essay on terai region of nepal

Essay on Terai Region Of Nepal

Students are often asked to write an essay on Terai Region Of Nepal in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

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100 Words Essay on Terai Region Of Nepal

Introduction to terai region.

The Terai Region of Nepal is a lowland area in the southern part of the country. It is known for its rich soil which is very good for farming. This area has a lot of forests, wildlife, and rivers too.

Climate and Weather

The Terai Region experiences a warm climate most of the year. Summers are very hot, and winters are mild. This weather is perfect for growing many kinds of crops.

People and Culture

Many different communities live in the Terai. They have their own unique traditions, languages, and festivals. People here mostly depend on farming for their living.

Wildlife and Forests

The Terai is home to dense forests that are full of diverse wildlife, including rare animals like tigers and rhinos. These forests are important for the environment and tourism.

250 Words Essay on Terai Region Of Nepal

Terai region: nepal’s diverse treasure.

Nepal’s Terai region is a vibrant and diverse treasure stretching along the southern border of the country. It is a fertile, flat belt of land that starts from the Siwalik Hills in the north and extends to the Indian border in the south. The region is home to a wide range of ethnic groups, cultures, and religions, making it a fascinating place to explore.

Rich History and Cultural Heritage

The Terai region has a rich historical and cultural heritage that dates back centuries. It was once a part of the ancient Magadha Kingdom and later became a vital trade route between Nepal and India. The region has also been influenced by the Mughal Empire and the British Raj, which left behind a unique blend of cultures and traditions.

Natural Beauty and Wildlife

The Terai region is renowned for its natural beauty and wildlife. It is home to lush forests, wetlands, and grasslands that support a diverse range of flora and fauna. The region is famous for its national parks, including Chitwan National Park, which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and home to endangered species such as the one-horned rhinoceros and the Bengal tiger.

Agriculture and Economic Importance

The Terai region is vital to Nepal’s economy. The fertile soil and favorable climate make it ideal for agriculture. The region produces a variety of crops, including rice, wheat, sugarcane, and jute. It is also home to numerous industries, including textiles, food processing, and tourism. The region’s strategic location makes it a crucial gateway for trade with India and other neighboring countries.

Challenges and Opportunities

The Terai region faces several challenges, including poverty, unemployment, and environmental degradation. However, it also has vast potential for development. The government is actively working to improve infrastructure, promote education, and attract investment to the region. The Terai region has the potential to become a major economic hub and a vital center for tourism and cultural exchange.

500 Words Essay on Terai Region Of Nepal

The terai region of nepal: a diverse and fertile land, geography of the terai.

The Terai is a flat and fertile region, with an average elevation of just 150 meters above sea level. It is bounded by the Himalayas to the north and the Indian state of Bihar to the south. The Terai is also crossed by several major rivers, including the Ganges, the Koshi, and the Narayani.

Climate of the Terai

The Terai has a tropical climate, with hot and humid summers and mild winters. The average temperature in the Terai is 25 degrees Celsius. The region receives an average of 1500 millimeters of rainfall per year, which is distributed throughout the year.

People and Culture of the Terai

Agriculture in the terai.

The Terai is a major agricultural hub of Nepal, and it produces a variety of crops, including rice, wheat, maize, and sugarcane. The region is also home to a large number of livestock, including cattle, buffalo, and goats.

Biodiversity of the Terai

The Terai is also home to a rich biodiversity, including a variety of plants and animals. The region is home to several national parks and wildlife sanctuaries, including the Chitwan National Park and the Bardia National Park. These parks are home to a variety of animals, including tigers, rhinos, elephants, and leopards.

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• 26 January, 2024

Terai – The Other Face of Nepal

When people think of Nepal, the first things that come to mind are the Himalayas with its yaks and snow leopards, or the cultural and historical haven of the Kathmandu Valley . Most travelers find themselves seeking this emblematic image of Nepal, an image of hills and glaciers, narrow trekking paths and endless pastures. While the unparalleled magnificence of the Himalayas and their foothills are the face of Nepal for a good reason, travelers must not ignore that Nepal has another, equally unique, face. Underneath the shadow of the mountains are the vast lowlands, home to indigenous communities and wealthy in flora and fauna, the Terai is the other face of Nepal, less traveled but just as fascinating as the rest of Nepal.

Making up 17% of Nepal’s terrain, stretching seamlessly from far-west to far-east, and starting at the modest elevation of 70 meters above sea level, this belt of land boasts of a sub-tropical climate that fosters such fertility that it has become the agricultural backbone of Nepal. A land where all the Himalayan waters flow through to reach the Indo-Gangetic plain and then the ocean, the fertility of the Terai gives hold to more than just human agriculture.

The wildlife that emerges from the Terai is enough to leave one in awe for a lifetime. From old-growth, sub-tropical jungles to wide river beds and endless grasslands, the Terai is inhabited by fabled animals such as the Bengal Tiger, One-Horned Rhinoceros, crocodiles and tens of bird species. Not only this, but the people who inhabit the Terai still hold onto a way of life that can be rarely seen these days. Untouched by modernity, many indigenous communities live as they did a hundred years ago – hand in hand with the nature surrounding them.

To say that the Terai altogether falls out of the limelight of tourism woudn’t be fair, since its more famous national parks see hundreds of domestic and international tourists every year, but it can be said with some certainty that the Terai is largely untapped given the potential it holds. To understand this potential in a deeper way Inside Himalayas met with Abhishek Subedi, filmmaker from Morang, a Terai town in Eastern Nepal.

As a filmmaker, Mr Subedi has traveled extensively all across Nepal, but his recent works brought him back to the areas surrounding his hometown and beyond. His sensibilities towards ethnic communities, their lifestyles and culture have made him an anthropologist per se, and he hopes to pursue Rural Development academically. Fascinated by the nature, cultures, and people of the Terai, he believes that the Terai should be as much a highlight of the country as the rest of Nepal. He says that “humans are naturally drawn to other humans, no matter how different they may be from each other, and listening to their stories is an activity with no end. The Terai holds many untold stories, unexplored areas and unmet potential.”

Rooted in the belief that the Terai should learn how to show its unique identity to the rest of the world, Mr. Subedi explains why traveling to the Terai should be in your immediate priorities when visiting Nepal.

Cultural and Religious Significance

Mr. Subedi states that “the natural wonders of the Terai are marketed quite well, as a large number of tourist passes through some of the more famous national parks like Chitwan , but I believe that we are failing to market the rich cultural heritage of the Terai, perhaps because all of the attention is on Kathmandu when it comes to this.”

The diversity of the culture across this region is palpable, as it ranges from the birth place of important historical and religious figures such as Sita in Hinduism and Gautam Buddha in Buddhism , to various indigenous settlements, each with their distinct languages, forms of art, music and dance.

Buddhist Heritage

Lumbini , where the Buddha Siddharta Gautama, took his first breath, holds an unassuming charm, marked by a humble plaque and stone beneath the sheltering arms of a bodhi tree. Rediscovered in the 19th century, Lumbini stretches across three miles, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site adorned with monasteries built by various Buddhist nations.

As you wander through Lumbini on foot or opt for a leisurely bicycle tour, the various monasteries showcase a visual panorama of Buddhist architectural styles. From a Burmese-style golden pagoda to a Chinese-style temple reminiscent of Beijing’s Forbidden City, each structure narrates the adaptive journey of Buddhism through East Asia.

Beyond Lumbini, you can explore the remnants of Siddhartha’s palace in Kapilavastu, a place where the prince commenced his transformative journey. Nearby archaeological sites, marked by pillars erected by Ashoka and three stupas in Kundan, offer glimpses into the life and teachings of the Buddha.

For those drawn to this spiritual sanctuary, consider visiting during the cooler months from November to March . Lumbini, situated in the Terai, reveals its most inviting aspect during this time. Given the limited accommodations, prudent travelers secure reservations in advance. Accessible by a five-hour drive from Pokhara or a short flight from Kathmandu to Bhairahawa followed by a brief drive , Lumbini stands near the Indian border, offering a seamless continuation for those exploring the Buddhist pilgrimage sites in India.

Mithila Heritage

In the heart of the Terai region lies Janakpur , a city that evolves as a captivating tale of history and spirituality. Mithila paintings, crafted by the skilled hands of Maithili women, puts Janakpur on the global map of artistic expression. At its centre, the grand Janaki Temple, also known as Nau Lakha Mandir, becomes a significant pilgrimage site for Hindus, as it plays a pivotal role in the epic tale of Ramayana. Legend whispers that Goddess Sita, the Mithila princess of Janakpur, chose Prince Ram as her husband, and their sacred union was celebrated in the Vivaha Mandap. This is more than just a legend, though, as the Goddess was the daughter of the King of Janakpur, and they are both historical figures who have truly lived.

Beyond its temples, Janakpur stands as a cultural hub, nurturing a rich history of arts, language, and literature. As the heartland of the Mithila civilization, it becomes a melting pot of cultures and religions. The annual Vivah Panchami festival, held in November and December , transforms the temple surroundings into a spirited and spiritual haven.

Likewise, Ram Mandir, built by Amar Singh Thapa, pays homage to Prince Ram of Ayodhya, complementing Janakpur’s spiritual ambiance. Gangasagar, a holy pond near Ram Mandir, adds to the city’s spiritual allure, believed to be connected to the Ganga. During the Chhath festival, the pond transforms into a magical spectacle, inviting peaceful boat rides.

Swargdwar, on the west bank of Gangasagar, earns its name as the “gate to heaven” for the departed, adding a touch of the divine to Janakpur’s spiritual story. With that being said, the ideal time to explore Janakpur’s charm is during May, July, and August when the city dons pleasant weather and festivals. 

Tharu Heritage 

Primarily in the outskirts of Chitwan, Morang, and Sunsari the Tharu community is the largest ethnic group in the Terai region, deeply rooted in time as the probable original inhabitants of the Terai. With features reflecting their Mongoloid heritage and a warm, dark-brown complexion, the Tharu community holds within its diversity the proud lineage of Rana-Tharu, claiming an ancestry tied to the Rajputs in the western Terai.

To fully immerse yourself in the Tharu culture, plan your visit during the months when their festivals come to life, especially during the Maghe Sankranti , their New Year. It mostly falls in mid-January . However, if you travel to Chitwan, explore the Tharu culture as well, no matter what month it is. 

Cuisine from the Terai

The people of the Terai region boast of a cuisine that is in stark difference from the rest of Nepal. With the use of unique ingredients and flavor, they expand the idea one has of Nepali cuisine .

Rajbanshi Cuisine

Bhakka is a winter delight originating from the culinary traditions of the Rajbanshi community in the Jhapa and Morang districts. Made from fresh rice flour, it is traditionally consumed after the harvest season but has become a breakfast staple all over the country. 

Maithili Cuisine 

A plate on Mithila showcases a medley of rice, wheat, fish, and sweet dishes. Infused with spices, herbs, and natural edibles, each recipe is a culinary masterpiece tailored to specific events. The mantra, “ Maachh, Paan aur Makhaan e teen ta aichh Mithila ke jaan ” (Fish, Betel, and water-lily seed are the soul of Mithila), resonates through the heart of Maithili gastronomy.

Likewise, in the heart of Maithili non-vegetarian delights, where fish, cooked in mustard oil with a blend of local spices, takes centre stage. From Rohu fish curry to mutton and a variety of fowl, Maithili cuisine elevates aquatic and terrestrial delights into cultural symbols. Vegetables claim their own space in the Maithili plate, with dishes like baigan adauri , arikanchan tarkari , and kadhi-bari offering a tantalizing array of flavours. The art of tempering, the use of spices like panch forna and hing , and the crafting of sun-dried and preserved vegetables showcase the intricacies of Mithila’s culinary expertise.

The culinary journey extends to a symphony of sweets and desserts like anarsa, thekua, pidikiya , and the revered dahi-cheeni , considered the king of desserts in Mithila. In Mithila, food isn’t just sustenance; it’s a narrative, a cultural expression that speaks volumes about the people, the place, and the timeless traditions that define this enchanting region.

Tharu Cuisine

Tharu Cuisine revolves around the abundance of marshlands and rivers, featuring freshwater delights like fish, crabs, snails, and mussels. Ghonghi , a popular dish, comprises mud-water snails mixed with local spices, providing a tangy and spicy flavour. Pakuwa , a BBQ meat dish of pork and wild boar, stands out with its well-marinated spices. Gengta chutney , made from clean and cooked carp, serves as a versatile snack or accompaniment to other dishes. Chichar (Anadi rice) steamed during special occasions, showcases the sticky rice cultivated in the western plains. Sipi , a dish made from boiled freshwater mussels, offers a unique taste experience. Jhingiya machhari features freshwater shrimp cooked with local spices, while parewak sikar highlights pigeon meat in various preparations. Dhikri , a western Tharu cuisine made from rice flour, is steamed and shaped and often served during festivals. Bagiya , another dish made from rice flour, is flat and stuffed with lentils, spices, and boiled potatoes. Khariya , a popular and tasty dish, consists of rice, legumes, and spices wrapped in colocasia leaves and deep-fried. Sidhara , made from ground Sidhra fish, taro, colocasia steam, and spices, is shaped into cakes and sun-dried, often served as soup or curry. All in all, Tharu Cuisine offers a diverse and flavorful culinary experience in the Terai region, providing a unique taste of the local culture.

