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How to write a strong conclusion for your research paper

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17 February 2024

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Writing a research paper is a chance to share your knowledge and hypothesis. It's an opportunity to demonstrate your many hours of research and prove your ability to write convincingly.

Ideally, by the end of your research paper, you'll have brought your readers on a journey to reach the conclusions you've pre-determined. However, if you don't stick the landing with a good conclusion, you'll risk losing your reader’s trust.

Writing a strong conclusion for your research paper involves a few important steps, including restating the thesis and summing up everything properly.

Find out what to include and what to avoid, so you can effectively demonstrate your understanding of the topic and prove your expertise.

• Why is a good conclusion important?

A good conclusion can cement your paper in the reader’s mind. Making a strong impression in your introduction can draw your readers in, but it's the conclusion that will inspire them.

• What to include in a research paper conclusion

There are a few specifics you should include in your research paper conclusion. Offer your readers some sense of urgency or consequence by pointing out why they should care about the topic you have covered. Discuss any common problems associated with your topic and provide suggestions as to how these problems can be solved or addressed.

The conclusion should include a restatement of your initial thesis. Thesis statements are strengthened after you’ve presented supporting evidence (as you will have done in the paper), so make a point to reintroduce it at the end.

Finally, recap the main points of your research paper, highlighting the key takeaways you want readers to remember. If you've made multiple points throughout the paper, refer to the ones with the strongest supporting evidence.

• Steps for writing a research paper conclusion

Many writers find the conclusion the most challenging part of any research project . By following these three steps, you'll be prepared to write a conclusion that is effective and concise.

• Step 1: Restate the problem

Always begin by restating the research problem in the conclusion of a research paper. This serves to remind the reader of your hypothesis and refresh them on the main point of the paper. 

When restating the problem, take care to avoid using exactly the same words you employed earlier in the paper.

• Step 2: Sum up the paper

After you've restated the problem, sum up the paper by revealing your overall findings. The method for this differs slightly, depending on whether you're crafting an argumentative paper or an empirical paper.

Argumentative paper: Restate your thesis and arguments

Argumentative papers involve introducing a thesis statement early on. In crafting the conclusion for an argumentative paper, always restate the thesis, outlining the way you've developed it throughout the entire paper.

It might be appropriate to mention any counterarguments in the conclusion, so you can demonstrate how your thesis is correct or how the data best supports your main points.

Empirical paper: Summarize research findings

Empirical papers break down a series of research questions. In your conclusion, discuss the findings your research revealed, including any information that surprised you.

Be clear about the conclusions you reached, and explain whether or not you expected to arrive at these particular ones.

• Step 3: Discuss the implications of your research

Argumentative papers and empirical papers also differ in this part of a research paper conclusion. Here are some tips on crafting conclusions for argumentative and empirical papers.

Argumentative paper: Powerful closing statement

In an argumentative paper, you'll have spent a great deal of time expressing the opinions you formed after doing a significant amount of research. Make a strong closing statement in your argumentative paper's conclusion to share the significance of your work.

You can outline the next steps through a bold call to action, or restate how powerful your ideas turned out to be.

Empirical paper: Directions for future research

Empirical papers are broader in scope. They usually cover a variety of aspects and can include several points of view.

To write a good conclusion for an empirical paper, suggest the type of research that could be done in the future, including methods for further investigation or outlining ways other researchers might proceed.

If you feel your research had any limitations, even if they were outside your control, you could mention these in your conclusion.

After you finish outlining your conclusion, ask someone to read it and offer feedback. In any research project you're especially close to, it can be hard to identify problem areas. Having a close friend or someone whose opinion you value read the research paper and provide honest feedback can be invaluable. Take note of any suggested edits and consider incorporating them into your paper if they make sense.

• Things to avoid in a research paper conclusion

Keep these aspects to avoid in mind as you're writing your conclusion and refer to them after you've created an outline.

Dry summary

Writing a memorable, succinct conclusion is arguably more important than a strong introduction. Take care to avoid just rephrasing your main points, and don't fall into the trap of repeating dry facts or citations.

You can provide a new perspective for your readers to think about or contextualize your research. Either way, make the conclusion vibrant and interesting, rather than a rote recitation of your research paper’s highlights.

Clichéd or generic phrasing

Your research paper conclusion should feel fresh and inspiring. Avoid generic phrases like "to sum up" or "in conclusion." These phrases tend to be overused, especially in an academic context and might turn your readers off.

The conclusion also isn't the time to introduce colloquial phrases or informal language. Retain a professional, confident tone consistent throughout your paper’s conclusion so it feels exciting and bold.

New data or evidence

While you should present strong data throughout your paper, the conclusion isn't the place to introduce new evidence. This is because readers are engaged in actively learning as they read through the body of your paper.

By the time they reach the conclusion, they will have formed an opinion one way or the other (hopefully in your favor!). Introducing new evidence in the conclusion will only serve to surprise or frustrate your reader.

Ignoring contradictory evidence

If your research reveals contradictory evidence, don't ignore it in the conclusion. This will damage your credibility as an expert and might even serve to highlight the contradictions.

Be as transparent as possible and admit to any shortcomings in your research, but don't dwell on them for too long.

Ambiguous or unclear resolutions

The point of a research paper conclusion is to provide closure and bring all your ideas together. You should wrap up any arguments you introduced in the paper and tie up any loose ends, while demonstrating why your research and data are strong.

Use direct language in your conclusion and avoid ambiguity. Even if some of the data and sources you cite are inconclusive or contradictory, note this in your conclusion to come across as confident and trustworthy.

• Examples of research paper conclusions

Your research paper should provide a compelling close to the paper as a whole, highlighting your research and hard work. While the conclusion should represent your unique style, these examples offer a starting point:

Ultimately, the data we examined all point to the same conclusion: Encouraging a good work-life balance improves employee productivity and benefits the company overall. The research suggests that when employees feel their personal lives are valued and respected by their employers, they are more likely to be productive when at work. In addition, company turnover tends to be reduced when employees have a balance between their personal and professional lives. While additional research is required to establish ways companies can support employees in creating a stronger work-life balance, it's clear the need is there.

Social media is a primary method of communication among young people. As we've seen in the data presented, most young people in high school use a variety of social media applications at least every hour, including Instagram and Facebook. While social media is an avenue for connection with peers, research increasingly suggests that social media use correlates with body image issues. Young girls with lower self-esteem tend to use social media more often than those who don't log onto social media apps every day. As new applications continue to gain popularity, and as more high school students are given smartphones, more research will be required to measure the effects of prolonged social media use.

What are the different kinds of research paper conclusions?

There are no formal types of research paper conclusions. Ultimately, the conclusion depends on the outline of your paper and the type of research you’re presenting. While some experts note that research papers can end with a new perspective or commentary, most papers should conclude with a combination of both. The most important aspect of a good research paper conclusion is that it accurately represents the body of the paper.

Can I present new arguments in my research paper conclusion?

Research paper conclusions are not the place to introduce new data or arguments. The body of your paper is where you should share research and insights, where the reader is actively absorbing the content. By the time a reader reaches the conclusion of the research paper, they should have formed their opinion. Introducing new arguments in the conclusion can take a reader by surprise, and not in a positive way. It might also serve to frustrate readers.

How long should a research paper conclusion be?

There's no set length for a research paper conclusion. However, it's a good idea not to run on too long, since conclusions are supposed to be succinct. A good rule of thumb is to keep your conclusion around 5 to 10 percent of the paper's total length. If your paper is 10 pages, try to keep your conclusion under one page.

What should I include in a research paper conclusion?

A good research paper conclusion should always include a sense of urgency, so the reader can see how and why the topic should matter to them. You can also note some recommended actions to help fix the problem and some obstacles they might encounter. A conclusion should also remind the reader of the thesis statement, along with the main points you covered in the paper. At the end of the conclusion, add a powerful closing statement that helps cement the paper in the mind of the reader.

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Organizing Academic Research Papers: 9. The Conclusion

• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Executive Summary
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tertiary Sources
• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Annotated Bibliography
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• How to Manage Group Projects
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Essays
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Acknowledgements

The conclusion is intended to help the reader understand why your research should matter to them after they have finished reading the paper. A conclusion is not merely a summary of your points or a re-statement of your research problem but a synthesis of key points. For most essays, one well-developed paragraph is sufficient for a conclusion, although in some cases, a two-or-three paragraph conclusion may be required.

Importance of a Good Conclusion

A well-written conclusion provides you with several important opportunities to demonstrate your overall understanding of the research problem to the reader. These include:

• Presenting the last word on the issues you raised in your paper . Just as the introduction gives a first impression to your reader, the conclusion offers a chance to leave a lasting impression. Do this, for example, by highlighting key points in your analysis or findings.
• Summarizing your thoughts and conveying the larger implications of your study . The conclusion is an opportunity to succinctly answer the "so what?" question by placing the study within the context of past research about the topic you've investigated.
• Demonstrating the importance of your ideas . Don't be shy. The conclusion offers you a chance to elaborate on the significance of your findings.
• Introducing possible new or expanded ways of thinking about the research problem . This does not refer to introducing new information [which should be avoided], but to offer new insight and creative approaches for framing/contextualizing the research problem based on the results of your study.

Conclusions . The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Conclusion . San Francisco Edit, 2003-2008.

Structure and Writing Style

https://writing.wisc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/535/2018/07/conclusions_uwmadison_writingcenter_aug2012.pdf I.  General Rules

When writing the conclusion to your paper, follow these general rules:

• State your conclusions in clear, simple language.
• Do not simply reiterate your results or the discussion.
• Indicate opportunities for future research, as long as you haven't already done so in the discussion section of your paper.

The function of your paper's conclusion is to restate the main argument . It reminds the reader of the strengths of your main argument(s) and reiterates the most important evidence supporting those argument(s). Make sure, however, that your conclusion is not simply a repetitive summary of the findings because this reduces the impact of the argument(s) you have developed in your essay.

Consider the following points to help ensure your conclusion is appropriate:

• If the argument or point of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize the argument for your reader.
• If, prior to your conclusion, you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the end of your paper to describe your main points and explain their significance.
• Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction or within a new context that emerges from the data.

The conclusion also provides a place for you to persuasively and succinctly restate your research problem, given that the reader has now been presented with all the information about the topic . Depending on the discipline you are writing in, the concluding paragraph may contain your reflections on the evidence presented, or on the essay's central research problem. However, the nature of being introspective about the research you have done will depend on the topic and whether your professor wants you to express your observations in this way.

NOTE : Don't delve into idle speculation. Being introspective means looking within yourself as an author to try and understand an issue more deeply not to guess at possible outcomes.

II.  Developing a Compelling Conclusion

Strategies to help you move beyond merely summarizing the key points of your research paper may include any of the following.

• If your essay deals with a contemporary problem, warn readers of the possible consequences of not attending to the problem.
• Recommend a specific course or courses of action.
• Cite a relevant quotation or expert opinion to lend authority to the conclusion you have reached [a good place to look is research from your literature review].
• Restate a key statistic, fact, or visual image to drive home the ultimate point of your paper.
• If your discipline encourages personal reflection, illustrate your concluding point with a relevant narrative drawn from your own life experiences.
• Return to an anecdote, an example, or a quotation that you introduced in your introduction, but add further insight that is derived from the findings of your study; use your interpretation of results to reframe it in new ways.
• Provide a "take-home" message in the form of a strong, succient statement that you want the reader to remember about your study.

III. Problems to Avoid Failure to be concise The conclusion section should be concise and to the point. Conclusions that are too long often have unnecessary detail. The conclusion section is not the place for details about your methodology or results. Although you should give a summary of what was learned from your research, this summary should be relatively brief, since the emphasis in the conclusion is on the implications, evaluations, insights, etc. that you make. Failure to comment on larger, more significant issues In the introduction, your task was to move from general [the field of study] to specific [your research problem]. However, in the conclusion, your task is to move from specific [your research problem] back to general [your field, i.e., how your research contributes new understanding or fills an important gap in the literature]. In other words, the conclusion is where you place your research within a larger context. Failure to reveal problems and negative results Negative aspects of the research process should never be ignored. Problems, drawbacks, and challenges encountered during your study should be included as a way of qualifying your overall conclusions. If you encountered negative results [findings that are validated outside the research context in which they were generated], you must report them in the results section of your paper. In the conclusion, use the negative results as an opportunity to explain how they provide information on which future research can be based. Failure to provide a clear summary of what was learned In order to be able to discuss how your research fits back into your field of study [and possibly the world at large], you need to summarize it briefly and directly. Often this element of your conclusion is only a few sentences long. Failure to match the objectives of your research Often research objectives change while the research is being carried out. This is not a problem unless you forget to go back and refine your original objectives in your introduction, as these changes emerge they must be documented so that they accurately reflect what you were trying to accomplish in your research [not what you thought you might accomplish when you began].

Resist the urge to apologize If you've immersed yourself in studying the research problem, you now know a good deal about it, perhaps even more than your professor! Nevertheless, by the time you have finished writing, you may be having some doubts about what you have produced. Repress those doubts!  Don't undermine your authority by saying something like, "This is just one approach to examining this problem; there may be other, much better approaches...."

Concluding Paragraphs. College Writing Center at Meramec. St. Louis Community College; Conclusions . The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Conclusions . The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Freedman, Leora  and Jerry Plotnick. Introductions and Conclusions . The Lab Report. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Leibensperger, Summer. Draft Your Conclusion. Academic Center, the University of Houston-Victoria, 2003; Make Your Last Words Count . The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Tips for Writing a Good Conclusion . Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Conclusion . San Francisco Edit, 2003-2008; Writing Conclusions . Writing Tutorial Services, Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning. Indiana University; Writing: Considering Structure and Organization . Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College.

Writing Tip

Don't Belabor the Obvious!

Avoid phrases like "in conclusion...," "in summary...," or "in closing...." These phrases can be useful, even welcome, in oral presentations. But readers can see by the tell-tale section heading and number of pages remaining to read, when an essay is about to end. You'll irritate your readers if you belabor the obvious.

Another Writing Tip

New Insight, Not New Information!

Don't surprise the reader with new information in your Conclusion that was never referenced anywhere else in the paper. If you have new information to present, add it to the Discussion or other appropriate section of the paper.  Note that, although no actual new information is introduced, the conclusion is where you offer your most "original" contributions in the paper; it's where you describe the value of your research, demonstrate your understanding of the material that you’ve presented, and locate your findings within the larger context of scholarship on the topic.

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Research Methods: A Student's Comprehensive Guide: Structure

• Research Approaches
• Types of Sources
• Accessing Resources
• Evaluating Sources
• Question Crafting
• Search Strategies
• Annotated Bibliography
• Literature Reviews
• Citations This link opens in a new window

Research Paper

Welcome to the art of crafting a research paper! Think of this as your roadmap to creating a well-structured and impactful study. We’ll walk you through each crucial component—from introducing your topic with flair to wrapping up with a strong conclusion. Whether you're diving into your first research project or polishing your latest masterpiece, this guide is here to make the journey smoother and more enjoyable. Get ready to turn your research into a compelling narrative that not only showcases your findings but also captivates your readers.

