real-world consumption and offer suggestions on how to use observations of consumption phenomena to generate new and interesting consumer behavior research questions. Consumption continues to change with technological advancements and shifts in consumers’ values and goals. We cannot know the exact shape of things to come, but we polled a sample of leading scholars and summarize their predictions on where the field may be headed in the next twenty years.

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1 Introduction

Beginning in the late 1950s, business schools shifted from descriptive and practitioner-focused studies to more theoretically driven and academically rigorous research (Dahl et al. 1959 ). As the field expanded from an applied form of economics to embrace theories and methodologies from psychology, sociology, anthropology, and statistics, there was an increased emphasis on understanding the thoughts, desires, and experiences of individual consumers. For academic marketing, this meant that research not only focused on the decisions and strategies of marketing managers but also on the decisions and thought processes on the other side of the market—customers.

Since then, the academic study of consumer behavior has evolved and incorporated concepts and methods, not only from marketing at large but also from related social science disciplines, and from the ever-changing landscape of real-world consumption behavior. Its position as an area of study within a larger discipline that comprises researchers from diverse theoretical backgrounds and methodological training has stirred debates over its identity. One article describes consumer behavior as a multidisciplinary subdiscipline of marketing “characterized by the study of people operating in a consumer role involving acquisition, consumption, and disposition of marketplace products, services, and experiences” (MacInnis and Folkes 2009 , p. 900).

This article reviews the evolution of the field of consumer behavior over the past half century, describes its current status, and predicts how it may evolve over the next twenty years. Our review is by no means a comprehensive history of the field (see Schumann et al. 2008 ; Rapp and Hill 2015 ; Wang et al. 2015 ; Wilkie and Moore 2003 , to name a few) but rather focuses on a few key thematic developments. Though we observe many major shifts during this period, certain questions and debates have persisted: Does consumer behavior research need to be relevant to marketing managers or is there intrinsic value from studying the consumer as a project pursued for its own sake? What counts as consumption: only consumption from traditional marketplace transactions or also consumption in a broader sense of non-marketplace interactions? Which are the most appropriate theoretical traditions and methodological tools for addressing questions in consumer behavior research?

2 A brief history of consumer research over the past sixty years—1960 to 2020

In 1969, the Association for Consumer Research was founded and a yearly conference to share marketing research specifically from the consumer’s perspective was instituted. This event marked the culmination of the growing interest in the topic by formalizing it as an area of research within marketing (consumer psychology had become a formalized branch of psychology within the APA in 1960). So, what was consumer behavior before 1969? Scanning current consumer-behavior doctoral seminar syllabi reveals few works predating 1969, with most of those coming from psychology and economics, namely Herbert Simon’s A Behavioral Model of Rational Choice (1955), Abraham Maslow’s A Theory of Human Motivation (1943), and Ernest Dichter’s Handbook of Consumer Motivations (1964). In short, research that illuminated and informed our understanding of consumer behavior prior to 1969 rarely focused on marketing-specific topics, much less consumers or consumption (Dichter’s handbook being a notable exception). Yet, these works were crucial to the rise of consumer behavior research because, in the decades after 1969, there was a shift within academic marketing to thinking about research from a behavioral or decision science perspective (Wilkie and Moore 2003 ). The following section details some ways in which this shift occurred. We draw on a framework proposed by the philosopher Larry Laudan ( 1986 ), who distinguished among three inter-related aspects of scientific inquiry—namely, concepts (the relevant ideas, theories, hypotheses, and constructs); methods (the techniques employed to test and validate these concepts); and aims (the purposes or goals that motivate the investigation).

2.1 Key concepts in the late - 1960s

During the late-1960s, we tended to view the buyer as a computer-like machine for processing information according to various formal rules that embody economic rationality to form a preference for one or another option in order to arrive at a purchase decision. This view tended to manifest itself in a couple of conspicuous ways. The first was a model of buyer behavior introduced by John Howard in 1963 in the second edition of his marketing textbook and quickly adopted by virtually every theorist working in our field—including, Howard and Sheth (of course), Engel-Kollat-&-Blackwell, Franco Nicosia, Alan Andreasen, Jim Bettman, and Joel Cohen. Howard’s great innovation—which he based on a scheme that he had found in the work of Plato (namely, the linkages among Cognition, Affect, and Conation)—took the form of a boxes-and-arrows formulation heavily influenced by the approach to organizational behavior theory that Howard (University of Pittsburgh) had picked up from Herbert Simon (Carnegie Melon University). The model represented a chain of events

where I = inputs of information (from advertising, word-of-mouth, brand features, etc.); C = cognitions (beliefs or perceptions about a brand); A = Affect (liking or preference for the brand); B = behavior (purchase of the brand); and S = satisfaction (post-purchase evaluation of the brand that feeds back onto earlier stages of the sequence, according to a learning model in which reinforced behavior tends to be repeated). This formulation lay at the heart of Howard’s work, which he updated, elaborated on, and streamlined over the remainder of his career. Importantly, it informed virtually every buyer-behavior model that blossomed forth during the last half of the twentieth century.

To represent the link between cognitions and affect, buyer-behavior researchers used various forms of the multi-attribute attitude model (MAAM), originally proposed by psychologists such as Fishbein and Rosenberg as part of what Fishbein and Ajzen ( 1975 ) called the theory of reasoned action. Under MAAM, cognitions (beliefs about brand attributes) are weighted by their importance and summed to create an explanation or prediction of affect (liking for a brand or preference for one brand versus another), which in turn determines behavior (choice of a brand or intention to purchase a brand). This took the work of economist Kelvin Lancaster (with whom Howard interacted), which assumed attitude was based on objective attributes, and extended it to include subjective ones (Lancaster 1966 ; Ratchford 1975 ). Overall, the set of concepts that prevailed in the late-1960s assumed the buyer exhibited economic rationality and acted as a computer-like information-processing machine when making purchase decisions.

2.2 Favored methods in the late-1960s

The methods favored during the late-1960s tended to be almost exclusively neo-positivistic in nature. That is, buyer-behavior research adopted the kinds of methodological rigor that we associate with the physical sciences and the hypothetico-deductive approaches advocated by the neo-positivistic philosophers of science.

Thus, the accepted approaches tended to be either experimental or survey based. For example, numerous laboratory studies tested variations of the MAAM and focused on questions about how to measure beliefs, how to weight the beliefs, how to combine the weighted beliefs, and so forth (e.g., Beckwith and Lehmann 1973 ). Here again, these assumed a rational economic decision-maker who processed information something like a computer.

Seeking rigor, buyer-behavior studies tended to be quantitative in their analyses, employing multivariate statistics, structural equation models, multidimensional scaling, conjoint analysis, and other mathematically sophisticated techniques. For example, various attempts to test the ICABS formulation developed simultaneous (now called structural) equation models such as those deployed by Farley and Ring ( 1970 , 1974 ) to test the Howard and Sheth ( 1969 ) model and by Beckwith and Lehmann ( 1973 ) to measure halo effects.

2.3 Aims in the late-1960s

During this time period, buyer-behavior research was still considered a subdivision of marketing research, the purpose of which was to provide insights useful to marketing managers in making strategic decisions. Essentially, every paper concluded with a section on “Implications for Marketing Managers.” Authors who failed to conform to this expectation could generally count on having their work rejected by leading journals such as the Journal of Marketing Research ( JMR ) and the Journal of Marketing ( JM ).

2.4 Summary—the three R’s in the late-1960s

Starting in the late-1960s to the early-1980s, virtually every buyer-behavior researcher followed the traditional approach to concepts, methods, and aims, now encapsulated under what we might call the three R’s —namely, rationality , rigor , and relevance . However, as we transitioned into the 1980s and beyond, that changed as some (though by no means all) consumer researchers began to expand their approaches and to evolve different perspectives.

2.5 Concepts after 1980

In some circles, the traditional emphasis on the buyer’s rationality—that is, a view of the buyer as a rational-economic, decision-oriented, information-processing, computer-like machine for making choices—began to evolve in at least two primary ways.

First, behavioral economics (originally studied in marketing under the label Behavioral Decision Theory)—developed in psychology by Kahneman and Tversky, in economics by Thaler, and applied in marketing by a number of forward-thinking theorists (e.g., Eric Johnson, Jim Bettman, John Payne, Itamar Simonson, Jay Russo, Joel Huber, and more recently, Dan Ariely)—challenged the rationality of consumers as decision-makers. It was shown that numerous commonly used decision heuristics depart from rational choice and are exceptions to the traditional assumptions of economic rationality. This trend shed light on understanding consumer financial decision-making (Prelec and Loewenstein 1998 ; Gourville 1998 ; Lynch Jr 2011 ) and how to develop “nudges” to help consumers make better decisions for their personal finances (summarized in Johnson et al. 2012 ).

Second, the emerging experiential view (anticipated by Alderson, Levy, and others; developed by Holbrook and Hirschman, and embellished by Schmitt, Pine, and Gilmore, and countless followers) regarded consumers as flesh-and-blood human beings (rather than as information-processing computer-like machines), focused on hedonic aspects of consumption, and expanded the concepts embodied by ICABS (Table 1 ).