The Natural Wonders of The Terai

When appreciating indigenous communities like the Tharu people, one can’t separate them from the nature and wildlife they have been intrinsically connected to for generations. To understand these indigenous cultures, one must be in close contact with the flora and fauna that is interconnected with them. The Terai region is home to most of the natural parks and protected forests of Nepal. Most travelers go to Chitwan and partake in nature-based adventure activities, but an astute traveler should not dismiss the many equally thrilling areas.

Sahalesh Fulbari – Siraha

In the south of the Siraha district lies Salahesh Fulbari, a sanctuary where cultural sagas intertwine with a natural miracle. At the heart of this garden resides a delicate flower, a rare orchid known to unfurl its petals solely on the eve and the first day of the Nepali New Year, Baishakh. As you explore the expansive 14-acre space, the air carries the soft aroma of this unique blossom—a fragrant embodiment of the affection shared between Salahesh, a local deity, and his cherished Malini. To truly experience the miraculous phenomenon, align your visit with the New Year’s Eve celebration in Baishakh. 

Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve 

Established in 1976, the Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve is a 176 sq.km sanctuary that guards the last remaining population of wild buffalo, known as Arna (Bubalus arnee). Koshi Tappu’s charm lies in the Sapta Koshi, a key tributary of the Ganges, whose dynamic flooding during the monsoon is tamed by adjacent embankments. 

The sanctuary is home to great biodiversity, with tall grasslands dominating the landscape. Local villagers benefit from these grasslands, collecting thatch grass for various purposes. Alongside sheltering the last 159 Arnas, this reserve is also home to Hog deer, Wild boar, Spotted deer, Blue bull, and Rock Python.

Likewise, Koshi Tappu is a haven for bird enthusiasts, boasting around 441 bird species, including 14 found nowhere else inthe world. The Koshi Barrage becomes a resting place for migratory birds, welcoming 87 winter and trans-Himalayan species. The Koshi River adds to the diversity with 80 fish and reptile species, including the endangered Gharial crocodile and Gangetic dolphin.

Journeying to Koshi Tappu is straightforward, with daily bus services from Kathmandu to Kakarbhitta and Biratnagar. However, travelling there from March to October can be the ideal time because, during these months, one can witness the migratory birds.  

Parsa National Park

In the south-central lowlands of Terai, Nepal, Parsa National Park covers a vast 637.37 sq. km. This untouched sub-tropical jungle reflects the history of yesteryears, once a cherished retreat for the Rana Rulers. Inscribed as a wildlife reserve in 1984, and elevated to National Park status in 2017, Parsa National Park is aligned with the esteemed Chitwan National Park to the west and unfurls a distinctive diversity of landscapes and ecosystems.

Within the park, a flourishing flora and fauna find sanctuary. Sal forests dominate the landscape, riverine forests along the riverbanks shelter Khair and Silk cotton trees, and endangered species like the wild Asian elephant and Royal Bengal tiger roam freely. The avian population, numbering over 500 species, graces the skies with the White-Breasted Kingfisher, Paradise Flycatcher, and the endangered Giant Hornbill.

Autumn and winter can be the best time to explore the Parsa National Park. Although open during every season, spring and summer can be tiring due to the extremely hot temperatures. 

Chitwan National Park

Nestled in the subtropical region of inner Terai, Chitwan National Park unveils itself across a vast 952.63 sq. km. Established in 1973, it achieved the distinguished status of a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1984, marking its profound importance in the world of conservation.

Chitwan National Park reveals varied diversity, from the slopes of the Churia hills to the flood plains of the Rapti, Reu, and Narayani Rivers. Seventy per cent of the park is embraced by Sal forests, while lush grasslands cloak another 20 per cent. This abundant habitat becomes a haven for a stunning array of wildlife—over 50 mammal species, more than 525 bird species, and a multitude of amphibians and reptiles find sanctuary here. The park stands tall as a sanctuary for endangered beings like the One-Horned Rhinoceros, Royal Bengal Tiger, wild elephant, and the elusive Bengal Florican.

For an optimal Chitwan National Park experience, late January becomes a window of opportunity as local villagers cut thatch grasses, enhancing wildlife viewing. Whether absorbing the informative displays at the visitor centre, exploring handicrafts at the women’s user groups’ souvenir shop, or engaging in wildlife activities from the park’s resorts, Chitwan National Park promises an enriching and unforgettable experience.

Banke – Baridya Complex 

The Banke – Bardiya Complex is the collective name for two national parks in Banke and Bardiya. 

Banke National Park

Banke National Park covers 550 square kilometres and unveils diverse ecosystems, from Sal forests to Riverine forests and sprawling grasslands. It’s home to various life forms, hosting 124 plant species, 34 mammals, over 300 birds, and many more. Protected species like the Royal Bengal Tiger and Asiatic Wild Elephant find refuge in its core. For those eager to explore this natural sanctuary, the best time is during the dry season, from October to April. 

Bardiya National Park 

Bardiya National Park is spread across 968 sq. km—the largest in this lowland region. A gem in Western Terai, its roots trace back to the humble Karnali Wildlife Reserve in 1976, evolving into the cherished Bardiya National Park we encounter today. Envisioned to protect diverse ecosystems and the habitats of the mighty tiger and its prey, this park epitomizes nature’s resilience. The Karnali River, coursing through the park, hosts the rare Gangetic dolphin, adding an ethereal touch to this natural haven.

For enthusiasts of wildlife, the Babai Valley within the park is a haven of biodiversity with wooded grasslands and riverine forests. Here, flagship species like Rhinos, tigers, and elephants roam freely in their natural domain. The valley also cradles the endangered gharial crocodile, marsh mugger, and the elusive Gangetic dolphin. Over 230 bird species, including the Bengal florican, lesser florican, and sarus crane, fly above the park.

For visitors, the headquarters offers a museum and a glimpse into the Tharu culture. Likewise, to embrace the wonders of Bardiya National Park, the months from October to early April stand as an ideal time, promising a dry and pleasant climate for an immersive wildlife experience. 

Shuklaphanta National Park 

Originally designated a Wildlife Reserve in 1976, Shuklaphanta National Park has grown to cover 305 sq km. Attaining the esteemed status of a National Park in 2016, Shuklaphanta reveals a landscape adorned with grasslands, waterholes, and wetlands shaped by the Mahakali River floodplain. 

Situated in the Kanchanpur district, Shuklaphanta National Park shares its borders with India, extending north to the east-west highway. The Chaudhary River and Mahakali River shape its boundaries, and to the south, it connects with the Indian Tiger Reserve Kisanpur Wildlife Sanctuary.

Diverse vegetation adorns Shuklaphanta National Park, with Sal trees covering 52% of the protected area, wetlands claiming 10%, and vast grasslands spanning 30%. Alongside riverside forests and mixed forests, the park stands as a sanctuary for various species, including swamp deer, Bengal tigers, sloth bears, elephants, Indian leopards, Hispid Hares, and the great One-Horned Rhinoceros. A rich diversity of over 700 plant species contributes to the vibrant ecosystem.

For wildlife enthusiasts, the park hosts a thriving population of swamp deer, reaching 2301 individuals by 2014, along with around 20-25 wild elephants and 16 Bengal tigers, as per the 2018 census. The park’s water bodies harbour 28 fish species, while its skies are painted with 424 bird species, including Bengal floricans, dusky eagle owls, great slaty woodpeckers, chestnut-capped babblers, sarus cranes, and rusty-tailed flycatchers.

For those considering a visit to Shuklaphanta National Park, the ideal time is during the pleasant autumn months of October and November . This period offers agreeable weather, allowing travelers to witness the vibrant wildlife thriving in this flourishing sanctuary.

Terai – Stepping into the Limelight

“Terai is filled with indigenous communities, and what the Tharus have done in Chitwan and Bardiya speaks volumes. Cultural marketing has been centralized in these two places and most tourists think that the Terai is only made up of Chitwan and Bardiya,” says Mr. Subedi.

He believes that “the first step is to create an environment where other, perhaps more disadvantaged, communities like the Rajbhansi in eastern Terai, and the Mithila community in most parts of Madhesh Province, can present their unique personality to the rest of the world.”

Mr Subedi expressed his disappointment in the way in which the Terai is often overlooked when it comes to developing it as a touristic destination. He is right in stating that “indigenous people can not be blamed for not developing the Terai to its greatest potential.” He continues by saying that “most people belonging to indigenous communities are not in a well-to-do state, and to put the burden of marketing their culture is too heavy on them. However, their hospitable spirit makes them great hosts once they have the resources to welcome visitors.”

In this regard, Community Homestay Network has been working with indigenous communities in the Terai by giving educational workshops on how to create a welcoming space for foreign visitors. Their success can be seen in the many homestays that are now flourishing in the whereabouts of the incredibly lush national parks that make up the flatlands of Nepal.

To know more about the Community Homestays in the Terai and the experiences they offer, please follow these links.

Terai Experiences:

Jeep Safari at Suklaphanta National Park

Explore the outskirts of Chitwan National Park on a Cycle

Mithila Painting Wokshop

Tharu Cultural Program at Bhada

The Art of Tharu Cooking

Chitwan Private Canoe Ride, Barauli

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ISSUE 8 | 2024

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• Terai Arc Landscape

The Terai is a stretch of lowlands in the southernmost part of Nepal. Often described as the rice bowl of the country, the region supports one of the most spectacular assemblages of large mammals in Asia such as the Bengal Tiger, the Greater One-Horned Rhinoceros, the common leopard, Asian elephant, and more. The protected areas of the Terai are also an important foothold for several of Asia's birds, reptiles, and freshwater fish, as well as several types of sal, riverine and mixed forests and grasslands. The ecosystem services provided by the region plays a major role in supporting the socioeconomic well-being and development of people in the Terai and extended Churia regions of Nepal.

Located in the shadows of the Himalayas, the trans-boundary Terai Arc belt stretches from Nepal’s Bagmati River in the east to India’s Yamuna River in the west, connecting 16 protected areas across both countries. In Nepal, the Terai Arc Landscape (TAL) covers a vast area of 24,710 sq. km with a network of six protected areas, forests, agricultural lands and wetlands, with over six million people depending on its forests for food, fuel, and medicine. 

Conceptualized in 2001 by the Government of Nepal based on the tiger dispersal model, the landscape approach aimed to increase the persistence of tigers over a larger landscape, beyond initial source populations within protected areas. This laid the foundations for a shift from site-based conservation to a broader landscape based conservation approach expanding across Nepal’s corridors, with efforts ranging from forest restoration, reducing threats to species, safeguarding livelihoods, to effective transboundary cooperation between Nepal and India. Today, the transboundary Terai Arc Landscape is a critical tiger landscape that boasts over 880 tigers; with both Nepal and India having close to doubled their tiger numbers, a testament to the unwavering resolve and belief in the landscape approach by communities and conservation partners. 

PROTECTED AREAS AND CORRIDORS

A key characteristic of TAL is the presence of eight corridors and two bottlenecks; a landscape conservation approach that facilitates wildlife dispersal between protected areas on either side of this transboundary landscape while also engaging local communities in forest restoration and management.   Nepal - Parsa National Park, Chitwan National Park, Bardia National Park, Banke National Park, Shuklaphanta National Park, Krishnasaar Conservation Area, and the Barandabhar, Khata, Basanta, Laljhadi-Mohana, Brahmadev, Kamdi, Karnali Corridors. India - Valmiki Tiger Reserve, Sohagi Barwa Wildlife Sanctuary, Suhelwa Wildlife Sanctuary, Katarniaghat Wildlife Sanctuary, Dudhwa National Park, Pilibhit Tiger Reserve.   

STRENGTHENING COMMUNITY STEWARDSHIP

A vital component of the TAL Program is building local community stewardship, focusing primarily on the community forestry model, good governance and sustainable livelihood diversification programs, making communities an integral part of biodiversity protection and restoration efforts.  A key area of focus under the program is supporting marginalized and vulnerable communities in a significant way and promoting gender equality, while ensuring access to healthy forests in a sustainable manner.

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Ultimate Guide to the Nepali Terai

Discover the terai.

From the birthplace of the Buddha to wildlife safaris and culturally vibrant towns, there's a lot to see and do on the Terai. But with the exception of Chitwan National Park , most travelers to Nepal don't know much about the region. Indeed, until the mid-20th century, the Terai was largely an area of dense forest and malarial marshes, a natural border area between the plains of North India and the hills and mountains of Nepal. But the Terai played an important role in the development of Hinduism over many centuries: kings and queens lived in and around the Nepali Terai, as well as mythological deities, according to legend.

These days, the Terai houses much of Nepal's large-scale agriculture and industry, but also some of its most impressive national parks. Read on for practical tips to help you plan your trip to the region, and check out these five unique itineraries for travel inspiration in Nepal.

Planning Your Visit

The Terai is a large area, spanning over 13,000 square miles, or nearly a quarter of Nepal. While it's possible to take a bus from Kathmandu to many of the destinations listed below, the journey is long and not particularly comfortable. Most travelers choose to fly instead to airports like Nepalganj and Biratnagar , then make connections by car or bus. Due to travel logistics, you'll want at least a week to explore the area, or longer if you plan on visiting more than one of the highlights below. Read this article for more details on how much time to spend in Nepal.