• Paper Snapshot

Introduction

Methodology, research paper structure: a snapshot.

Before diving into the individual components, let's take a quick look at the full structure of a research paper. This snapshot will help you visualize how each section fits together to form a cohesive and well-organized paper.

• Introduce your topic and research question.
• Provide background and context to set up your study.
• Summarize relevant existing research.
• Highlight key studies, theories, and gaps in the literature.
• Describe your research design and methods.
• Explain your data collection and analysis processes.
• Present your findings clearly.
• Use visuals, like charts and tables, to enhance understanding.
• Analyze and interpret the results.
• Discuss the broader implications of your findings and acknowledge limitations.
• Recap your key findings.
• Suggest areas for future research and offer final reflections.

With this snapshot, you now have a high-level view of the main components of your research paper. You can explore each section in detail in the following tabs.

The introduction serves as your reader's first impression of your paper. It should draw them in with a compelling overview of your topic, clearly outline your research question or thesis, and establish the importance of your study.

Key Components

Opening Statement

• Start strong with an attention-grabbing hook: a striking fact, thought-provoking quote, or an interesting anecdote that relates to your research.

Background Information

• Provide necessary context to help readers understand the relevance and scope of your study. You can include key historical information, theoretical context, or a brief overview of previous research.

Research Question or Thesis Statement

• This is the heart of your introduction. State your research question or thesis in a clear, concise manner, so readers know exactly what you are investigating.

Scope and Objectives

• Clearly define the boundaries of your research. What will your paper cover, and what will it not address? This helps frame your work for readers.

Significance of the Study

• Explain why your research matters. Does it fill a gap in existing research? Is it practically useful? Emphasize the value and contribution your paper brings to the field.

Tips for Crafting a Strong Introduction

• Be Engaging:  Your opening should grab attention and encourage the reader to keep going.
• Be Clear:  Avoid ambiguity—clearly state your research question and purpose.
• Provide Context:  Background information is essential to help the reader understand the topic, but avoid overwhelming them with too much detail at this stage.
• Stay Focused:  Keep the introduction concise but informative, setting the tone for the rest of your paper.

Literature Review

The literature review is where you showcase the existing research that relates to your topic. It's your chance to demonstrate your understanding of the academic conversation and position your research within that context.

Summarizing Existing Research

• Review relevant studies, theories, and findings that directly relate to your research question. This provides a foundation for your paper and shows that your study is grounded in the existing body of work.

Highlighting Key Studies

• Identify the most influential or significant research in your field. These are the works that have shaped the current understanding of your topic, and they should be emphasized in your review.

Identifying Gaps or Controversies

• Point out areas where there is limited research, conflicting findings, or ongoing debates. These gaps or discrepancies provide justification for your own research.

Establishing Your Research’s Relevance

• Explain how your research contributes to the field. Whether you’re addressing a gap, building on existing studies, or proposing something new, clearly indicate how your work fits into the larger picture.

Tips for a Strong Literature Review

• Stay Focused:  Only include studies that are directly relevant to your research question. Avoid summarizing every piece of literature you've read.
• Be Critical:  Don’t just summarize—critically assess the strengths and weaknesses of the studies you include.
• Organize Effectively:  Structure your review in a logical order, grouping studies by themes, methodologies, or findings.
• Show Connections:  Discuss how different studies relate to one another and to your research. This helps build a coherent narrative.

The methodology section details how you conducted your research. This is where you explain your approach, so others can understand and potentially replicate your study.

Research Design

• Outline the overall design of your study. Are you using qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods? Define the type of research you're conducting (e.g., case study, survey, experiment).

Data Collection

• Explain how you gathered your data. Were interviews conducted? Surveys distributed? Or perhaps you collected data through observation or archival research. Be specific about the tools, instruments, or platforms you used.

Participants and Sampling

• If applicable, describe your sample group. Who participated in your study? How were they selected? Include details like the size of your sample and any inclusion/exclusion criteria.

Data Analysis

• Discuss how you analyzed your data. Did you use statistical methods, thematic analysis, coding, or another technique? Make sure to explain why these methods were appropriate for your research question.

Ethical Considerations

• Briefly mention any ethical protocols you followed, such as obtaining consent from participants or ensuring anonymity. If your research involved sensitive topics, this is especially important to address.

Tips for Writing Your Methodology

• Be Detailed but Clear:  Provide enough detail so your methods can be understood or replicated, but avoid overloading with unnecessary jargon.
• Justify Your Choices:  Explain why you chose specific methods over others and how they align with your research objectives.
• Stay Organized:  Break your methodology into clear sections to improve readability and flow.

Results Tab

In the results section, you present the findings of your research. This is where you report what you discovered, without interpretation (that comes in the Discussion section). Clarity is key, especially if you are using visuals to support your findings.

Presentation of Data

• Clearly present your research results. This can include numerical data, text analysis, or findings from experiments, surveys, or interviews.

Use of Visuals

• Incorporate charts, tables, graphs, or other visuals to illustrate key points. Ensure that these visuals are well-labeled and easy to understand. Each visual should have a caption explaining what it represents.

Organizing Results

• Structure your results logically. You might choose to organize them by research question, themes, or hypotheses. Make sure there’s a clear flow, so readers can follow your findings easily.

Statistical or Analytical Reporting (if applicable)

• If you conducted statistical analysis, report your findings using appropriate measures (e.g., averages, standard deviations, significance levels). Be transparent about any statistical software or formulas used.

Relevant Findings Only

• Only include results that directly relate to your research question or hypothesis. Avoid tangents or irrelevant data.

Tips for a Clear Results Section

• Be Objective:  This is not the place for interpretation—just present the facts.
• Visual Clarity:  Ensure any visuals are clear, well-labeled, and directly support your results.
• Use Subheadings:  If you have multiple results or sections, use subheadings to organize them.
• Stick to the Findings:  Avoid analysis or speculation here; save that for the Discussion.

Discussion Tab

The discussion is where you interpret your findings. This is your opportunity to explain what the results mean, how they relate to your research question, and what implications they have for the field.

Interpretation of Results

• Explain what your results mean in the context of your research question. How do they answer the question or support (or refute) your hypothesis? Dive into the significance of the findings.

Connection to Existing Research

• Relate your findings back to the literature you reviewed earlier. How do your results compare with previous studies? Do they support or challenge existing theories?

Implications of the Study

• Discuss the broader implications of your research. What does it contribute to the field? Does it suggest changes in practice, policy, or further research avenues?

Limitations

• Acknowledge any limitations of your study. Were there constraints related to time, sample size, or methodology? Transparency about limitations adds credibility to your research.

Recommendations for Future Research

• Suggest areas where future researchers can explore. Perhaps there were aspects of the topic you couldn’t address fully, or new questions arose based on your findings.

Tips for a Strong Discussion Section

• Be Analytical:  Focus on interpretation, not just re-stating results.
• Relate to Literature:  Show how your findings fit within the broader research context.
• Be Honest About Limitations:  Acknowledging weaknesses shows thoroughness and integrity.
• Highlight the Importance:  Emphasize the practical or theoretical value of your work.

The conclusion ties everything together. It should succinctly summarize your key findings, emphasize their significance, and leave the reader with a clear understanding of what you’ve contributed to the field.

Summary of Key Findings

• Briefly restate your most important results. Focus on the findings that directly answer your research question and highlight their relevance.

Restating the Research Question/Thesis

• Revisit your original research question or thesis and clearly explain how your findings address it.

Implications and Impact

• Reinforce the broader significance of your work. How do your findings contribute to the academic field or practical applications? This is your chance to leave a lasting impression.

Recommendations for Future Research or Practice

• Suggest directions for future studies or practical steps that can be taken based on your findings. This ensures your conclusion looks forward rather than simply wrapping up.

Final Thought/Call to Action

• End on a strong note! Offer a thought-provoking statement, reflection, or call to action, encouraging further discussion or research.

Tips for a Strong Conclusion

• Be Concise:  Keep it focused—summarize, don’t rehash.
• Be Forward-Looking:  Emphasize the impact and potential future directions.
• End with Confidence:  Leave readers with a clear understanding of your research's importance.

How to Create a Clearly Structured Paper

Provides a step-by-step guide to organizing an effective essay or research paper outline, focusing on creating clear, logical sections that streamline the writing process.

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• 6. The Methodology
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
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• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

The methods section describes actions taken to investigate a research problem and the rationale for the application of specific procedures or techniques used to identify, select, process, and analyze information applied to understanding the problem, thereby, allowing the reader to critically evaluate a study’s overall validity and reliability. The methodology section of a research paper answers two main questions: How was the data collected or generated? And, how was it analyzed? The writing should be direct and precise and always written in the past tense.

Kallet, Richard H. "How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper." Respiratory Care 49 (October 2004): 1229-1232.

Importance of a Good Methodology Section

You must explain how you obtained and analyzed your results for the following reasons:

• Readers need to know how the data was obtained because the method you chose affects the results and, by extension, how you interpreted their significance in the discussion section of your paper.
• Methodology is crucial for any branch of scholarship because an unreliable method produces unreliable results and, as a consequence, undermines the value of your analysis of the findings.
• In most cases, there are a variety of different methods you can choose to investigate a research problem. The methodology section of your paper should clearly articulate the reasons why you have chosen a particular procedure or technique.
• The reader wants to know that the data was collected or generated in a way that is consistent with accepted practice in the field of study. For example, if you are using a multiple choice questionnaire, readers need to know that it offered your respondents a reasonable range of answers to choose from.
• The method must be appropriate to fulfilling the overall aims of the study. For example, you need to ensure that you have a large enough sample size to be able to generalize and make recommendations based upon the findings.
• The methodology should discuss the problems that were anticipated and the steps you took to prevent them from occurring. For any problems that do arise, you must describe the ways in which they were minimized or why these problems do not impact in any meaningful way your interpretation of the findings.
• In the social and behavioral sciences, it is important to always provide sufficient information to allow other researchers to adopt or replicate your methodology. This information is particularly important when a new method has been developed or an innovative use of an existing method is utilized.

Bem, Daryl J. Writing the Empirical Journal Article. Psychology Writing Center. University of Washington; Denscombe, Martyn. The Good Research Guide: For Small-Scale Social Research Projects . 5th edition. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press, 2014; Lunenburg, Frederick C. Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation: Tips and Strategies for Students in the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Groups of Research Methods

There are two main groups of research methods in the social sciences:

• The e mpirical-analytical group approaches the study of social sciences in a similar manner that researchers study the natural sciences . This type of research focuses on objective knowledge, research questions that can be answered yes or no, and operational definitions of variables to be measured. The empirical-analytical group employs deductive reasoning that uses existing theory as a foundation for formulating hypotheses that need to be tested. This approach is focused on explanation.
• The i nterpretative group of methods is focused on understanding phenomenon in a comprehensive, holistic way . Interpretive methods focus on analytically disclosing the meaning-making practices of human subjects [the why, how, or by what means people do what they do], while showing how those practices arrange so that it can be used to generate observable outcomes. Interpretive methods allow you to recognize your connection to the phenomena under investigation. However, the interpretative group requires careful examination of variables because it focuses more on subjective knowledge.

II.  Content

The introduction to your methodology section should begin by restating the research problem and underlying assumptions underpinning your study. This is followed by situating the methods you used to gather, analyze, and process information within the overall “tradition” of your field of study and within the particular research design you have chosen to study the problem. If the method you choose lies outside of the tradition of your field [i.e., your review of the literature demonstrates that the method is not commonly used], provide a justification for how your choice of methods specifically addresses the research problem in ways that have not been utilized in prior studies.

The remainder of your methodology section should describe the following:

• Decisions made in selecting the data you have analyzed or, in the case of qualitative research, the subjects and research setting you have examined,
• Tools and methods used to identify and collect information, and how you identified relevant variables,
• The ways in which you processed the data and the procedures you used to analyze that data, and
• The specific research tools or strategies that you utilized to study the underlying hypothesis and research questions.

In addition, an effectively written methodology section should:

• Introduce the overall methodological approach for investigating your research problem . Is your study qualitative or quantitative or a combination of both (mixed method)? Are you going to take a special approach, such as action research, or a more neutral stance?
• Indicate how the approach fits the overall research design . Your methods for gathering data should have a clear connection to your research problem. In other words, make sure that your methods will actually address the problem. One of the most common deficiencies found in research papers is that the proposed methodology is not suitable to achieving the stated objective of your paper.
• Describe the specific methods of data collection you are going to use , such as, surveys, interviews, questionnaires, observation, archival research. If you are analyzing existing data, such as a data set or archival documents, describe how it was originally created or gathered and by whom. Also be sure to explain how older data is still relevant to investigating the current research problem.
• Explain how you intend to analyze your results . Will you use statistical analysis? Will you use specific theoretical perspectives to help you analyze a text or explain observed behaviors? Describe how you plan to obtain an accurate assessment of relationships, patterns, trends, distributions, and possible contradictions found in the data.
• Provide background and a rationale for methodologies that are unfamiliar for your readers . Very often in the social sciences, research problems and the methods for investigating them require more explanation/rationale than widely accepted rules governing the natural and physical sciences. Be clear and concise in your explanation.
• Provide a justification for subject selection and sampling procedure . For instance, if you propose to conduct interviews, how do you intend to select the sample population? If you are analyzing texts, which texts have you chosen, and why? If you are using statistics, why is this set of data being used? If other data sources exist, explain why the data you chose is most appropriate to addressing the research problem.
• Provide a justification for case study selection . A common method of analyzing research problems in the social sciences is to analyze specific cases. These can be a person, place, event, phenomenon, or other type of subject of analysis that are either examined as a singular topic of in-depth investigation or multiple topics of investigation studied for the purpose of comparing or contrasting findings. In either method, you should explain why a case or cases were chosen and how they specifically relate to the research problem.
• Describe potential limitations . Are there any practical limitations that could affect your data collection? How will you attempt to control for potential confounding variables and errors? If your methodology may lead to problems you can anticipate, state this openly and show why pursuing this methodology outweighs the risk of these problems cropping up.

NOTE:   Once you have written all of the elements of the methods section, subsequent revisions should focus on how to present those elements as clearly and as logically as possibly. The description of how you prepared to study the research problem, how you gathered the data, and the protocol for analyzing the data should be organized chronologically. For clarity, when a large amount of detail must be presented, information should be presented in sub-sections according to topic. If necessary, consider using appendices for raw data.

