preliminary essay

How to write an undergraduate-level essay

Create a preliminary plan for the document, 1. think about your topic, 2. create a preliminary plan.

• 3. Draft your thesis statement
• 4a. Become familiar with information sources
• 4b. Select the appropriate search tool
• 4c. Develop effective searches
• 4d. Beyond keyword searching
• 4e. Find statistical information
• 4f. Evaluate the resources you find
• 4g. Read, absorb, and organize the information you find
• 5. Create the final version of your document plan
• 6. Double-check your research
• 7. Start writing the first draft
• 8. Overcome writer's block
• 9. Revise the draft
• 10. Edit the draft
• 11. Prepare the final version
• 12. Submit the assignment

A. It doesn't give you an opportunity to think about what you already know about the topic before you start filling your thoughts with other people's ideas;

B. It is easy to become totally overwhelmed and frustrated by how much research is available.

Since the point of an essay is for you to tell your reader your ideas on a topic, versus just repeating other people's ideas, it is important that you first decide what you think you might want to focus on before you start searching through the Library databases or the Internet. At this stage, it's normal that your ideas are quite broad, but you have to figure out what you already know from your readings, discussions, and your own experiences before you can identify what you don't know and need to research.

Image credit: Pexels from Pixabay

• What do you want to focus on in the paper? What is your major argument? With this information, you can create a preliminary thesis statement .
• What are the major ideas that you're going to write about? How will these ideas support your primary argument?
• What do you want to learn about in your research? What don't you understand about the topic?

By choosing directions for your research, you can keep your research contained to what is relevant and useful for your paper. Otherwise, it's easy to end up doing enough research to write a thesis when all you're trying to write is a five-page paper. It can be as challenging to manage too much information as it is to have too little information or not enough facts to prove your argument.

Your plan will change as you learn more about your topic, but having a starting direction for your process gives you a scope and a direction for your research and writing. See  Planning the Paper  for more information.

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Essay Writing Guide

Essay Outline

Last updated on: Jun 10, 2023

A Complete Essay Outline - Guidelines and Format

By: Nova A.

13 min read

Reviewed By: Melisa C.

Published on: Jan 15, 2019

To write an effective essay, you need to create a clear and well-organized essay outline. An essay outline will shape the essay’s entire content and determine how successful the essay will be.

In this blog post, we'll be going over the basics of essay outlines and provide a template for you to follow. We will also include a few examples so that you can get an idea about how these outlines look when they are put into practice.

Essay writing is not easy, but it becomes much easier with time, practice, and a detailed essay writing guide. Once you have developed your outline, everything else will come together more smoothly.

The key to success in any area is preparation - take the time now to develop a solid outline and then write your essays!

So, let’s get started!

On this Page

What is an Essay Outline?

An essay outline is your essay plan and a roadmap to essay writing. It is the structure of an essay you are about to write. It includes all the main points you have to discuss in each section along with the thesis statement.

Like every house has a map before it is constructed, the same is the importance of an essay outline. You can write an essay without crafting an outline, but you may miss essential information, and it is more time-consuming.

Once the outline is created, there is no chance of missing any important information. Also, it will help you to:

• Organize your thoughts and ideas.
• Understand the information flow.
• Never miss any crucial information or reference.
• Finish your work faster.

These are the reasons if someone asks you why an essay outline is needed. Now there are some points that must be kept in mind before proceeding to craft an essay outline.

Easily Outline Your Essays In Seconds!

Prewriting Process of Essay Outline

Your teacher may ask you to submit your essay outline before your essay. Therefore, you must know the preliminary guidelines that are necessary before writing an essay outline.

Here are the guidelines:

• You must go through your assignments’ guidelines carefully.
• Understand the purpose of your assignment.
• Know your audience.
• Mark the important point while researching your topic data.
• Select the structure of your essay outline; whether you are going to use a decimal point bullet or a simple one.

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How to Write an Essay Outline in 4 Steps

Creating an essay outline is a crucial step in crafting a well-structured and organized piece of writing. Follow these four simple steps to create an effective outline:

Step 1: Understand the Topic

To begin, thoroughly grasp the essence of your essay topic. 

Break it down into its key components and identify the main ideas you want to convey. This step ensures you have a clear direction and focus for your essay.

Step 2: Brainstorm and Gather Ideas

Let your creativity flow and brainstorm ideas related to your topic. 

Jot down key pieces of information, arguments, and supporting evidence that will strengthen your essay's overall message. Consider different perspectives and potential counterarguments to make your essay well-rounded.

Step 3: Organize Your Thoughts

Now it's time to give structure to your ideas. 

Arrange your main points in a logical order, starting with an attention-grabbing introduction, followed by body paragraphs that present your arguments. 

Finally, tie everything together with a compelling conclusion. Remember to use transitional phrases to create smooth transitions between sections.

Step 4: Add Depth with Subpoints

To add depth and clarity to your essay, incorporate subpoints under each main point. 

These subpoints provide more specific details, evidence, or examples that support your main ideas. They help to further strengthen your arguments and make your essay more convincing.

By following these four steps - you'll be well on your way to creating a clear and compelling essay outline.

Essay Outline Format

It is an easy way for you to write your thoughts in an organized manner. It may seem unnecessary and unimportant, but it is not.

It is one of the most crucial steps for essay writing as it shapes your entire essay and aids the writing process.

An essay outline consists of three main parts:

1. Introduction

The introduction body of your essay should be attention-grabbing. It should be written in such a manner that it attracts the reader’s interest. It should also provide background information about the topic for the readers.

You can use a dramatic tone to grab readers’ attention, but it should connect the audience to your thesis statement.

Here are some points without which your introduction paragraph is incomplete.

To attract the reader with the first few opening lines, we use a hook statement. It helps engage the reader and motivates them to read further. There are different types of hook sentences ranging from quotes, rhetorical questions to anecdotes and statistics, and much more.

Are you struggling to come up with an interesting hook? View these hook examples to get inspired!

A thesis statement is stated at the end of your introduction. It is the most important statement of your entire essay. It summarizes the purpose of the essay in one sentence.

The thesis statement tells the readers about the main theme of the essay, and it must be strong and clear. It holds the entire crux of your essay.

Need help creating a strong thesis statement? Check out this guide on thesis statements and learn to write a statement that perfectly captures your main argument!