A note on safety: while there's no cause for concern in popular tourist areas like Chitwan, the political situation on the Terai can be volatile. Cities like Janakpur regularly experience political unrest which can turn to violence, so check the situation before arriving. Tourists are never targets, but travelers should avoid getting caught up in demonstrations. Learn more here about solo travel and safety on kimkim's guided trips.

The climate of the Terai is more like that of North India than the hills and mountains of Nepal. So unless you're used to very hot weather, it's better to avoid visiting the Terai between April and October, when temperatures can soar above 100 degrees.

Since wildlife spotting in the national parks is one of the main attractions of the Terai, it's best to visit at prime animal-spotting times. Jungle animals are less active when it's hot out, so by visiting in fall and winter months (November through March), you're more likely to see tigers, rhinos, and birds in their natural habitats. This article explains why January is a great time to visit the Terai.

Getting There & Around

The Terai is connected by road and air to the rest of Nepal. Major transportation hubs are Bharatpur/Narayangadh , Nepalganj, Biratnagar, Siddharthanagar ( Bhairahawa ), and Janakpur. Although most travelers to Nepal fly internationally into Kathmandu, you could take the overland route from India and pass through the Terai. (The roads are generally bumpy and in poor condition, but they're not nauseatingly twisty like they can be in the mountains.)

When traveling between Kathmandu or Pokhara and the cities on the Terai, flying is by far the most comfortable option. You'll only need to spend 30 to 60 minutes in the air, instead of several hours in traffic jams and bumping over uncomfortable roads, as you would on a bus.

Highlights & Activities

Chitwan national park.

Established in 1973, Chitwan was Nepal's first national park. Bordered by Parsa National Park to the east (in Nepal) and Valmiki National Park to the south (in India), the large protected area is mostly comprised of forest, grasslands, and marshes, which are home to a large number of bird species, as well as rare slender-snouted gharial crocodiles, deer, elephants, tigers, and the one-horned rhinoceros. Your chance of seeing a rhino is especially high, as Chitwan has benefited from a series of successful anti-poaching campaigns: there are now more than 600 of these enormous creatures in the park. Chitwan also has one of the highest concentrations of Royal Bengal tigers in the world, though these are much more difficult to spot. 

Chitwan is the most popular national park on the Terai, as it's easily accessible from both Kathmandu and Pokhara by car or bus. Bharatpur Airport is a 20-minute flight from Kathmandu. Travelers who want a more rugged but scenic experience can go overland, a journey of five to seven hours.

Learn more about here about the best things to do in Chitwan National Park.

Bardia National Park

A one-horned rhinoceros in Bardia National Park

Some say that Bardia National Park is how Chitwan used to be before the tourism infrastructure developed so much. In far western Nepal, Bardia is much more challenging to get to than Chitwan, so the park sees fewer visitors, there are fewer places to stay, and animals can be spotted in a more rugged and natural setting: indeed, you're much more likely to see tigers at Bardia than at Chitwan. 

The Karnali River —Nepal's last remaining free-flowing, undammed river—runs through the park. A great way of visiting Bardia is as an add-on to a Karnali River expedition , in which you'll paddle in a kayak or white-water raft for the first week, then end near the park for more outdoor adventures. Bardia is also home to a wide variety of habitats, from dry slopes to grassy plains. In 2010, Banke National Park was established along Bardia's eastern border, creating the largest tiger conservation area in Asia. As well as tigers, you can see rhinos, spotted deer, the Ganges dolphin, and more.

To get to Bardia, fly to Nepalganj airport. From there, the park is still a three-to-four-hour bus journey. (You can also take a bus from Kathmandu, but it's not recommended.) 

For more on Chitwan and Bardia National Parks, read this article .

Koshi Tappu Wildlife Sanctuary

Sarus Cranes in the Bardia National Park

On Nepal's eastern Terai, the Koshi Tappu Wildlife Sanctuary is a magnet for bird enthusiasts. The wetland area, located in the floodplain of the Sapta Koshi River , is home to almost 500 bird species, including storks, ducks, geese, eagles, terns, lapwings, and kingfishers. There's also an enormous variety of fish, plus elephants, deer, and the Ganges dolphin. The terrain is mostly mudflats, reed beds, and freshwater marshes. Tented camps cater specifically to bird watchers: don't forget your binoculars!

The Koshi Tappu Reserve is about a 90-minute drive from Biratnagar Airport in eastern Nepal. Buses from Kathmandu take a minimum of 12 hours. 

A Buddhist stupa at Lumbini

The small, otherwise unremarkable town of Lumbini on the western Terai has one extraordinary claim to fame: it's the birthplace of the Buddha. Archaeological evidence suggests that this was the place where Prince Siddhartha Gautama Buddha was born in 623 BCE. Lumbini was lost to history for many centuries, then rediscovered again in the 19th century by Nepali officials and Raj archaeologists. 

Today, Lumbini is home to monasteries and Buddhist centers built by various countries with strong Buddhist traditions, so touring the place is like taking a tour of international Buddhist architectural traditions. It's a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a major place of pilgrimage for Buddhists from all around the world. 

The easiest way to get to Lumbini is to fly to Bhairahawa from Kathmandu. From Pokhara, it's a five-hour drive. Read more about Lumbini in this ultimate guide.

Janakpur's Janaki Mandir (Photo credit: Elen Turner)

Janakpur ( also called Janakpurdham ) is an ancient city in the eastern section of the Terai. A Hindu pilgrimage spot, Janakpur is believed to be where Hindu Lord Rama's wife Sita (also called Janaki, hence the city's name) was born. Janakpur’s Janaki Mandir temple is unique in Nepal, combining elements of Mughal and Rajput design. 

Fans of Nepali art should visit the Janakpur Women's Development Centre , an arts center surrounded by farmland on the edge of the city. The local Maithili women have turned their colorful and stylized traditional painting into a source of profit: you'll see their work at fair trade and handicraft shops in Kathmandu. Stop by the center to watch them at work. 

Janakpur is also the terminus for Nepal's only passenger railway line, which runs between Jainagar and Janakpur. It's not a major attraction, but railway enthusiasts won't want to miss it. 

Discover the best of Nepal on this 16-day itinerary.

Where to Stay

Many visitors base themselves in Kathmandu and take short flights to airports in the Terai to make connections to national parks, wildlife-viewing hot spots, and pilgrimage sites. 

If you're headed to Chitwan National Park, you'll probably stay in or around the town of Sauraha , which has many accommodation options and tour operators. Travel agencies offer various kinds of safaris, but the safest and most ethical is to travel by Jeep. For a more peaceful and less touristy experience, check out the village of Barauli , near the western edge of the park. Accommodation ranges from simple guesthouses and homestays to luxury lodges—read more about the best jungle lodges in Nepal in this article .

In Bardia National Park, try a jungle lodge like Tiger Tops Karnali Lodge or Forest Hideaway Hotel & Cottages . Visiting Koshi Tappu Wildlife Sanctuary ? Try Koshi Tappu Reserve Camp for a convenient overnight option. There are several nice resorts near Lumbini, including  Lumbini Village Lodge , while down-to-earth Hotel Welcome is a solid choice in Janakpur.

Learn more about unique lodging options in Nepal here .

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Mitigating the Impacts of Climate Change in Nepal’s Terai Region: Sustainable Solutions for a Resilient Future

28 August 2023, NIICE Commentary 8793 Keshav Verma & Sheetal Arya

The Terai region is a pivotal part of Nepal in many ways, since it is essential to the country’s economy, politics, and culture. Nearly half of Nepal’s population calls this fertile belt home; as a result, it’s a thriving demographic centre where many different peoples and cultures live peacefully. Nepal’s legacy has been enhanced by this cultural tapestry, which also fosters mutual appreciation and unity among people of different backgrounds. The region situated in the southern portion of the nation, characterised by its flat and fertile terrain, is now undergoing the effects of climate change

Challenges in the Terai Region

The Terai area of Nepal, noted for its lush farmland and dynamic people, is facing a multidimensional challenge posed by climate change. This environmental hazard manifests itself in a variety of ways, each posing a distinct set of problems to the region’s social, economic, and biological landscape.

Changes in precipitation patterns have brought about a serious trend in the Terai region – the depletion of groundwater supplies. As irregular rainfall causes tube wells to dry up, communities are being forced to draw from deeper reservoirs. Unfortunately, arsenic is often found in deeper groundwater. This pollution has caused a health problem for individuals who rely on these water sources. Furthermore, increased river volumes caused by shifting precipitation patterns have had serious repercussions. Shifting river channels damage not just the natural environment, but also human settlements, roads, bridges, and agricultural fields, putting the Terai’s infrastructure at risk.

Droughts have emerged as a dangerous foe, causing crop failures and decreasing output. Farmers in certain places have been forced to quit their properties, which have become barren due to a lack of irrigation infrastructure. As safe drinking water becomes more limited, the cascading impacts of drought affect daily life. Droughts cause populations to travel considerable distances to meet their daily water demands, worsening the battle for life.

The Terai’s flood plains, which are famous for their production, are subject to catastrophic monsoon floods and river bank erosion. These extended floods harm crops and dump sand in fields, making them less productive. Aside from agricultural losses, such circumstances foster the spread of waterborne illnesses such as malaria, dengue fever, dysentery, and cholera. This twin danger to livelihoods and public health puts enormous strain on Terai communities. Once-predictable seasonal cycles in the area are now a thing of the past, as climate-induced temperature and rainfall variations disturb historical rhythms. The unpredictability and uncertainty of these developments has a direct influence on the lives of Terai inhabitants. Agriculture, a key component of the region’s economy, is severely impacted, making planning and resource management more difficult. This unpredictability, along with the threat of climate change, throws a pall over the Terai people’s quality of life and capacity to continue their livelihoods.

Climate change is intensifying societal conflicts and disputes over natural resource access in Nepal’s Terai area, according to a research published by the Overseas Development Institute (2017). Communities are at conflict over irrigation infrastructure, land access, and forest management, further straining already strained relationships. The rising insecurity of the young male population has resulted in out-migration, leaving women with more obligations and, in some circumstances, leading to domestic violence. These issues have far-reaching consequences for the Terai’s social fabric and community dynamics.

Mitigating the impacts of Climate Change

Nepal’s Terai region faces formidable climate change challenges, and international support as well as domestic measures are essential in building resilience and mitigating the impact of these challenges.

International Community

Nepal’s efforts to confront the formidable challenges posed by climate change in its Terai region rely heavily on international assistance. Investments and contributions from international organisations and donor nations are indispensable for financing climate resilience initiatives, such as the development of renewable energy infrastructure and sustainable agricultural practises. In addition, the transfer of advanced technology, the augmentation of capacity, and collaborative research projects equip Nepal with the necessary knowledge and capabilities to effectively combat the effects of climate change. Together with advocacy campaigns, the participation of international climate finance mechanisms effectively allocates resources and heightens awareness. Concurrently, cross-border collaboration ensures synchronised administration of trans-boundary water resources, addressing a significant concern in Nepal’s strategy for adapting to climate change. Community involvement is of the utmost importance, especially the empowerment of local constituents and women, given their pivotal positions in agricultural activities and domestic administration. In conclusion, international collaboration fosters resilience, facilitates policy formulation, and supports sustainable development initiatives, thereby bolstering the prospects for a climate-resilient future in Nepal’s Terai region.

Domestic Measures

The development of the Terai region’s capability for managing natural resources should be Nepal’s top priority. Enhancing the equitable and sustainable use of natural resources including land, water, and forests is part of this. It will be essential to establish responsible and transparent procedures for managing resources that include marginalised groups and local communities. While it’s a good start to make sure that the area of cultivated land determines a landowner’s access to water resources, fair distribution should also be taken into account to prevent disputes over resource distribution.

Secondly, Nepal has to put climate change adaption strategies that support social cohesiveness and peace into practise. This entails creating initiatives and regulations that promote collaboration and trust among various community members in addition to increasing resistance to the effects of climate change. Promoting resource-efficient, sustainable farming methods, for example, may lessen rivalry and diffuse tensions amongst farmers. Protecting indigenous people’s rights and involving local populations and in the decision-making process is also crucial to ensuring that adaptation efforts take into account their particular vulnerabilities and needs, particularly those of women, youth, and ethnic minorities.

Thirdly, it is critical to assist sustainable and climate-resilient livelihoods in conflict-affected regions. Targeted investments in industries like small businesses, renewable energy, and agriculture may help accomplish this. These programmes ought to minimise environmental damage while offering prospects for revenue. In order to ensure that marginalised people have a voice in creating these livelihood programmes and achieve more fair results, a participatory approach is also essential. Subsequently, Nepal has to evaluate the social and gender aspects of its attempts to mitigate climate change. Promoting gender equality and empowerment should be the main goal of initiatives rather than just include women and other marginalised groups. This entails locating and removing obstacles to social inclusion, such as restricted access to positions in decision-making, education, and resources. Using a gender-responsive strategy will help the Terai region’s climate security programmes become more sustainable and successful.