2.6 Methods after 1980

The two burgeoning areas of research—behavioral economics and experiential theories—differed in their methodological approaches. The former relied on controlled randomized experiments with a focus on decision strategies and behavioral outcomes. For example, experiments tested the process by which consumers evaluate options using information display boards and “Mouselab” matrices of aspects and attributes (Payne et al. 1988 ). This school of thought also focused on behavioral dependent measures, such as choice (Huber et al. 1982 ; Simonson 1989 ; Iyengar and Lepper 2000 ).

The latter was influenced by post-positivistic philosophers of science—such as Thomas Kuhn, Paul Feyerabend, and Richard Rorty—and approaches expanded to include various qualitative techniques (interpretive, ethnographic, humanistic, and even introspective methods) not previously prominent in the field of consumer research. These included:

Interpretive approaches —such as those drawing on semiotics and hermeneutics—in an effort to gain a richer understanding of the symbolic meanings involved in consumption experiences;

Ethnographic approaches — borrowed from cultural anthropology—such as those illustrated by the influential Consumer Behavior Odyssey (Belk et al. 1989 ) and its discoveries about phenomena related to sacred aspects of consumption or the deep meanings of collections and other possessions;

Humanistic approaches —such as those borrowed from cultural studies or from literary criticism and more recently gathered together under the general heading of consumer culture theory ( CCT );

Introspective or autoethnographic approaches —such as those associated with a method called subjective personal introspection ( SPI ) that various consumer researchers like Sidney Levy and Steve Gould have pursued to gain insights based on their own private lives.

These qualitative approaches tended not to appear in the more traditional journals such as the Journal of Marketing , Journal of Marketing Research , or Marketing Science . However, newer journals such as Consumption, Markets, & Culture and Marketing Theory began to publish papers that drew on the various interpretive, ethnographic, humanistic, or introspective methods.

2.7 Aims after 1980

In 1974, consumer research finally got its own journal with the launch of the Journal of Consumer Research ( JCR ). The early editors of JCR —especially Bob Ferber, Hal Kassarjian, and Jim Bettman—held a rather divergent attitude about the importance or even the desirability of managerial relevance as a key goal of consumer studies. Under their influence, some researchers began to believe that consumer behavior is a phenomenon worthy of study in its own right—purely for the purpose of understanding it better. The journal incorporated articles from an array of methodologies: quantitative (both secondary data analysis and experimental techniques) and qualitative. The “right” balance between theoretical insight and substantive relevance—which are not in inherent conflict—is a matter of debate to this day and will likely continue to be debated well into the future.

2.8 Summary—the three I’s after 1980

In sum, beginning in the early-1980s, consumer research branched out. Much of the work in consumer studies remained within the earlier tradition of the three R’s—that is, rationality (an information-processing decision-oriented buyer), rigor (neo-positivistic experimental designs and quantitative techniques), and relevance (usefulness to marketing managers). Nonetheless, many studies embraced enlarged views of the three major aspects that might be called the three I’s —that is, irrationality (broadened perspectives that incorporate illogical, heuristic, experiential, or hedonic aspects of consumption), interpretation (various qualitative or “postmodern” approaches), and intrinsic motivation (the joy of pursuing a managerially irrelevant consumer study purely for the sake of satisfying one’s own curiosity, without concern for whether it does or does not help a marketing practitioner make a bigger profit).

3 The present—the consumer behavior field today

3.1 present concepts.

In recent years, technological changes have significantly influenced the nature of consumption as the customer journey has transitioned to include more interaction on digital platforms that complements interaction in physical stores. This shift poses a major conceptual challenge in understanding if and how these technological changes affect consumption. Does the medium through which consumption occurs fundamentally alter the psychological and social processes identified in earlier research? In addition, this shift allows us to collect more data at different stages of the customer journey, which further allows us to analyze behavior in ways that were not previously available.

Revisiting the ICABS framework, many of the previous concepts are still present, but we are now addressing them through a lens of technological change (Table 2 )

. In recent years, a number of concepts (e.g., identity, beliefs/lay theories, affect as information, self-control, time, psychological ownership, search for meaning and happiness, social belonging, creativity, and status) have emerged as integral factors that influence and are influenced by consumption. To better understand these concepts, a number of influential theories from social psychology have been adopted into consumer behavior research. Self-construal (Markus and Kitayama 1991 ), regulatory focus (Higgins 1998 ), construal level (Trope and Liberman 2010 ), and goal systems (Kruglanski et al. 2002 ) all provide social-cognition frameworks through which consumer behavior researchers study the psychological processes behind consumer behavior. This “adoption” of social psychological theories into consumer behavior is a symbiotic relationship that further enhances the theories. Tory Higgins happily stated that he learned more about his own theories from the work of marketing academics (he cited Angela Lee and Michel Pham) in further testing and extending them.

3.2 Present Methods

Not only have technological advancements changed the nature of consumption but they have also significantly influenced the methods used in consumer research by adding both new sources of data and improved analytical tools (Ding et al. 2020 ). Researchers continue to use traditional methods from psychology in empirical research (scale development, laboratory experiments, quantitative analyses, etc.) and interpretive approaches in qualitative research. Additionally, online experiments using participants from panels such as Amazon Mechanical Turk and Prolific have become commonplace in the last decade. While they raise concerns about the quality of the data and about the external validity of the results, these online experiments have greatly increased the speed and decreased the cost of collecting data, so researchers continue to use them, albeit with some caution. Reminiscent of the discussion in the 1970s and 1980s about the use of student subjects, the projectability of the online responses and of an increasingly conditioned “professional” group of online respondents (MTurkers) is a major concern.

Technology has also changed research methodology. Currently, there is a large increase in the use of secondary data thanks to the availability of Big Data about online and offline behavior. Methods in computer science have advanced our ability to analyze large corpuses of unstructured data (text, voice, visual images) in an efficient and rigorous way and, thus, to tap into a wealth of nuanced thoughts, feelings, and behaviors heretofore only accessible to qualitative researchers through laboriously conducted content analyses. There are also new neuro-marketing techniques like eye-tracking, fMRI’s, body arousal measures (e.g., heart rate, sweat), and emotion detectors that allow us to measure automatic responses. Lastly, there has been an increase in large-scale field experiments that can be run in online B2C marketplaces.

3.3 Present Aims

Along with a focus on real-world observations and data, there is a renewed emphasis on managerial relevance. Countless conference addresses and editorials in JCR , JCP , and other journals have emphasized the importance of making consumer research useful outside of academia—that is, to help companies, policy makers, and consumers. For instance, understanding how the “new” consumer interacts over time with other consumers and companies in the current marketplace is a key area for future research. As global and social concerns become more salient in all aspects of life, issues of long-term sustainability, social equality, and ethical business practices have also become more central research topics. Fortunately, despite this emphasis on relevance, theoretical contributions and novel ideas are still highly valued. An appropriate balance of theory and practice has become the holy grail of consumer research.

The effects of the current trends in real-world consumption will increase in magnitude with time as more consumers are digitally native. Therefore, a better understanding of current consumer behavior can give us insights and help predict how it will continue to evolve in the years to come.

4 The future—the consumer behavior field in 2040

The other papers use 2030 as a target year but we asked our survey respondents to make predictions for 2040 and thus we have a different future target year.

Niels Bohr once said, “Prediction is very difficult, especially if it’s about the future.” Indeed, it would be a fool’s errand for a single person to hazard a guess about the state of the consumer behavior field twenty years from now. Therefore, predictions from 34 active consumer researchers were collected to address this task. Here, we briefly summarize those predictions.

4.1 Future Concepts

While few respondents proffered guesses regarding specific concepts that would be of interest twenty years from now, many suggested broad topics and trends they expected to see in the field. Expectations for topics could largely be grouped into three main areas. Many suspected that we will be examining essentially the same core topics, perhaps at a finer-grained level, from different perspectives or in ways that we currently cannot utilize due to methodological limitations (more on methods below). A second contingent predicted that much research would center on the impending crises the world faces today, most mentioning environmental and social issues (the COVID-19 pandemic had not yet begun when these predictions were collected and, unsurprisingly, was not anticipated by any of our respondents). The last group, citing the widely expected profound impact of AI on consumers’ lives, argued that AI and other technology-related topics will be dominant subjects in consumer research circa 2040.

While the topic of technology is likely to be focal in the field, our current expectations for the impact of technology on consumers’ lives are narrower than it should be. Rather than merely offering innumerable conveniences and experiences, it seems likely that technology will begin to be integrated into consumers’ thoughts, identities, and personal relationships—probably sooner than we collectively expect. The integration of machines into humans’ bodies and lives will present the field with an expanding list of research questions that do not exist today. For example, how will the concepts of the self, identity, privacy, and goal pursuit change when web-connected technology seamlessly integrates with human consciousness and cognition? Major questions will also need to be answered regarding philosophy of mind, ethics, and social inequality. We suspect that the impact of technology on consumers and consumer research will be far broader than most consumer-behavior researchers anticipate.

As for broader trends within consumer research, there were two camps: (1) those who expect (or hope) that dominant theories (both current and yet to be developed) will become more integrated and comprehensive and (2) those who expect theoretical contributions to become smaller and smaller, to the point of becoming trivial. Both groups felt that current researchers are filling smaller cracks than before, but disagreed on how this would ultimately be resolved.