ANOTHER NOTE: If you are conducting a qualitative analysis of a research problem , the methodology section generally requires a more elaborate description of the methods used as well as an explanation of the processes applied to gathering and analyzing of data than is generally required for studies using quantitative methods. Because you are the primary instrument for generating the data [e.g., through interviews or observations], the process for collecting that data has a significantly greater impact on producing the findings. Therefore, qualitative research requires a more detailed description of the methods used.

YET ANOTHER NOTE:   If your study involves interviews, observations, or other qualitative techniques involving human subjects , you may be required to obtain approval from the university's Office for the Protection of Research Subjects before beginning your research. This is not a common procedure for most undergraduate level student research assignments. However, i f your professor states you need approval, you must include a statement in your methods section that you received official endorsement and adequate informed consent from the office and that there was a clear assessment and minimization of risks to participants and to the university. This statement informs the reader that your study was conducted in an ethical and responsible manner. In some cases, the approval notice is included as an appendix to your paper.

III.  Problems to Avoid

Irrelevant Detail The methodology section of your paper should be thorough but concise. Do not provide any background information that does not directly help the reader understand why a particular method was chosen, how the data was gathered or obtained, and how the data was analyzed in relation to the research problem [note: analyzed, not interpreted! Save how you interpreted the findings for the discussion section]. With this in mind, the page length of your methods section will generally be less than any other section of your paper except the conclusion.

Unnecessary Explanation of Basic Procedures Remember that you are not writing a how-to guide about a particular method. You should make the assumption that readers possess a basic understanding of how to investigate the research problem on their own and, therefore, you do not have to go into great detail about specific methodological procedures. The focus should be on how you applied a method , not on the mechanics of doing a method. An exception to this rule is if you select an unconventional methodological approach; if this is the case, be sure to explain why this approach was chosen and how it enhances the overall process of discovery.

Problem Blindness It is almost a given that you will encounter problems when collecting or generating your data, or, gaps will exist in existing data or archival materials. Do not ignore these problems or pretend they did not occur. Often, documenting how you overcame obstacles can form an interesting part of the methodology. It demonstrates to the reader that you can provide a cogent rationale for the decisions you made to minimize the impact of any problems that arose.

Literature Review Just as the literature review section of your paper provides an overview of sources you have examined while researching a particular topic, the methodology section should cite any sources that informed your choice and application of a particular method [i.e., the choice of a survey should include any citations to the works you used to help construct the survey].

It’s More than Sources of Information! A description of a research study's method should not be confused with a description of the sources of information. Such a list of sources is useful in and of itself, especially if it is accompanied by an explanation about the selection and use of the sources. The description of the project's methodology complements a list of sources in that it sets forth the organization and interpretation of information emanating from those sources.

Azevedo, L.F. et al. "How to Write a Scientific Paper: Writing the Methods Section." Revista Portuguesa de Pneumologia 17 (2011): 232-238; Blair Lorrie. “Choosing a Methodology.” In Writing a Graduate Thesis or Dissertation , Teaching Writing Series. (Rotterdam: Sense Publishers 2016), pp. 49-72; Butin, Dan W. The Education Dissertation A Guide for Practitioner Scholars . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin, 2010; Carter, Susan. Structuring Your Research Thesis . New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012; Kallet, Richard H. “How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper.” Respiratory Care 49 (October 2004):1229-1232; Lunenburg, Frederick C. Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation: Tips and Strategies for Students in the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008. Methods Section. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Rudestam, Kjell Erik and Rae R. Newton. “The Method Chapter: Describing Your Research Plan.” In Surviving Your Dissertation: A Comprehensive Guide to Content and Process . (Thousand Oaks, Sage Publications, 2015), pp. 87-115; What is Interpretive Research. Institute of Public and International Affairs, University of Utah; Writing the Experimental Report: Methods, Results, and Discussion. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Methods and Materials. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College.

Writing Tip

Statistical Designs and Tests? Do Not Fear Them!

Don't avoid using a quantitative approach to analyzing your research problem just because you fear the idea of applying statistical designs and tests. A qualitative approach, such as conducting interviews or content analysis of archival texts, can yield exciting new insights about a research problem, but it should not be undertaken simply because you have a disdain for running a simple regression. A well designed quantitative research study can often be accomplished in very clear and direct ways, whereas, a similar study of a qualitative nature usually requires considerable time to analyze large volumes of data and a tremendous burden to create new paths for analysis where previously no path associated with your research problem had existed.

To locate data and statistics, GO HERE .

Another Writing Tip

Knowing the Relationship Between Theories and Methods

There can be multiple meaning associated with the term "theories" and the term "methods" in social sciences research. A helpful way to delineate between them is to understand "theories" as representing different ways of characterizing the social world when you research it and "methods" as representing different ways of generating and analyzing data about that social world. Framed in this way, all empirical social sciences research involves theories and methods, whether they are stated explicitly or not. However, while theories and methods are often related, it is important that, as a researcher, you deliberately separate them in order to avoid your theories playing a disproportionate role in shaping what outcomes your chosen methods produce.

Introspectively engage in an ongoing dialectic between the application of theories and methods to help enable you to use the outcomes from your methods to interrogate and develop new theories, or ways of framing conceptually the research problem. This is how scholarship grows and branches out into new intellectual territory.

Reynolds, R. Larry. Ways of Knowing. Alternative Microeconomics . Part 1, Chapter 3. Boise State University; The Theory-Method Relationship. S-Cool Revision. United Kingdom.

Yet Another Writing Tip

Methods and the Methodology

Do not confuse the terms "methods" and "methodology." As Schneider notes, a method refers to the technical steps taken to do research . Descriptions of methods usually include defining and stating why you have chosen specific techniques to investigate a research problem, followed by an outline of the procedures you used to systematically select, gather, and process the data [remember to always save the interpretation of data for the discussion section of your paper].

The methodology refers to a discussion of the underlying reasoning why particular methods were used . This discussion includes describing the theoretical concepts that inform the choice of methods to be applied, placing the choice of methods within the more general nature of academic work, and reviewing its relevance to examining the research problem. The methodology section also includes a thorough review of the methods other scholars have used to study the topic.

Bryman, Alan. "Of Methods and Methodology." Qualitative Research in Organizations and Management: An International Journal 3 (2008): 159-168; Schneider, Florian. “What's in a Methodology: The Difference between Method, Methodology, and Theory…and How to Get the Balance Right?” PoliticsEastAsia.com. Chinese Department, University of Leiden, Netherlands.

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How to Write a Conclusion for a Research Paper: Effective Tips and Strategies in 2024

by Imed Bouchrika, Phd

Co-Founder and Chief Data Scientist

Writing a research paper is both deemed an essential and dreaded part of academics. The writing process can actually be a fruitful experience, although many students see it as a daunting task. A research paper has lots of pivotal facets, each calling for knowledge-gathering, understanding the subject, and effort to put the pieces together. However, in this article, we will only pay attention to the conclusion and how to construct one that leaves a lasting impact on the readers.

According to Faryadi (2012), writing a conclusion is as difficult as writing the introduction; meanwhile, Holewa states that writing the conclusion is the hardest part of the writing process. As the last part of a research paper format , the conclusion is the point where the writer has already exhausted his or her intellectual resources. Conclusion, however, is what readers often remember the most and, therefore, must also be the best part of your written research (Holewa, 2004).

Unlike what others may have come to believe, the conclusion is not a mere summarization of an article, an essay, or a research paper. Simply put, the conclusion goes beyond restating the introduction and body of your research. In this article, we walk you through the process of formulating an effective research paper conclusion by understanding its purpose, the strategies you can use, and what you should avoid doing when writing a conclusion in a research paper.

What Is a Research Paper Conclusion?

So, what is conclusion in research? The conclusion is the part of the research paper that brings everything together in a logical manner. As the last part of a research paper, a conclusion provides a clear interpretation of the results of your research in a way that stresses the significance of your study. A conclusion must be more extensive and encompassing compared to a particular finding and, in the same vein, various findings may be integrated into a single conclusion (Baron, 2008).

Unlike the introduction where you open a dialogue with your readers about the problem and/or present research questions , arguments, and what knowledge gaps you aim to bridge, the conclusion provides a clear and concise picture of how you are able to accomplish all of these. The conclusion is where you describe the consequences of your arguments by justifying to your readers why your arguments matter (Hamilton College, 2014).

Derntl (2014) also describes conclusion as the counterpart of the introduction. Using the Hourglass Model (Swales, 1993) as a visual reference, Derntl describes conclusion as the part of the research paper that leads the readers from narrow or specific results to broader and more general conclusion.

While it is deeply interlinked with how to make conclusion in research, conclusion writing is another craft on its own. Good conclusion writing oftentimes has a mix of logical presentation and a good deal of rhetoric. So, one of the best ways to actually become better at it is to emulate the way your favorite researchers write or how conclusions are presented in similar papers.

Why Is Conclusion Necessary in a Research Paper?

Just like the final chord in a song, a conclusion is necessary to make a research paper complete and well done (CRLS Research Guide, 2018). While your introduction sets the expectations and the body of your research paper presents your methodology and detailed analyses, the conclusion is where you demonstrate the significance of your findings, insights, and observations. The conclusion creates a bigger picture of your research work that helps your readers view the subject of your study as a whole and in a new light.

As the author of your research paper, the conclusion plays an important role in giving you the opportunity to have the final word, create a good impression, and end your paper on a positive note. In order to achieve this, your conclusion must possess the key characteristics of an effective concluding section. And when someone asks what are the characteristics of research , an effective concluding section is one of the most important characteristics of a good research work.

In terms of length, the conclusions of professional empirical research articles usually have five to six paragraphs, while student/novice papers typically have two- to three-paragraph conclusions (Powner, 2017).

Effective Strategies in Writing a Conclusion

Your research paper conclusion is the opposite of the introduction not just in placement but also in structure. The introduction generally follows the inverted triangle format with the general statement element on top, narrowing down to the main point of research. The conclusion, on the other hand, follows the inverted introduction structure by opening with the highlights of your research and ending with a general but relevant statement that encourages readers to think, as well as challenges them to take action based on the new pieces of knowledge they have gained from your research paper (Purdue Global Campus, n.d.).

Several studies that analyzed how conclusions are framed (see for instance Bunton, 2005 and Lewkowicz, 2012) found that most authors either restate and consolidate a research problem or synthesize the research work. When consolidating the problem, authors either present the solutions, products, or results of a research problem and/or assumptions (Soler-Monreal, C. 2019). Nonetheless, in general, here are general tips on how to write conclusion in research better:

Synthesizing instead of summarizing

As mentioned previously, the research conclusion is not a summary of your research paper. While a summary can be an element of this section, the conclusion goes beyond simply restating your ideas and analyses. Instead of repeating what you already said in the abstract, introduction, and body of your study, demonstrate to your reader how the essential elements in your research paper coherently fit together (The Writing Center UNC, n.d.).

Echoing the introduction

This approach to writing the conclusion brings your reader to a full circle by using or referring to the same elements you used in your introduction or by drawing parallels. An example of this would be retelling a scenario you described in your introduction, but this time while creating a new understanding of the subject based on the results of your study that further reinforces your arguments and/or hypotheses.

Redirecting the reader

Your conclusion plays the role of being your readers’ bridge back to the real world after welcoming them into your study through your introduction and immersing them in your methodologies, analyses, and results. Redirecting your readers is a way of challenging them to take the information they get from your research study and apply them in real life. This strategy can also be approached by proposing a course of action for further studies or solutions to an existing issue.

Challenging your own conclusion

Also called the “so what" game, this strategy requires challenging your own ideas by asking yourself “So what?" while you are in the process of developing your conclusion. Once you are done putting your conclusion to paper, go through it with someone who will challenge what you wrote (The Writing Center UNC, n.d.). You can ask a friend to read your conclusion with you and have them ask “So what?" after every statement. This strategy can help you find loopholes in your conclusion and refine it in the process.

Addressing limitations

This strategy implores you, the researcher, to identify the weak points in your research paper, which include the aspects where your argument is lacking, or if there are instances where your conclusion might be incorrect. This strategy is useful in writing a conclusion of research for scientific papers as well as experiments (Writing Tutorial Services, Indiana University, n.d.).

Demonstrating ideas to create a new picture or meaning

All relevant data must be interpreted in appropriate depth. Explain how the methodologies or mechanisms used as well as your observations that help arrive at your study’s results. There are times when your study may not yield the results you expected. In cases such as this, explain to your readers why this may have happened. If the results are in line with your expectations, proceed to describe your theory supported by your evidence (Caprette, 1995).

Posing questions

Research studies are motivated by questions. Posing research questions , either to your readers or in general, may help your readers gain a new perspective on the topic, which they may not have held before reading your conclusion. It may also bring your main points together to create or develop a new idea from your research study.

What to Avoid Including in Your Conclusion

Coming up with an effective conclusion includes avoiding approaches that can hinder you from developing a compelling concluding section of your research paper. Here are some of the strategies to avoid when you are writing your research paper conclusion:

Generic and obvious opening phrases

Do not start your conclusion with generic phrases, such as “In conclusion," “In summary," “In closing," etc. While this may be an effective transition during an oral presentation, it does not work the same way on actual paper where your readers can tell exactly which part of your paper they are reading.

Adding new information

The conclusion part of your research paper should have room for any information relevant to your study but is not referenced anywhere else in your research paper. All significant information should be in the body. Conclusion is not the appropriate section to introduce new information as it is where you are supposed to communicate with your readers the value of your research study.

Long and elaborate discussion

Your research paper’s conclusion must be concise and straightforward. Avoid dwelling on descriptions and interpretations that should have been in the body of your paper, including discussing methodologies and results of your studies in detail. While a brief summary of your study is included in your conclusion, the focus should be more about the insights, evaluations, implications, etc., drawn from your study (Sacred Heart University Library, n.d.).

Apologizing

As you reach the concluding part of your research paper, you may have doubts regarding your research paper. You may question yourself if you have done enough work and may feel compelled to apologize. Do not undermine your authority over your research by expressing doubts regarding your approach and apologizing for not being able to include other methodologies that you may deem to be better than yours. You are aware that you have immersed yourself in your research and have covered all the bases to produce a sound and well-backed research study.

Appealing to your readers’ emotions

Your conclusion, just like the rest of your research paper, is meant to be analytical, not emotional. Avoid making sentimental statements to appeal to your readers’ emotions as this has the tendency to fall out of character with what should be a logical and scientific research study (The Writing Center UNC, n.d.).