2. Body Paragraphs

The body paragraphs of an essay are where all the details and evidence come into play. This is where you dive deep into the argument, providing explanations and supporting your ideas with solid evidence. 

If you're writing a persuasive essay, these paragraphs will be the powerhouse that convinces your readers. Similarly, in an argumentative essay, your body paragraphs will work their magic to sway your audience to your side.

Each paragraph should have a topic sentence and no more than one idea. A topic sentence is the crux of the contents of your paragraph. It is essential to keep your reader interested in the essay.

The topic sentence is followed by the supporting points and opinions, which are then justified with strong evidence.

3. Conclusion

When it comes to wrapping up your essay, never underestimate the power of a strong conclusion. Just like the introduction and body paragraphs, the conclusion plays a vital role in providing a sense of closure to your topic. 

To craft an impactful conclusion, it's crucial to summarize the key points discussed in the introduction and body paragraphs. You want to remind your readers of the important information you shared earlier. But keep it concise and to the point. Short, powerful sentences will leave a lasting impression.

Remember, your conclusion shouldn't drag on. Instead, restate your thesis statement and the supporting points you mentioned earlier. And here's a pro tip: go the extra mile and suggest a course of action. It leaves your readers with something to ponder or reflect on.

5 Paragraph Essay Outline Structure

An outline is an essential part of the writing as it helps the writer stay focused. A typical 5 paragraph essay outline example is shown here. This includes:

• State the topic
• Thesis statement
• Introduction
• Explanation
• A conclusion that ties to the thesis
• Summary of the essay
• Restate the thesis statement

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Essay Outline Template

The outline of the essay is the skeleton that you will fill out with the content. Both outline and relevant content are important for a good essay. The content you will add to flesh out the outline should be credible, relevant, and interesting.

The outline structure for the essay is not complex or difficult. No matter which type of essay you write, you either use an alphanumeric structure or a decimal structure for the outline.

Below is an outline sample that you can easily follow for your essay.

Essay Outline Sample

Essay Outline Examples

An essay outline template should follow when you start writing the essay. Every writer should learn how to write an outline for every type of essay and research paper.

Essay outline 4th grade

Essay outline 5th grade

Essay outline high school

Essay outline college

Given below are essay outline examples for different types of essay writing.

Argumentative Essay Outline

An  argumentative essay  is a type of essay that shows both sides of the topic that you are exploring. The argument that presents the basis of the essay should be created by providing evidence and supporting details.

Persuasive Essay Outline

A  persuasive essay  is similar to an argumentative essay. Your job is to provide facts and details to create the argument. In a persuasive essay, you convince your readers of your point of view.

Compare and Contrast Essay Outline

A  compare and contrast essay  explains the similarities and differences between two things. While comparing, you should focus on the differences between two seemingly similar objects. While contrasting, you should focus on the similarities between two different objects.

Narrative Essay Outline

A narrative essay is written to share a story. Normally, a narrative essay is written from a personal point of view in an essay. The basic purpose of the narrative essay is to describe something creatively.

Expository Essay Outline

An  expository essay  is a type of essay that explains, analyzes, and illustrates something for the readers. An expository essay should be unbiased and entirely based on facts. Be sure to use academic resources for your research and cite your sources.

Analytical Essay Outline

An  analytical essay  is written to analyze the topic from a critical point of view. An analytical essay breaks down the content into different parts and explains the topic bit by bit.

Rhetorical Analysis Essay Outline

A rhetorical essay is written to examine the writer or artist’s work and develop a great essay. It also includes the discussion.

Cause and Effect Essay Outline

A  cause and effect essay  describes why something happens and examines the consequences of an occurrence or phenomenon. It is also a type of expository essay.

Informative Essay Outline

An  informative essay  is written to inform the audience about different objects, concepts, people, issues, etc.

The main purpose is to respond to the question with a detailed explanation and inform the target audience about the topic.

Synthesis Essay Outline

A  synthesis essay  requires the writer to describe a certain unique viewpoint about the issue or topic. Create a claim about the topic and use different sources and information to prove it.

Literary Analysis Essay Outline

A  literary analysis essay  is written to analyze and examine a novel, book, play, or any other piece of literature. The writer analyzes the different devices such as the ideas, characters, plot, theme, tone, etc., to deliver his message.

Definition Essay Outline

A  definition essay  requires students to pick a particular concept, term, or idea and define it in their own words and according to their understanding.

Descriptive Essay Outline

A  descriptive essay  is a type of essay written to describe a person, place, object, or event. The writer must describe the topic so that the reader can visualize it using their five senses.

Evaluation Essay Outline

Problem Solution Essay Outline

In a problem-solution essay, you are given a problem as a topic and you have to suggest multiple solutions on it.

Scholarship Essay Outline

A  scholarship essay  is required at the time of admission when you are applying for a scholarship. Scholarship essays must be written in a way that should stand alone to help you get a scholarship.

Reflective Essay Outline

A reflective essay  is written to express your own thoughts and point of view regarding a specific topic.

Getting started on your essay? Give this comprehensive essay writing guide a read to make sure you write an effective essay!

With this complete guide, now you understand how to create an outline for your essay successfully. However, if you still can’t write an effective essay, then the best option is to consult a professional academic writing service.

Essay writing is a dull and boring task for some people. So why not get some help instead of wasting your time and effort?  5StarEssays.com is here to help you. All your  do my essay for me  requests are managed by professional essay writers.

Place your order now, and our team of expert academic writers will help you.

Frequently Asked Questions

What are the three types of outlines.

Here are the three types of essay outline;

• Working outline
• Speaking outline
• Full-sentence outline

All three types are different from each other and are used for different purposes.

What does a full-sentence outline look like?

A full sentence outline contains full sentences at each level of the essay’s outline. It is similar to an alphanumeric outline and it is a commonly used essay outline.

What is a traditional outline format?

A traditional essay outline begins with writing down all the important points in one place and listing them down and adding sub-topics to them. Besides, it will also include evidence and proof that you will use to back your arguments.

What is the benefit of using a traditional outline format and an informal outline format?

A traditional outline format helps the students in listing down all the important details in one palace while an informal outline will help you coming up with new ideas and highlighting important points

As a Digital Content Strategist, Nova Allison has eight years of experience in writing both technical and scientific content. With a focus on developing online content plans that engage audiences, Nova strives to write pieces that are not only informative but captivating as well.