4.2 Future Methods

As was the case with concepts, respondents’ expectations regarding consumer-research methodologies in 2030 can also be divided into three broad baskets. Unsurprisingly, many indicated that we would be using many technologies not currently available or in wide use. Perhaps more surprising was that most cited the use of technology such as AI, machine-learning algorithms, and robots in designing—as opposed to executing or analyzing—experiments. (Some did point to the use of technologies such as virtual reality in the actual execution of experiments.) The second camp indicated that a focus on reliable and replicable results (discussed further below) will encourage a greater tendency for pre-registering studies, more use of “Big Data,” and a demand for more studies per paper (versus more papers per topic, which some believe is a more fruitful direction). Finally, the third lot indicated that “real data” would be in high demand, thereby necessitating the use of incentive-compatible, consequential dependent variables and a greater prevalence of field studies in consumer research.

As a result, young scholars would benefit from developing a “toolkit” of methodologies for collecting and analyzing the abundant new data of interest to the field. This includes (but is not limited to) a deep understanding of designing and implementing field studies (Gerber and Green 2012 ), data analysis software (R, Python, etc.), text mining and analysis (Humphreys and Wang 2018 ), and analytical tools for other unstructured forms of data such as image and sound. The replication crisis in experimental research means that future scholars will also need to take a more critical approach to validity (internal, external, construct), statistical power, and significance in their work.

4.3 Future Aims

While there was an air of existential concern about the future of the field, most agreed that the trend will be toward increasing the relevance and reliability of consumer research. Specifically, echoing calls from journals and thought leaders, the respondents felt that papers will need to offer more actionable implications for consumers, managers, or policy makers. However, few thought that this increased focus would come at the expense of theoretical insights, suggesting a more demanding overall standard for consumer research in 2040. Likewise, most felt that methodological transparency, open access to data and materials, and study pre-registration will become the norm as the field seeks to allay concerns about the reliability and meaningfulness of its research findings.

4.4 Summary - Future research questions and directions

Despite some well-justified pessimism, the future of consumer research is as bright as ever. As we revised this paper amidst the COVID-19 pandemic, it was clear that many aspects of marketplace behavior, consumption, and life in general will change as a result of this unprecedented global crisis. Given this, and the radical technological, social, and environmental changes that loom on the horizon, consumer researchers will have a treasure trove of topics to tackle in the next ten years, many of which will carry profound substantive importance. While research approaches will evolve, the core goals will remain consistent—namely, to generate theoretically insightful, empirically supported, and substantively impactful research (Table 3 ).

5 Conclusion

At any given moment in time, the focal concepts, methods, and aims of consumer-behavior scholarship reflect both the prior development of the field and trends in the larger scientific community. However, despite shifting trends, the core of the field has remained constant—namely, to understand the motivations, thought processes, and experiences of individuals as they consume goods, services, information, and other offerings, and to use these insights to develop interventions to improve both marketing strategy for firms and consumer welfare for individuals and groups. Amidst the excitement of new technologies, social trends, and consumption experiences, it is important to look back and remind ourselves of the insights the field has already generated. Effectively integrating these past findings with new observations and fresh research will help the field advance our understanding of consumer behavior.

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Malter, M.S., Holbrook, M.B., Kahn, B.E. et al. The past, present, and future of consumer research. Mark Lett 31 , 137–149 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11002-020-09526-8

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Impact of pricing and product information on consumer buying behavior with customer satisfaction in a mediating role.

• 1 Department of Product Design, School of Fine Arts, Guizhou Minzu University, Guiyang, China
• 2 School of Mechanical Engineering, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
• 3 School of Data Science and Information Engineering, Guizhou Minzu University, Guiyang, China
• 4 School of Mechanical Engineering, Guiyang University, Guiyang, China

The relationship between product pricing and product packaging plays an important role in the buying behavior of consumers, whereas customer satisfaction plays a mediating role. To test these hypotheses, research was conducted on university students in China. Questionnaire-based convenience sampling was conducted on 500 students for data collection using online and offline sources. A total of 367 (73%) students responded, and 17 questionnaires were rejected due to missing information. SPSS and AMOS software were used for the data analysis. Product pricing and product information were independent variables in this study, whereas consumer buying behavior was a dependent variable. Customer satisfaction is mediated by one dependent and two independent variables. Confirmatory factor analysis, path analysis, and discriminant validity in structural equation modeling revealed that product pricing and packaging had a statistically significant relationship with the buyer decision process. The introduction of satisfaction as a mediating variable led to the observation of full mediation in the case of product pricing and partial mediation in product packaging. Given the results of this research, product managers should adopt pricing tactics along with product packaging to influence the buying intentions of consumers.

Introduction

In the competitive market of commodities, products, varieties, consumers, ethnicities, and preferences, product pricing and product packaging information descriptions have a considerable influence on the buying behavior of consumers. To explore the cumulative effects of product pricing and packaging on the buying behavior of consumers of different ethnicities, it is essential to research these aspects of marketing. It is worth mentioning that consumer satisfaction also plays a decisive and mediating role in the development and molding of buying behavior of consumers ( Larsen et al., 2017 ). It is believed that pricing has a significant effect on the buying behavior of consumers because the higher a product is priced, the fewer units are sold. By contrast, products selling at prices lower than the market rate are assumed to sell at a higher volume ( Sadiq M. W. et al., 2020 ). Several studies have shown that pricing is more critical and relevant to consumer buying behavior ( Huo et al., 2021 ).

When discussing the combined effect of product pricing and packaging relationships on consumer buying behavior, pricing alone plays a more critical role than packaging, which has a partial role in buying behavior ( Jabarzare and Rasti-Barzoki, 2020 ). Thus, using this analogy, products can be sold, surprisingly, at a much higher volume. One can increase the prices of the products if the competitor products are scarce in the market or if the manufacturers are low in number. This behavior may not affect the number of sales or the attitude of the consumer toward buying. If the product is already in abundance in the market, then pricing will definitely play an important role because the increase in price will discourage customers from buying it. Similarly, if prices are lowered under such market conditions, then consumers will increase the amount that they purchase significantly.

Even though product pricing has a greater influence than product packaging on the decision process of a buyer ( Pratama and Suprapto, 2017 ; Abdullah et al., 2021 ), high prices in a highly competitive market can lose customers permanently due to the effect of increased pricing ( Kotler et al., 2012 ). While talking about the packaging of products, it should be kept in mind that packaging has a significant relationship on consumers and their decision making about product purchases ( Sadiq M. W. et al., 2020 ). For example, quality, color, and material can have a positive effect on consumers ( Rambabu and Porika, 2020 ). Most consumers desire a range of product choices when purchasing, in terms of packaging. Thus, marketers should place a premium on creative and exclusive packaging that is distinctive in scale, instruction, convenience, product design, and form when compared with rivals in the market segment ( Li et al., 2021 ). Marking a product with accurate information adds to its value. Consumers are attracted to detailed labels, content, and packaging. Many people are influenced by the way a product is packaged and presented in the market. While the product itself may be of any quality, the relationship it produces through its packaging has a strong influence on the purchasing attitude of the consumer. Nowadays, eco-friendly packaging is essential. Thus, advertisers should prioritize this factor and employ best practices to the maximum degree possible, including eco-friendly recyclable packaging ( Abdullah et al., 2021 ). Consumer buying behavior also has a lot to do with product selling and buying ( Brun et al., 2014 ), although some customers are not influenced by the packaging or labeling of products, buying is demand-driven or need-oriented by most consumers.

However, super packaging or labeling of products may not attract the consumer for several reasons. One of the primary reasons may be the high price and packaging, announcing the excellent quality of the product. In such cases, there may be a lack of interest by the consumer toward attractive packaging; instead, they may prefer to buy local products that are cheap and readily available in the market. According to Tu and Chih (2013) , consumer satisfaction is another aspect of product selling and consumer buying behavior. It also plays a mediating role in product buying behavior, pricing, and packaging ( Rambabu and Porika, 2020 ). Even though a price might be negotiable and the product is provided with helpful information and good, decent packaging, there is a lot to do to satisfy a consumer. All of these factors are correlated with consumer satisfaction. If the consumer is satisfied with all these, they may buy the product, but there is no guarantee of this. Thus, consumer buying behavior is also influenced by satisfaction ( Brun et al., 2014 ). This study seeks to answer several questions to explain consumer buying behavior in relation to product pricing and packaging, with consumer satisfaction as a mediating factor. In this work, we first present a brief review of this research, which differs from the current literature in various respects. The research has generated several findings.

• Product prices significantly correlate with consumer buying behavior.

• The product information available on packaging influences the consumer’s buying behavior.

• Satisfaction plays a mediating role in consumer buying behavior.

• Pricing of the product plays an essential role in customer satisfaction.

• Product information available on labels plays a significant role in customer satisfaction.

The remainder of this work is structured as follows: Section “Review of Literature and Hypothesis Development” presents a review of previous studies supporting different theoretical frameworks. Section “Research Methodology” presents the methodology adopted for the empirical analysis. Section “Data Analysis and Results” presents the results of this analysis. Section “Conclusion and Recommendations” concludes the present study, limitations and future directions.

Review of Literature and Hypothesis Development

Product pricing and consumer buying behavior.

Product pricing seems to be the only direct element that generates revenue and indicates the success or failure of a product or service. As a result, the researchers in this study chose to emphasize this aspect. Manali (2015) carried out research into the theoretical dimensions of consumer purchasing behavior and the factors that affect it. He analyzed the relationship between consumer buying behavior and factors affecting the buying process and decisions of the consumers. His research provides enough evidence to show that the internal and external influences of a consumer have a major relationship with their purchasing behavior.