The Terai region of Nepal is at a crossroads due to the escalating effects of climate change. To ensure a resilient future, a comprehensive strategy that incorporates community empowerment, sustainable land management, and robust collaborations is required. Preserving and restoring natural habitats will simultaneously mitigate environmental degradation. Importantly, partnerships between government, non-governmental organisations, and the private sector can provide the necessary resources and expertise to execute infrastructure initiatives that are climate-resilient. The Terai region can not only adapt to the challenges of climate change, but also thrive, assuring a sustainable and resilient future for generations to come through collective efforts.

Keshav Verma is a PhD Scholar at Department of International Studies, CHRIST (Deemed to be University), India and Sheetal Arya is a PhD Scholar at School of International Studies at Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India.

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Nepal's Terai: Constructing an Ethnic Conflict

Miklian, Jason (2009) Nepal's Terai: Constructing an Ethnic Conflict [South Asia Briefing Paper #1]. PRIO Paper . Oslo: PRIO.

After the government of Nepal signed a peace agreement with the Communist Party of Nepal-Maoist in 2006 to end a 10 year civil war, local and international observers were surprised to see new fighting erupt in the Terai region of southern Nepal. The violence, however, was initiated not by either party to the civil war but by groups targeting both the state and the Maoists, polarizing citizens along ethnic issues largely unaddressed during the civil war.

In 2007, three of these groups joined forces to create a coalition called the United Democratic Madhesi Front (UDMF).The UDMF’s stated goal is to transform the Terai into a single autonomous province of Madhes. To accomplish this, the UDMF has redefined the identity of those people living in the Terai and those outside of it, in turn exacerbating ethnic division and violence at the grassroots level.

This narrative has benefited the UDMF by binding otherwise disparate ethnic groups together, constructing a history of the Terai that makes it their exclusive political domain, polarizing society into a ‘Madhesi vs. Pahadi (Kathmandu valley)' dichotomy that scapegoats elite ethnicities for local problems, and dissociating Madhesi political leaders from their Maoist past. The UDMF uses political violence to draw attention to the plight of those from the Madhesi ethnic group, signing two peace agreements over the past year with political leaders in Kathmandu to push reform and articulate their grievances.

However, implementation of the agreements is complex and problematic. Nepal’s government is in a difficult spot: it committed to UDMF directives that, if implemented in their entirety, will likely increase conflict within the Terai while simultaneously fracturing the state and weakening Nepal’s fragile institutions.

Jason Miklian

The Western Terai Travel Guide

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A narrow strip of flatland extending along the length of Nepal’s southern border, the Terai was originally covered in thick, malarial jungle. In the 1950s, however, the government identified the southern plains as a major growth area to relieve population pressure in the hills, and, with the help of liberal quantities of DDT, brought malaria under control. Since then, the jungle has been methodically cleared and the Terai has emerged as Nepal’s most productive region, accounting for more than fifty percent of its GDP and supporting about half its population.

Cycling through the Terai

Lumbini terai, the far west.

The jungle barrier that once insulated Nepal from Indian influences as effectively as the Himalayas had guarded the north, making possible the development of a uniquely Nepali culture, has disappeared. An unmistakeable Indian quality now pervades the Terai, as evidenced by the avid mercantilism of the border bazaars, the chewing of betel , the mosques and orthodox Brahmanism, the jute mills and sugar refineries, and the many roads and irrigation projects built with Indian aid.

Fortunately, the government has set aside sizeable chunks of the Western Terai in the form of national parks and reserves, which remain among the finest w ildlife and bird havens on the subcontinent. Dense riverine forest provides cover for predators like tigers and leopards; swampy grasslands make the perfect habitat for rhinos; and vast, tall stands of sal , the Terai’s most common tree, shelter huge herds of deer. Of the region’s wildlife parks, the deservedly popular Chitwan is the richest in game and the most accessible, but if you’re willing to invest some extra effort, Bardia and Sukla Phanta further to the west make quieter alternatives. The region’s other claim to fame is historical: the Buddha was born 2500 years ago at Lumbini . Nearby, important archeological discoveries have also been made at Tilaurakot .

Four border crossings in the western Terai are open to foreigners. As it’s on the most direct route between Kathmandu and Varanasi, and fits in well with visits to Lumbini and Chitwan, Sonauli is the most heavily used. Less popular are the crossing points south of Nepalgunj or Dhangadhi. Alternatively, on the far western frontier is Mahendra Nagar , only around twelve hours from Delhi, but an arduous journey to Kathmandu.

The weather in the Terai is at its best from October to January – the days are pleasantly milder during the latter half of this period, though the nights and mornings can be surprisingly chilly and damp. However, wildlife viewing gets much better after the thatch has been cut, from late January, by which time the temperatures are starting to warm up again. It gets really hot in April, May and June. From July to September, the monsoon brings mosquitoes, malaria and leeches, and makes a lot of the more minor, unpaved roads very muddy and difficult to pass, and some rivers burst their banks.

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The UNESCO World Heritage Sites of Nepal

Set in the heart of the Himalayas, the landlocked South-Asian country of Nepal is home to a wealth of UNESCO World Heritage Sites. From wild jungles to ancient civilisations, Nepal offers a combination of history, culture and nature; perfect for the most well-seasoned of travellers.

Chitwan is the name not only of Nepal’s most visited national park but also of the surrounding dun valley and administrative district. The name means “Heart of the Jungle” – a description that, sadly, now holds true only for the lands protected within the park and community forests. Yet, the rest of the valley – though it’s been reduced to a flat, furrowed plain – still provides fascinating vignettes of a rural lifestyle. Truly ugly development is confined to the wayside conurbation of Narayangadh/Bharatpur , and even this has left the nearby holy site of Devghat so far unscathed.

The best – and worst – aspects of Chitwan National Park are that it can be visited easily and inexpensively. It is high on the list of “things to do in Nepal”, so unless you go during the steamy season you’ll share your experience with a lot of other people. If you want to steer clear of the crowds, and don’t mind making a little extra effort, try avoiding the much-touted tourist village of Sauraha and base yourself in one of two villages along the park’s northern boundary, just west. Ghatgain and Meghauli are much quieter and less developed than Sauraha, but also have guesthouses, guides, elephants and entry checkposts (though jeeps are more difficult to come by). You can also do a jungle trek from Sauraha to either village. Or, if you’ve got the money ($200–350 per night per person, all-in), opt for pampered seclusion at any one of the luxury lodges and camps inside the park itself.

Asian elephants

In Nepal and throughout southern Asia, elephants have been used as ceremonial transportation and beasts of burden for thousands of years, earning them a cherished place in the culture – witness the popularity of elephant-headed Ganesh, the darling of the Hindu pantheon. Thanks to this symbiosis with man, Asian elephants (unlike their African cousins) survive mainly as a domesticated species, even as their wild habitat has all but vanished.

With brains four times the size of humans’, elephants are reckoned to be as intelligent as dolphins. What we see as a herd is in fact a complex social structure, consisting of bonded pairs and a fluid hierarchy. In the wild, herds typically consist of fifteen to thirty females and one old bull, and are usually led by a senior female; other bulls live singly or in bachelor herds. Though they appear docile, elephants have strongly individual personalities and moods. They can learn dozens of commands, but they won’t obey just anyone; as any handler will tell you, you can’t make an elephant do what it doesn’t want to do. That they submit to such apparently cruel head-thumping by drivers seems to have more to do with thick skulls than obedience.

Asian elephants are smaller than those of the African species, but still formidable. A bull can grow up to three metres high and weigh four tons, although larger individuals are known to exist. An average day’s intake is 200 litres of water and 225kg of fodder – and if you think that’s impressive, wait till you see it come back out again. All that eating wears down teeth fast: an average elephant goes through six sets in its lifetime, each more durable than the last. The trunk is controlled by an estimated forty thousand muscles, enabling its owner to eat, drink, cuddle and even manipulate simple tools (such as a stick for scratching). Though up to 2.5cm thick, an elephant’s skin is still very sensitive, and it will often take mud or dust baths to protect against insects. Life expectancy is about 75 years and, much the same as with humans, an elephant’s working life can be expected to run from its mid-teens to its mid-fifties; training begins at about age five.

Bis Hajaar Tal

Large patches of jungle still exist outside the park in Chitwan’s heavily populated buffer zone, albeit in a less pristine state. The areas designated as community forests were originally conceived to reduce the need for residents of this critical strip to go into the park to gather wood, thatch and other resources, but they’re now nearly as rich in flora and fauna as Chitwan itself. Two forests, Baghmara and Kumroj on the outskirts of Sauraha, offer alternatives to entering the park itself, and the elephant rides , particularly, are often no less rewarding.

Another community forest, the Bis Hajaar Tal (“Twenty Thousand Lakes”) wetland area, is one of the best areas – inside or outside the park – for birdwatching , though the growth of water hyacinth has reduced bird numbers. There are plenty of animals, but it’s one of the few areas of jungle that can be visited independently with relative safety – though, as always, you’ll probably get more out of it in the company of a good guide. Nepal’s second largest natural wetland, the area, provides an important corridor for animals migrating between the Terai and the hills. The name refers to a maze of marshy oxbow lakes, many of them already filled in, well hidden among mature sal trees. The area teems with birds, including storks, kingfishers, eagles and the huge Lesser Adjutant. The forest starts just west of Baghmara and the Elephant Breeding Project and reaches its marshy climax about 5km northwest of there.

Chitwan: a seesaw battle for survival

While Chitwan’s forest ecosystem is healthy at the moment, pollution from upstream industries is endangering the rivers that flow into it: gangetic dolphins have disappeared from the Narayani, and gharial crocodiles hang on only thanks to human intervention. With more than three hundred thousand people now inhabiting the Chitwan Valley, human population growth represents an even graver danger in the long term. Tourism has picked up again, after dropping off considerably during the civil war – the key issue will be to ensure the resultant development is handled in a sensitive, sustainable manner.

The key to safeguarding Chitwan, everyone agrees, is to win the support of local people, and there’s some indication that this is happening. Several organizations run awareness-raising programmes, particularly targeting children, but there has been little government action in this regard. Another pressing problem for the area – and the country as a whole – is a lack of investment in infrastructure, notably roads.

Communities living in the 750 square kilometres around the park receive some state financial support, and compensation is paid for damage caused by wild animals (safety has improved but one or two people are still killed each year). The National Trust for Nature Conservation ( w www.ntnc.org.np ), funded by several international agencies, is active in general community development efforts such as building schools, health posts, water taps and appropriate technology facilities, as well as in conservation education and training for guides and lodge-owners. They have also been instrumental in helping set up community forests around Chitwan and the prospect of collecting hefty entrance fees from these is turning local people into zealous guardians of the environment.

Chitwan National Park

Whether CHITWAN NATIONAL PARK has been blessed or cursed by its own riches is an open question. The coexistence of the valley’s people and wildlife has rarely been easy or harmonious, even before the creation of the national park. In the era of the trigger-happy maharajas, the relationship was at least simple: when Jang Bahadur Rana overthrew the Shah dynasty in 1846, one of his first actions was to make Chitwan a private hunting reserve. The following century saw some truly hideous hunts – during an eleven-day shoot in 1911, a visiting King George V killed 39 tigers and 18 rhinos.

Still, the Ranas’ patronage afforded Chitwan a degree of protection, as did malaria. But in the early 1950s, the Ranas were thrown out, the monarchy was restored, and the new government launched its malaria-control programme . Settlers poured in and poaching went unpoliced – rhinos, whose horns were (and still are) valued for Chinese medicine and Yemeni knife handles, were especially hard hit. By 1960, the human population of the valley had trebled to one hundred thousand, while the number of rhinos had plummeted from one thousand to two hundred. With the Asian one-horned rhino on the verge of extinction, Nepal emerged as an unlikely hero in one of conservation’s finest hours. In 1962, Chitwan was set aside as a rhino sanctuary (becoming Nepal’s first national park in 1973); and, despite the endless hype about tigers, rhinos are Chitwan’s biggest attraction and its greatest triumph. Chitwan now boasts around 508 rhinos , and the park authorities have felt confident enough to relocate some to Bardia National Park. A number were killed by poachers during the conflict but now the soldiers are back at their posts in the park the problem has declined (though it has not been eradicated).

There are thought to be around 122 tigers in the park. Chitwan also supports at least four hundred gaur (Indian bison) and provides a part-time home to as many as 45 wild elephants , who roam between here and India. Altogether, 56 mammalian species are found in the park, including sloth bear, leopard, langur and four kinds of deer. Chitwan is also Nepal’s most important sanctuary for birds , with more than five hundred species recorded, and there are also two types of crocodile and more than one hundred and fifty types of butterfly .

Visitors can only enter the national park accompanied by a guide , and guides for activities such as jungle walks, elephant rides, canoe trips and jeep safaris vie for your attention once you arrive in the vicinity of the park. Note, however, that promises of “safari adventure” in Chitwan can be misleading. While the park’s wildlife is astoundingly concentrated, the dense vegetation doesn’t allow the easy sightings you get in the savannas of Africa (especially in autumn, when the grass is high). Many guides assume everyone wants to see only tigers and rhinos, but there are any number of birds and other animals to spot which the typical safari package may not cover, not to mention the many different ways simply to experience the luxuriant, teeming jungle: elephant rides , jeep tours , canoe trips and jungle walks each give a different slant.