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Module 6: Research

Preliminary research strategies.

The first step towards writing a research paper is pretty obvious: find sources. Not everything that you find will be good, and those that are good are not always easily found.  Having an idea of what you’re looking for–what will most help you develop your essay and enforce your thesis–will help guide your process.

Example of a Research Process

A good research process should go through these steps:

• Decide on the topic.
• Narrow the topic in order to narrow search parameters.
• Create a question that your research will address.
• Generate sub-questions from your main question.
• Determine what kind of sources are best for your argument.
• Create a bibliography as you gather and reference sources.

Each of these is described in greater detail below.

The research process is messy! Do not start research haphazardly—come up with a plan first.

A research plan should begin after you can clearly identify the focus of your argument. First, inform yourself about the basics of your topic (Wikipedia and general online searches are great starting points). Be sure you’ve read all the assigned texts and carefully read the prompt as you gather preliminary information.  This stage is sometimes called pre-research .

A broad online search will yield thousands of sources, which no one could be expected to read through. To make it easier on yourself, the next step is to narrow your focus. Think about what kind of position or stance you can take on the topic. What about it strikes you as most interesting? Refer back to the prewriting stage of the writing process, which will come in handy here.

Preliminary Search Tips

• It is okay to start with Wikipedia as a reference, but do not use it as an official source. Look at the links and references at the bottom of the page for more ideas.
• Use “Ctrl+F” to find certain words within a webpage in order to jump to the sections of the article that interest you.
• Use quotation marks to narrow your search from just tanks in WWII to “Tanks in WWII” or “Tanks” in “WWII”.
• Find specific types of websites by adding “site:.gov” or “site:.edu” or “site:.org”. You can also search for specific file types like “filetype:.pdf”.
• Click on “Search Tools” under the search bar in Google and select “Any time” to see a list of options for time periods to help limit your search. You can find information just in the past month or year, or even for a custom range.

Use features already available through Google Search like Search Tools and Advanced Search to narrow and refine your results.

As you narrow your focus, create a list of questions that you’ll need to answer in order to write a good essay on the topic.  The research process will help you answer these questions.

Another part of your research plan should include the type of sources you want to gather. Keep track of these sources in a bibliography and jot down notes about the book, article, or document and how it will be useful to your essay. This will save you a lot of time later in the essay process–you’ll thank yourself!

• Revision and Adaptation. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
• The Research Process graphic. Authored by : Kim Louie for Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
• Organizing Your Research Plan. Provided by : Boundless. Located at : https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-writing/ . Project : Boundless Writing. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike

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Developing a Thesis Statement

Updated Jun 2022

A thesis statement defines the core elements involved in the question around which a research project is built. With it you can shape and implement a plan of action for conducting your research. You begin by creating one or more suppositions-or hypotheses-as to what the answer to that question might be. Think of them as preliminary thesis statements.

The difference between a preliminary and a final thesis can be thought of as the difference between:

"I don't know, but I'm thinking such and such." -and- "Trust me on this one thing."

A final thesis statement removes the doubt inherent in a preliminary thesis and provides a solid basis for your project. The rightness of you position will be advanced and argued in your research paper.

Creating a Preliminary Thesis Statement

Creating a preliminary thesis is the first step. For this, you must already have a research question. Examine it carefully and do a little brainstorming as to what the possible answer(s) might be: make some educated guesses and write them down.

You want to end up with a statement that isn't necessarily conclusive but gets you thinking and started on building one that is: a final statement around which your research can be focused. Let's use an environmental question fueling the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge drilling debate (circa 2006) to build a thesis statement.

Research Question: What is the impact of China's rapidly expanding economy on global oil markets and how does it affect the argument against drilling for oil in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge?

Formulate a preliminary answer; add some supporting facts or observations-in this case both-as well as a preliminary conclusion, as in the following:

Preliminary Thesis Statement: The growth of China's rapidly expanding economy is radically changing the playing field in a global oil-market dominated for decades by the United States and Japan. Currently the second largest consumer of petroleum products in the world, China may very well become the largest, possibly importing as much as two-thirds of its requirement by 2025. This may be due to the growing Chinese auto market. It may also be due to an inability to meet established nuclear power plant construction targets. Regardless, the stakes are high. The question of where enough energy to satisfy global needs is going to come from cannot be downplayed. Despite the protests of environmental activists across the United States, the increasing needs of China to sustain their growing economy by contracting with nations deemed hostile by the United States may very well change the tone of the debate about drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. It may tilt away from environmentalist conservation positions toward those who favor exploration and production.

This preliminary thesis provides some direction for your inquiry. In one short paragraph, four things are accomplished:

• A preliminary answer to the first part of a two-part question has been given: "China's economy is radically changing the global, oil-market playing-field."
• A hypothetical observation has been added: "In time, China might become the largest player in the field."
• A supporting fact is also added: "China is currently the second largest petroleum-product consumer in the world."
• Finally, a concluding supposition or hypothesis is suggested: "The tone of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge drilling debate may change."

Reviewing the Preliminary Thesis Statement

Reviewing the preliminary thesis is the second step. In this example you'll notice that the preliminary statement is a little bit loose, a little broad. This is not unusual, and it's okay. It suggests too much information, but at least there is something with which to work.

In the example, the two-part question has both a "what" and a "how" component. The preliminary thesis briefly answers the "what" component, makes a credible observation regarding "why", and then suggests a hypothetical answer to the "how" component.

So, where did the "why" come from: that wasn't part of the original question? The interesting thing about questions is how often they lead to others. The important thing to note here is that an answer to an unasked question is a good indicator that something needs to be revised. And perhaps it's in the question itself. Sometimes a research question needs revising before the preliminary thesis can be revised. How about, something like this:

Revised Research Question: Why is the expanding Chinese economy exerting so much pressure on global oil markets and how will it affect the debate between corporate America and environmentalists over drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge?

Considering Your Purpose and Audience

Consider both your purpose and the interest of your audience next. Notice that the new question is more purpose driven. The inquiry is more specific. It asks: "Why" does one situation exist and "how" will it affect another? Notice that the "what" component has been removed, replaced by a fact and a rephrased question that incorporates the "why" component.