According to Al-Salamin et al. (2015) , good prices of well-known brands negatively affect the purchasing process. Young people are eager to buy brands, but their low income hinders them from doing so. The only aspect of the marketing mix that generates revenue is price, whereas the others generate costs. The authors also noted that the purchasing decisions of consumers focus on their price perception and what they think about the actual price of a product. The main goal of marketing is to understand how customers move toward their price perception. We are all customers, no matter how old, educated, wealthy, or talented. Understanding customer behavior thus becomes a critical challenge for advertisers, distributors, and salespeople. Therefore, we hypothesized the following:

H 1 : Product pricing is significantly correlated with consumer buying behavior.

Product Packaging and Consumer Buying Behavior

Packaging a product with relevant product details contributes positively to consumer buying behavior. Names, features, and product packaging attract consumers. Many people are influenced by the packaging and marketing of items. While a product may be of any quality, the impact on customer purchasing is essential ( Rundh, 2009 ; Li et al., 2021 ; Naseem et al., 2021 ). The aim of this study was to determine the effect of product pricing and information about product packaging on the buying behavior of consumers. Innovation in product labeling and packing often has a major relationship with demand, which is why there are many methods for this type of action plan if a company wants to pursue this strategy with regard to its product packaging. When it comes to packaging, many buyers want a range of product choices. Therefore, marketers should pay high prices for innovative and exclusive packaging that differentiate their products from the competition in terms of size, guidance, functionality, product innovation, and shape ( Rundh, 2009 ; Li et al., 2021 ; Sarfraz et al., 2021 ). For the target consumer, product packaging acts as an outstanding networking tool, ultimately increasing their awareness levels. Packaging must highlight key aspects of the product and brand, such as material composition, purpose, and quality. To show respect for customers, packaging should include all of this information in regional languages. Not only is efficient packaging important for storing and preserving products, but it is also important for creating an interest in and generating actions toward purchasing the product. Packaging that is environmentally friendly has become increasingly important. As a result, marketers should place a high priority on this aspect and use best practices to the greatest possible extent, including the use of environmentally friendly recycled materials ( Deliza and MacFie, 2001 ; Abdullah et al., 2021 ; Mohsin et al., 2021 ).

H 2 : Product information on packaging is significantly related to consumer purchasing behavior.

Satisfaction of Consumers and Their Buying Behavior

Customer value and customer satisfaction are considered important parameters for the relationship between customer value and the willingness to sacrifice ( Zechmeister et al., 1997 ). This sacrifice is made in accordance with an exchange mechanism that includes transaction costs and the risk of the goods of the company. According to Larsen et al. (2017) , customers will be disappointed in the future if the ratio value considered by the economic sacrifice of customers with the goods sold by the company does not meet their expectations. Customers will be satisfied if the ratio value is sufficient or exceeds their expectations. Another analysis of consumer value examines the understanding of customers of the quality and benefits of toothpaste in relation to price sacrifice. Social, emotional, and functional values are all aspects of customer value ( Keller and Kotler, 2012 ).

Customer satisfaction is evaluated by obtaining feedback from customers after purchasing products or services, and then comparing it with their expectations. Customer satisfaction is calculated using the performance requirements of products or services that are capable of satisfying the needs and desires of customers. A satisfied consumer is a consumer who believes that the products or services were worth purchasing, which would encourage them to buy the products again. On the other hand, a frustrated consumer will persuade other consumers not to buy the same brand, which ultimately causes switching to rival brands. According to Tu and Chih (2013) , “customer satisfaction is perceived as affecting repurchasing intentions and actions, which, in turn, contributes to an organization’s potential sales and income.”

H 3 : Satisfaction plays a mediating role in consumer buying behavior.

Role of Product Pricing on Consumer Satisfaction

Price is regarded as something that can be calculated according to several measures, such as a reasonable price, a competitive price, a discounted price, a retailer’s price, and price suitability. Value is a higher-level definition than quality and price because it is more individualistic and personal. A satisfied consumer believes that the value of goods and services is comparable with the price, which will encourage them to repurchase the products. According to Zeithaml (1988) , “quality can be characterized as superiority or excellence in a broad sense.” From the customer’s perspective, “The price is given up or sacrificed to get the product or service” ( Zeithaml, 1988 ). According to Bei and Chiao (2001) , “[P]rice is described as giving or sacrificing for the acquisition of a service or product,” while Kotler et al. (2012) proposed that “the price is the amount paid for a product or service and the sum of the value exchanged by consumers for the advantages of a product or service available or being used.” The perceptions of customers of a given price can have a direct relationship with the their decision to buy a product ( Zechmeister et al., 1997 ). Customers will pay attention to the prices paid by their peers, and no one wants to spend more money than their peers do. The fairness of a price can affect the perception of consumers of the product, and ultimately their desire to become a consumer.

H 4 : The pricing of a product plays a significant role in customer satisfaction.

Role of Product Packaging on Consumer Satisfaction

Packaging and labeling can be considered one of the most important tools in marketing and communication, which means that a thorough examination of their components and their relationships with consumer buying behavior is necessary. According to Joewono and Kubota (2007) , consumer satisfaction results from product and service reviews based on customer perceptions and a broad assessment of the overall consumption experience. It is suggested that customer satisfaction affects repurchase intentions and actions, which, in turn, determine potential sales and revenue for a company. According to Zeithaml (2000) , consumer satisfaction is measured on a multidimensional scale that includes service quality, product quality, scenario factors, personal factors, and price factors.

Product packaging plays a variety of roles. It provides information about the product and the company, connects them with customers, and ensures product quality ( Naseem et al., 2020 ; Rambabu and Porika, 2020 ). It is important to remember that packaging has a significant influence on customers and their purchasing decisions. Consumers react positively to quality, color, and content. Similarly, if a product is labeled with accurate information about the product, it increases the value of the product. Consumers respond to a product’s specific name, ingredients, and packaging. Many consumers are concerned about the way a product is designed and advertised. Although the quality of the product itself may vary, the effect of packaging on customer purchasing decisions is important.

H 5 : Product information available on labels plays a significant role toward customer satisfaction.

Theoretical Support of the Study

The following research was conducted to investigate underlying issues. This study is a continuation of expectancy disconfirmation theory (EDT) and social cognitive theory (SCT). Both theories provide a strong background for conducting this research. According to EDT, the satisfaction of consumers is linked to the expectation and perception of product quality. A consumer sets an expectation before examining a product in real time. This comparison of preset expectations with real-sense performance is the basis of EDT. In this study, consumer satisfaction plays a mediating role between product pricing, product packaging, and consumer buying behavior. The expectations of consumers are based on the price of the product, information on product packaging, and perceived quality.

The other central backbone of this research is SCT, developed by Bandura (2012) , which explains that learning takes place in a social context with a complex and reciprocal relationship between the individual, their environment, and their actions. The emphasis on social relationships, and also external and internal social reinforcement, is a distinctive feature of SCT. SCT considers the specific ways in which people maintain their behavior and interact with others. It also considers the specific ways in which people learn and sustain behaviors and the social context in which they do so. According to this theory, past experiences strengthen ideas and expectations, all of which affect whether a person maintains his/her attitudes. Many behavioral models that are used in studies related to health do not include behavior maintenance; instead, they focus on behavior initiation. This is a shame because the real purpose of public health is to maintain conduct rather than initiate it. SCT aims to illustrate how people monitor and reinforce their actions to achieve goal-directed behavior that can be managed. Thus, the product pricing and packaging of a product with useful information on labels will surely correlate with consumer buying behavior that will persist. The customer will buy or not buy in the future on the basis of the expectations and perceptions of the product once his behavior about the product has already been initiated. A conceptual framework was developed to focus on the specific variables. The framework consists of the hypotheses shown in Figure 1 .

Figure 1. Theoretical framework.

Research Methodology

The research methodology of a study represents an essential and integral part of the entire process and explains how science contributes to aims. The behavioral approach of respondents, i.e., expectations, evidence, observations, knowledge of reality, and individual point of view, can be summarized by analytical parameters. According to James and Vinnicombe (2002) , the assurance of objectivity in the scientific procession is compulsory. Furthermore, a perspective emphasizing social variable is considered essential by the society for practical implications ( Blaikie, 2007 ). Their innovative discoveries and interpretation are leading activities of label research.

Research Design

In this research, the structure of behavior science by Zechmeister et al. (1997) is followed with mediation and description for the problem-solving process. The main focus of this research is the state of mind, mood swings, variations in feelings, and behavior toward the specific situation of the respondents. In addition, the organizational performance in the market and consumer buying behavior can solve many problems by approaching the cooperative feedback process with peers and accumulating knowledge. The analysis of buying behavior may be categorized as “co-oriented” or “comparative.” According to behavioral science, these two factors have real meaning. This study seeks to understand the effect of product pricing and packaging on the buying behavior of consumers. At the same time, satisfaction plays its role as a mediating variable ( Zechmeister et al., 1997 ; Bollen and Pearl, 2013 ). For data collection, self-administered questionnaires were used for quantitative analysis.