Picking the Right Strategy to Use in Writing Your Paper’s Conclusion

• Baron, M. (2008). Guidelines for Writing Research Proposals and Dissertations . Vermillion, SD: University of South Dakota. Academia.edu
• CRLS (2018, April). Writing a conclusion tip sheet 18. CRLS Research Guide . Cambridge, MA: Cambridge Rindge and Latin School .
• Caprette, D. R. (1995, August 25). Writing research papers . Houston, TX: Rice University .
• Derntl, M. (2014). Basics of research paper writing and publishing. International Journal of Technology Enhanced Learning, 6 (2), 105. https://doi.org/10.1504/ijtel.2014.066856
• Faryadi, Q. (2012). How to write your PhD proposal: A step-by-step guide. American International Journal of Contemporary Research, 2  (4), 111-115. https://bit.ly/30IGRcV
• Holewa, R. (2004, February 19). Strategies for writing a conclusion . St. Cloud, MN: St. Cloud State University and Literacy Education Online .
• Nesbitt-Johnston Writing Center. (2004, October 4). Conclusions . Clinton, NY: Hamilton College .
• Peter, V. J. (2017). Unit 3 Writing a research paper . New Delhi, India: IGNOU The People’s University .
• Peter, V. J. (2017). Unit 4 Presentation of research paper . New Delhi, India:  IGNOU The People’s University .
• Powner, L.C. (2017). Writing up your Research. In Empirical Research and Writing: A Political Science Student’s Practical Guide (pp. 206-221). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781483395906
• Purdue OWL. (n.d.). Conclusions . Purdue Online Writing Lab . Indianapolis, IN: Purdue University .
• Purdue OWL. (n.d.). Writing a research paper . Purdue Online Writing Lab . Indianapolis, IN: Purdue University .
• Purdue University. (n.d.). Writing Process . Indianapolis, IN: Purdue Global Campus .
• Sacred Heart University Library. (2020, January 28). Organizing academic research papers: 9. The conclusion. Research Guides at Sacred Heart University . Fairfield, CT:  Sacred Heart University .
• Sherlock, K. J. (2016, January 16). Three styles of conclusion . El Cajon, CA: Grossmont College .
• Soler-Monreal, C. 2019. Rhetorical strategies in PhD conclusions of computer science. Spanish Journal of Applied Linguistics , 32 (1), 356-384. https://doi.org/10.1075/resla.16034.sol
• Walden University (n.d.). Writing a paper: Conclusions.  Academic Guides . Minneapolis, MN:  Walden University .
• The Writing Center (n.d.).  Conclusions . Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill .
• Writing Tutorial Services (n.d.). Writing Conclusions . Bloomington, IN: Indiana University .

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How To Write The Methodology Chapter

A plain-language explainer – with practical examples.

Overview: The Methodology Chapter

• The purpose  of the methodology chapter
• Why you need to craft this chapter (really) well
• How to write and structure the chapter
• Methodology chapter example
• Essential takeaways

What (exactly) is the methodology chapter?

The methodology chapter is where you outline the philosophical foundations of your research and detail the specific methodological choices you’ve made. In other words, the purpose of this chapter is to explain exactly how you designed your study and, just as importantly, why you made those choices.

Your methodology chapter should comprehensively describe and justify all the methodological decisions involved in your study. For instance, the research approach you took (qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods), your sampling strategy (who you collected data from), how you gathered your data, and how you analysed it. If that sounds a bit daunting, don’t worry – we’ll walk you through all these methodological aspects in this post .

Why is the methodology chapter important?

The methodology chapter plays two important roles in your dissertation or thesis:

Firstly, it demonstrates your understanding of research theory, which is what earns you marks. A flawed research design or methodology would mean flawed results. So, this chapter is vital as it allows you to show the marker that you know what you’re doing and that your results are credible .

Secondly, the methodology chapter is what helps to make your study replicable. In other words, it allows other researchers to undertake your study using the same methodological approach, and compare their findings to yours. This is very important within academic research, as each study builds on previous studies.

The methodology chapter is also important in that it allows you to identify and discuss any methodological issues or problems you encountered (i.e., research limitations ), and to explain how you mitigated the impacts of these.

Now, it’s important to understand that every research project has its limitations , so it’s important to acknowledge these openly and highlight your study’s value despite its limitations . Doing so demonstrates your understanding of research design, which will earn you marks. 

Need a helping hand?

How to write up the methodology chapter

Before you start writing, it’s always a good idea to draw up a rough outline to guide your writing. Don’t just start writing without knowing what you’ll discuss where. If you do, you’ll likely end up with a disjointed, ill-flowing narrative . You’ll then waste a lot of time rewriting in an attempt to try to stitch all the pieces together. Do yourself a favour and start with the end in mind .

Section 1 – Introduction

As with all chapters in your dissertation or thesis, the methodology chapter should have a brief introduction. In this section, you should remind your readers what the focus of your study is, especially the research aims . As we’ve discussed many times on the blog, your methodology needs to align with your research aims, objectives and research questions. Therefore, it’s useful to frontload this component to remind the reader (and yourself!) what you’re trying to achieve.

Section 2 – The Methodology

The next section of your chapter is where you’ll present the actual methodology. In this section, you need to detail and justify the key methodological choices you’ve made in a logical, intuitive fashion. Importantly, this is the heart of your methodology chapter, so you need to get specific – don’t hold back on the details here. This is not one of those “less is more” situations.

Let’s take a look at the most common components you’ll likely need to cover.

Methodological Choice #1 – Research Philosophy

Research philosophy refers to the underlying beliefs (i.e., the worldview) regarding how data about a phenomenon should be gathered , analysed and used . The research philosophy will serve as the core of your study and underpin all of the other research design choices, so it’s critically important that you understand which philosophy you’ll adopt and why you made that choice. If you’re not clear on this, take the time to get clarity before you make any further methodological choices.

While several research philosophies exist, two commonly adopted ones are positivism and interpretivism . These two sit roughly on opposite sides of the research philosophy spectrum.

Positivism states that the researcher can observe reality objectively and that there is only one reality, which exists independently of the observer. As a consequence, it is quite commonly the underlying research philosophy in quantitative studies and is oftentimes the assumed philosophy in the physical sciences.

Contrasted with this, interpretivism , which is often the underlying research philosophy in qualitative studies, assumes that the researcher performs a role in observing the world around them and that reality is unique to each observer . In other words, reality is observed subjectively .

These are just two philosophies (there are many more), but they demonstrate significantly different approaches to research and have a significant impact on all the methodological choices. Therefore, it’s vital that you clearly outline and justify your research philosophy at the beginning of your methodology chapter, as it sets the scene for everything that follows.

The next thing you would typically discuss in your methodology section is the research type. The starting point for this is to indicate whether the research you conducted is inductive or deductive .

Inductive research takes a bottom-up approach , where the researcher begins with specific observations or data and then draws general conclusions or theories from those observations. Therefore these studies tend to be exploratory in terms of approach.

Conversely , d eductive research takes a top-down approach , where the researcher starts with a theory or hypothesis and then tests it using specific observations or data. Therefore these studies tend to be confirmatory in approach.

Related to this, you’ll need to indicate whether your study adopts a qualitative, quantitative or mixed  approach. As we’ve mentioned, there’s a strong link between this choice and your research philosophy, so make sure that your choices are tightly aligned . When you write this section up, remember to clearly justify your choices, as they form the foundation of your study.

Methodological Choice #3 – Research Strategy

Next, you’ll need to discuss your research strategy (also referred to as a research design ). This methodological choice refers to the broader strategy in terms of how you’ll conduct your research, based on the aims of your study.

Several research strategies exist, including experimental , case studies , ethnography , grounded theory, action research , and phenomenology . Let’s take a look at two of these, experimental and ethnographic, to see how they contrast.

Experimental research makes use of the scientific method , where one group is the control group (in which no variables are manipulated ) and another is the experimental group (in which a specific variable is manipulated). This type of research is undertaken under strict conditions in a controlled, artificial environment (e.g., a laboratory). By having firm control over the environment, experimental research typically allows the researcher to establish causation between variables. Therefore, it can be a good choice if you have research aims that involve identifying causal relationships.

Ethnographic research , on the other hand, involves observing and capturing the experiences and perceptions of participants in their natural environment (for example, at home or in the office). In other words, in an uncontrolled environment.  Naturally, this means that this research strategy would be far less suitable if your research aims involve identifying causation, but it would be very valuable if you’re looking to explore and examine a group culture, for example.

The next thing you’ll need to detail in your methodology chapter is the time horizon. There are two options here: cross-sectional and longitudinal . In other words, whether the data for your study were all collected at one point in time (cross-sectional) or at multiple points in time (longitudinal).

The choice you make here depends again on your research aims, objectives and research questions. If, for example, you aim to assess how a specific group of people’s perspectives regarding a topic change over time , you’d likely adopt a longitudinal time horizon.

Another important factor to consider is simply whether you have the time necessary to adopt a longitudinal approach (which could involve collecting data over multiple months or even years). Oftentimes, the time pressures of your degree program will force your hand into adopting a cross-sectional time horizon, so keep this in mind.

Methodological Choice #5 – Sampling Strategy

Next, you’ll need to discuss your sampling strategy . There are two main categories of sampling, probability and non-probability sampling.

Probability sampling involves a random (and therefore representative) selection of participants from a population, whereas non-probability sampling entails selecting participants in a non-random  (and therefore non-representative) manner. For example, selecting participants based on ease of access (this is called a convenience sample).

The right sampling approach depends largely on what you’re trying to achieve in your study. Specifically, whether you trying to develop findings that are generalisable to a population or not. Practicalities and resource constraints also play a large role here, as it can oftentimes be challenging to gain access to a truly random sample. In the video below, we explore some of the most common sampling strategies. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fSmedyVv-Us Video can't be loaded because JavaScript is disabled: Sampling Methods 101: Probability & Non-Probability Sampling Explained Simply (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fSmedyVv-Us) Methodological Choice #6 – Data Collection Method

Next up, you’ll need to explain how you’ll go about collecting the necessary data for your study. Your data collection method (or methods) will depend on the type of data that you plan to collect – in other words, qualitative or quantitative data.

Typically, quantitative research relies on surveys , data generated by lab equipment, analytics software or existing datasets. Qualitative research, on the other hand, often makes use of collection methods such as interviews , focus groups , participant observations, and ethnography.

So, as you can see, there is a tight link between this section and the design choices you outlined in earlier sections. Strong alignment between these sections, as well as your research aims and questions is therefore very important.

Methodological Choice #7 – Data Analysis Methods/Techniques

The final major methodological choice that you need to address is that of analysis techniques . In other words, how you’ll go about analysing your date once you’ve collected it. Here it’s important to be very specific about your analysis methods and/or techniques – don’t leave any room for interpretation. Also, as with all choices in this chapter, you need to justify each choice you make.

With the key methodological choices outlined and justified, the next step is to discuss the limitations of your design. No research methodology is perfect – there will always be trade-offs between the “ideal” methodology and what’s practical and viable, given your constraints. Therefore, this section of your methodology chapter is where you’ll discuss the trade-offs you had to make, and why these were justified given the context.

Methodological limitations can vary greatly from study to study, ranging from common issues such as time and budget constraints to issues of sample or selection bias . For example, you may find that you didn’t manage to draw in enough respondents to achieve the desired sample size (and therefore, statistically significant results), or your sample may be skewed heavily towards a certain demographic, thereby negatively impacting representativeness .

In this section, it’s important to be critical of the shortcomings of your study. There’s no use trying to hide them (your marker will be aware of them regardless). By being critical, you’ll demonstrate to your marker that you have a strong understanding of research theory, so don’t be shy here. At the same time, don’t beat your study to death . State the limitations, why these were justified, how you mitigated their impacts to the best degree possible, and how your study still provides value despite these limitations .

Section 4 – Concluding Summary

Finally, it’s time to wrap up the methodology chapter with a brief concluding summary. In this section, you’ll want to concisely summarise what you’ve presented in the chapter. Here, it can be a good idea to use a figure to summarise the key decisions, especially if your university recommends using a specific model (for example, Saunders’ Research Onion ).

Methodology Chapter Example

Wrapping up.

Also, remember the golden rule of the methodology chapter – justify every choice ! Make sure that you clearly explain the “why” for every “what”, and reference credible methodology textbooks or academic sources to back up your justifications.

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In Vivo Coding 101: Full Explainer With Examples

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Process Coding 101: Full Explainer With Examples

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Qualitative Coding 101: Inductive, Deductive & Hybrid Coding

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Home » Dissertation Methodology – Structure, Example and Writing Guide

Dissertation Methodology – Structure, Example and Writing Guide

• Table of Contents

Dissertation Methodology

In any research, the methodology chapter is one of the key components of your dissertation. It provides a detailed description of the methods you used to conduct your research and helps readers understand how you obtained your data and how you plan to analyze it. This section is crucial for replicating the study and validating its results.

Here are the basic elements that are typically included in a dissertation methodology:

• Introduction : This section should explain the importance and goals of your research .
• Research Design : Outline your research approach and why it’s appropriate for your study. You might be conducting an experimental research, a qualitative research, a quantitative research, or a mixed-methods research.
• Data Collection : This section should detail the methods you used to collect your data. Did you use surveys, interviews, observations, etc.? Why did you choose these methods? You should also include who your participants were, how you recruited them, and any ethical considerations.
• Data Analysis : Explain how you intend to analyze the data you collected. This could include statistical analysis, thematic analysis, content analysis, etc., depending on the nature of your study.
• Reliability and Validity : Discuss how you’ve ensured the reliability and validity of your study. For instance, you could discuss measures taken to reduce bias, how you ensured that your measures accurately capture what they were intended to, or how you will handle any limitations in your study.
• Ethical Considerations : This is where you state how you have considered ethical issues related to your research, how you have protected the participants’ rights, and how you have complied with the relevant ethical guidelines.
• Limitations : Acknowledge any limitations of your methodology, including any biases and constraints that might have affected your study.
• Summary : Recap the key points of your methodology chapter, highlighting the overall approach and rationalization of your research.

Types of Dissertation Methodology

The type of methodology you choose for your dissertation will depend on the nature of your research question and the field you’re working in. Here are some of the most common types of methodologies used in dissertations:

Experimental Research

This involves creating an experiment that will test your hypothesis. You’ll need to design an experiment, manipulate variables, collect data, and analyze that data to draw conclusions. This is commonly used in fields like psychology, biology, and physics.

Survey Research

This type of research involves gathering data from a large number of participants using tools like questionnaires or surveys. It can be used to collect a large amount of data and is often used in fields like sociology, marketing, and public health.

Qualitative Research

This type of research is used to explore complex phenomena that can’t be easily quantified. Methods include interviews, focus groups, and observations. This methodology is common in fields like anthropology, sociology, and education.

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research uses numerical data to answer research questions. This can include statistical, mathematical, or computational techniques. It’s common in fields like economics, psychology, and health sciences.

Case Study Research

This type of research involves in-depth investigation of a particular case, such as an individual, group, or event. This methodology is often used in psychology, social sciences, and business.