With a clearer purpose the interest of the audience will be much easier to hold. In this case, two groups with opposing views have been identified. Each has a vested interest in what you have to say. With a more purposeful question a more precise thesis can now be shaped.

Revised Preliminary Thesis Statement: Currently the second largest consumer of petroleum products in the world, China may very well become the largest, possibly importing as much as two-thirds of its requirement by 2025. This rapidly expanding demand for oil may be caused, in part, by their exploding automobile industry and, in part, by an inability to meet their nuclear power plant construction targets. Regardless, the stakes are high and oil resources are limited. With increased global competition, the demand will rapidly outpace current production capabilities in the oil producing nations. Such increased competition is going to seriously impact the current debate between environmentalists and corporate America regarding drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. And, in the end, the environmentalists may not like the outcome.

You can see that, with just a little tweaking, the preliminary thesis has taken on a sharper focus, one that will attract the attention of an audience that includes people on both sides of this divisive issue. It begins with a simple statement of fact supported by reasons that address the new "why" in the revised question. A very transparent conclusion suggesting the direction the research paper will take follows.

Considering the Scope of Your Thesis

Finally, consider the scope of your statement. There's still something a little bulky about the preliminary thesis. It's time to hone it down, narrow it to where the actual research won't be overwhelming. Here's a possibility:

Further Revised Preliminary Thesis Statement: China, currently the second largest consumer of petroleum products in the world, is poised to become the largest. Projections indicate that it will be importing as much as two-thirds of its nation's requirement by 2025. Regardless of the reasons for this-and there are many-global resources are limited as demand soars. With production capabilities in the oil producing nations maxed at current levels and increased competition from China to secure enough oil to sustain their economic growth, the current debate between environmentalists and corporate America over drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge is going to ratchet up a decibel or two. And the environmentalists are going to be hard-pressed to win the argument.

Converting Your Preliminary to a Final Thesis

Converting from a preliminary to a final thesis is the last step. You've come a long way. It's shorter, but still bulky. Let's set the first few sentences aside and tweak the last to see what happens.

Final Thesis Statement: With production capabilities in the oil producing nations maxed at their current levels, and increased competition from China to import that oil, the current debate between environmentalists and corporate America over drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge is going to ratchet up a decibel or two. And the environmentalists are going to be hard-pressed to win the argument.

An Even Better Final Thesis Statement: Environmentalists are likely to lose ground in the current debate over drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge as oil producing nations struggle to meet the increased demands of an emerging industrial China competing for limited supplies in the global oil market.

Okay. There you have it, a final thesis statement. The preliminary statement has been honed down and tightened up. And guess what? The sentences that were set aside, as well as all the others you have worked on during your revision, aren't a waste. They, or any combination of them, might make an excellent opening paragraph. You may want to include some version of your original research question, also. It's a great way to get started:

Plausible Opening Paragraph: China, currently the second largest consumer of petroleum products in the world, is poised to become the largest. Projections indicate that it will be importing as much as two-thirds of its nation's requirement by 2025. Regardless of the reasons for this-and there are many-global resources are limited as international demand soars. How will this affect the current debate between environmentalists and corporate America over drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge?

Palmquist, Mike & Peter Connor. (2008). Developing a Thesis Statement. Writing@CSU . Colorado State University. https://writing.colostate.edu/guides/guide.cfm?guideid=21

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Types of Outlines and Samples

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Alphanumeric Outlines

This is the most common type of outline and usually instantly recognizable to most people. The formatting follows these characters, in this order:

• Roman Numerals
• Capitalized Letters
• Arabic Numerals
• Lowercase Letters

If the outline needs to subdivide beyond these divisions, use Arabic numerals inside parentheses and then lowercase letters inside parentheses. Select the "Sample Outlines" PDF in the Media Box above to download the sample of this outline.

The sample PDF in the Media Box above is an example of an outline that a student might create before writing an essay. In order to organize her thoughts and make sure that she has not forgotten any key points that she wants to address, she creates the outline as a framework for her essay.

What is the assignment?

Your instructor asks the class to write an expository (explanatory) essay on the typical steps a high school student would follow in order to apply to college.

What is the purpose of this essay?

To explain the process for applying to college

Who is the intended audience for this essay?

High school students intending to apply to college and their parents

What is the essay's thesis statement?

When applying to college, a student follows a certain process which includes choosing the right schools and preparing the application materials.

Full Sentence Outlines

The full sentence outline format is essentially the same as the Alphanumeric outline. The main difference (as the title suggests) is that full sentences are required at each level of the outline. This outline is most often used when preparing a traditional essay. Select the "Sample Outlines" PDF in the Media Box above to download the sample of this outline.

Decimal Outlines

The decimal outline is similar in format to the alphanumeric outline. The added benefit is a system of decimal notation that clearly shows how every level of the outline relates to the larger whole. Select the "Sample Outlines" PDF in the Media Box above to download the sample of this outline.

Assignment Planner

Step 5: Develop a Preliminary Thesis Statement

Coming up with a strong thesis is a process that takes time. You don't really have a finished thesis until you reach the end of your research investigation and conclude your argument. Once you have reached a balanced, informed perspective on your material, or come to the conclusion of your argument, you will have your thesis or claim. In order to get to this thesis, however, you will have to create a "working thesis" or preliminary thesis statement. The preliminary thesis will provide you with a strong focus that you can use when writing the response to your assignment.

Develop a Preliminary Thesis

Use your research question to launch your thesis.

Your thesis should provide an answer to your research question . Without a thesis, you will write an informative paper about your question rather than an argumentative paper that provides an answer.

Your research question may prompt you to identify a problem and pose a solution.

Example from a Second-Year Political Science Paper

Canada's current electoral system is flawed, undemocratic and divisive [Problem] . Reforming Canada's electoral system to a mixed-member proportional system with a five-percent threshold would make it more democratic, promote national unity, and increase civic interest in democracy [Response/ Argument/ Thesis] .

Note that this thesis statement includes two sentences:

• a claim (the problem)
• support for the claim (the response, made up of two parts: a solution and three reasons why the solution will address the problem)

Do not simply give a statement of intent or what you will try to do in the paper (e.g. "In this paper, I will analyze the reasons that Canada's electoral system is flawed and consider a possible solution."). This statement of intent may be a good initial response to the research question, but your thesis needs to present your conclusion, not how you got there.