Study Population

The sample of this study comprises students from different universities in China. The main reason for choosing university students is that recent research concentrates on product pricing with consumer buying behavior while considering university students as their population. The population selection is based on the area of interest and importance, which covers the objectivity of this research. Divergent online and offline sources were used to collect analytical data. The questionnaires were circulated among 500 students, and the 367 replied to us regarding that, and so the aggregate received response was 73%. Seventeen answers received from respondents were rejected due to incomplete information, and 350 were finalized for the analytical process. This study used convenience sampling for data collection. Bonds-Raacke and Raacke (2012) suggested that field examinations should use a questionnaire. The researcher used a questionnaire to collect the data in this study. SPSS software was used to check the quality, validity, and scale reliability of the instrument.

Data Analysis and Results

SPSS and AMOS software were used for the data analysis. Table 1 presents the reliability analysis results. Product pricing and product information are independent variables in this study, whereas consumer buying behavior is a dependent variable. In this study, satisfaction is mediated between two independent variables and one dependent variable. All variables have acceptable reliability alpha values.

Table 1. Reliability analysis.

Table 2 shows the descriptive statistics. The mean value of product pricing is 3.4, where product information has a mean value of 3.9, satisfaction has a mean value 3.6, and consumer buying behavior has a mean value of 3.8.

Table 2. Descriptive statistics.

The product price measuring scale was introduced by Lichtenstein et al. (1993) . The Likert scale ranges from strongly agree to strongly disagree, and this scale was used in this research with slight modifications. The Lichtenstein et al. (1993) ranking was further verified by confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) analysis to meet the requirements of this research. The measuring scales of Brun et al. (2014) and Zekiri and Hasani (2015) were used to measure the product packaging and customer satisfaction. The behavior of consumers toward buying decisions, the measurement scale of Bagga and Bhatt (2013) is used with slight modification to fit the scale for scope and broaden the view of this research. All predefined models/scales were rated on 5-point Likert scale, with higher numerical values indicating greater satisfaction.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis

The pooled CFA is more reliable than other versions and the most up-to-date approach. The AMOS 24 is used to check the relationship among variables ( Afthanorhan et al., 2014 ; Chong et al., 2014 ).

The results of Table 3 declare the structural fitness of the model by meeting all criterion requirements. The reliability values or factor loading of individual items are presented in Figure 2 . The findings of Table 4 have also covered the composite reliability of a wide scale. The composite reliability is indicated by the reliability of the measurement scales while reporting reliability ( Netemeyer et al., 2003 ).

Table 3. Pooled CFA model fitness tests.

Figure 2. Pooled confirmatory factor analysis.

Table 4. Factor loading of items.

Assessment of Discriminant Validity

Discriminant validity was measured using HTMT analysis by considering two determinants, i.e., supposed to be related or unrelated. The value of cut-off criteria for strict discriminant validity was 0.850, and for liberal discriminant validity it was 0.900 ( Henseler et al., 2015 ), obtained by employing discriminant validity. The following discriminant validity criteria have provided the results of Table 5 .

Table 5. HTMT analysis.

Path Analysis in Structural Equation Modeling

In this study, structural equation modeling was used to determine the proposed relationships. Exogenous variables were included in this analysis to allow for the study of endogenous variables using AMOS 24. Here, we can see whether the independent and dependent variables are linearly related to each other. The analytical observations and their mean values are tabulated and linked with the collected information. The results of Table 6 declare the structural fitness of the model by meeting all criterion requirements.

Table 6. SEM, model fitness tests.

Figure 3 shows the direct effects of the independent variables on the dependent variable. In this figure, the mediator variable is missing from this path analysis diagram to capture the direct correlation of the independent variable on the dependent variable.

Figure 3. Direct effects of path analysis.

Table 7 shows that H 1 , H 3 , and H 5 are statistically significant, and their P-value is less than 0.05, which shows the 95% confidence interval. The structural equation modeling with the path analysis is presented in Figure 4 . The path analysis declared the nature of variables, i.e., two variables are independent: one is the mediator and the other one is dependent.

Table 7. Results of indirect effects.

Figure 4. Indirect direct effects of path analysis.

The findings of Table 8 indicate that both hypotheses are statistically significant, but the observed mediation values for these hypotheses differ. H 2 is statistically significant but has a full mediation effect, whereas H 4 is statistically significant and has a partial mediation effect.

Table 8. Results of indirect effects.

Hypothetical Results

The results of the hypothesis are shown in Table 9 in a more detailed and comprehensive manner. To calculate the standard error with T and P-values and the significance of the path coefficient, bootstrapping (1,000 subsamples) was used, which provided direct evidence of the hypotheses being accepted or rejected. The structural model analysis results show the path coefficients and their significance levels, as presented in Table 9 . The findings confirmed that all five relationships were significant, and it can be concluded that H 1 , H 2 , H 3 , H 4 , and H 5 were supported.

Table 9. Hypothesis results.

According to Sisodiya and Sharma (2018) , the marketing mix has a significant influence on the buying behavior of consumers. In this study, the main principle in packaging is to “reach a greater height of opportunity.” It is often regarded as a critical component of purchase decision making, and has often been shown to be a way of building market awareness and connecting with consumers outside the product itself and across several channels ( Rambabu and Porika, 2020 ; Sadiq W. et al., 2020 ). Packaging performs multidimensional functions. It can not only offer knowledge about products and business entities, but it is also a technique for communicating with consumers and safeguarding product quality ( Silayoi and Speece, 2007 ). Pricing can be considered one of the most vital and essential elements that can influence consumer buying behavior or the buyer decision process ( Dhurup et al., 2014 ; Sadiq W. et al., 2020 ).

According to Kotler et al. (2012) , customer satisfaction “is the extent to which a product’s perceived performance matches the buyer’s expectations.” Aslam et al. (2018) stated that price has a positive and significant correlation with customer satisfaction. Furthermore, they believed that the success of the sector was based on price fairness and customer satisfaction. Previous studies have also discussed this phenomenon in connection with other geographical locations. The price factor is more relatable to consumer buying behavior than product packaging ( Jabarzare and Rasti-Barzoki, 2020 ; Huo et al., 2021 ). Product pricing has a greater influence than product packaging on the buyers’ decision processes ( Pratama and Suprapto, 2017 ; Abdullah et al., 2021 ). Innovation in product packaging also has a significant relationship with the consumer; however, if any organization wants to follow a strategy that is relevant to its product packaging, then there are several strategies for this kind of plan of action. Most consumers desire a range of product choices when purchasing, in terms of packaging. Thus, the marketer should place a premium on creative and exclusive packaging that is distinctive in terms of scale, instruction, convenience, product design, and form when compared to rivals in market segmentation ( Rundh, 2009 ; Bollen and Pearl, 2013 ). Product packaging serves as an excellent networking medium for target customers, eventually increasing their knowledge levels. Packaging must convey pertinent details about the product and brand, including ingredient composition, intent, and consistency. In addition, packaging should provide all of this material in regional languages to demonstrate respect for consumers. Efficient packaging is critical not only for storing and protecting goods but also for generating interest in and action toward buying the commodity. Currently, eco-friendly packaging is essential. Thus, advertisers should prioritize this factor and employ best practices to the maximum degree possible, including eco-friendly recyclable packaging ( Deliza and MacFie, 2001 ; Abdullah et al., 2021 ).

Conclusion and Recommendations

The study results clearly show that both product pricing and packaging have a statistically significant relationship with the buyer’s decision process. At the same time, the introduction of satisfaction leads to the observation of full mediation in the case of product pricing and partial mediation in product packaging. Despite knowing that both the variables have a statistically significant relationship with the consumer buying behavior, it is essential to understand the managerial implications. Suppose, we would like to report and recommend these findings to different organizations looking to cut their operational costs in any possible way without compromising product quality, we suggest in such cases that they focus on pricing strategies for a better consumer response. A focus on the product packaging design process, packaging material, or the information available on product packaging positively influences consumer buying behavior. However, its effect is lower than product pricing. Therefore, it is recommended for managers that if they want to connect with their target customers more efficiently and effectively, they should focus on both product pricing and packaging options. However, if they can afford only one option from the product’s operational cost perspective, they must focus on product pricing strategies.

In future studies, it must be kept in mind that these findings pertain directly to the individuals listed as respondents. To make it more accurate, other demographic, psychographic, and geographic samples should be used. It is likely that when data are thus obtained, the findings will differ. To ensure more lasting and repeatable corporate outcomes, several studies are required to obtain results that are more accurate and reliable.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Author Contributions

HZ, XY, and ZL contributed to conception and design of the study. HZ organized the database, performed the statistical analysis, and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. XY, ZL, and QY wrote sections of the manuscript. All authors contributed to manuscript revision, read, and approved the submitted version.

This work was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (52065010), Open Fund of Key Laboratory of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Ministry of Education (GZUAMT2021KF[07] and GZUAMT2021KF[08]), Natural Science Research Project supported by the Education Department of Guizhou Province [Grant Nos. (2018)152 and (2017)239], Humanities and Social Science Research Project of Guizhou Provincial Department of Education (Grant No. 2018qn46), and the Guiyang University Teaching Research Project (Grant No. JT2019520206).

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Abbreviations

CFA, Confirmatory Factor Analysis; RMSEA, Root Mean Square of Error Approximation; CFI, Comparative fit index; EDT, Expectancy Disconfirmation Theory; SCT, Social Cognitive Theory.