DEVGHAT (or Deoghat), 5km northwest of Narayangadh, is many people’s idea of a great place to die. An astonishingly tranquil spot, it stands where the wooded hills meet the shimmering plains, and the Trisuli and the Kali Gandaki rivers merge to form the Narayani, a major tributary of the Ganga (Ganges). Some say Sita, heroine of the Ramayana, died here. The ashes of King Mahendra were sprinkled at this sacred tribeni (a confluence of three rivers: wherever two rivers meet, a third, spiritual one is believed to join them), and scores of sunyasan , those who have renounced the world, patiently live out their last days here hoping to achieve an equally auspicious death and rebirth. Many retire to Devghat to avoid being a burden to their children, to escape ungrateful offspring, or because they have no children to look after them in their old age and perform the necessary rites when they die. Pujari (priests) also practise here and often take in young candidates for the priesthood as resident students. Suggestions that a hydroelectric project might be built just downstream of the confluence seem, fortunately, to have fallen by the wayside.

Dozens of small shrines lie dotted around the village, but you come here more for the atmosphere than the sights. Vaishnavas (followers of Vishnu) congregate at Devghat’s largest and newest temple, the central shikra -style Harihar Mandir , founded in 1998 by the famed guru Shaktya Prakash Ananda of Haridwar. Shaivas (followers of Shiva) dominate the area overlooking the confluence at the western edge of the village.

The confluence

To reach the confluence, turn left at a prominent chautaara at the top of the path leading through the village: Galeshwar Ashram , on your right as you walk down the steps, and Aghori Ashram , further downhill on the right, are named after two recently deceased holy men. One of them, the one-armed Aghori Baba, was a follower of the extreme Aghori tradition and was often referred to as the “Crazy Baba”, claiming to have cut off his own arm after being instructed to do so in a dream. Various paths lead upstream of the confluence, eventually arriving at Sita Gupha , a sacred cave that is closed except on Makar Sankranti, and Chakrabarti Mandir , a shady temple area housing a famous shaligram that locals say is growing.

Gharial crocodiles

The world’s longest crocodile – adults can grow to more than 7m from nose to tail – the gharial is an awesome fishing machine. Its slender, broom-like snout, which bristles with a fine mesh of teeth, snaps shut on its prey like a spring-loaded trap. Unfortunately, its eggs are regarded as a delicacy, and males are hunted for their bulb-like snouts, believed to have medicinal powers.

In the mid-1970s, there were only 1300 gharials left. Chitwan’s project was set up in 1977 to incubate eggs under controlled conditions, thus upping the survival rate – previously only one percent in the wild – to as high as 75 percent. The majority of hatchlings are released into the wild after three years, when they reach 1.2m in length; more than five hundred have been released so far into the Narayani, Koshi, Karnali and Babai rivers. Having been given this head start, however, the hatchlings must then survive a growing list of dangers, which now include not only hunters but also untreated effluents from upstream industries and a scarcity of food caused by the lack of fish ladders on a dam downstream in India. Counts indicate that captive-raised gharials now outnumber wild ones on the Narayani, which suggests that without constant artificial augmentation of their numbers they would soon become extinct. A few turtles can also be seen at the breeding centre.

Park people

A procession of bicycle-toting locals crossing the Rapti at dusk, wading or being ferried across the river before disappearing into the trees of the national park on the far side, was once a familiar Sauraha scene.

In the late 1990s, more than 20,000 people lived within the park boundaries, mainly in Padampur , the area immediately opposite Sauraha. Inevitably, villagers were forced to compete with the park’s animal population for forest resources and the ever-increasing number of wild animals would regularly raid farmers’ crops, causing widespread damage and even deaths. The situation became increasingly unsustainable, and the government finally decided to relocate Padampur’s villagers from the park itself to Saguntole, around 10km north of the national park, which extends from Bis Hajaar Tal towards the hills of the Mahabharat Lekh. This programme has now left Chitwan itself free of human settlement.

This has inevitably raised troubling issues. Foremost is that people have been forced to leave their homes to make way for animals and the tourists who come to see them. A great deal of knowledge, and the cultural beliefs that go with it, has been, if not lost, then undoubtedly threatened. There are concerns about water supply in Saguntole and allegations of corruption surround the villagers’ compensation payments. The move could also accelerate the destruction of a vital wildlife corridor, one of the few that still connects the plains and the hills.

Spectacularly situated on the banks of the Rapti River, opposite a prime area of jungle, SAURAHA (pronounced So -ruh-hah) is one of those unstoppably successful destinations at which Nepal seems to excel. In some lights it looks like the archetypal budget safari village, with its lodges spread out along dusty roads at the edge of the forest; at other times, you could half-close your eyes and imagine yourself in a mini Thamel. While there’s still a lot to recommend it, not least the ease of access into the park, Sauraha loses a little more of what once made it so enjoyable each year: buildings are springing up at an alarming rate.

The fast-changing cluster of shops and hotels that make up Sauraha “ village ” constitutes most of the action, though there’s little to do except shop, eat and plan excursions.

In addition to the Tharu village tours, you can also learn about real Terai village life by hopping on a bike and just getting lost on the back roads to the east and west of Sauraha. Stopping at any village and asking “chiya paunchha?” (where can I get a cup of tea?) will usually attract enough attention to get you introduced to someone.

In November, when the rice is harvested, you’ll be able to watch villagers cutting the stems, tying them into sheaves and threshing them; or, since it’s such a busy time of year, piling them in big stacks to await threshing. January is thatch-gathering time, when huge bundles are put by until a slack time before the monsoon allows time to repair roofs. In early March, the mustard, lentils and wheat that were planted after the rice crop are ready; maize is then planted, to be harvested in July for animal fodder, flour and meal. Rice is seeded in dense starter-plots in March, to be transplanted into separate paddy fields in April.

From Sauraha, the most fertile country for exploration lies to the east: heading towards Tadi along the eastern side of the village, turn right (east) at the intersection marked by a health post and you can follow that road all the way to Parsa , 8km away on the Mahendra Highway, with many side roads to villages en route. Given a full day and a good bike or motorcycle, you could continue eastwards from Parsa along the highway for another 10km, and just before Bhandaara turn left onto a track leading to Baireni , a particularly well-preserved Tharu village. From Lothar , another 10km east of Bhandaara, you can follow a trail upstream to reach the waterfalls on the Lothar Khola, a contemplative spot with a healthy measure of birdlife.

For a short ride west of Sauraha, first head north for 3km and take the first left after the river crossing, which brings you to the authentic Tharu villages of Baghmara and Hardi . If you’re game for a longer journey, pedal to Tadi and west along the Mahendra Highway to Tikauli. From there, the canal road through Bis Hajaar Tal leads about 10km through beautiful forest to Gita Nagar , where you join the Bharatpur–Jagatpur road, with almost unlimited possibilities. A good route is to continue due west from Jagatpur on dirt roads all the way to Meghauli, though you may have to ford a river on the way, impossible on a motorbike from June/July until at least late November. Don’t overlook the possibility of an outing to Devghat, either.

Hordes of travellers hurry through Lumbini Terai , an ancient part of the Terai west of Chitwan, but few take the time to look around. It’s best known, unfairly, for Sonauli , the main tourist border crossing between Nepal and India. Yet just 20km away is one of Nepal’s premier destinations, Lumbini : birthplace of the Buddha and the site of ruins going back almost three thousand years.

After I am no more, Ananda, men of belief will visit with faithful curiosity and devotion to the four places – where I was born … attained enlightenment … gave the first sermons … and passed into Nirvana.

The Buddha (c.543–463 BC)

For the world’s one billion Buddhists, LUMBINI , 22km west of Bhairahawa, is where it all began. The Buddha’s birthplace is arguably the single most important historical site in Nepal – not only the source of one of the world’s great religions but also the centre of the country’s most significant archeological finds , dating from the third century BC. With only modest ruins but powerful associations, it’s the kind of place you could whizz round in two hours or rest in for days, soaking up the peaceful atmosphere of the wooded park and its monasteries, founded by countries from all over the Buddhist world.

The Buddha has long been a prophet without much honour in his own country, however, and the area around Lumbini is now predominantly Muslim. The main local festival is a Hindu one, commemorating the Buddha as the ninth incarnation of Vishnu – it’s held on the full moon of the Nepali month of Baisaakh (April–May). Celebrations of Buddha Jayanti (the Buddha’s birthday) are comparatively meagre because, as the local monks will tell you with visible disgust, Buddhists from the high country think Lumbini is too hot in May.

Pilgrims used to stick to the more developed Indian sites of Bodhgaya, Sarnath and Kushinagar, but in the 1970s the government, with the backing of the UN, authorized a hugely ambitious master plan for a religious park consisting of monasteries, cultural facilities, gardens, fountains and a tourist village. After a glacially slow start, the plan is finally taking shape under the direction of (or perhaps in spite of) the Lumbini Development Trust ( w lumbinitrust.org ); at the time of research 14 monasteries and meditation centres had been built (out of a target of 42), with a further 12 in the pipeline. Of course, there’s ample cause for scepticism, not least when it comes to the nakedly commercial aspirations of the Nepali government, but if the remaining plans come off, Lumbini could grow to be quite a cosmopolitan religious site. Japanese tour groups have already added it to their whirlwind tours of Buddhist holy places.

Roads enter the master plan area from several directions, with the main entrance gate at the southeastern edge. A road leads from there to the Sacred Garden , which contains all the archeological treasures associated with the Buddha’s birth. North of the Sacred Garden, two “ monastic zones ” are filled by an international array of temples, overlooked by the grand Shanti Stupa, or Peace Pagoda. Alongside, a miniature wetland reserve has been established for the endangered sarus crane, and 600,000 trees have been planted throughout the site, attracting many birds and animals.

Sonauli (Belahiya)

The little border scrum of SONAULI (technically the Nepali side is known as BELAHIYA ) is the most popular border crossing between Nepal and India. While it’s not quite as awful as Raxaul/Birgunj, there’s no need to linger.

While the border at Sonauli is officially open 24hr, you will have trouble tracking down immigration officers early in the morning or late at night. Nepali visas are available on the border but Indian visas have to be obtained in advance. Figure on a total of 30min to get through Nepali and Indian border formalities unless you’re crossing with a vehicle; appalling traffic jams on the Nepali side mean this can take hours. Nepal is 15min ahead of India.

The life of the Buddha

The year of the Buddha’s birth is disputed – it was probably 543 BC – but it’s generally accepted that it happened at Lumbini while his mother, Maya Devi, was on her way to her maternal home for the delivery. He was born Siddhartha Gautama (“he who has accomplished his aim”), the son of a king and a member of the Shakya clan, who ruled the central Terai from their capital at Tilaurakot. Brought up in his father’s palace, Prince Siddhartha was sheltered by his father from the evils of the world, until, at the age of 29, he encountered an old man, a sick man, a corpse and a hermit: old age, sickness and death were the end of life, he realized, and contemplation seemed the only way to understand the nature of suffering.

Siddhartha revolted against his former life of pleasure and fled the palace, leaving behind his wife, child and faithful servant – not to mention his horse, which another legend says promptly died of a broken heart. Passing through the east gate of the palace, he shaved his head and donned the yellow robe of an ascetic. He spent five years in this role before concluding that self-denial brought him no closer to the truth than self-indulgence. Under the famous bodhi tree of Bodhgaya in India, he vowed to keep meditating until he attained enlightenment . This he did after 49 days, at which time Siddhartha became the Buddha, released from the cycle of birth and death. He made his way to Sarnath (near Varanasi in India) and preached his first sermon , setting in motion, Buddhists believe, dharma , the wheel of the truth. Although he is said to have returned to Kapilvastu to convert his family (and according to some stories he even put in an appearance in the Kathmandu Valley), the Buddha spent most of the rest of his life preaching in northern India. He died at the age of eighty in Kushinagar, about 100km southeast of Lumbini, saying “all things are subject to decay. Strive earnestly”.

The ruins of TILAURAKOT , 24km west of Lumbini, are believed to be the remains of ancient Kapilvastu , seat of the ancient Shakya kingdom and the childhood home of Prince Siddhartha Gautama. Tilaurakot gets far fewer visitors than Lumbini, yet its ruins are at least as interesting, and its history arguably even more so. Shaded by mango, kusum and karma trees, they have a serenity that Lumbini has begun to lose.

The remains include a couple of stupa bases, thick fortress walls and four gates. Looking out across the ruins from the eastern gate could hardly be a better opportunity for a moment’s meditation, as it’s said to be from here that the Buddha walked out on nearly thirty years of princely life to begin his search for enlightenment. It’s doubtful this is literally the ruins of the palace of King Suddhodana, the Buddha’s father, for the style of bricks used isn’t thought to have been developed until the third century BC, but it may well have been built on top of it; assuming the earlier structure was made of wood, no trace would remain. Indian archeologists argue that Piprahwa, just south of the border, is the true site, but excavations at Tilaurakot in 2000 uncovered potsherds and terracotta beads contemporaneous with Buddha’s lifetime, helping to corroborate the Nepali claim. A new Anglo-Nepali excavation team started work in 2011, and should help to further clarify matters.