Mixed Methods Research

This combines qualitative and quantitative research methods in a single study. It’s used to answer more complex research questions and is becoming more popular in fields like social sciences, health sciences, and education.

Action Research

This type of research involves taking action and then reflecting upon the results. This cycle of action-reflection-action continues throughout the study. It’s often used in fields like education and organizational development.

Longitudinal Research

This type of research involves studying the same group of individuals over an extended period of time. This could involve surveys, observations, or experiments. It’s common in fields like psychology, sociology, and medicine.

Ethnographic Research

This type of research involves the in-depth study of people and cultures. Researchers immerse themselves in the culture they’re studying to collect data. This is often used in fields like anthropology and social sciences.

Structure of Dissertation Methodology

The structure of a dissertation methodology can vary depending on your field of study, the nature of your research, and the guidelines of your institution. However, a standard structure typically includes the following elements:

• Introduction : Briefly introduce your overall approach to the research. Explain what you plan to explore and why it’s important.
• Research Design/Approach : Describe your overall research design. This can be qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods. Explain the rationale behind your chosen design and why it is suitable for your research questions or hypotheses.
• Data Collection Methods : Detail the methods you used to collect your data. You should include what type of data you collected, how you collected it, and why you chose this method. If relevant, you can also include information about your sample population, such as how many people participated, how they were chosen, and any relevant demographic information.
• Data Analysis Methods : Explain how you plan to analyze your collected data. This will depend on the nature of your data. For example, if you collected quantitative data, you might discuss statistical analysis techniques. If you collected qualitative data, you might discuss coding strategies, thematic analysis, or narrative analysis.
• Reliability and Validity : Discuss how you’ve ensured the reliability and validity of your research. This might include steps you took to reduce bias or increase the accuracy of your measurements.
• Ethical Considerations : If relevant, discuss any ethical issues associated with your research. This might include how you obtained informed consent from participants, how you ensured participants’ privacy and confidentiality, or any potential conflicts of interest.
• Limitations : Acknowledge any limitations in your research methodology. This could include potential sources of bias, difficulties with data collection, or limitations in your analysis methods.
• Summary/Conclusion : Briefly summarize the key points of your methodology, emphasizing how it helps answer your research questions or hypotheses.

How to Write Dissertation Methodology

Writing a dissertation methodology requires you to be clear and precise about the way you’ve carried out your research. It’s an opportunity to convince your readers of the appropriateness and reliability of your approach to your research question. Here is a basic guideline on how to write your methodology section:

1. Introduction

Start your methodology section by restating your research question(s) or objective(s). This ensures your methodology directly ties into the aim of your research.

2. Approach

Identify your overall approach: qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods. Explain why you have chosen this approach.

• Qualitative methods are typically used for exploratory research and involve collecting non-numerical data. This might involve interviews, observations, or analysis of texts.
• Quantitative methods are used for research that relies on numerical data. This might involve surveys, experiments, or statistical analysis.
• Mixed methods use a combination of both qualitative and quantitative research methods.

3. Research Design

Describe the overall design of your research. This could involve explaining the type of study (e.g., case study, ethnography, experimental research, etc.), how you’ve defined and measured your variables, and any control measures you’ve implemented.

4. Data Collection

Explain in detail how you collected your data.

• If you’ve used qualitative methods, you might detail how you selected participants for interviews or focus groups, how you conducted observations, or how you analyzed existing texts.
• If you’ve used quantitative methods, you might detail how you designed your survey or experiment, how you collected responses, and how you ensured your data is reliable and valid.

5. Data Analysis

Describe how you analyzed your data.

• If you’re doing qualitative research, this might involve thematic analysis, discourse analysis, or grounded theory.
• If you’re doing quantitative research, you might be conducting statistical tests, regression analysis, or factor analysis.

Discuss any ethical issues related to your research. This might involve explaining how you obtained informed consent, how you’re protecting participants’ privacy, or how you’re managing any potential harms to participants.

7. Reliability and Validity

Discuss the steps you’ve taken to ensure the reliability and validity of your data.

• Reliability refers to the consistency of your measurements, and you might discuss how you’ve piloted your instruments or used standardized measures.
• Validity refers to the accuracy of your measurements, and you might discuss how you’ve ensured your measures reflect the concepts they’re supposed to measure.

8. Limitations

Every study has its limitations. Discuss the potential weaknesses of your chosen methods and explain any obstacles you faced in your research.

9. Conclusion

Summarize the key points of your methodology, emphasizing how it helps to address your research question or objective.

Example of Dissertation Methodology

An Example of Dissertation Methodology is as follows:

Chapter 3: Methodology

• Introduction

This chapter details the methodology adopted in this research. The study aimed to explore the relationship between stress and productivity in the workplace. A mixed-methods research design was used to collect and analyze data.

Research Design

This study adopted a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative surveys with qualitative interviews to provide a comprehensive understanding of the research problem. The rationale for this approach is that while quantitative data can provide a broad overview of the relationships between variables, qualitative data can provide deeper insights into the nuances of these relationships.

Data Collection Methods

Quantitative Data Collection : An online self-report questionnaire was used to collect data from participants. The questionnaire consisted of two standardized scales: the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) to measure stress levels and the Individual Work Productivity Questionnaire (IWPQ) to measure productivity. The sample consisted of 200 office workers randomly selected from various companies in the city.

Qualitative Data Collection : Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 20 participants chosen from the initial sample. The interview guide included questions about participants’ experiences with stress and how they perceived its impact on their productivity.

Data Analysis Methods

Quantitative Data Analysis : Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze the survey data. Pearson’s correlation was used to examine the relationship between stress and productivity.

Qualitative Data Analysis : Interviews were transcribed and subjected to thematic analysis using NVivo software. This process allowed for identifying and analyzing patterns and themes regarding the impact of stress on productivity.

Reliability and Validity

To ensure reliability and validity, standardized measures with good psychometric properties were used. In qualitative data analysis, triangulation was employed by having two researchers independently analyze the data and then compare findings.

Ethical Considerations

All participants provided informed consent prior to their involvement in the study. They were informed about the purpose of the study, their rights as participants, and the confidentiality of their responses.

Limitations

The main limitation of this study is its reliance on self-report measures, which can be subject to biases such as social desirability bias. Moreover, the sample was drawn from a single city, which may limit the generalizability of the findings.

Where to Write Dissertation Methodology

In a dissertation or thesis, the Methodology section usually follows the Literature Review. This placement allows the Methodology to build upon the theoretical framework and existing research outlined in the Literature Review, and precedes the Results or Findings section. Here’s a basic outline of how most dissertations are structured:

• Acknowledgements
• Literature Review (or it may be interspersed throughout the dissertation)
• Methodology
• Results/Findings
• References/Bibliography

In the Methodology chapter, you will discuss the research design, data collection methods, data analysis methods, and any ethical considerations pertaining to your study. This allows your readers to understand how your research was conducted and how you arrived at your results.

Advantages of Dissertation Methodology

The dissertation methodology section plays an important role in a dissertation for several reasons. Here are some of the advantages of having a well-crafted methodology section in your dissertation:

• Clarifies Your Research Approach : The methodology section explains how you plan to tackle your research question, providing a clear plan for data collection and analysis.
• Enables Replication : A detailed methodology allows other researchers to replicate your study. Replication is an important aspect of scientific research because it provides validation of the study’s results.
• Demonstrates Rigor : A well-written methodology shows that you’ve thought critically about your research methods and have chosen the most appropriate ones for your research question. This adds credibility to your study.
• Enhances Transparency : Detailing your methods allows readers to understand the steps you took in your research. This increases the transparency of your study and allows readers to evaluate potential biases or limitations.
• Helps in Addressing Research Limitations : In your methodology section, you can acknowledge and explain the limitations of your research. This is important as it shows you understand that no research method is perfect and there are always potential weaknesses.
• Facilitates Peer Review : A detailed methodology helps peer reviewers assess the soundness of your research design. This is an important part of the publication process if you aim to publish your dissertation in a peer-reviewed journal.
• Establishes the Validity and Reliability : Your methodology section should also include a discussion of the steps you took to ensure the validity and reliability of your measurements, which is crucial for establishing the overall quality of your research.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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What is Research Methodology? Definition, Types, and Examples

Research methodology 1,2 is a structured and scientific approach used to collect, analyze, and interpret quantitative or qualitative data to answer research questions or test hypotheses. A research methodology is like a plan for carrying out research and helps keep researchers on track by limiting the scope of the research. Several aspects must be considered before selecting an appropriate research methodology, such as research limitations and ethical concerns that may affect your research.

The research methodology section in a scientific paper describes the different methodological choices made, such as the data collection and analysis methods, and why these choices were selected. The reasons should explain why the methods chosen are the most appropriate to answer the research question. A good research methodology also helps ensure the reliability and validity of the research findings. There are three types of research methodology—quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-method, which can be chosen based on the research objectives.

What is research methodology ?

A research methodology describes the techniques and procedures used to identify and analyze information regarding a specific research topic. It is a process by which researchers design their study so that they can achieve their objectives using the selected research instruments. It includes all the important aspects of research, including research design, data collection methods, data analysis methods, and the overall framework within which the research is conducted. While these points can help you understand what is research methodology, you also need to know why it is important to pick the right methodology.

Having a good research methodology in place has the following advantages: 3

• Helps other researchers who may want to replicate your research; the explanations will be of benefit to them.
• You can easily answer any questions about your research if they arise at a later stage.
• A research methodology provides a framework and guidelines for researchers to clearly define research questions, hypotheses, and objectives.
• It helps researchers identify the most appropriate research design, sampling technique, and data collection and analysis methods.
• A sound research methodology helps researchers ensure that their findings are valid and reliable and free from biases and errors.
• It also helps ensure that ethical guidelines are followed while conducting research.
• A good research methodology helps researchers in planning their research efficiently, by ensuring optimum usage of their time and resources.

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Types of research methodology.

There are three types of research methodology based on the type of research and the data required. 1

• Quantitative research methodology focuses on measuring and testing numerical data. This approach is good for reaching a large number of people in a short amount of time. This type of research helps in testing the causal relationships between variables, making predictions, and generalizing results to wider populations.
• Qualitative research methodology examines the opinions, behaviors, and experiences of people. It collects and analyzes words and textual data. This research methodology requires fewer participants but is still more time consuming because the time spent per participant is quite large. This method is used in exploratory research where the research problem being investigated is not clearly defined.
• Mixed-method research methodology uses the characteristics of both quantitative and qualitative research methodologies in the same study. This method allows researchers to validate their findings, verify if the results observed using both methods are complementary, and explain any unexpected results obtained from one method by using the other method.

What are the types of sampling designs in research methodology?

Sampling 4 is an important part of a research methodology and involves selecting a representative sample of the population to conduct the study, making statistical inferences about them, and estimating the characteristics of the whole population based on these inferences. There are two types of sampling designs in research methodology—probability and nonprobability.

• Probability sampling

In this type of sampling design, a sample is chosen from a larger population using some form of random selection, that is, every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. The different types of probability sampling are:

• Systematic —sample members are chosen at regular intervals. It requires selecting a starting point for the sample and sample size determination that can be repeated at regular intervals. This type of sampling method has a predefined range; hence, it is the least time consuming.
• Stratified —researchers divide the population into smaller groups that don’t overlap but represent the entire population. While sampling, these groups can be organized, and then a sample can be drawn from each group separately.
• Cluster —the population is divided into clusters based on demographic parameters like age, sex, location, etc.
• Convenience —selects participants who are most easily accessible to researchers due to geographical proximity, availability at a particular time, etc.
• Purposive —participants are selected at the researcher’s discretion. Researchers consider the purpose of the study and the understanding of the target audience.
• Snowball —already selected participants use their social networks to refer the researcher to other potential participants.
• Quota —while designing the study, the researchers decide how many people with which characteristics to include as participants. The characteristics help in choosing people most likely to provide insights into the subject.

What are data collection methods?

During research, data are collected using various methods depending on the research methodology being followed and the research methods being undertaken. Both qualitative and quantitative research have different data collection methods, as listed below.

Qualitative research 5

• One-on-one interviews: Helps the interviewers understand a respondent’s subjective opinion and experience pertaining to a specific topic or event
• Document study/literature review/record keeping: Researchers’ review of already existing written materials such as archives, annual reports, research articles, guidelines, policy documents, etc.
• Focus groups: Constructive discussions that usually include a small sample of about 6-10 people and a moderator, to understand the participants’ opinion on a given topic.
• Qualitative observation : Researchers collect data using their five senses (sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing).

Quantitative research 6

• Sampling: The most common type is probability sampling.
• Interviews: Commonly telephonic or done in-person.
• Observations: Structured observations are most commonly used in quantitative research. In this method, researchers make observations about specific behaviors of individuals in a structured setting.
• Document review: Reviewing existing research or documents to collect evidence for supporting the research.
• Surveys and questionnaires. Surveys can be administered both online and offline depending on the requirement and sample size.

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What are data analysis methods.

The data collected using the various methods for qualitative and quantitative research need to be analyzed to generate meaningful conclusions. These data analysis methods 7 also differ between quantitative and qualitative research.

Quantitative research involves a deductive method for data analysis where hypotheses are developed at the beginning of the research and precise measurement is required. The methods include statistical analysis applications to analyze numerical data and are grouped into two categories—descriptive and inferential.

Descriptive analysis is used to describe the basic features of different types of data to present it in a way that ensures the patterns become meaningful. The different types of descriptive analysis methods are:

• Measures of frequency (count, percent, frequency)
• Measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode)
• Measures of dispersion or variation (range, variance, standard deviation)
• Measure of position (percentile ranks, quartile ranks)

Inferential analysis is used to make predictions about a larger population based on the analysis of the data collected from a smaller population. This analysis is used to study the relationships between different variables. Some commonly used inferential data analysis methods are:

• Correlation: To understand the relationship between two or more variables.
• Cross-tabulation: Analyze the relationship between multiple variables.
• Regression analysis: Study the impact of independent variables on the dependent variable.
• Frequency tables: To understand the frequency of data.
• Analysis of variance: To test the degree to which two or more variables differ in an experiment.

Qualitative research involves an inductive method for data analysis where hypotheses are developed after data collection. The methods include:

• Content analysis: For analyzing documented information from text and images by determining the presence of certain words or concepts in texts.
• Narrative analysis: For analyzing content obtained from sources such as interviews, field observations, and surveys. The stories and opinions shared by people are used to answer research questions.
• Discourse analysis: For analyzing interactions with people considering the social context, that is, the lifestyle and environment, under which the interaction occurs.
• Grounded theory: Involves hypothesis creation by data collection and analysis to explain why a phenomenon occurred.
• Thematic analysis: To identify important themes or patterns in data and use these to address an issue.

How to choose a research methodology?