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Keywords : product pricing, product packaging, consumer buying behavior, consumer satisfaction, confirmatory factor analysis, structural equation modeling

Citation: Zhao H, Yao X, Liu Z and Yang Q (2021) Impact of Pricing and Product Information on Consumer Buying Behavior With Customer Satisfaction in a Mediating Role. Front. Psychol. 12:720151. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.720151

Received: 03 June 2021; Accepted: 08 October 2021; Published: 13 December 2021.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2021 Zhao, Yao, Liu and Yang. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Huiliang Zhao, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Impact of Pricing and Product Information on Consumer Buying Behavior With Customer Satisfaction in a Mediating Role

Huiliang zhao.

1 Department of Product Design, School of Fine Arts, Guizhou Minzu University, Guiyang, China

2 School of Mechanical Engineering, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China

3 School of Data Science and Information Engineering, Guizhou Minzu University, Guiyang, China

Zhenghong Liu

4 School of Mechanical Engineering, Guiyang University, Guiyang, China

Associated Data

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

The relationship between product pricing and product packaging plays an important role in the buying behavior of consumers, whereas customer satisfaction plays a mediating role. To test these hypotheses, research was conducted on university students in China. Questionnaire-based convenience sampling was conducted on 500 students for data collection using online and offline sources. A total of 367 (73%) students responded, and 17 questionnaires were rejected due to missing information. SPSS and AMOS software were used for the data analysis. Product pricing and product information were independent variables in this study, whereas consumer buying behavior was a dependent variable. Customer satisfaction is mediated by one dependent and two independent variables. Confirmatory factor analysis, path analysis, and discriminant validity in structural equation modeling revealed that product pricing and packaging had a statistically significant relationship with the buyer decision process. The introduction of satisfaction as a mediating variable led to the observation of full mediation in the case of product pricing and partial mediation in product packaging. Given the results of this research, product managers should adopt pricing tactics along with product packaging to influence the buying intentions of consumers.

Introduction

In the competitive market of commodities, products, varieties, consumers, ethnicities, and preferences, product pricing and product packaging information descriptions have a considerable influence on the buying behavior of consumers. To explore the cumulative effects of product pricing and packaging on the buying behavior of consumers of different ethnicities, it is essential to research these aspects of marketing. It is worth mentioning that consumer satisfaction also plays a decisive and mediating role in the development and molding of buying behavior of consumers ( Larsen et al., 2017 ). It is believed that pricing has a significant effect on the buying behavior of consumers because the higher a product is priced, the fewer units are sold. By contrast, products selling at prices lower than the market rate are assumed to sell at a higher volume ( Sadiq M. W. et al., 2020 ). Several studies have shown that pricing is more critical and relevant to consumer buying behavior ( Huo et al., 2021 ).

When discussing the combined effect of product pricing and packaging relationships on consumer buying behavior, pricing alone plays a more critical role than packaging, which has a partial role in buying behavior ( Jabarzare and Rasti-Barzoki, 2020 ). Thus, using this analogy, products can be sold, surprisingly, at a much higher volume. One can increase the prices of the products if the competitor products are scarce in the market or if the manufacturers are low in number. This behavior may not affect the number of sales or the attitude of the consumer toward buying. If the product is already in abundance in the market, then pricing will definitely play an important role because the increase in price will discourage customers from buying it. Similarly, if prices are lowered under such market conditions, then consumers will increase the amount that they purchase significantly.

Even though product pricing has a greater influence than product packaging on the decision process of a buyer ( Pratama and Suprapto, 2017 ; Abdullah et al., 2021 ), high prices in a highly competitive market can lose customers permanently due to the effect of increased pricing ( Kotler et al., 2012 ). While talking about the packaging of products, it should be kept in mind that packaging has a significant relationship on consumers and their decision making about product purchases ( Sadiq M. W. et al., 2020 ). For example, quality, color, and material can have a positive effect on consumers ( Rambabu and Porika, 2020 ). Most consumers desire a range of product choices when purchasing, in terms of packaging. Thus, marketers should place a premium on creative and exclusive packaging that is distinctive in scale, instruction, convenience, product design, and form when compared with rivals in the market segment ( Li et al., 2021 ). Marking a product with accurate information adds to its value. Consumers are attracted to detailed labels, content, and packaging. Many people are influenced by the way a product is packaged and presented in the market. While the product itself may be of any quality, the relationship it produces through its packaging has a strong influence on the purchasing attitude of the consumer. Nowadays, eco-friendly packaging is essential. Thus, advertisers should prioritize this factor and employ best practices to the maximum degree possible, including eco-friendly recyclable packaging ( Abdullah et al., 2021 ). Consumer buying behavior also has a lot to do with product selling and buying ( Brun et al., 2014 ), although some customers are not influenced by the packaging or labeling of products, buying is demand-driven or need-oriented by most consumers.

However, super packaging or labeling of products may not attract the consumer for several reasons. One of the primary reasons may be the high price and packaging, announcing the excellent quality of the product. In such cases, there may be a lack of interest by the consumer toward attractive packaging; instead, they may prefer to buy local products that are cheap and readily available in the market. According to Tu and Chih (2013) , consumer satisfaction is another aspect of product selling and consumer buying behavior. It also plays a mediating role in product buying behavior, pricing, and packaging ( Rambabu and Porika, 2020 ). Even though a price might be negotiable and the product is provided with helpful information and good, decent packaging, there is a lot to do to satisfy a consumer. All of these factors are correlated with consumer satisfaction. If the consumer is satisfied with all these, they may buy the product, but there is no guarantee of this. Thus, consumer buying behavior is also influenced by satisfaction ( Brun et al., 2014 ). This study seeks to answer several questions to explain consumer buying behavior in relation to product pricing and packaging, with consumer satisfaction as a mediating factor. In this work, we first present a brief review of this research, which differs from the current literature in various respects. The research has generated several findings.

• • Product prices significantly correlate with consumer buying behavior.
• • The product information available on packaging influences the consumer’s buying behavior.
• • Satisfaction plays a mediating role in consumer buying behavior.
• • Pricing of the product plays an essential role in customer satisfaction.
• • Product information available on labels plays a significant role in customer satisfaction.

The remainder of this work is structured as follows: Section “Review of Literature and Hypothesis Development” presents a review of previous studies supporting different theoretical frameworks. Section “Research Methodology” presents the methodology adopted for the empirical analysis. Section “Data Analysis and Results” presents the results of this analysis. Section “Conclusion and Recommendations” concludes the present study, limitations and future directions.

Review of Literature and Hypothesis Development

Product pricing and consumer buying behavior.

Product pricing seems to be the only direct element that generates revenue and indicates the success or failure of a product or service. As a result, the researchers in this study chose to emphasize this aspect. Manali (2015) carried out research into the theoretical dimensions of consumer purchasing behavior and the factors that affect it. He analyzed the relationship between consumer buying behavior and factors affecting the buying process and decisions of the consumers. His research provides enough evidence to show that the internal and external influences of a consumer have a major relationship with their purchasing behavior.

According to Al-Salamin et al. (2015) , good prices of well-known brands negatively affect the purchasing process. Young people are eager to buy brands, but their low income hinders them from doing so. The only aspect of the marketing mix that generates revenue is price, whereas the others generate costs. The authors also noted that the purchasing decisions of consumers focus on their price perception and what they think about the actual price of a product. The main goal of marketing is to understand how customers move toward their price perception. We are all customers, no matter how old, educated, wealthy, or talented. Understanding customer behavior thus becomes a critical challenge for advertisers, distributors, and salespeople. Therefore, we hypothesized the following:

• H 1 : Product pricing is significantly correlated with consumer buying behavior.

Product Packaging and Consumer Buying Behavior

Packaging a product with relevant product details contributes positively to consumer buying behavior. Names, features, and product packaging attract consumers. Many people are influenced by the packaging and marketing of items. While a product may be of any quality, the impact on customer purchasing is essential ( Rundh, 2009 ; Li et al., 2021 ; Naseem et al., 2021 ). The aim of this study was to determine the effect of product pricing and information about product packaging on the buying behavior of consumers. Innovation in product labeling and packing often has a major relationship with demand, which is why there are many methods for this type of action plan if a company wants to pursue this strategy with regard to its product packaging. When it comes to packaging, many buyers want a range of product choices. Therefore, marketers should pay high prices for innovative and exclusive packaging that differentiate their products from the competition in terms of size, guidance, functionality, product innovation, and shape ( Rundh, 2009 ; Li et al., 2021 ; Sarfraz et al., 2021 ). For the target consumer, product packaging acts as an outstanding networking tool, ultimately increasing their awareness levels. Packaging must highlight key aspects of the product and brand, such as material composition, purpose, and quality. To show respect for customers, packaging should include all of this information in regional languages. Not only is efficient packaging important for storing and preserving products, but it is also important for creating an interest in and generating actions toward purchasing the product. Packaging that is environmentally friendly has become increasingly important. As a result, marketers should place a high priority on this aspect and use best practices to the greatest possible extent, including the use of environmentally friendly recycled materials ( Deliza and MacFie, 2001 ; Abdullah et al., 2021 ; Mohsin et al., 2021 ).

• H 2 : Product information on packaging is significantly related to consumer purchasing behavior.