Nepal’s remote far west , linked to the rest of the country by the Mahendra Highway, is slowly opening its doors to travellers. It’s still a hell of a haul to get here from Kathmandu, but Delhi is just twelve hours by bus from the far western border crossing, and the smooth, fast road between the two passes two of Nepal’s richest wildlife parks, Bardia National Park and Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve . The partly Muslim city of Nepalgunj , the largest city in the west, is the hub for flights to several remoter airstrips. The Mahendra Highway makes good time to Nepalgunj, 250km west of Butwal, crossing the Duduwa Hills (350m ascent) and following the green and pleasant valley of the Rapti River (no relation to the river of the same name in Chitwan). North of here lies Dang , home of the white-clad Dangaura Tharus, and fine cycling country.

Bardia National Park

With Chitwan becoming increasingly mass-market, BARDIA NATIONAL PARK , northwest of Nepalgunj and the largest area of undisturbed wilderness left in the Terai, beckons as an unspoiled alternative. Budget lodging is widely available, but there’s nothing like Chitwan’s commercialism, and the distance from Kathmandu is likely to shield the park from the masses for many years to come. The area was particularly badly affected during the civil war, and Bardia district had the highest rate of “ disappearances ” in the whole country.

Ecologically, Bardia spans a greater range of habitats than Chitwan, from thick riverine forest and sal stands to phanta (isolated pockets of savanna) and dry upland slopes. The Geruwa , a branch of the awesome Karnali River , forms the park’s western boundary and major watering hole, and the density of wildlife and birds along this western edge is as great as anywhere in Asia. The Babai River drains the core area to the east of Thakurdwara , forming a sanctuary-like dun valley teeming with game, but it is out of bounds to visitors.

2010 saw the creation of Banke National Park , which borders Bardia to the west and stretches over 550 square kilometres. Together the two parks now form the biggest tiger conservation area in Asia; tourism has not yet developed at Banke, but may well do so in the future.

Bardia in the balance

Nepal’s wildlife parks never sit easily with the inhabitants of nearby villages, who not only are barred from their former woodcutting areas but must also cope with marauding animals. In the case of Bardia , the potential for resentment is especially high, because the government actually reintroduced rhinos to the area, giving local farmers a headache they thought they’d gotten rid of. It’s estimated that half the crops in fields adjoining Bardia are damaged by wildlife (primarily by rhinos and elephants). While local people are still occasionally injured and even killed by wild animals, safety has improved since an electric fence was installed around part of the park.

As in Chitwan, Bardia’s long-term viability depends as much on human factors as ecological ones, and recent initiatives have reflected this. Between thirty and fifty percent of the National Park’s income is spent in the buffer zones, and the number of local Tharu people involved in Bardia’s tourism trade has also increased in recent years. Chitkya Community Forest , along the park’s eastern border, is being managed to allow it to regenerate naturally, providing a source of firewood and increased habitat for animals in the park. Elsewhere, the problem is rather that bushes and trees encroach on the vital grassland needed by deer and tigers, and locals are given controlled access to collect wood.

Other projects prioritize the needs of animals over humans. A notable one aims to create wildlife corridors linking together national parks including Sukla Phanta, Bardia, Banke and Chitwan in Nepal, and Dudhwa and Corbett National Parks in India. Such corridors reflect natural migration patterns, and are seen as vital for maintaining viable breeding populations. They are threatened, however, by deforestation and population growth, which runs the risk of leaving animals marooned in separate national parks. Wildlife corridors are seen as the only way for animal populations to be able to exchange genes without the aid of trucks and tranquillizer guns.

The industrial and transport hub of the far west, NEPALGUNJ is also Nepal’s most Muslim city. The presence of Muslims in the Terai is hardly surprising, since the border with India, where Muslims comprise a significant minority, was only determined in the nineteenth century. Until just prior to the 1814–16 war with the British, this area belonged to the Nawab of Oudh, one of India’s biggest landowners; after Nepal’s defeat it was ceded to the East India Company and only returned to Nepal as a goodwill gesture for services rendered during the Indian Mutiny of 1857. A fair few Muslims fled to Nepalgunj during the revolt – Lucknow, where the most violent incidents occurred, is due south of here – and others filtered in during the Rana years, seeing chances for cross-border trade. The resulting permanent Muslim community is self-contained, but maintains business and family links with India. Indeed, the entire city feels Indian.

In the heart of the sprawl is Tribhuwan Chowk , the lively but dilapidated intersection of the city’s two main shopping thoroughfares, south of which the Indian-style Janaki Mandir sits in the middle of the road like a toll booth. The Muslim quarter lies northeast of Tribhuwan Chowk and is worth a wander. The mosques in this area are disappointingly modern, though, and out-of-bounds to non-believers. Hindu worship and trade centres around the nondescript Bageshwari Mandir ; behind the temple is a large pool with a jaunty, kitsch statue of Mahadev (Shiva) in the middle.

West of the Karnali River

The “far west” of Nepal, west of the Karnali River , is a foreign land for most Nepalis – a remote, underdeveloped region long neglected by the Kathmandu government. In fact, Delhi is closer than the Nepali capital by bus and, until the completion of the Karnali bridge in the mid-1990s, the region was literally cut off altogether in the monsoon, the Karnali effectively forming Nepal’s western border. The region makes for some great off-the-beaten track travelling, though there’s a distinct lack of facilities and communicating with local people can be difficult.

The westernmost section of the Mahendra Highway was finally completed in 2000, after a twitchy Indian government insisted on replacing the Chinese who were originally contracted to do the job. Twenty-two major bridges (many of which were subjected to Maoist attacks during the civil war) carry just 215km of asphalt, but the road now at least lives up to its alternative name of the East–West Highway, bringing new trade and industry to the region. The little-visited Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve , which lies just outside the relatively laidback border town of Mahendra Nagar , is an excellent place to visit for the adventurous (and resourceful) traveller.

Mahendra Nagar

The Mahendra Highway ends at MAHENDRA NAGAR , a border town with a good deal of spark thanks to day-tripping shoppers from India. Its bustle is only a border aberration, however, for the outlying region is one of the more traditional parts of the Terai. Rana Tharu (see p.240) sharecroppers work the fields, maintaining an apparently happy symbiosis with their old-money landlords, and their villages, scattered along dirt tracks north of the Mahendra Highway, still consist of traditional communal longhouses.

The border begins 6km west of Mahendra Nagar, and is reached by shared tempo, rikshaw, or bus. A rough road traverses the 1km no-man’s-land between the Nepali and Indian immigration posts. From Indian immigration you can catch a rikshaw across the wide Mahakali River along the top of a huge flood-control/irrigation barrage and then a further 4km to Banbaasa, the first Indian town. The border is officially open 24 hours, but you may have trouble finding the immigration officials at night or early in the morning.

Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve

The great tracts of natural grassland ( phanta ) in Nepal’s extreme southwest could almost be mistaken – albeit on a smaller scale – for the savannas of East Africa. SUKLA PHANTA WILDLIFE RESERVE , south of Mahendra Nagar, is dotted with them, and touring the reserve is, for once, really like being on safari. Always hard to reach, Sukla Phanta was even more cut off during the civil war, and as a result attracts barely a trickle of visitors. The park is home to one of the world’s largest populations of swamp deer – sightings of a thousand at a time are common – as well as a number of wild elephants and several rhinos. The tiger population has declined dramatically from 20–50 in 2005 to an estimated 6–14 in 2008 as a result of poaching; a sad turn of events for a park that once boasted one of the highest densities of the species in Asia. Sukla Phanta remains astonishingly rich in birds , with 470 species having been counted. Rare species include the Bengal florican and the giant hornbill.

Two great mysteries surround the Terai-dwelling Tharus , Nepal’s second largest ethnic group: where they came from and how they became resistant to malaria. Some anthropologists speculate that they originally migrated from India’s eastern hills, which would account for their Hindu-animist beliefs, but doesn’t fully explain the radically differing dialects, dress and customs of different Tharu groups. Isolated by malarial jungle for thousands of years, bands of migrants certainly could have developed their own cultures, but then why would the name “Tharu” survive with such consistency?

Further confusing the issue are the Rana Tharus of the far west, who claim to be descended from high-caste Rajput women sent north by their husbands during the Muslim invasions – the husbands never came for them, so they ended up marrying their servants. (There is some circumstantial evidence for this: Rana Tharu women are given extraordinary autonomy in marriage and household affairs.)

In terms of the malarial resistance, red blood cells seem to play a part – the fact that Tharus are prone to sickle-cell anaemia may be significant – but little research has been done. At least as significant, Tharus boost their immunity by common-sense precautions, such as building houses with tiny windows to keep smoke in and mosquitoes (and ghosts) out.

Skilled hunter-gatherers, Tharus have in modern times become farmers, and livestock raisers, fishing rivers, clearing patches in the forest and warding off wild animals. Their famed whirling stick dance evokes their uneasy, but respectful, relationship with the forest spirits. Their homes are made of mud and dung plastered over wood-and-reed frames, giving them a distinctive ribbed effect. In the west, half a dozen families or more often still live in the traditional communal longhouses.

The Tharus have fared poorly in recent years, largely reduced to sharecropping. Their distinct culture remains strong in the far west, but in other areas is being drowned out by dominating influences from elsewhere in Nepal and India. Like indigenous people throughout the world, the Tharus’ traditional skills and knowledge of the environment seem to count for little these days.