Here are some important factors to consider when choosing a research methodology: 8

• Research objectives, aims, and questions —these would help structure the research design.
• Review existing literature to identify any gaps in knowledge.
• Check the statistical requirements —if data-driven or statistical results are needed then quantitative research is the best. If the research questions can be answered based on people’s opinions and perceptions, then qualitative research is most suitable.
• Sample size —sample size can often determine the feasibility of a research methodology. For a large sample, less effort- and time-intensive methods are appropriate.
• Constraints —constraints of time, geography, and resources can help define the appropriate methodology.

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How to write a research methodology .

A research methodology should include the following components: 3,9

• Research design —should be selected based on the research question and the data required. Common research designs include experimental, quasi-experimental, correlational, descriptive, and exploratory.
• Research method —this can be quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method.
• Reason for selecting a specific methodology —explain why this methodology is the most suitable to answer your research problem.
• Research instruments —explain the research instruments you plan to use, mainly referring to the data collection methods such as interviews, surveys, etc. Here as well, a reason should be mentioned for selecting the particular instrument.
• Sampling —this involves selecting a representative subset of the population being studied.
• Data collection —involves gathering data using several data collection methods, such as surveys, interviews, etc.
• Data analysis —describe the data analysis methods you will use once you’ve collected the data.
• Research limitations —mention any limitations you foresee while conducting your research.
• Validity and reliability —validity helps identify the accuracy and truthfulness of the findings; reliability refers to the consistency and stability of the results over time and across different conditions.
• Ethical considerations —research should be conducted ethically. The considerations include obtaining consent from participants, maintaining confidentiality, and addressing conflicts of interest.

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Frequently Asked Questions

Q1. What are the key components of research methodology?

A1. A good research methodology has the following key components:

• Research design
• Data collection procedures
• Data analysis methods
• Ethical considerations

Q2. Why is ethical consideration important in research methodology?

A2. Ethical consideration is important in research methodology to ensure the readers of the reliability and validity of the study. Researchers must clearly mention the ethical norms and standards followed during the conduct of the research and also mention if the research has been cleared by any institutional board. The following 10 points are the important principles related to ethical considerations: 10

• Participants should not be subjected to harm.
• Respect for the dignity of participants should be prioritized.
• Full consent should be obtained from participants before the study.
• Participants’ privacy should be ensured.
• Confidentiality of the research data should be ensured.
• Anonymity of individuals and organizations participating in the research should be maintained.
• The aims and objectives of the research should not be exaggerated.
• Affiliations, sources of funding, and any possible conflicts of interest should be declared.
• Communication in relation to the research should be honest and transparent.
• Misleading information and biased representation of primary data findings should be avoided.

Q3. What is the difference between methodology and method?

A3. Research methodology is different from a research method, although both terms are often confused. Research methods are the tools used to gather data, while the research methodology provides a framework for how research is planned, conducted, and analyzed. The latter guides researchers in making decisions about the most appropriate methods for their research. Research methods refer to the specific techniques, procedures, and tools used by researchers to collect, analyze, and interpret data, for instance surveys, questionnaires, interviews, etc.

Research methodology is, thus, an integral part of a research study. It helps ensure that you stay on track to meet your research objectives and answer your research questions using the most appropriate data collection and analysis tools based on your research design.

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• Research methodologies. Pfeiffer Library website. Accessed August 15, 2023. https://library.tiffin.edu/researchmethodologies/whatareresearchmethodologies
• Types of research methodology. Eduvoice website. Accessed August 16, 2023. https://eduvoice.in/types-research-methodology/
• The basics of research methodology: A key to quality research. Voxco. Accessed August 16, 2023. https://www.voxco.com/blog/what-is-research-methodology/
• Sampling methods: Types with examples. QuestionPro website. Accessed August 16, 2023. https://www.questionpro.com/blog/types-of-sampling-for-social-research/
• What is qualitative research? Methods, types, approaches, examples. Researcher.Life blog. Accessed August 15, 2023. https://researcher.life/blog/article/what-is-qualitative-research-methods-types-examples/
• What is quantitative research? Definition, methods, types, and examples. Researcher.Life blog. Accessed August 15, 2023. https://researcher.life/blog/article/what-is-quantitative-research-types-and-examples/
• Data analysis in research: Types & methods. QuestionPro website. Accessed August 16, 2023. https://www.questionpro.com/blog/data-analysis-in-research/#Data_analysis_in_qualitative_research
• Factors to consider while choosing the right research methodology. PhD Monster website. Accessed August 17, 2023. https://www.phdmonster.com/factors-to-consider-while-choosing-the-right-research-methodology/
• What is research methodology? Research and writing guides. Accessed August 14, 2023. https://paperpile.com/g/what-is-research-methodology/
• Ethical considerations. Business research methodology website. Accessed August 17, 2023. https://research-methodology.net/research-methodology/ethical-considerations/

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Research Methodology-5: Writing The Conclusion

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Choosing the Right Research Methodology: A Guide for Researchers

• 3 minute read
• 53.2K views

Table of Contents

Choosing an optimal research methodology is crucial for the success of any research project. The methodology you select will determine the type of data you collect, how you collect it, and how you analyse it. Understanding the different types of research methods available along with their strengths and weaknesses, is thus imperative to make an informed decision.

Understanding different research methods:

There are several research methods available depending on the type of study you are conducting, i.e., whether it is laboratory-based, clinical, epidemiological, or survey based . Some common methodologies include qualitative research, quantitative research, experimental research, survey-based research, and action research. Each method can be opted for and modified, depending on the type of research hypotheses and objectives.

Qualitative vs quantitative research:

When deciding on a research methodology, one of the key factors to consider is whether your research will be qualitative or quantitative. Qualitative research is used to understand people’s experiences, concepts, thoughts, or behaviours . Quantitative research, on the contrary, deals with numbers, graphs, and charts, and is used to test or confirm hypotheses, assumptions, and theories. 

Qualitative research methodology:

Qualitative research is often used to examine issues that are not well understood, and to gather additional insights on these topics. Qualitative research methods include open-ended survey questions, observations of behaviours described through words, and reviews of literature that has explored similar theories and ideas. These methods are used to understand how language is used in real-world situations, identify common themes or overarching ideas, and describe and interpret various texts. Data analysis for qualitative research typically includes discourse analysis, thematic analysis, and textual analysis. 

Quantitative research methodology:

The goal of quantitative research is to test hypotheses, confirm assumptions and theories, and determine cause-and-effect relationships. Quantitative research methods include experiments, close-ended survey questions, and countable and numbered observations. Data analysis for quantitative research relies heavily on statistical methods.

Analysing qualitative vs quantitative data:

The methods used for data analysis also differ for qualitative and quantitative research. As mentioned earlier, quantitative data is generally analysed using statistical methods and does not leave much room for speculation. It is more structured and follows a predetermined plan. In quantitative research, the researcher starts with a hypothesis and uses statistical methods to test it. Contrarily, methods used for qualitative data analysis can identify patterns and themes within the data, rather than provide statistical measures of the data. It is an iterative process, where the researcher goes back and forth trying to gauge the larger implications of the data through different perspectives and revising the analysis if required.

When to use qualitative vs quantitative research:

The choice between qualitative and quantitative research will depend on the gap that the research project aims to address, and specific objectives of the study. If the goal is to establish facts about a subject or topic, quantitative research is an appropriate choice. However, if the goal is to understand people’s experiences or perspectives, qualitative research may be more suitable. 

Conclusion:

In conclusion, an understanding of the different research methods available, their applicability, advantages, and disadvantages is essential for making an informed decision on the best methodology for your project. If you need any additional guidance on which research methodology to opt for, you can head over to Elsevier Author Services (EAS). EAS experts will guide you throughout the process and help you choose the perfect methodology for your research goals.

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• How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates

How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates

Published on January 2, 2023 by Shona McCombes . Revised on September 11, 2023.

What is a literature review? A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research that you can later apply to your paper, thesis, or dissertation topic .

There are five key steps to writing a literature review:

• Search for relevant literature
• Evaluate sources
• Identify themes, debates, and gaps
• Outline the structure
• Write your literature review

A good literature review doesn’t just summarize sources—it analyzes, synthesizes , and critically evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.

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Table of contents

What is the purpose of a literature review, examples of literature reviews, step 1 – search for relevant literature, step 2 – evaluate and select sources, step 3 – identify themes, debates, and gaps, step 4 – outline your literature review’s structure, step 5 – write your literature review, free lecture slides, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions, introduction.

• Quick Run-through
• Step 1 & 2

When you write a thesis , dissertation , or research paper , you will likely have to conduct a literature review to situate your research within existing knowledge. The literature review gives you a chance to:

• Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and its scholarly context
• Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your research
• Position your work in relation to other researchers and theorists
• Show how your research addresses a gap or contributes to a debate
• Evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your knowledge of the scholarly debates around your topic.

Writing literature reviews is a particularly important skill if you want to apply for graduate school or pursue a career in research. We’ve written a step-by-step guide that you can follow below.

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Writing literature reviews can be quite challenging! A good starting point could be to look at some examples, depending on what kind of literature review you’d like to write.

• Example literature review #1: “Why Do People Migrate? A Review of the Theoretical Literature” ( Theoretical literature review about the development of economic migration theory from the 1950s to today.)
• Example literature review #2: “Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines” ( Methodological literature review about interdisciplinary knowledge acquisition and production.)
• Example literature review #3: “The Use of Technology in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Thematic literature review about the effects of technology on language acquisition.)
• Example literature review #4: “Learners’ Listening Comprehension Difficulties in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Chronological literature review about how the concept of listening skills has changed over time.)

You can also check out our templates with literature review examples and sample outlines at the links below.

Download Word doc Download Google doc

Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic .

If you are writing the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, you will search for literature related to your research problem and questions .

Make a list of keywords

Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research question. Include each of the key concepts or variables you’re interested in, and list any synonyms and related terms. You can add to this list as you discover new keywords in the process of your literature search.

• Social media, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, TikTok
• Body image, self-perception, self-esteem, mental health
• Generation Z, teenagers, adolescents, youth

Search for relevant sources

Use your keywords to begin searching for sources. Some useful databases to search for journals and articles include:

• Your university’s library catalogue
• Google Scholar
• Project Muse (humanities and social sciences)
• Medline (life sciences and biomedicine)
• EconLit (economics)
• Inspec (physics, engineering and computer science)

You can also use boolean operators to help narrow down your search.

Make sure to read the abstract to find out whether an article is relevant to your question. When you find a useful book or article, you can check the bibliography to find other relevant sources.

You likely won’t be able to read absolutely everything that has been written on your topic, so it will be necessary to evaluate which sources are most relevant to your research question.

For each publication, ask yourself:

• What question or problem is the author addressing?
• What are the key concepts and how are they defined?
• What are the key theories, models, and methods?
• Does the research use established frameworks or take an innovative approach?
• What are the results and conclusions of the study?
• How does the publication relate to other literature in the field? Does it confirm, add to, or challenge established knowledge?
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?

Make sure the sources you use are credible , and make sure you read any landmark studies and major theories in your field of research.

You can use our template to summarize and evaluate sources you’re thinking about using. Click on either button below to download.

Take notes and cite your sources

As you read, you should also begin the writing process. Take notes that you can later incorporate into the text of your literature review.

It is important to keep track of your sources with citations to avoid plagiarism . It can be helpful to make an annotated bibliography , where you compile full citation information and write a paragraph of summary and analysis for each source. This helps you remember what you read and saves time later in the process.

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To begin organizing your literature review’s argument and structure, be sure you understand the connections and relationships between the sources you’ve read. Based on your reading and notes, you can look for:

• Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain approaches become more or less popular over time?
• Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature?
• Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree?
• Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or studies that changed the direction of the field?
• Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that need to be addressed?

This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable) show how your own research will contribute to existing knowledge.

• Most research has focused on young women.
• There is an increasing interest in the visual aspects of social media.
• But there is still a lack of robust research on highly visual platforms like Instagram and Snapchat—this is a gap that you could address in your own research.

There are various approaches to organizing the body of a literature review. Depending on the length of your literature review, you can combine several of these strategies (for example, your overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is discussed chronologically).

Chronological

The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order.

Try to analyze patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred.

If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organize your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic.

For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health outcomes, key themes might include healthcare policy, language barriers, cultural attitudes, legal status, and economic access.

Methodological

If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research methods , you might want to compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different approaches. For example:

• Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative research
• Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus theoretical scholarship
• Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural sources

Theoretical

A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework . You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts.

You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine various theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research.

Like any other academic text , your literature review should have an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion . What you include in each depends on the objective of your literature review.

The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review.

Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body into subsections. You can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological approach.

As you write, you can follow these tips:

• Summarize and synthesize: give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole
• Analyze and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other researchers — add your own interpretations where possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole
• Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
• Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transition words and topic sentences to draw connections, comparisons and contrasts

In the conclusion, you should summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize their significance.

When you’ve finished writing and revising your literature review, don’t forget to proofread thoroughly before submitting. Not a language expert? Check out Scribbr’s professional proofreading services !

This article has been adapted into lecture slides that you can use to teach your students about writing a literature review.

Scribbr slides are free to use, customize, and distribute for educational purposes.

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If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
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• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question .

It is often written as part of a thesis, dissertation , or research paper , in order to situate your work in relation to existing knowledge.

There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project:

• To familiarize yourself with the current state of knowledge on your topic
• To ensure that you’re not just repeating what others have already done
• To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can address
• To develop your theoretical framework and methodology
• To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic

Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing research and what new insights it will contribute.

The literature review usually comes near the beginning of your thesis or dissertation . After the introduction , it grounds your research in a scholarly field and leads directly to your theoretical framework or methodology .

A literature review is a survey of credible sources on a topic, often used in dissertations , theses, and research papers . Literature reviews give an overview of knowledge on a subject, helping you identify relevant theories and methods, as well as gaps in existing research. Literature reviews are set up similarly to other  academic texts , with an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion .

An  annotated bibliography is a list of  source references that has a short description (called an annotation ) for each of the sources. It is often assigned as part of the research process for a  paper .  

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, September 11). How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates. Scribbr. Retrieved September 23, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/dissertation/literature-review/

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Conclusive Research

Conclusive research design, as the name implies, is applied to generate findings that are practically useful in reaching conclusions or decision-making. In this type of studies research objectives and data requirements need to be clearly defined. Findings of conclusive studies usually have specific uses. Conclusive research design provides a way to verify and quantify findings of exploratory studies .

Conclusive research design usually involves the application of quantitative methods of data collection and data analysis. Moreover, conclusive studies tend to be deductive in nature and research objectives in these types of studies are achieved via testing hypotheses.