Make Your Thesis an Arguable Statement

Your thesis must be debatable and cannot be a conclusion that simply describes an event or phenomenon or restates a commonly known fact.

Although questions can be used to good rhetorical effect in your introduction (and throughout your paper), your thesis should not be a question, but a statement of claim.

Demonstrate Independent Thinking

The point of the thesis is to show your thoughts on a topic. Although it can be intimidating to make a strong claim in writing — a claim that will be judged, and that you may be expected to defend personally — but it is also a particular benefit of academia that you are allowed and even encouraged to make strong claims based on solid reasoning, and that you will be lauded for doing so.

Pass the "So What?" Test

The reader will shrug and say "so what?" to an uninteresting thesis, so be sure your thesis makes a strong and notable point. Evaluate your thesis by asking yourself what the implications of your thesis are, e.g., "So what if a proportional electoral system were implemented in Canada? Would it matter?" Look at the sample thesis above: does it pass the "so what?" test?

Provide Details rather than Vague Assertions

Be clear about the approach you are going to take to support your thesis.

Consider including a "blueprint" or a "roadmap" of the major points you will make in your paper. Academic writing conventions require you to provide your reader with an outline of the argument you intend to make before you make it.

Thesis Statements: Beyond the Basics

You will keep revising your thesis statement as you go, making it increasingly specific and argumentative. See Step 9 for an example.

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Preliminary Essay Sample Paper

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Doug Mann attempted to demystify the concept of digital classrooms in his 2012 essay. During that period and even today, more schools and colleges were adopting the use of technology and digital visual media into the classroom and the learning activities of students. Mann D. (2012) insists that the use of digital technologies in higher education has done the exact opposite of its intended use and promoted ignorance, not knowledge, and severely degraded basic reading, writing and thinking skills among the students in digital classrooms. Mann insists that the use of technology has accelerated young people’s self-esteem beyond reasonable measure and the infusion of the same technologies into education only makes the situation worse, not better.  Preliminary Essay Sample Paper

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            Ozerbas, M. A., & Erdogan, B. H. (2016) define digital classrooms as “an authentic environment equipped with digital technologies in which students have active participation and take responsibilityfor their own learning.” Unfortunately, as noted by Mann D. (2012), the majority of students do not take responsibility for their own learning. Only one out of ten students with a technological device in class uses it for actual research and checking for relevant information and definitions arising from what is being taught, the other nine are on various social media platforms. O’Connor, E. (2009) notes that the millennial generation does not read for pleasure and spends less than an hour daily reading and/or doing school assignments. But on the other hand, they spend an average of 295 minutes daily on various screens, surfing various sites on the internet. The aspect of information delivery by digital media has been largely ignored by the students who have instead chosen to concentrate on peer communication, entertainment and procrastination. This is especially true in today’s schools and colleges. Most students tend to ignore tutors or lectures while in class and concentrate on their mobile phones and other social media and multimedia sites on the internet. Preliminary Essay Sample Paper

Mann insists that the advocacy for inclusion of more technology in classrooms is redundant and unnecessary since digital technology is already omnipresent in class. Indeed, lecturers/tutors/professors use computers, projectors, smart screens, PowerPoint presentations and the internet in their lectures. Students however are addicted to their devices and checking the social media pages for updates on a regular basis. Studies have shown that the average millennial checks their social media pages on an hourly basis. Students in digital classrooms have been proven to use the class internet connection or WI-FI to check these platforms instead of concentrating in class. Preliminary Essay Sample Paper

In addition, Mann delves into the support of digital classrooms by governments and other policy makers and their continued refusal to acknowledge empirical research that questions the use of technology in education. O’Connor, E. (2009) explains that bringing technology into the classroom does not necessarily mean integrating technology with education. Indeed, today’s students are relatively screen savvy, and this conceals a deplorable lack of knowledge and skill that has fooled technophobic elders into complacency. Young people in truth know a lot less than they seem to. This has led to a major impact on educational policies and spending, all aimed at developing and introducing more devices into the classroom with the aim of improving the learning experience for students.

On the other hand, Mann acknowledges that technologies have eased the sharing of text and images relevant to education. He notes that students no longer have to spend much time in libraries looking for relevant coursework. Ozerbas, M. A., & Erdogan, B. H. (2016) also noted that visual media in the classroom environment, enriched with multimedia class software increases the students’ academic success levels. This is however true to a few courses/units in schools such as fine arts and film. Preliminary Essay Sample Paper

The article concludes by recommending hitting the off button in as many places as possible. This is aimed at controlling and limiting the usage and access of digital services by students while in class. Indeed, limiting access will provide a solution to the current addiction but may be unsustainable in the long run. Mann does provide good recommendations and valid reasons to support the recommendations as outlined in the article. Further studies into user behavior concerning students and digital classrooms need to be done to come up with a solution to the continuingly degrading intelligence of the millennial generation. Preliminary Essay Sample Paper

References Gilbert, E. (2008). The Dumbest Generation: How the Digital Age Stupefies Young Americans and Jeopardizes Our Future (Or, Don’t Trust Anyone Under Thirty)/Distracted: The Erosion of Attention and the Coming Dark Age. Library Journal , 133 (9), 118. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=tfh&AN=32079171&site=ehost-live .

Mann, D. (2012, October 6). Let’s unplug the digital classroom. Toronto Star . Retrieved from Canada in Context Database.

O’Connor, E. (2009). The Dumbest Generation: How the Digital Age Stupefies Young Americans and Jeopardizes Our Future (Or, Don’t Trust Anyone Under 30), by Mark Bauerlein. New York: Jeremy P. pp234–239.