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- - -   The Terai region is composed of a 26 to 32 km wide broad belt of alluvial and fertile plain in the southern part of the country. This belt extends from the westernmost part of the country to the eastern limit and covers about 17% of the total land area. In complete topographic contrast to the Mountain and Hill regions, the Tarai Region is a lowland tropical and subtropical belt of flat, alluvial land stretching along the Nepal-India border, and paralleling the Hill Region. It is the northern extension of the Gangetic Plain in India, commencing at about 300 meters above sea level and rising to about 1,000 meters at the foot of the Siwalik Range. The Tarai includes several valleys ( dun ), such as the Surkhet and Dang valleys in western Nepal, and the Rapti Valley (Chitwan) in central Nepal. The word tarai , a term presumed to be derived from Persian, means "damp," and it appropriately describes the region's humid and hot climate. The region was formed and is fed by three major rivers: the Kosi, the Narayani (India's Gandak River), and the Karnali. A region that in the past contained malaria-infested, thick forests, commonly known as char kose jhari (dense forests approximately twelve kilometers wide), the Tarai was used as a defensive frontier by Nepalese rulers during the period of the British Raj (1858-1947) in India. In 1991 the Tarai served as the country's granary and land resettlement frontier; it became the most coveted internal destination for land-hungry hill peasants. In terms of both farm and forest lands, the Tarai was becoming Nepal's richest economic region. Overall, Tarai residents enjoyed a greater availability of agricultural land than did other Nepalese because of the area's generally flat terrain, which is drained and nourished by several rivers. Additionally, it has the largest commercially exploitable forests. In the early 1990s, however, the forests were being increasingly destroyed because of growing demands for timber and agricultural land. In between the Chure hills, rising abruptly to the north of the southern plains and the Mahabharat range, are a number of low valleys called "Duns". The Duns resemble the Terai in relief and climate and are also called the Inner Terai. The Chure range running east west across the country is shaped like a hedge. The hills of this range are rather sparsely forested, averaging 600 to 1220 meters in altitude and 8-16 km in breadth. The soil is immature and dry. in Range: US$ US$ Price: US$ 71.43 Tell a friend and win exciting gifts... Click to learn more. | Eurasia Review A Journal of Analysis and News Pastoral scene in Nepal. Nepal: Ensuring Rapid Rate Of Terai’s Economic Growth – Analysis By Hari Bansh Jha During the planning period beginning from 1956, investment by the government for the economic growth of the peripheral Terai region remained quite inadequate. Perhaps, this is one of the important factors responsible for the present economic crisis in the country in which extreme poverty and low per capita income (US $ 340) is the order of the day. In India, on the other hand, more investment was made for the development of peripheral coastal cities like Kolkata, Mumbai and Madras at the initial stage of development. Once those coastal cities were developed, the planners switched over to comparatively less developed places for investment in the mainland of the country. The Chinese model of development, though different from India, is one regarding the issue of developing the peripheral or coastal areas. China gave major thrust to the development of Special Economic Zones, Coastal Cities and Coastal Economic Zones with a view to attracting foreign investment between 1978 and 1984. As a result, Special Economic Zones were developed in Shenzhen, Shantou, Zhuhai, Xiamen and Fujian. Many of those areas were also developed as free trade zones where development indicators had a tendency to double in each two to three years period. China made economic growth at a rapid rate and is daring to compete the world under the WTO arrangement due to the development opportunities that it created in those peripheral coastal areas. Poverty in the Terai Prosperity is limited to a very few people in the Terai. Many people live in miseries and poverty and they are not even in a position to scratch out a living. Because of poverty, each year the people in the region are forced to leave their homeland in search of food and work. Statistics show that 45 per cent of the Terai districts, including Saptari, Siraha, Dhanusha, Mahottari, Sarlahi, Rautahat, Parsa, Bardiya and Kailali were in worst position in 1997 in terms of poverty and deprivation. Those nine districts in the Terai were among the 25 districts identified as worst districts at the national level as indicated by International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD). The Terai districts, thus, identified in the worst category were at par with the remote mountain and hill districts like Achham, Kalikot, Dailekh, Mugu, Bajhang, Humla, Jumla, Jajarkot, Baitadi and Rolpa. Moreover, the conditions of some of the remote districts like Nuwakot, Darchula, Pyuthan, Dolpa and Myagadi (which were in the intermediate category) and Parbat, Lamjung, Sankhuwasabha and Mustang (ranked in the best category) were in a better position than the nine worst districts of the Terai. However, as shown in the following table some of the Terai districts such as Saptari, Siraha, Dhanusha, Parsa, Bardiya and Kailali which were classified in the worst or least developed districts in 1997 were promoted to the category of intermediate rank. Similarly, some such districts as Rupandehi, Banke and Dang which until 1997 were in the category of intermediate districts were promoted to the rank of most developed districts in 2003. Yet, there were still some districts in the Terai such as Mahottari, Sarlahi and Rautahat which fell in the category of the least developed districts of the country such as Humla, Mugu, Dolpa, Rasuwa, Rukum and Rolpa, to name a few. Table 1:   Terai Districts on Poverty and Deprivation Ranking (2003) Mahottari, Sarlahi, Rautahat   15 Saptari, Siraha, Dhanusha, Bara, Parsa, Nawalparasi, Kapilvastu  and Kailali   40 Jhapa, Morang, Sunsari, Chitwan, Rupandehi, Dang, Banke, Bardiya and  Kanchanpur   45 Total Districts 20 100 Source: International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development: Districts of Nepal:  Indicators of Development, Kathmandu: Update 2003. Failed Development Many of the problems related to the underdevelopment of the Terai are due to the asymmetrical relations existing between Kathmandu and the Terai. Kathmandu being in the centre and Terai in the periphery, the former enjoys far better facilities than the latter both qualitatively and quantitatively in various infrastructural sectors like education, health, transportation, communication, electrification and several other public works. Kathmandu is the centre of power and wealth because the ruling class takes the advantage of the location of central state apparatus and the government controls the entire distribution and allocation of national resources. Such type of relations have accentuated and reinforced the inequalities between the centre and the periphery causing exploitation of the Terai on the one hand and the neglect of its concerns in a number of areas on the other. Moreover, the lack of adequate budgetary allocation on development activities also affected the development prospects in the Terai. This led to the creation of unemployment in the region, which proved to be an igniting factor for the present conflict. In the Terai, a vicious circle operates in which underdevelopment leads to unemployment. Unemployment leads to conflict. And in turn, conflict aggravates the prospect of development. Internal Rate of Return (IRR) The failure of development opportunities in the Terai region was largely due to the ignorance of the fundamental economic principle of Internal Rate of Return (IRR), what is sometimes also referred to as Economic Rate of Return (ERR). Generally, the higher level of IRR is more desirable to undertake a project. Except in the exceptional cases, it is on the basis of this principle of IRR that investment is made in a project. But in Nepal, the principle of IRR seems to have been grossly violated as it is evident from the following projects in the Terai. Road Projects The IRR in most of the road projects is much higher in the Terai as compared to other regions of Nepal. For example, in the hill the IRR was found to be 7.2 per cent in the Ilam-Fidim road and 3.3 per cent in the Taplejung road. In the Terai, the IRR was as high as 17.2 per cent in the Biratnagar-Rangeli-Dainia road, 23.5 per cent in the Urlabari-Bardanga road and 25.3 per cent in the Damak-Gaurigunj road.[2] ADB Road Projects Table 2 shows that the IRR of the hill-based roads was lower than one-third of the Terai-based road projects. The IRR of the Terai-based road projects on an average was 24 per cent; which was only 7 per cent in the hill. Among the major Terai-based roads, the IRR was maximum (40 per cent) in the case of Birtamod-Bhadrapur road and minimum (12 per cent) in the Chauharwa-Siraha road. On the other hand, the IRR was maximum (17 per cent) in the Maikhola-Ilam road and zero in Dadeldhura-Patan road in the hill. Table 2:           IRR in ADB Road Projects Lamahi-Tulsipur 33 Duhabi-Inaruwa 20 Urlabari-Bardanga 24 Damak-Gaurigunj 25 Birtamod-Bhadrapur 40 Biratnagar-Rangeli-Dainia 17 Chauharwa-Siraha 12 Bhardaha-Rajbiraj 15 East-West Highway (218-366 km) 22 East-West Highway (0-78 km) 23 East-West Highway (210-276 km) 27 Hetauda-Birgunj Road 30 Sahajpur-Dadeldhura 8 Dadeldhura-Patan 0 Maikhola-Ilam 17 Ilam-Phidim 8 Taplejung Road 3 Gokarna-Sankhu 6 Source: 1.       Asian Development Bank: Project Completion Report on the Second Road            Improvement  Project in Nepal, January 1998. 2.        Asian Development Bank: Third Road Improvement Project (Project Completion Report), 2002. WB Road Projects The following table shows that the World Bank in Nepal constructed all the roads in the hill with the only exception of 14-km long Lumbini-Taulihawa road. Of the World Bank supported, upgraded, newly constructed and rehabilitated road projects of 612.6 km, the share of the Lumbini-Taulihawa road was 2 per cent only. In terms of total expenditure of Rs. 2,924.2 million on the World Bank road projects, the share of the Lumbini-Taulihawa road was Rs. 30 million, which was merely 1 per cent of the total expenditure. Table 3:           Expenditure in World Bank Supported Road Project Status of Road Length in km Expenditure(In Million Rupees) Upgrading Surkhet-Kalikot Dharapani-Chhedegad Gorusinghe-Sandhikharka     134.9 61.5 59.2   606.6 304.9 247.5 New Construction   Chamellia-Darchula Sanfebagar-Martadi Sanfebagar-Mangalsen Kalikot-Jumla Chedegad-Jajarkot   33.7 37.2 14.7 88.4 21.0   143.4 219.7 92.5 756.7 109.9 Rehabilitation Road Siddharth Highway Lumbini-Taulihawa Tansen-Tamghash   85 14 63   200 30 213 Share of Lumbini-Taulihawa(Terai) Road in Total   2.28%              2.28                                   2.28              2.28 1.0% Source: GoN/Ministry of Works & Transport/Department of Roads, Borrower               Project Implementation Plan: Road Maintenance and Development               Project , Kathmandu, December 1999. RAP Road Projects Under the HELVETAS-supported Rural Access Project (RAP), altogether six districts including Doti, Dailekh, Achham, Khotang, Bhojpur and Sankhuwasabha had been covered. RAP was implemented as a joint programme with the Rural Community Infrastructure Works Programme, collaboration between GTZ’s Integrated Food Security Programme and the UN’s World Food Programme. Under this programme, feeder roads had been constructed, apart from launching activities for poverty alleviation. However, no road as such was constructed under this programme in the Terai. Irrigation Projects The IRR of New Surface Projects in the Terai varied between 9 and 25 per cent; which, however, was between 8 and 21 per cent in the hill region (Table 4). In the major Rehabilitation Surface Projects, the IRR varied between 11 and 30 per cent in the Terai; whereas it varied between 18 and 23 per cent in the hill. In the Minor Rehabilitation Surface Projects, the IRR varied between 15 and 31 per cent in the Terai against 14 and 19 per cent in the hill. Table 4:           IRR in Selected Irrigation Projects Ecological Regions Estimated IRR % Terai   New Surface Projects Major Rehabilitation Surface Projects Minor Rehabilitation Surface Projects     9 to 25 11 to 30 15 to 31   Hill New Surface Projects Major Rehabilitation Surface Projects Minor Rehabilitation Surface Projects     8 to 21 18 to 23 14 to 19 Source: WECS: Summary of Irrigation Sub-sector Report National Water Plan June 2003 Electrification Projects Table 5 presents that the average transmission line cost (Wolf 66 kV s/c and d/c and also Wolf 132 kV s/c and d/c) per km is higher in the hill (84 kUS$) than in the Terai (76 kUS$) by 11 per cent. It means that the total costs including all materials, construction works, design, land acquisition and engineering are less in the Terai, which provides better opportunities for its expansion in this region. Table 5:           Transmission Line Costs (kUS$/km   excluding of taxes and duties) Conductors Phase Terai Hills Percentage Change 1*Wolf 66 Kv s/c 48 53 10 1*Wolf 66 kV d/c 77 84 9 1* Bear 66 kV s/c 62 69 11 1* Bear 66 kV d/c 100 110 10 1*Wolf 132 Kv s/c 54 59 9 1*Wolf 132 Kv d/c 86 95 10 1* Bear 132 kV s/c 70 77 10 1* Bear 132 Kv d/c 112 123 10 Total Average 76 84 11 Source: Master Plan, 1998 Costs of Components in Electrification Table 6 shows that the total average costs of major components in electrification were lower by 11 per cent in the Terai (US $5,508) as compared to the same in the hill (US $6,105). This was due to the fact that the transportation and installation prices were more expensive in the hill on account of the difficult terrain. Table 6:   Total Costs of Major Components (in US $) Components Unit Terai Hills Percentage Change 33 kV Line 100 mm (Dog) Km 6,940 7,560 9 11 kV Line 100 mm (Dog) “ 6,260 6,870 10 11 kV Line 50 mm (Rabbit) “ 4,740 5,320 12 11 kV Line 30 mm (Weasel) “ 4,090 4,670 14 Total Average “ 5,508 6,105 11 Source: ADB TA 2911-NEP – Final Report Rural Electrification It is evident from Table 7 that the average capital cost per customer was US $ 120 in the Terai; which was as high as US $ 245 in the hill i.e. an increase of 104 per cent. Table 7:           Costs of Rural Electrification Component Scheme/District Capital Cost per Customer US $ Bariyarpatti/Sirha 108 Bhangha/Mahottari 105 Biruwa Guthi/Parsa 115 Chanai/Kapilvastu 108 Dewangunj/Sunsari 157 Dhanushadham/Dhanusha 125 Gaurishankar/Sarlahi & Mahottari 102 Jamuniya/Nawalparasi 148 Jaynagar/Rautahat 108 Total Average 120 Appipal/Gorkha 346 Charikot/Dolakha 248 Bhagwati/Arghakhanchi 252 Bahaman/Sindhuli 196 Birbas/Gulmi 263 Birkot/Palpa 184 Chainpur/Sankhuwasabha 344 Chapakot/Kaski 159 Diktel/Khotang 213 Total Average 245 Linkages with the Border States in India Interestingly, out of India’s 1.17 billion population (2009), nearly 361 million (2001) people live in Nepal’s bordering states in India. Figures have it that Nepal’s bordering Indian state of Uttarakhand had population of 8.48 million; whereas that of Uttar Pradesh was 190 million, Bihar – 82 million, Bengal – 80 million and Sikkim – 0.54 million. This clearly demonstrates that India in general and the bordering states of India in particular might be a potential market for the Nepalese exportable items. The presence of the huge 361 million customers in the bordering states provides immense prospects for exports from Nepal including the Terai region if the goods could be produced to meet the taste, preferences and purchasing power of these people. Export Processing Zones FTA with common external tariff with India is possible only if the Export Processing Zones (EPZs) are established and strengthened, particularly in the Terai region of Nepal. The Terai region has comparative advantage over other regions of Nepal in developing EPZs mainly due to proximity factor in trade with the bordering states. EPZs are industrial estates which form enclaves within the national customs territory. Usually, they are situated near the international port or airport with the objectives of increasing foreign exchange earnings, generating employment opportunities, upgrading the skills of local manpower, transmitting new technology to the host countries and developing backward regions of the country. Besides, they are also meant for creating linkages to stimulate the inflows of local raw materials, semi-finished goods or packing materials and to promote the growth of ancillary industries. In the EPZs, infrastructural facilities like road, water and land are developed in which there is a potentiality of joint venture (JV) investment. Uninterrupted power supply along with telephone/fax service is guaranteed to the JV. In case of any such problem, adequate facilities are made for in-house power generation. Also, incentive is given to the labor class so that they might learn skills needed by the JV units. Labor laws are enacted in such a way that the increase in facilities is directly linked to productivity. Substantial tax incentives are granted to investment in EPZs. In addition to the duty free imports and other privileges, there is complete tax holiday for five years for the industries established in EPZs. All hard currency earned from exports is totally made tax-free. Certain percentage of the goods manufactured in the EPZs is allowed to be sold in the domestic market. No excise duty is levied on such items. Customs duties on imported components are 50 per cent of the normal rates. Companies, which sell in the domestic market as well as