Satisfaction of Consumers and Their Buying Behavior

Customer value and customer satisfaction are considered important parameters for the relationship between customer value and the willingness to sacrifice ( Zechmeister et al., 1997 ). This sacrifice is made in accordance with an exchange mechanism that includes transaction costs and the risk of the goods of the company. According to Larsen et al. (2017) , customers will be disappointed in the future if the ratio value considered by the economic sacrifice of customers with the goods sold by the company does not meet their expectations. Customers will be satisfied if the ratio value is sufficient or exceeds their expectations. Another analysis of consumer value examines the understanding of customers of the quality and benefits of toothpaste in relation to price sacrifice. Social, emotional, and functional values are all aspects of customer value ( Keller and Kotler, 2012 ).

Customer satisfaction is evaluated by obtaining feedback from customers after purchasing products or services, and then comparing it with their expectations. Customer satisfaction is calculated using the performance requirements of products or services that are capable of satisfying the needs and desires of customers. A satisfied consumer is a consumer who believes that the products or services were worth purchasing, which would encourage them to buy the products again. On the other hand, a frustrated consumer will persuade other consumers not to buy the same brand, which ultimately causes switching to rival brands. According to Tu and Chih (2013) , “customer satisfaction is perceived as affecting repurchasing intentions and actions, which, in turn, contributes to an organization’s potential sales and income.”

• H 3 : Satisfaction plays a mediating role in consumer buying behavior.

Role of Product Pricing on Consumer Satisfaction

Price is regarded as something that can be calculated according to several measures, such as a reasonable price, a competitive price, a discounted price, a retailer’s price, and price suitability. Value is a higher-level definition than quality and price because it is more individualistic and personal. A satisfied consumer believes that the value of goods and services is comparable with the price, which will encourage them to repurchase the products. According to Zeithaml (1988) , “quality can be characterized as superiority or excellence in a broad sense.” From the customer’s perspective, “The price is given up or sacrificed to get the product or service” ( Zeithaml, 1988 ). According to Bei and Chiao (2001) , “[P]rice is described as giving or sacrificing for the acquisition of a service or product,” while Kotler et al. (2012) proposed that “the price is the amount paid for a product or service and the sum of the value exchanged by consumers for the advantages of a product or service available or being used.” The perceptions of customers of a given price can have a direct relationship with the their decision to buy a product ( Zechmeister et al., 1997 ). Customers will pay attention to the prices paid by their peers, and no one wants to spend more money than their peers do. The fairness of a price can affect the perception of consumers of the product, and ultimately their desire to become a consumer.

• H 4 : The pricing of a product plays a significant role in customer satisfaction.

Role of Product Packaging on Consumer Satisfaction

Packaging and labeling can be considered one of the most important tools in marketing and communication, which means that a thorough examination of their components and their relationships with consumer buying behavior is necessary. According to Joewono and Kubota (2007) , consumer satisfaction results from product and service reviews based on customer perceptions and a broad assessment of the overall consumption experience. It is suggested that customer satisfaction affects repurchase intentions and actions, which, in turn, determine potential sales and revenue for a company. According to Zeithaml (2000) , consumer satisfaction is measured on a multidimensional scale that includes service quality, product quality, scenario factors, personal factors, and price factors.

Product packaging plays a variety of roles. It provides information about the product and the company, connects them with customers, and ensures product quality ( Naseem et al., 2020 ; Rambabu and Porika, 2020 ). It is important to remember that packaging has a significant influence on customers and their purchasing decisions. Consumers react positively to quality, color, and content. Similarly, if a product is labeled with accurate information about the product, it increases the value of the product. Consumers respond to a product’s specific name, ingredients, and packaging. Many consumers are concerned about the way a product is designed and advertised. Although the quality of the product itself may vary, the effect of packaging on customer purchasing decisions is important.

H 5 : Product information available on labels plays a significant role toward customer satisfaction.

Theoretical Support of the Study

The following research was conducted to investigate underlying issues. This study is a continuation of expectancy disconfirmation theory (EDT) and social cognitive theory (SCT). Both theories provide a strong background for conducting this research. According to EDT, the satisfaction of consumers is linked to the expectation and perception of product quality. A consumer sets an expectation before examining a product in real time. This comparison of preset expectations with real-sense performance is the basis of EDT. In this study, consumer satisfaction plays a mediating role between product pricing, product packaging, and consumer buying behavior. The expectations of consumers are based on the price of the product, information on product packaging, and perceived quality.

The other central backbone of this research is SCT, developed by Bandura (2012) , which explains that learning takes place in a social context with a complex and reciprocal relationship between the individual, their environment, and their actions. The emphasis on social relationships, and also external and internal social reinforcement, is a distinctive feature of SCT. SCT considers the specific ways in which people maintain their behavior and interact with others. It also considers the specific ways in which people learn and sustain behaviors and the social context in which they do so. According to this theory, past experiences strengthen ideas and expectations, all of which affect whether a person maintains his/her attitudes. Many behavioral models that are used in studies related to health do not include behavior maintenance; instead, they focus on behavior initiation. This is a shame because the real purpose of public health is to maintain conduct rather than initiate it. SCT aims to illustrate how people monitor and reinforce their actions to achieve goal-directed behavior that can be managed. Thus, the product pricing and packaging of a product with useful information on labels will surely correlate with consumer buying behavior that will persist. The customer will buy or not buy in the future on the basis of the expectations and perceptions of the product once his behavior about the product has already been initiated. A conceptual framework was developed to focus on the specific variables. The framework consists of the hypotheses shown in Figure 1 .

Theoretical framework.

Research Methodology

The research methodology of a study represents an essential and integral part of the entire process and explains how science contributes to aims. The behavioral approach of respondents, i.e., expectations, evidence, observations, knowledge of reality, and individual point of view, can be summarized by analytical parameters. According to James and Vinnicombe (2002) , the assurance of objectivity in the scientific procession is compulsory. Furthermore, a perspective emphasizing social variable is considered essential by the society for practical implications ( Blaikie, 2007 ). Their innovative discoveries and interpretation are leading activities of label research.

Research Design

In this research, the structure of behavior science by Zechmeister et al. (1997) is followed with mediation and description for the problem-solving process. The main focus of this research is the state of mind, mood swings, variations in feelings, and behavior toward the specific situation of the respondents. In addition, the organizational performance in the market and consumer buying behavior can solve many problems by approaching the cooperative feedback process with peers and accumulating knowledge. The analysis of buying behavior may be categorized as “co-oriented” or “comparative.” According to behavioral science, these two factors have real meaning. This study seeks to understand the effect of product pricing and packaging on the buying behavior of consumers. At the same time, satisfaction plays its role as a mediating variable ( Zechmeister et al., 1997 ; Bollen and Pearl, 2013 ). For data collection, self-administered questionnaires were used for quantitative analysis.

Study Population

The sample of this study comprises students from different universities in China. The main reason for choosing university students is that recent research concentrates on product pricing with consumer buying behavior while considering university students as their population. The population selection is based on the area of interest and importance, which covers the objectivity of this research. Divergent online and offline sources were used to collect analytical data. The questionnaires were circulated among 500 students, and the 367 replied to us regarding that, and so the aggregate received response was 73%. Seventeen answers received from respondents were rejected due to incomplete information, and 350 were finalized for the analytical process. This study used convenience sampling for data collection. Bonds-Raacke and Raacke (2012) suggested that field examinations should use a questionnaire. The researcher used a questionnaire to collect the data in this study. SPSS software was used to check the quality, validity, and scale reliability of the instrument.

Data Analysis and Results

SPSS and AMOS software were used for the data analysis. Table 1 presents the reliability analysis results. Product pricing and product information are independent variables in this study, whereas consumer buying behavior is a dependent variable. In this study, satisfaction is mediated between two independent variables and one dependent variable. All variables have acceptable reliability alpha values.

Reliability analysis.

Table 2 shows the descriptive statistics. The mean value of product pricing is 3.4, where product information has a mean value of 3.9, satisfaction has a mean value 3.6, and consumer buying behavior has a mean value of 3.8.

Descriptive statistics.

The product price measuring scale was introduced by Lichtenstein et al. (1993) . The Likert scale ranges from strongly agree to strongly disagree, and this scale was used in this research with slight modifications. The Lichtenstein et al. (1993) ranking was further verified by confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) analysis to meet the requirements of this research. The measuring scales of Brun et al. (2014) and Zekiri and Hasani (2015) were used to measure the product packaging and customer satisfaction. The behavior of consumers toward buying decisions, the measurement scale of Bagga and Bhatt (2013) is used with slight modification to fit the scale for scope and broaden the view of this research. All predefined models/scales were rated on 5-point Likert scale, with higher numerical values indicating greater satisfaction.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis

The pooled CFA is more reliable than other versions and the most up-to-date approach. The AMOS 24 is used to check the relationship among variables ( Afthanorhan et al., 2014 ; Chong et al., 2014 ).

The results of Table 3 declare the structural fitness of the model by meeting all criterion requirements. The reliability values or factor loading of individual items are presented in Figure 2 . The findings of Table 4 have also covered the composite reliability of a wide scale. The composite reliability is indicated by the reliability of the measurement scales while reporting reliability ( Netemeyer et al., 2003 ).

Pooled CFA model fitness tests.

Pooled confirmatory factor analysis.

Factor loading of items.

Assessment of Discriminant Validity

Discriminant validity was measured using HTMT analysis by considering two determinants, i.e., supposed to be related or unrelated. The value of cut-off criteria for strict discriminant validity was 0.850, and for liberal discriminant validity it was 0.900 ( Henseler et al., 2015 ), obtained by employing discriminant validity. The following discriminant validity criteria have provided the results of Table 5 .