Ozerbas, M. A., & Erdogan, B. H. (2016). The Effect of the Digital Classroom on Academic Success and Online Technologies Self-Efficacy. Journal of Educational Technology & Society , 19 (4), 203–212. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=120696898&site=ehost-live. Preliminary Essay Sample Paper

Let’s Unplug The Digital Classroom

By Doug Mann, Toronto Star , October 6, 2012

• We are entering an age when the “digital delivery of course content can free faculty in traditional institutions to engage in direct dialogue and mentorship with students.”So says the Ontario government’s 2012 white paper on education, “ Strengthening Ontario’s Centres of Creativity, Innovation and Knowledge .” Professors muse that the classroom must “evolve or die” to become more “fun and engaging” for the modern student.
• Such views are misinformed at best, crude propaganda for Apple and Microsoft at worst. The use of digital technology in higher education has promoted ignorance, not knowledge, and severely degraded basic reading, writing and thinking skills. It’s time to hit the off button. Preliminary Essay Sample Paper
• One problem with the most enthusiastic futurists is that too many of them haven’t spent any time in the classroom in the last decade. If they had, they’d realize that digital technology is already omnipresent there, used by both students and professors. Almost all undergraduate students in North America are addicted to texting on their smartphones and checking their Facebook pages on an hourly basis. Almost all professors use computers, projectors, Power Point presentations and the Internet as part of their lectures. Calling for more digital technology in education today is like calling for more white people in the Republican party*.
• The real question is how computers, smartphones and iPods are used, and whether these uses contribute anything to the main goal of higher education: to improve students’ minds and characters by helping them to learn facts, debate ideas and understand the world better. The answer, for the most part, is no — study after study shows that digital technology has dumbed down higher education. They may make education more “fun” and “engaging.” But that’s only saying that they’ve turned education into a form of entertainment. Writing essays, reading difficult texts or figuring out complex mathematical problems have never been “fun” — and never will be.
• On the plus side, the use of the computer as a delivery device for texts and images is largely a positive development. Gone are the nights spent in the bowels of the university library looking through card catalogues and the social science index for books and articles. It’s also useful from a teacher’s point of view to be able to display images and video via classroom computers when teaching things like fine art, comics and film.
• Laptops in the classroom are much more of a problem. Yes, one student in 10 actually uses them to look up relevant facts and issues, but the other nine are using classroom Wi-Fi to check their Facebook pages, email or celebrity websites. Portable computers combine all four of the general functions of digital technology: information delivery, peer communication, entertainment and procrastination. Preliminary Essay Sample Paper. Cellphones concentrate on the last three functions and have no pedagogical purpose.Anyone who has walked to the back of a university classroom and looked at what students are actually looking at on their various screens will abandon any sense that digital technology plays a positive role in the classroom. Facebook and celebrity websites dominate their screens.
• What’s especially frustrating when we hear the blind support for digital technology bruited in government white papers and the mass media today is the refusal to acknowledge the substantial empirical research over the last 15 years that questions the value of such technology. Mark Bauerlein’s The Dumbest Generation contains literally dozens of studies that show how digital technology has helped to create a generation of proud bibliophobes who avoid complex knowledge like the plague. Preliminary Essay Sample Paper
• My solution? Hit the off button in as many places as we can. Turn off Wi-Fi in the classroom, restricting it to student lounges scattered across campus. Create a schoolwide policy that bans the use of cellphones during lectures and seminars. Since texting has become an addiction for many, treat cells like cigarettes: if you want to text, do it outside. Ban the use of social networking websites during class. Stop promoting Internet-managed distance-education courses: these are cheap imitations of the real thing. Digital technologies can be great delivery devices. But what they too often deliver has nothing to do with education.

Mann, D. (2012, October 6). Let’s unplug the digital classroom. Toronto Star . Retrieved from Canada in

Context database. Preliminary Essay Sample Paper

Symposium to Explore Significance of 18th-Century Philosopher’s Essay on Perpetual Peace in Today’s World

A one-day symposium April 19, supported by the Central New York Humanities Corridor, will explore how philosopher Immanuel Kant’s 1795 essay “Toward Perpetual Peace” can help lay the foundation for lasting peace.

Philosopher Immanuel Kant’s 1795 essay “Toward Perpetual Peace” still holds significant relevance even now more than two centuries after it was first published. With ongoing wars across the globe, securing peace remains elusive.

An upcoming one-day symposium will explore how Kant’s principles can help lay the foundation for lasting peace. The symposium is supported by the Central New York Humanities Corridor , whose administrative home is based at the Syracuse University Humanities Center . The event, “ The Contemporary Relevance of Perpetual Peace, ” will be held Friday, April 19, at Cornell University, with a symposium and workshop on one of Kant’s most widely read essays, Zum ewigen Frieden (“Toward Perpetual Peace”).

The symposium, as part of the Perpetual Peace Project , is organized by Gregg Lambert , Dean’s Professor of the Humanities in the College of Arts and Sciences and a founder and co-director of the Perpetual Peace Project, and Peter Gilgen , director of the Institute for German Cultural Studies and associate professor in the Department of German Studies and Graduate Field of Comparative Literature at Cornell University.

The Perpetual Peace Project, an ongoing international forum on the concept of peace, began as an initiative of the Humanities Center in 2008.

Gregg Lambert

“The purpose of the project is to raise awareness and attention to the fact that war is not one regional issue,” Lambert says. “It is a global issue, and the number of wars only seems to increase each year.”

Open to the public, Friday’s symposium, which also is a celebration of Kant’s 300th birthday, will begin with three individual papers that examine different aspects of Kant’s treatise and its contemporary relevance.

“Kant’s popular essay was reviewed and cited as an inspiration by numerous thinkers from the start,” Gilgen says. “Anyone thinking about peace and what it means and implies had/has to take Kant’s profound remarks into account.”

The treatise served as an inspiration for the League of Nations, the first worldwide intergovernmental organization, founded in 1920, as well as its successor organization, the United Nations, in 1945.

“At the symposium, we hope to draw on a wide audience interested in Kant’s political philosophy as well as the theory and practice of peace—a topic that could not be more timely in light of the many ongoing conflicts in different parts of the world,” Gilgen says.

Peter Gilgen

The second half of the event is dedicated to a workshop on the Perpetual Peace Project.

Lambert, who is also founding director of the Syracuse University Humanities Center in the College of Arts and Sciences, and Adam Nocek , associate professor in the School of Arts, Media and Engineering, Arizona State University, and co-director of the Perpetual Peace Project, will present the workshop, which will launch the Perpetual Peace Academy. The academy will feature a curriculum created by faculty from all over the world, contributing designs of courses that they would teach in a virtual setting.

“We are really trying to engage students on all campuses and other participants in talking about the Perpetual Peace Project, and then we’re going to inaugurate the Perpetual Peace Academy,” Lambert says. “The academy will be driven by international faculty who want to contribute their ideas from across the disciplines.”