The table below illustrates the main differences between conclusive and exploratory research design:

 Main differences between conclusive and exploratory research design

It has to be noted that “conclusive research is more likely to use statistical tests, advanced analytical techniques, and larger sample sizes, compared with exploratory studies. Conclusive research is more likely to use quantitative, rather than qualitative techniques” [1] . Conclusive research is helpful in providing a reliable or representative picture of the population through the application of valid research instrument.

Conclusive research design can be divided into two categories:  descriptive research  and causal research .

Descriptive research is used to describe some functions or characteristics of phenomenon and can be further divided into the following groups:

• Case study ;
• Case series study;
• Cross-sectional study;
• Longitudinal study;
• Retrospective study.

Causal research, on the other hand, is used to research cause and affect relationships. Two popular research methods for causal studies are experimental and quasi-experimental studies.

My e-book,  The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Dissertation in Business Studies: a step by step assistance  contains discussions of theory and application of research designs. The e-book also explains all stages of the  research process  starting from the  selection of the research area  to writing personal reflection. Important elements of dissertations such as  research philosophy ,  research approach ,  methods of data collection ,  data analysis  and  sampling  are explained in this e-book in simple words.

John Dudovskiy

[1] Nargundkar, R. (2008) “Marketing Research: Text and Cases”, Tata McGraw-Hill Educational, p.39

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• http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2800-8165 Parisa Akhbari 1 ,
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• 2 Depertment of Public Health , Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences , Tehran , Iran (the Islamic Republic of)
• Correspondence to Dr Nastaran Keshavarz-Mohammadi; n_keshavars{at}yahoo.com

Objectives Creating health-supportive environments is one of the key strategies for health promotion. The WHO launched the Healthy Cities Initiative which has inspired other international organisations to develop settings-based health initiatives, such as the Child Friendly Cities by UNICEF. Our study aimed to explore the perspectives and experiences of experts, city council staff and mothers of children under 6 years of age in the city of Tehran, Iran regarding child health-friendly neighbourhoods for children of this age group.

Design The purpose of this qualitative research was to investigate the viewpoints and experiences of mothers of children under 6 years old as well as professionals. Data were collected from January to July 2022 through semistructured, indepth interviews using an interview guide. Data were analysed using the directed content analysis method with MAXQDA V.2020 software.

Setting The study was conducted in Tehran, Iran.

Participants Participants were selected from three main groups: experts, mothers and city council staff. Participants were invited to take part using variation purposive sampling techniques.

Results Data analysis led to a definition of the concept of child health-friendly neighbourhoods for children under 6 years old, with 6 dimensions, 21 subdimensions and 80 characteristics. The six dimensions included the provision of neighbourhood green space, cultural centres, health centres, access to services, transport and security. The characteristics we identified had similarities and differences with UNICEF’s Child Friendly Cities.

Conclusion The concept of a child health-friendly neighbourhood for children under 6 years old is the result of a health-centred approach to a child-friendly city that provides a deeper understanding of the needs and services required to start a healthy life. This could contribute to further dialogue, research and actions to make all neighbourhoods a health-supportive environment as recommended by the Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion.

• Health & safety
• Child protection
• Health Education

Data availability statement

The data are not publicly available due to confidentiality of participants and data protection laws with respect to this study.

This is an open access article distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial (CC BY-NC 4.0) license, which permits others to distribute, remix, adapt, build upon this work non-commercially, and license their derivative works on different terms, provided the original work is properly cited, appropriate credit is given, any changes made indicated, and the use is non-commercial. See: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ .

https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2023-077167

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Strengths and limitations of this study

The main strength of this study is that the needs of children were identified and investigated from the perspectives of experts, city council staff and mothers of children under 6 years of age.

To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to examine the characteristics of a child health-friendly neighbourhood and the needs of young children in the Iranian context.

One potential limitation is that fathers and children were not included in the study.

Based on the conditions in each neighbourhood, the needs of children in each neighbourhood may be different.

Introduction

Acknowledging the role of social determinants of health and the birth of the field of health promotion in 1986 have created an important shift in understanding and thus strategies for protecting and promoting population health. 1 Based on the Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion, the creation of ‘health supportive environments’ is considered the third of the five main strategies for health promotion, before the development of individual health skills and provision of healthcare services. 2 Since then, the WHO has followed a health-promoting setting approach by launching its Healthy Cities Initiative in 1986. 2 3 Cities are an important place especially for children. It is estimated that by 2030 about 60% of urban residents will be under the age of 18. 4 For this reason, several initiatives were proposed to transform cities to healthier settings, such as the Child Friendly Cities initiated by UNICEF 4 5 and London’s 2017 Living Cities project, with a view to creating child-friendly cities and using an urban design approach that focuses on children and their health across the lifespan. 6 7 There is an increasing focus on taking children’s needs into account when designing cities and developing urban programmes and services more comprehensively. For example, the international initiative ‘City 95’ looked at cities from the perspectives of 3-year-old children with an average height of 95 cm. 8 9

A child-friendly city is one that prioritises the interests of children and their fundamental rights, including health, education and cultural opportunities, as well as safety and security, green spaces and play places. It refers to a city where children have a healthy start and have equal opportunities in life regardless of their ethnicity, religion, income, gender or abilities. 10 11 UNICEF proposed seven domains to explain the main indicators of a child-friendly city, namely playgrounds and green spaces, education and culture, health and children’s health, access to services, participation in decision-making, safety and ease of transport, and children’s security. 12

Although a child in the child-friendly city concept refers to an individual in the 0–18 years old age group, 13 most programmes and studies on child-friendly cities have focused on children 6–18 years old, 14–16 ignoring the needs of those under 6 years of age. Furthermore, the cities or neighbourhoods have mostly been studied from the perspectives of children’s social rights, focusing on urban planning, social rights areas 17–20 and the livability of the city or neighbourhoods for children. 21 There was limited consideration of a health-centred approach to developing our understanding of children’s needs. 22 Finally, the lack of specific indicators to measure the state of cities and neighbourhoods for children hinders the comprehensive implementation of a child-friendly city concept. 23 24 As context is a crucial factor in the implementation of a child-friendly city approach, the standards or criteria can vary, bearing in mind that they should reflect the conditions of the local context, institutions and organisations in each country. 22 Because they are among the most vulnerable, younger children may have demands that are different from older groups when it comes to neighbourhood features. 25 Besides, there is a limited number of studies that investigated the needs of children from the perspectives of mothers and relevant experts. Therefore, to fill this gap, especially within the Iranian context, a comprehensive mixed methods study was designed to develop a national Child Health-Friendly Neighborhood for Under 6 Years of Age Children (U6CHFN) and use it to explore the needs of young children under 6 years of age in Tehran. This article reports on the qualitative part of the study, which involved conducting semistructured interviews.

In June 2019, within the framework of a joint cooperation between the Ministry of Health and UNICEF to implement the global initiative ‘Child Friendly Cities’ in Iran, the first meeting of the National Child-Friendly City Coordination Committee was held at the Ministry of Interior of Iran. 12 cities, including Tehran, were selected to implement the Child-Friendly Cities framework. The population of children under the age of 6 in Tehran was 1 330 646 according to 2015 census. 26 Currently, Tehran and other selected cities are in the neighbourhood assessment phase. 27 For the purpose of this research, we define a child as someone who is less than 6 years old. Hence, the objective of this research was to investigate the viewpoints and encounters of specialists, municipal employees and mothers with children aged 6 and below in Tehran with regard to the creation of a child health-oriented community for this particular age group.

Study design and setting

This was a qualitative study. Qualitative data were analysed using the directed content analysis method, which allowed new themes to emerge from the data. 28 This research used the Child-Friendly Cities framework developed by UNICEF.

Study participants and sampling

Variation purposeful sampling techniques were used to recruit participants from the three main groups of experts, mothers and city council staff. Individuals with expertise and experience in infant psychology, urban planning and architecture, and health education and promotion comprised the experts. Tehran’s Child-Friendly Cities Secretariat employed the municipal personnel. Mothers were included in the research as representatives of children under the age of 6 as they are the person most responsible for their care. Experts were interviewed at their workplace, while mothers who accompanied their children in parks were interviewed in the park.

Before starting the interview sessions, an official letter from the university was provided to the participants. The participants (mothers and experts) were provided with an explanation of the study and consent was obtained for participation (mothers and experts) and for conducting and recording the interviews.

Data collection tools and techniques

Data were collected via semistructured, indepth interviews. The interviews were conducted face-to-face using an interview topic guide ( online supplemental file 1 ). The principal investigator (PA), who had previous experience in qualitative data collection, interviewing and interview calibration, and who was unknown to the participants, conducted the interviews.

Supplemental material

The subject of the interview was the opinion of the interviewees on the current state of their neighbourhoods and the changes that should be made to make neighbourhoods suitable and health-friendly to children under 6 years of age. The duration of the interview ranged from 20 to 60 min. Data saturation was verified by the research team after conducting 31 interviews. Nevertheless, three additional interviews were conducted to provide additional confirmation. In the end, no new data were discovered and the interview procedure was terminated. The study did not include any withdrawals from the participants. To improve the quality of data collection, the interviews were audio-recorded for verbatim transcription, with the consent of the participants. They were assured that their voices would be removed after the interviews. The interviewer (PA) recorded the participants’ perspectives, thoughts and feelings about the research topic and the interviews in a notebook. The researcher took notes during data collection when necessary ( online supplemental file 2 ).

Data analysis

The transcribed interviews were coded by the researcher (PA) shortly after each interview using directed content analysis techniques. UNICEF’s Child Friendly Cities framework, with six main themes, guided the data analysis. MAXQDA V.2020 software was used to facilitate the data analysis. The coding process was carried out according to Graneheim and Lundman. 29 First, the transcriptions were examined word by word. The texts were then divided into units of meaning and were coded. Codes denoting a single theme were placed in a category based on a continuous comparison of similarities, differences and appropriateness. The next step classified the categories and subcategories. The summary categories and the central concept of each category were then identified. Finally, the concepts were reviewed based on the description of the internal themes considering the whole data. 29

Graneheim and Lundman’s 29 indices, including credibility, dependability, confirmability and transferability, were applied to check for accuracy and the robustness of the data analysis. Various strategies were used to increase the credibility of the data, such as member checks, long-term engagement with the subject and data review by the research team. The reliability of the findings was verified through implementation of measures such as the coding and decoding method during data analysis and documentation of all stages from inception to conclusion. Methods such as sampling with maximum diversity, detailed descriptions of the findings and the participants, sampling, the time and place of data collection, and observer control were implemented. The transferability of the findings was increased by recording all steps and the decisions made during the study and by reviewing and confirming the data analysis report by colleagues .

Ethical consideration

Participants were provided with key information such as the purpose of study, the interview method, confidentiality of the information, the right to participate or withdraw and the procedure for storing the audio file. Furthermore, verbal informed consent to participate and audio-record the interviews was obtained from the participants (mothers and experts) at the beginning of each interview. A code was assigned to each participant to protect anonymity. In addition, the researcher kept the audio files of the interviews and were not shared with anyone.

Patient and public involvement

Patients and/or the public were not involved in the design, or conduct, or reporting or dissemination plans of this research.

The characteristics of the study participants are summarised in tables 1 and 2 .

• View inline

Demographic characteristics of the mothers

Demographic characteristics of the experts

Dimensions and characteristics of the U6CHFN

Analysing the qualitative interview data, the results were categorised into 6 dimensions, 21 subdimensions and 80 characteristics. The six main dimensions included neighbourhood green space, neighbourhood cultural centre, neighbourhood health centre, services in the neighbourhood, transport in the neighbourhood and security in the neighbourhood ( table 3 ).

Emerging key dimensions and subdimensions of child health-friendly neighbourhoods (from the data)

These six dimensions are explained in detail in the following sections:

Neighbourhood green space

Many participants believed that the presence of a park is one of the important dimensions of a child-friendly city, provided that the park has ‘playground space for children’, ‘ergonomic play equipment’, ‘attractive play equipment’, ‘creativity, art and culture in the park’ and ‘comfortable space’. They argued that the quantity and quality of these features and their use were unsatisfactory. For example, one of the mothers stated:

Part of the flooring (of the playground) is torn off, and my child once got his foot stuck on it, and fell down. They are all separated. The cracks are open. It is necessary that the floor of the park is healthy and soft. (Mother, Interview 8)

Another participant mentioned that:

Currently, playground equipment in many parks is not suitable for children of this age in terms of height. The size of children is small, and it is necessary for them to have play equipment and chairs and benches that are suitable for the size of children. (Child psychologist, Interview 22)

Neighbourhood cultural centre

Some interviewees believed that there was a need for community centres to offer educational and cultural activities that were age-appropriate, attractive and varied. Many educational topics were suggested, such as ‘art and creativity’, ‘self-care’, ‘life skills’ and ‘citizenship skills’, both from educational and recreational perspectives. Many families may have limited experience or skills in educating their children, and as a result some argued that self-care education should include protection from sexual assault. Consequently, professionals can significantly contribute to this effort. For example, one of the mothers discussed this point as follows:

One of the educational points that I think my child needs now is that I don’t know what to tell him about sexual issues, and I think it is necessary that a child educator who has studied and has experience in this field should teach him/her how to protect himself/herself from sexual abuse, education based on what they need to know, to be told so that they receive knowledge appropriate for their age. (Mother, Interview 14)

Another participant explained:

My son reached the age of middle school, and he is afraid to go to the neighborhood and to the city. He is afraid of riding the bus alone, if I was a child, I would have gone to school alone … I think it is necessary to teach them about the urban lifestyle and about commuting within the neighborhoods. From preschool onwards, it is necessary to learn how to cross the street, how to cross the crosswalk and traffic lights, learn how to get on and off the bus, so that later they can use it, they don’t have to be afraid anymore. (Urban planning and architecture expert, Interview 23)

Neighbourhood health centre

From the participants’ point of view, the neighbourhood health centre should provide ‘child health services’, ‘health education services’ and ‘child care’. Many participants were not satisfied with the child health services and health education. For example, one of the mothers said:

Health centers used to provide much better services for mothers and children, and education during pregnancy and about breastfeeding, but now they just fill in forms and do not provide any education. The health center should be a place to teach mothers how to breastfeed. how to sleep and bath the child, and to give advice and instructions to the father. (Mother, Interview 13)

Services in the neighbourhood

One of the characteristics of a child-friendly neighbourhood according to the participants was adequate access to children’s welfare services in the neighbourhood. They explained that, unfortunately, children’s welfare services are usually neglected and therefore need to be addressed. For example, one participant explained:

My child gets very upset and nervous when he comes to the shopping mall, because it is crowded, and he has to walk in the crowd. If there are baby strollers in all shopping malls, mothers can easily take the child with them, and the children even enjoy it. (Mother, Interview 13)

Several participants had suggestions for the creation of "children's entertainment and sports centers" in the neighborhood. These centres can be, for example, sports centres that have sports and swimming pools for children. For example, one participant pointed out:

Every neighborhood can have grass playgrounds for children, as well as indoor sports centers, for example, a children’s pool and they can play. (Urban planning and architecture expert, Interview 16)

Transport in the neighbourhood

The participants argued that the sidewalks, streets and generally the environment for transporting children in the neighbourhood should be ‘easy to use’, ‘attractive’, ‘educational’, ‘safe’ and ‘ergonomic’. One of the participating mothers said:

The most important problem I have is that I can’t take my baby out with the stroller, the sidewalks are full of stairs and up and down, you have to constantly lift and move the stroller with its weight, and when you take it on the street, cars honk and drive by at high speed. (Mother, Interview 13)

Another participant explained about the safety of shrubs or trees planted on the streets:

It is better to plant tall trees in front of houses or low annual flowers and plants. We have had many cases where a child who was crossing the sidewalk, the blade of these shrubs hit him in the face and injured him, or their leaf has got stuck in his clothes. (Public health specialist, Interview 22)

One participant highlighted the need for traffic signs to be ergonomically designed for children under the age of 6:

It is necessary that the green and safety light for the child and appropriate to the height of the child and the environment be considered from the origin which is the home of each child, to the destination where is a space designed for children, so that both drivers are required to obey the traffic law, and children feel safe from the presence of cars on the street to travel. (Urban planning and architecture expert, Interview 16)

Some participants argued that the frequency of the child's presence in the neighborhood could be increased by improving the "attractiveness of the child's walking route," for example by incorporating vegetation and painted walls. Some other participants argued that the presence of ‘child friendly urban furniture’ in the neighbourhood space that is based on the height and size of children under 6 years of age can facilitate the child’s passage in the neighbourhood as it allows them to rest when needed.