HTMT analysis.

Path Analysis in Structural Equation Modeling

In this study, structural equation modeling was used to determine the proposed relationships. Exogenous variables were included in this analysis to allow for the study of endogenous variables using AMOS 24. Here, we can see whether the independent and dependent variables are linearly related to each other. The analytical observations and their mean values are tabulated and linked with the collected information. The results of Table 6 declare the structural fitness of the model by meeting all criterion requirements.

SEM, model fitness tests.

Figure 3 shows the direct effects of the independent variables on the dependent variable. In this figure, the mediator variable is missing from this path analysis diagram to capture the direct correlation of the independent variable on the dependent variable.

Direct effects of path analysis.

Table 7 shows that H 1 , H 3 , and H 5 are statistically significant, and their P-value is less than 0.05, which shows the 95% confidence interval. The structural equation modeling with the path analysis is presented in Figure 4 . The path analysis declared the nature of variables, i.e., two variables are independent: one is the mediator and the other one is dependent.

Results of indirect effects.

Indirect direct effects of path analysis.

The findings of Table 8 indicate that both hypotheses are statistically significant, but the observed mediation values for these hypotheses differ. H 2 is statistically significant but has a full mediation effect, whereas H 4 is statistically significant and has a partial mediation effect.

*** = Significance level at 1%.** = Significance level at 5%.

Hypothetical Results

The results of the hypothesis are shown in Table 9 in a more detailed and comprehensive manner. To calculate the standard error with T and P-values and the significance of the path coefficient, bootstrapping (1,000 subsamples) was used, which provided direct evidence of the hypotheses being accepted or rejected. The structural model analysis results show the path coefficients and their significance levels, as presented in Table 9 . The findings confirmed that all five relationships were significant, and it can be concluded that H 1 , H 2 , H 3 , H 4 , and H 5 were supported.

Hypothesis results.

According to Sisodiya and Sharma (2018) , the marketing mix has a significant influence on the buying behavior of consumers. In this study, the main principle in packaging is to “reach a greater height of opportunity.” It is often regarded as a critical component of purchase decision making, and has often been shown to be a way of building market awareness and connecting with consumers outside the product itself and across several channels ( Rambabu and Porika, 2020 ; Sadiq W. et al., 2020 ). Packaging performs multidimensional functions. It can not only offer knowledge about products and business entities, but it is also a technique for communicating with consumers and safeguarding product quality ( Silayoi and Speece, 2007 ). Pricing can be considered one of the most vital and essential elements that can influence consumer buying behavior or the buyer decision process ( Dhurup et al., 2014 ; Sadiq W. et al., 2020 ).

According to Kotler et al. (2012) , customer satisfaction “is the extent to which a product’s perceived performance matches the buyer’s expectations.” Aslam et al. (2018) stated that price has a positive and significant correlation with customer satisfaction. Furthermore, they believed that the success of the sector was based on price fairness and customer satisfaction. Previous studies have also discussed this phenomenon in connection with other geographical locations. The price factor is more relatable to consumer buying behavior than product packaging ( Jabarzare and Rasti-Barzoki, 2020 ; Huo et al., 2021 ). Product pricing has a greater influence than product packaging on the buyers’ decision processes ( Pratama and Suprapto, 2017 ; Abdullah et al., 2021 ). Innovation in product packaging also has a significant relationship with the consumer; however, if any organization wants to follow a strategy that is relevant to its product packaging, then there are several strategies for this kind of plan of action. Most consumers desire a range of product choices when purchasing, in terms of packaging. Thus, the marketer should place a premium on creative and exclusive packaging that is distinctive in terms of scale, instruction, convenience, product design, and form when compared to rivals in market segmentation ( Rundh, 2009 ; Bollen and Pearl, 2013 ). Product packaging serves as an excellent networking medium for target customers, eventually increasing their knowledge levels. Packaging must convey pertinent details about the product and brand, including ingredient composition, intent, and consistency. In addition, packaging should provide all of this material in regional languages to demonstrate respect for consumers. Efficient packaging is critical not only for storing and protecting goods but also for generating interest in and action toward buying the commodity. Currently, eco-friendly packaging is essential. Thus, advertisers should prioritize this factor and employ best practices to the maximum degree possible, including eco-friendly recyclable packaging ( Deliza and MacFie, 2001 ; Abdullah et al., 2021 ).

Conclusion and Recommendations

The study results clearly show that both product pricing and packaging have a statistically significant relationship with the buyer’s decision process. At the same time, the introduction of satisfaction leads to the observation of full mediation in the case of product pricing and partial mediation in product packaging. Despite knowing that both the variables have a statistically significant relationship with the consumer buying behavior, it is essential to understand the managerial implications. Suppose, we would like to report and recommend these findings to different organizations looking to cut their operational costs in any possible way without compromising product quality, we suggest in such cases that they focus on pricing strategies for a better consumer response. A focus on the product packaging design process, packaging material, or the information available on product packaging positively influences consumer buying behavior. However, its effect is lower than product pricing. Therefore, it is recommended for managers that if they want to connect with their target customers more efficiently and effectively, they should focus on both product pricing and packaging options. However, if they can afford only one option from the product’s operational cost perspective, they must focus on product pricing strategies.

In future studies, it must be kept in mind that these findings pertain directly to the individuals listed as respondents. To make it more accurate, other demographic, psychographic, and geographic samples should be used. It is likely that when data are thus obtained, the findings will differ. To ensure more lasting and repeatable corporate outcomes, several studies are required to obtain results that are more accurate and reliable.

Data Availability Statement

Author contributions.

HZ, XY, and ZL contributed to conception and design of the study. HZ organized the database, performed the statistical analysis, and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. XY, ZL, and QY wrote sections of the manuscript. All authors contributed to manuscript revision, read, and approved the submitted version.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Abbreviations

This work was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (52065010), Open Fund of Key Laboratory of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Ministry of Education (GZUAMT2021KF[07] and GZUAMT2021KF[08]), Natural Science Research Project supported by the Education Department of Guizhou Province [Grant Nos. (2018)152 and (2017)239], Humanities and Social Science Research Project of Guizhou Provincial Department of Education (Grant No. 2018qn46), and the Guiyang University Teaching Research Project (Grant No. JT2019520206).

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After being insulted, writing down your feelings on paper then getting rid of it reduces anger

A research group in Japan has discovered that writing down one's reaction to a negative incident on a piece of paper and then shredding it or throwing it away reduces feelings of anger.

"We expected that our method would suppress anger to some extent," lead researcher Nobuyuki Kawai said. "However, we were amazed that anger was eliminated almost entirely."

This research is important because controlling anger at home and in the workplace can reduce negative consequences in our jobs and personal lives. Unfortunately, many anger management techniques proposed by specialists lack empirical research support. They can also be difficult to recall when angry.

The results of this study, published in Scientific Reports , are the culmination of years of previous research on the association between the written word and anger reduction. It builds on work showing how interactions with physical objects can control a person's mood.

For their project, Kawai and his graduate student Yuta Kanaya, both at the Graduate School of Informatics, Nagoya University, asked participants to write brief opinions about important social problems, such as whether smoking in public should be outlawed. They then told them that a doctoral student at Nagoya University would evaluate their writing.

However, the doctoral students doing the evaluation were plants. Regardless of what the participants wrote, the evaluators scored them low on intelligence, interest, friendliness, logic, and rationality. To really drive home the point, the doctoral students also wrote the same insulting comment: "I cannot believe an educated person would think like this. I hope this person learns something while at the university."

After handing out these negative comments, the researchers asked the participants to write their thoughts on the feedback, focusing on what triggered their emotions. Finally, one group of participants was told to either dispose of the paper they wrote in a trash can or keep it in a file on their desk. A second group was told to destroy the document in a shredder or put it in a plastic box.

The students were then asked to rate their anger after the insult and after either disposing of or keeping the paper. As expected, all participants reported a higher level of anger after receiving insulting comments. However, the anger levels of the individuals who discarded their paper in the trash can or shredded it returned to their initial state after disposing of the paper. Meanwhile, the participants who held on to a hard copy of the insult experienced only a small decrease in their overall anger.

Kawai imagines using his research to help businesspeople who find themselves in stressful situations. "This technique could be applied in the moment by writing down the source of anger as if taking a memo and then throwing it away when one feels angry in a business situation," he explained.

Along with its practical benefits, this discovery may shed light on the origins of the Japanese cultural tradition known as hakidashisara ( hakidashi refers to the purging or spitting out of something, and sara refers to a dish or plate) at the Hiyoshi shrine in Kiyosu, Aichi Prefecture, just outside of Nagoya. Hakidashisara is an annual festival where people smash small discs representing things that make them angry. Their findings may explain the feeling of relief that participants report after leaving the festival.

• Anger Management
• Social Psychology
• Disorders and Syndromes
• Educational Psychology
• Consumer Behavior
• Anger management
• Social psychology
• Cognitive dissonance
• Self-awareness
• Obsessive-compulsive disorder
• Collaboration

Story Source:

Materials provided by Nagoya University . Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

• Yuta Kanaya, Nobuyuki Kawai. Anger is eliminated with the disposal of a paper written because of provocation . Scientific Reports , 2024; 14 (1) DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-57916-z

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