Along with his presence at the symposium, Nocek also joined Lambert in Lambert’s undergraduate seminar, Problems in Marxism: Perpetual Peace , Tuesday for a discussion with students, and other participants, about the Perpetual Peace Academy. Nocek’s time at the symposium and in the seminar is supported as part of Syracuse University’s Distinguished Visiting Collaborator (DVC) initiative of the CNY Humanities Corridor.

Vivian May, director of the SU Humanities Center and lead director of the CNY Humanities Corridor, says the scholar mini-residency bridges the Syracuse University campus with another corridor campus, a model that deepens collaborative networks.

“In conversation with Lambert, Gilgen, and a range of other interlocutors over the course of his visit,  Adam Nocek , founding director of the Center for Philosophical Technologies at Arizona State University, will discuss the importance of philosopher Immanuel Kant’s yet-to-be-realized concept of ‘perpetual peace,’” May says. “I encourage everyone who can to engage with this year’s DVC events and activities, as they offer an important opportunity for us to step back, refuse broad acceptance of violence and devastation, and actively pursue planetary peace—a peace that centers climate justice and holistic thriving.”

Since its start in 2008, the Perpetual Peace Project, structured around Kant’s six preliminary articles, has gone through three phases, with the first at Syracuse University and the United Nations in New York. This first phase included a co-edited and re-issue of a new book publication of Kant’s “Perpetual Peace” and several different events.

In partnership with the Humanities Center and the Centre for Humanities at Utrecht University in the Netherlands, the second phase from 2013-15 included a series of events commemorating the Treaty of Utrecht and a documentary film.

This latest phase has reinaugurated the project following the invasion of Ukraine by Russia in 2022. Lambert partnered with Nocek to kick off this latest phase, including a launch event conference at the University of Warsaw, Poland, followed by conferences at the Institute of Philosophy of the Czech Academy and the Jan Evangelista Purkyně University in Ústí nad Labem, both in the Czech Republic.

Friday’s symposium features a presentation by Gilgen, moderated by Elke Siegel, German studies, Cornell; a presentation by Patchen Markell, associate professor, government, Cornell, and moderated by Karin Nisenbaum , Renée Crown Professor in the Humanities and assistant professor, College of Arts and Sciences, Syracuse University; and a presentation by Neil Saccamano, associate professor, literatures in English, Cornell, and moderated by Verena Erlenbusch-Anderson , associate professor, philosophy, College of Arts and Sciences, Syracuse University.

For this latest phase, Lambert edited a new version of Kant’s original treatise, which has been published and is available for event participants.

Kathleen Haley

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What to Know About the Trial Donald Trump Faces in Manhattan

Prosecutors accused Mr. Trump of falsifying business records to cover up a sex scandal. It is the first criminal trial of a former president.

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By Ben Protess ,  Kate Christobek and Jonah E. Bromwich

Donald J. Trump is now on trial in Manhattan — the first former U.S. president to be criminally prosecuted.

The trial, which began Monday with jury selection and could move to opening arguments early next week, will oscillate between salacious testimony on sex scandals and granular detail about corporate documents.

Mr. Trump faces 34 felony counts of falsifying business records in the first degree, all tied to the former president’s role in a hush-money payment to a porn star, Stormy Daniels.

But that payoff is not the only such deal that prosecutors plan to highlight. The prosecutors, from the Manhattan district attorney’s office, have accused Mr. Trump of orchestrating a broader scheme to influence the 2016 presidential election by directing his allies to purchase damaging stories about him to keep them under wraps.

After a slow start to jury selection, the process gained steam this week as lawyers on both sides settled on the first seven jurors. They now must select another five as well as several alternates.

The judge overseeing the case said that if jurors continued to be seated at this pace, opening arguments would most likely begin Monday.

It is the first of Mr. Trump’s four criminal cases to go to trial — and it could be the only one to do so before Election Day.

Mr. Trump, who is again the presumptive Republican nominee for president, has denied all wrongdoing. He also assailed the district attorney, Alvin L. Bragg, for bringing the charges, accusing him of carrying out a politically motivated witch hunt. And he has attacked the judge , Juan M. Merchan.

Here are answers to some key questions about the tr

Will the trial be televised?

No. There will be no audio or video broadcast of the trial available, though cameras will be stationed in the hallway outside the courtroom to capture Mr. Trump’s remarks going in and out of the trial.

Court will generally be in session every weekday except Wednesdays, from 9:30 a.m. to 4:30 p.m.

What is Mr. Trump accused of?

The charges trace back to a $130,000 hush-money payment that Mr. Trump’s fixer, Michael D. Cohen, made to Ms. Daniels in the final days of the 2016 campaign. The payment, which Mr. Cohen said he had made at Mr. Trump’s direction, suppressed her story of a sexual liaison that she said she had with Mr. Trump.

Paying hush money is not always illegal.

But while serving as the commander in chief, Mr. Trump reimbursed Mr. Cohen, and the way he did so constituted fraud, prosecutors say.

In internal records, Mr. Trump’s company classified the repayment to Mr. Cohen as legal expenses, citing a retainer agreement. Yet there were no such expenses, the prosecutors say, and the retainer agreement was fictional too.

Those records underpin the 34 counts of falsifying business records: 11 counts involve the checks, 11 center on monthly invoices Mr. Cohen submitted to the company, and 12 involve entries in the general ledger for Mr. Trump’s trust.

Why did prosecutors cite other hush-money payments?

Mr. Bragg’s office linked Mr. Trump to three hush-money deals. While Mr. Trump is indicted only in connection with the business records related to Ms. Daniels, the prosecutors most likely mentioned the other deals to begin the work of proving that Mr. Trump intended to conceal a second crime.

In addition to the indictment, the prosecutors filed a so-called statement of facts that referenced the other payoffs.

That document, common in complex white-collar cases, provides something of a road map for what the prosecutors could reveal at trial. And based on evidence presented to the grand jury, the document details the two hush-money deals involving The National Enquirer, which has longstanding ties to Mr. Trump.

The first involved the tabloid’s payment of $30,000 to a former Trump Tower doorman who claimed to know that Mr. Trump had fathered a child out of wedlock. The publication later determined that the claim was untrue.