Security in the neighbourhood

Neighbourhood safety for children is an important dimension of a child health-friendly city that was frequently discussed by the participants. They discussed children's security from strangers and addicts in all areas of the neighborhood, especially in "parks," which are the main neighborhood spaces used by young children. For example, a participant explained:

Security is very important in educational spaces. In these environments, it is necessary that CCTV [closed-circuit television] is controlled and there is surveillance. This security leads to the reduction of anxiety and stress in the city and neighborhood, the space that has a camera and is monitored creates a sense of security for the presence of the child, and the family can trust that place. (Specialist in urban planning and architecture, Interview 27)

A mother stated:

I can’t allow my daughter to play alone even in front of our door. I have often seen drug addicts going to the street and exchanging drugs. (Mother, Interview 10)

The health of urban populations is directly affected by the ability of the urban environment to support the creation of safe neighbourhoods and healthy behaviours and habits during childhood. 30 Living in cities can expose children to risks and challenges, such as noise and air pollution, sedentary lifestyles, traffic hazards, crime, social isolation and disconnection from nature. However, it can also provide health-promoting resources and opportunities, such as education and healthcare. 30 31

There is a limited number of studies that have documented the effect of neighbourhoods on children’s health. 32 33 For instance, Dondi et al ’s 34 study demonstrated that exposure to toxic air pollutants during infancy and childhood can affect the growth and development of the respiratory system, nerves, glands and immune system. Furthermore, it has the potential to elevate the likelihood of developing cancer in the future. It is estimated that the 1.7 million fatalities among children under the age of 5 each year are a result of disregard for the health and environmental aspects in cities. 31 32 Therefore, cities should provide a platform to protect children’s health based on their needs. 30

One of the challenges to implementing the concept of a child-friendly city is the difficulty in accurately identifying the needs of children that the city can provide for, given the large scale of the city and with inadequate research. 35 We focused on the smaller scale of the neighbourhoods and consulted with stakeholders, particularly mothers, to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the needs of children living in urban areas. This approach can be considered a strength of our study. The present study investigated the health needs of children that can be addressed by the neighbourhood. The perspectives of three key stakeholders, namely experts, city council staff and mothers, were explored. A qualitative approach was employed to gain a deeper understanding of their experiences and perspectives. Previous studies in this field have mostly taken a quantitative approach. 36–40

The importance of the local environment in the health of children was underscored by the participants in this study, as indicated in the Results section. The participants suggested specific characteristics for various locations in the community that can support the preservation and promotion of health of children aged 0–6 years. Through data analysis, six dimensions were identified for a child-friendly neighbourhood, which closely resembled the seven dimensions of UNICEF’s Child Friendly Cities concept, 41 as presented in table 4 . However, a total of 80 child-friendly neighbourhood characteristics were developed, 23 of which were new items compared to the current UNICEF child-friendly city checklist. Some of these newly identified characteristics have been reported by other researchers 27 38 42 . However, there were few characteristics that were not reported in other studies, such as access to mother and child rooms in parks, sexual self-care education in child care facilities and child education centers, mental health screening for children, and child-friendly urban furniture.

Comparison among the identified domains of a child health-friendly neighbourhood for children under 6 years of age (from the data) and the UNICEF’s Child Friendly Cities framework 42

Security was a common concern among the participants, particularly among mothers. The discussion on neighbourhood security included parks, educational spaces and the surrounding area. Security has both objective and subjective dimensions. Objectively, it refers to the absence of danger and threats to a child’s life. 43 Subjective security, on the other hand, refers to an individual’s (here children or mothers) feeling of calmness and intimacy with a space, regardless of whether there is an actual hazard present. 44 According to other studies, children’s presence in a neighbourhood may be impacted by the perceived or actual security issues. 44–46 It is crucial to remember that in order to preserve objectivity, subjective assessments must be identified as such. 45 Therefore, it is essential to address the dark and hidden corners of the neighbourhood, provide proper lighting, install security cameras and if possible have security guards in the areas. 46

Although this study provided rich perspectives on the characteristics of a child health-friendly neighbourhood from three groups of stakeholders, due to lack of time we did not obtain the opinions of fathers and children. It should also be noted that, first, due to the qualitative nature of the study, only the typology of perspectives was provided rather than the prevalence of perspectives among the participants interviewed. In other words, the results cannot indicate what the main problems are that need to be addressed in the neighbourhoods. Also, the needs of children in each neighbourhood may be different. Quantitative research is therefore needed to identify priorities for future action. Due to the complexity, multidimensionality and subjectivity of the dimensions of health in the neighbourhood, we used a qualitative method. However, in order to assess and identify the existing needs of a neighbourhood, quantitative research is needed to evaluate these components so that we can identify the existing gaps for appropriate interventions.

Conclusions

The results of this study provide a deeper understanding of the health needs of children under 6 years of age that need to be met in order to provide a child-healthy neighbourhood. Thus, it contributes to further dialogue, research and intervention design to make neighbourhoods a health-supportive environment as recommended by the Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion. We suggest that in designing child-friendly cities and neighbourhoods, it is critical to take a comprehensive approach to the health needs of children of all ages, especially those aged 0–6. This involves providing secure and healthy settings and services in the neighbourhoods, as well as ensuring that natural and manmade infrastructure and services are responsive to children’s actual health requirements. To this end, this study highlighted the importance of access to neighbourhood green space, health services, transportation and security.

Ethics statements

Patient consent for publication.

Not required.

Ethics approval

The study was approved by the Ethics Committee at Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences (IR.SBMU.PHNS.REC.1401.002).

Acknowledgments

This study is part of a PhD dissertation conducted at Shahid Beheshti Medical University. The research team appreciates all the participants: specialists and families. The authors would also like to thank Dr Panthea Hakimian, member of the Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, for providing valuable comments. The authors are truly thankful to the reviewers whose comments and suggestions definitely made a remarkable improvement to the quality of this research paper.

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Contributors All authors conceived and designed the study. PA was responsible for the interviews. PA and NK-M were responsible for data analysis. PA and NK-M were responsible for the initial draft and editing of the manuscript and approved the manuscript for submission. NK-M and AR revised the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. NK-M is responsible for the overall content as the guarantor.

Funding This study was funded by Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences.

Competing interests None declared.

Patient and public involvement Patients and/or the public were not involved in the design, or conduct, or reporting, or dissemination plans of this research.

Provenance and peer review Not commissioned; externally peer reviewed.

Supplemental material This content has been supplied by the author(s). It has not been vetted by BMJ Publishing Group Limited (BMJ) and may not have been peer-reviewed. Any opinions or recommendations discussed are solely those of the author(s) and are not endorsed by BMJ. BMJ disclaims all liability and responsibility arising from any reliance placed on the content. Where the content includes any translated material, BMJ does not warrant the accuracy and reliability of the translations (including but not limited to local regulations, clinical guidelines, terminology, drug names and drug dosages), and is not responsible for any error and/or omissions arising from translation and adaptation or otherwise.

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Evolving trends in smart building research: a scientometric analysis, 1. introduction, 2. data sources and research methods, 2.1. data sources and search strategy, 2.2. methods of scientometric analysis, 3.1. basic description, 3.1.1. annual publishing trends, 3.1.2. the core cited journals, 3.1.3. the major countries and institutions, 3.1.4. the main journals and funding agencies, 3.2. research trends and frontiers over time, 3.2.1. keywords co-occurrence analysis, 3.2.2. keyword timeline analysis, 3.2.3. keywords breakout analysis, 4. discussion, 5. conclusions, author contributions, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Haiyirete, X.; Zhang, W.; Gao, Y. Evolving Trends in Smart Building Research: A Scientometric Analysis. Buildings 2024 , 14 , 3023. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14093023

Haiyirete X, Zhang W, Gao Y. Evolving Trends in Smart Building Research: A Scientometric Analysis. Buildings . 2024; 14(9):3023. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14093023

Haiyirete, Xuekelaiti, Wenjuan Zhang, and Yu Gao. 2024. "Evolving Trends in Smart Building Research: A Scientometric Analysis" Buildings 14, no. 9: 3023. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14093023

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• Research & Reports

Freedom to Vote Act Test Methodology

An analysis shows what fair maps could look like under the Freedom to Vote Act.

• Redistricting

Under the proposed Freedom to Vote Act (FTVA), a congressional redistricting plan is considered to have excessive partisan bias if one party has an advantage of more than 7 percent of the state’s seats in comparison to seats won under a neutral benchmark based on the vote in the two previous presidential and U.S. Senate elections. In states with 14 or fewer seats, the threshold requires an advantage of only one seat, and the threshold increases from there as the number of seats in the state increases beyond 14.

To analyze plans, the FTVA calls for use of “standard quantitative measures of partisan fairness that relate a party’s share of the statewide vote to that party’s share of seats.” For this study, we used the simplified efficiency gap, one of the central measures of partisan bias in the social science literature and a measure specifically mentioned and sanctioned by the FTVA. We began our analysis with the Democratic share of the two-party vote in the recent statewide federal elections specified in the FTVA. To estimate the number of seats that the Democratic statewide candidates in those elections would have carried under maps with no partisan lean  (i.e., when the efficiency gap is zero because votes are distributed with perfect efficiency), we plug in the Democratic candidate’s vote share into a formula relating seats and votes (see Equation 2 in Eric McGhee’s 2017 paper , though we solve for seats). We then compared the actual number of seats carried in a given plan by Democratic statewide candidates to this neutral baseline. The difference between the actual seats and the neutral baseline is our indicator of partisan bias in the district plan and triggers the FTVA presumption of excessive partisan bias when the difference exceeds the thresholds described above.

In total, 19 states that have enacted plans that trigger the FTVA presumption of partisan bias were analyzed: Arizona, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Massachusetts, Missouri, New Jersey, New Mexico, North Carolina, Ohio, Oregon, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, and Wisconsin. The FTVA test for a presumption of partisan bias was applied to simulated redistricting plans created by the Algorithm-Assisted Redistricting Methodology (ALARM) Project to put the results of these partisan gerrymandered maps into context with viable neutral plans. The ALARM Project is based at Harvard University and led by Professor Kosuke Imai. The project has generated a large set of simulated congressional district plans for each state. Data from the ALARM Project included 5,000 simulations for each state except for Utah, which included 6,000 simulations. This analysis provides important insight into how frequently FTVA-compliant maps occur within the data.

The ALARM Project provided data on each simulated plan, including vote totals for the Democratic and Republican candidates within each district from four recent statewide elections. The elections included are the 2016 and 2020 presidential elections and the two U.S. senatorial elections that occurred in each state between 2016 and 2020. The election results were fit into each of the simulated plans to determine the number of Democratic and Republican seats that would have been won if that simulated congressional redistricting plan were enacted.

For each test election under a simulated plan, the number of districts in which the Democratic vote total exceeded the Republican vote total was considered the actual number of seats Democrats would win under the simulated plan. We estimated the proportion of plans that did not trigger the presumption of partisan bias in each state. In a special case, the Tennessee simulations did not include data on vote totals from the 2018 U.S. senatorial election. Therefore, seat differences for two out of three elections needed to exceed the threshold for a simulated plan in Tennessee to trigger the FTVA presumption of partisan bias. All plans that triggered the FTVA presumption of partisan bias were eliminated.

Additional analysis was conducted on the simulated plans that did not trigger the FTVA presumption of partisan bias to estimate what a fair redistricting plan would look like in each state. This analysis specifically focused on the number of districts carried by Democratic presidential candidate Joe Biden in the 2020 presidential election. The median number of Biden seats in the set of fair plans was determined for each state. These values were then compared to the number of districts that Biden won according to the enacted 2024 plan. In addition, distributions of the number of Democratic seats won in each of the fair plans based on the results of the 2020 presidential election were determined in each state. Overall, this further analysis, which only included the fair simulated plans, provides additional insight into what a fair redistricting process may look like in states with enacted plans that trigger the FTVA presumption of partisan bias.

Ohio Politicians Try to Deceive Voters About Anti-Gerrymandering Ballot Measure

The Ohio Ballot Board has approved deceptive ballot language for Issue 1, a measure aimed at ending gerrymandering in the state. This is yet another reason why Ohioans must vote to take politicians out of the redistricting process.

Ohio’s Legacy of Gerrymandering Could End This November

Ohioans will vote on a constitutional amendment that would establish a citizen-led independent redistricting process to replace the politically driven map-making system.

Black and Latino Voting Power Under Threat in Redistricting Case

The supreme court just made gerrymandering even easier, how scotus cited our voting data while reaching wrong conclusion in a gerrymandering case, what ohio’s ‘citizens not politicians’ redistricting amendment would do, black louisianians fight in court to preserve fair voting map, informed citizens are democracy’s best defense.

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NIH uses three-character activity codes to differentiate the wide variety of research-related programs NIH supports. The first character typically identifies the major funding category or program type. For example, activity codes for research and development often start with "R," training with "T," fellowship with "F," and career development with "K." Each institute and center (IC) participates in a subset of activity codes. Although each activity code has a broadly defined purpose, there may be differences in their use from one IC to another. Applicants should always refer to the funding opportunity for the specific requirements and details of an initiative.