The National Enquirer also made a payment to Karen McDougal, Playboy’s Playmate of the Year in 1998, who wanted to sell her story of an affair with Mr. Trump during the 2016 campaign. She reached a $150,000 agreement with the tabloid, which bought the rights to her story to suppress it — a practice known as “catch and kill.”

The deals suggest that the payment to Ms. Daniels was not an isolated incident but rather part of a broader strategy to influence the 2016 election.

Why is it a felony to falsify records?

Falsifying business records in New York State can be a misdemeanor. But it can be elevated to a felony if prosecutors prove that the records were falsified to conceal another crime.

In this case, there are three potential additional crimes that Mr. Bragg has accused Mr. Trump of concealing: a federal campaign finance violation, a state election-law crime and tax fraud.

The campaign crimes, prosecutors say, involve the hush-money payoffs to Ms. Daniels and Ms. McDougal. The payments, they argue, were illegal donations to Mr. Trump’s campaign.

The potential tax fraud stems from the way in which Mr. Cohen was reimbursed for his payment to Ms. Daniels.

Do prosecutors need to convict Mr. Trump of the other crimes?

No. Prosecutors do not have to charge Mr. Trump with any secondary crime or prove that he committed it.

They still must show, however, that there was intent to “commit or conceal” a second crime.

Who will the witnesses be?

Mr. Cohen is expected to be a crucial witness for the prosecution. His testimony could take days.

Mr. Bragg’s prosecutors are also expected to call David Pecker, the former publisher of the National Enquirer, as well as Hope Hicks, a former campaign and White House aide to Mr. Trump, to shed light on the tumultuous period surrounding the hush-money payments.

Ms. Daniels and Ms. McDougal could be witnesses as well.

Who Are Key Players in the Trump Manhattan Criminal Trial?

The first criminal trial of former President Donald J. Trump is underway. Take a closer look at central figures related to the case.

What will the defense do?

The defense will most likely try to paint Mr. Cohen as a Trump-hating liar, noting that he and the former president had a falling-out years ago. Mr. Trump’s lawyers are expected to emphasize that Mr. Cohen pleaded guilty to a variety of federal crimes in 2018 — including for his role in the hush-money payment.

Much of Mr. Cohen’s testimony is expected to be corroborated by other witnesses, but he might be the only one who can directly tie Mr. Trump to the false business records, a potential weakness of the case that Mr. Trump’s lawyers could seek to exploit.

Whether Mr. Trump’s lawyers will call any witnesses is unclear, but Mr. Trump has said he plans to take the stand in his own defense.

Will Trump attend the trial?

Nothing is ever certain with Mr. Trump, but he is currently expected to attend much of the trial. To be absent, he would need to seek a waiver from the judge. Mr. Trump has already indicated a potential conflict — his youngest son’s high school graduation in May — though it is unclear whether the judge will pause the trial that day or excuse him from attending.

When Mr. Trump is there, it will create a host of security and logistical issues around the Lower Manhattan courthouse. In addition to the U.S. Secret Service protecting Mr. Trump, there will be a heavy police presence outside the building, as protesters and counterprotesters could fill the streets.

Who is the judge?

Justice Merchan is a veteran judge known as a no-nonsense, drama-averse jurist. This case is already testing his patience.

Since the Manhattan district attorney charged Mr. Trump last year, the former president has used campaign emails, social media and repetitive legal filings to attack the judge’s integrity and family. Recently, the former president demanded for a second time that Justice Merchan step aside , citing his daughter’s position at a Democratic consulting firm that worked for the 2020 Biden campaign.

The judge, who denied that request on Monday, has also issued a gag order to protect prosecutors, witnesses and his own family from Mr. Trump’s vitriol. And yet the former president has continued to post articles with pictures of the justice’s daughter.

During the trial, Justice Merchan will be in charge of keeping order in the courtroom and ruling on objections made by prosecutors and Mr. Trump’s lawyers. The jury will ultimately decide whether Mr. Trump is guilty.

What is the maximum sentence if Mr. Trump is convicted?

The charges against Mr. Trump are all Class E felonies, the lowest category of felonies in New York. Each count carries a maximum prison sentence of four years. Justice Merchan has made it clear that he takes white-collar crime seriously and could throw Mr. Trump behind bars. It’s likely, however, that Justice Merchan would impose a concurrent sentence — under which Mr. Trump would serve all prison time simultaneously — if the former president were convicted of more than one count.

And nothing in the law requires Justice Merchan to imprison Mr. Trump if he’s convicted by a jury. The judge could instead sentence him to probation.

Can Trump appeal?

Yes, if he is convicted, Mr. Trump will appeal, a process that could take months or longer.

Mr. Trump could first take the case to the Appellate Division in Manhattan, and, ultimately seek review from the state’s highest court, the Court of Appeals in Albany. In other words, any appeal is unlikely to be resolved before Election Day. And he would most likely remain free at least until it is resolved.

Ben Protess is an investigative reporter at The Times, writing about public corruption. He has been covering the various criminal investigations into former President Trump and his allies. More about Ben Protess

Kate Christobek is a reporter covering the civil and criminal cases against former president Donald J. Trump for The Times. More about Kate Christobek

Jonah E. Bromwich covers criminal justice in New York, with a focus on the Manhattan district attorney’s office and state criminal courts in Manhattan. More about Jonah E. Bromwich

Our Coverage of the Trump Hush-Money Trial

News and Analysis

Donald Trump’s criminal trial in Manhattan took a startling turn when two jurors were abruptly excused , demonstrating the challenge of picking citizens to determine the fate of a former president.

Prosecutors argued in court that with a steady stream of social media posts, Trump had violated the gag order  imposed on him seven times, urging the judge overseeing the trial to hold him in contempt.

Our reporter joined “The Daily” to explain what happened during the opening days  of the trial against Donald Trump.

More on Trump’s Legal Troubles

Key Inquiries: Trump faces several investigations  at both the state and the federal levels, into matters related to his business and political careers.

Case Tracker:  Keep track of the developments in the criminal cases  involving the former president.

What if Trump Is Convicted?: Will any of the proceedings hinder Trump’s presidential campaign? Here is what we know, and what we don’t know .

Trump on Trial Newsletter: Sign up here  to get the latest news and analysis  on the cases in New York, Florida, Georgia and Washington, D.C.

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