international markets, are allowed to deduct export earnings from their tax liabilities. The prospects for the growth of EPZs are high in the Terai region also due to the existence of necessary infrastructures in the form of Inland Container Depot (ICD) in Birgunj, Biratnagar and Bhairahawa. ICDs would facilitate the industries in the EPZs to produce and export goods. Of the three ICDs, the one at Birgunj is most important to Nepal’s economy for 80 per cent of the country’s trade is carried through this route. India set up a broad-gauge rail link for the 5.3 km. stretch between Sirsiya (Birgunj, Nepal) and Raxaul (India), which substantially reduced time in the transportation of goods, transport costs, pilferage, demurrage and problems at Kolkata port. A number of facilities have been made available to facilitate the import and export of goods through those dry ports. There are no such dry port facilities even in the bordering Indian states of Bihar or Uttar Pradesh. Export is facilitated to business enterprises in India and to third countries through such dry port, where containers called multimodals have multiple modes of transport ranging from surface, sea and air. Donors/INGOs Support Foreign aid and assistance has played a crucial role in economic development of the Terai. Aside from India, the United Sates was the first few countries that started giving aid to the Terai region of Nepal through USAID (originally known as the U.S. Operations Mission or USOM) in 1950s. Rapti Valley Development was USAID’s major project in 1950s, which focused on equitable land distribution, local participation in self-help projects, improved farming methods, malaria eradication, improved health services, road and market development, and formation of cooperative societies for agricultural inputs and marketing. USAID also extended support through technical advisors and funding for a cadastral survey covering 20 Terai districts. Later on, countries like the USSR, United Kingdom, Germany, Denmark and the multilateral agencies like the World Bank, the ADB, the UN agencies and the INGOs like Save the Children Japan, Save the Children US, Save the Children Norway, ACTION AID/Nepal, CARE Nepal, DFID and Plan Nepal also made their presence felt in the Terai by launching different kinds of programmes. Yet, among all kinds of aid and assistance made available to the Terai region by different bilateral/multilateral agencies and the INGOs, the Indian cooperation proved unique. It is unique both in terms of volume of amount and its proper utilization for the execution of different projects. While the activities of other agencies are confined to certain pockets, Indian cooperation widely covers one part of the Terai to the other and there is consistency in the approach. Though India itself is a developing country like Nepal, its contribution to the development of peripheral Terai, particularly in areas related to the development of infrastructural facilities and human resource development is overwhelmingly important. Indian co-operation to the Terai is solely guided by the motive of making the region self-reliant, prosperous, vibrant and modern in such sectors as roads, airports, railways, communications, education, health, industry, urbanization and cultural promotion. India has been making consistent economic assistance strategies for the development of this region considering the very high IRR in almost all important sectors – be it related to infrastructural development like the roads, railways, irrigation, airways or the development of agriculture, industry, trade and service sectors. Since 2003, the Terai region like that of hill or mountain regions equally benefitted from the Small Development Projects (SDPs) of the Government of India (GOI) for its focus on social and physical infrastructures in education, health and community development sectors. Projects under SDPs are undertaken at the request of the local government, communities and organizations. Transparency is one of the important features of these projects. Any amount allotted to the project is directly spent by the executing agency – usually the DDC or a local GON body – based on the recommendation of the oversight committee, which is composed of grassroots level local community leaders and members of the beneficiary groups. The committee ensures effective implementation of the project; while GOI’s role is confined to disbursement of grant assistance based on physical monitoring of the projects. Some of the large and intermediate-size projects implemented under the India-Nepal Economic Cooperation Programme at the present time include B.P. Koirala Institute of Health Sciences, Dharan, Manmohan Memorial Polytechnic, Biratnagar, Nepal Bharat Maitri Bakhtawari Hari Eye Hospital, Krishnanagar, etc. Until the political change in 1990, there were only 253 NGOs registered with Social Welfare Council (SWC); of which quite a few worked in the Terai. But in less than two decades thousands of NGOs have been registered with SWC, leaving aside many more that have been registered with the District Administration Office in various districts. The number of INGOs working in Nepal has exceeded 200. Many of them prefer to work in the hill and mountain regions. But there are also INGOs that have been working in the Terai. However, not much information is available about the exact number of INGOs working in this region. As the Table 8 shows, the maximum 32 INGOs have been working in each of Bardiya and Banke districts and the least in Rautahat district (16). In other districts, such as Kailali 30 INGOs have been working followed by those in Morang (30), Chitwan (28) and Kanchanpur (27). On an average, 24 INGOs have been working in each district of the Terai. These are the organizations known for their interest in working in diverse fields such as in agriculture, forestry, environment, health, education, women/gender, children, saving/credit/micro-finance, conflict and peace, poverty, livelihood, human rights, water and sanitation and small enterprises. Table 8:            INGOs Working in the Terai Kanchanpur 27 Kailali 30 Bardiya 32 Banke 32 Dang 24 Kapilvastu 17 Rupandehi 23 Nawalparasi 22 Chitwan 28 Parsa 20 Bara 21 Rautahat 16 Sarlahi 24 Mahottari 26 Dhanusha 25 Siraha 21 Saptari 19 Sunsari 22 Morang 30 Jhapa 27 Source: Association of International NGOs in Nepal (2008). Membership Report 2008. However, the impact of the INGOs working in the Terai appears to be dismal. Despite the presence of so many INGOs in the region, poverty is rampant. Improvement in agricultural, industrial, trade, service, environment and other sectors is not distinct. Sometimes, it appears that many of the INGOs are complicating the development process rather than supporting them. So much so that the contribution of these INGOs in conflict mediation also appears to be questionable. There are a few factors for which the INGOs in general have not been able to make due delivery for peace and development efforts in the Terai region. Many of the INGOs obviously appear to have made their presence felt in different Terai districts, but their coverage is partial as their activities are confined to just a few pockets or VDCs. Most of the INGOs do not have technical manpower with expertise in areas in which they are expected to make delivery. They often come to this region not on the basis of competence, but on other grounds. This is also due to the fact that there is no proper mechanism or coordinating body in Nepal to check the quality or delivery of the expatriates coming through the INGOs in this country. Another noteworthy reason for the lack of delivery on the part of the INGOs is that they are hardly made accountable for the development of any particular issue/sector such as poverty, road, irrigation or communication at the regional or district level in the Terai. So in some limited pockets they introduce one programme and in the other they do other activities. Also, there are INGOs which are believed to be involved in activities that they hardly advocate. Often, they advocate one thing but do the other. There is a growing feeling among the Terai intellectuals that certain INGOs promote religious conversion in the region, when their mandate is to go for development activities. Even the government and so to say the SWC or other line ministries under which the INGOs mostly operate have no effective machinery to monitor the working of the INGOs. In the existing situation, the development expectations of the people in the Terai region from many of the INGOs have largely been belied and it will remain so till there is no structural change in their (INGO’s) modus operandi. A Way Forward Despite the development potentialities in the Terai, the common people of the region are poor. Lack of political will and asymmetrical relations between Kathmandu and the Terai are the most important hurdles for alleviating poverty in the region. The planners and policy makers largely forgot the potentiality of the development of peripheral Terai unlike the importance given to such region in India or in China. The failed development scenario is responsible for the present conflict in the region. However, because of the geographical advantage of being plain land, high density of population and several economic activities, the chances of returns on investment in infrastructural projects in this region are very high. In this context, manufacturing and exports in the Terai targeting the border states of India might be very important. The EPZs to be established in the region would largely create congenial environment for JV investment or FDI in this region. Moreover, time has come for the Nepalese government and other concerned bodies to effectively monitor the modus operandi of the INGOs and donors working in the Terai region. Policy has to be framed so that the donors and INGOs are made responsible for the development of certain specific sectors. The existing system of allowing them to have their presence felt in different districts despite working in a few pockets or VDCs needs to be reviewed. A serious study needs to be made for the policy purpose as to how the resources of the donor agencies and the INGOs need to be streamlined for addressing peace and development issues of the Terai region. Dr. Jha is Professor of Economics and Executive Director of Centre for Economic and Technical Studies in Nepal. His paper is based on the work done in his book on “The Economy of Terai Region of Nepal: Prospects for its Sustainable Development” [2] Hari Bansh Jha, “Terai awaits better treatment from government,” Kathmandu: The Himalayan Times, 20 August 2003. ← Soccer Sparks Political Rift In Turkey’s Ruling AKP – Analysis Indian Army Exercise Sudershan: Revalidation Of Cold Start War Doctrine – Analysis → SAAG is the South Asia Analysis Group, a non-profit, non-commercial think tank. The objective of SAAG is to advance strategic analysis and contribute to the expansion of knowledge of Indian and International security and promote public understanding. One thought on “ Nepal: Ensuring Rapid Rate Of Terai’s Economic Growth – Analysis ” Correct plase RAP is funded by DFID. DFID iis not INGOs, it is a Bilateral Organisation. Leave a Reply Cancel reply Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked * Content Search Nepal: background of the terai's madhesi people. [This report does not necessarily reflect the views of the United Nations] KATHMANDU, 8 Feb 2007 (IRIN) - The flat southern region of Nepal - the Terai - is known as Madhes in the Nepalese language and its indigenous inhabitants are called Madhesi. The Terai stretches from the east to the west of the country along the Nepalese-Indian border adjoining the Indian states of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. It comprises nearly 17 percent of the land and the Madhesi people make up about 30 percent of the 27 million people in Nepal. The Madhesi are predominantly Hindus with some Muslims, Buddhists and Christians. Economically, the Terai is the most fertile and productive region of Nepal where agriculture dominates. The main agricultural products are rice, jute, sugar, mustard, tobacco, herbs and spices. Most of the agro-based industries are here. In addition, the region is rich in forestry. Despite the economic significance of the Madhesi people, they have felt neglected by successive Nepalese governments over education, health access, economic activities and development programmes. Many of the poorest communities survive on less than US$1 a day. The Madhesi leaders accuse the Nepalese government of treating them as outsiders and not as part of Nepal due to their Indian roots. More than 40 percent of the Madhesi still do not have citizenship or voting rights and only 15 percent of the 330 Nepalese parliamentarians are Madhesi. In a bid to gain the attention of the government, the pro-Terai political party, the Madhesi People's Rights Forum (MPRF), launched demonstrations on 16 January to demand greater autonomy and more representation in the government. Their demands also include citizenship for the Madhesi population. The government has yet to decide how to respond to the demands of the Madhesi protesters. In three weeks, 19 people have been killed, mostly at the hands of the armed Nepalese police. Most of the towns and cities in the eastern Terai remain closed due to strikes, a curfew and violence. Related Content Unhcr nepal: 2024 funding update (as of 31 may 2024), nepal: hrrp bulletin (31 may 2024), un resident coordinator handover secretary general invitation to rt hon prime minister of nepal for the summit of the future: meaningful youth mobilization a key focus of the summit, insights behind the unexpected flooding in the budhi gandaki river, gorkha, nepal. Services and legitimacy: Everyday experiences of the state in Nepal’s Terai region Clare cummings and suman babu paudel. Organisation: ODI Country: Nepal Date: 29/03/2019 Full summary In recent years, Nepal has been anything but stable. Since 1996, the country has experienced ten years of civil war, violent protest over the ethnic and regional inequalities, the dissolution of elected local bodies and has transformed from a monarchy to a republic and from a unitary to a federal state. This study aims to better understand how the Nepali state’s stability and legitimacy is challenged or strengthened. We explore the state’s legitimacy in the Terai/Madhesh region of Nepal, using data from Bardiya in western Terai and Dhanusha in eastern Terai. Key findings: The study finds that the state is imagined and experienced by Nepali citizens in three main ways: To provide access to resources and rights – Citizens expected the state to provide basic access to resources and rights. To uphold values – However, citizens in Nepal also expected the state to uphold certain values – most notably fairness. Fairness is both a process and outcome of state functions – People discussed fairness of both the process and the outcome of state functions, and many felt unfairly treated despite the material benefits they had received. The study also finds that the state employs different tactics among different groups to maintain its power: Local level: Locally, state actors can maintain their power by giving preferential treatment to their core supporters. Regional and federal level: Ethnic movements have been sufficiently powerful to threaten the political settlement at this level, and so the state’s legitimacy is sometimes negotiated with the use of violence. Conclusions:  The issues at the heart of state legitimacy in the Terai are how it provides material support, infrastructure and security, and how it respects cultural and religious practices. Citizens are more likely to object to the state’s authority when they feel their culture is not respected or they have unfair access to state resources. Furthermore, in contrary to two widely held assumptions in international development about what makes a state legitimate, providing state services does not necessarily lead to stronger state legitimacy and the state does not attempt to be legitimate to all citizens. Related Publications Reconstructing our understanding of the link between services and state legitimacy Migration and work: are women’s work patterns changing in Bardiya, Nepal? How did social welfare provision (de-)legitimise the post-colonial state in Sri Lanka? Why services won’t always buy legitimacy: everyday experiences of the state in Swat, Pakistan Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer. To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to  upgrade your browser . Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link. We're Hiring! Help Center Dowry System and its Impact on Women in Terai Region of Nepal Related Papers Rajkumari Gurung Avijit K Shaha Dowry is a social custom, which arises from the pervasive greed. It is prevailing in both rural and urban sectors and among non-affluent influent section of the people of the Bangladesh. Around fifty percent of the violence against women in Bangladesh are happening due to the dowry system. The author suggested that action plan with proper implementation is necessary for legal and social measures to fight against dowry system. He also further argued that with a combined effort and launching a social movement against dowry may help to achieve a goal oriented development process for which society should consider dowry activity as a criminal act .Dowry is the property that a woman brings to. Her husband at the time of the marriage. It has been a well-established institution among the propertied classes of various lands and times, e.g., in ancient Greece and Rome, India, medieval Europe, and modern continental countries. In civil-law countries the dowry is an important form of property. Dowry system has socio-economic impact of the country. It is one of the worst social systems, which creates discrimination for females by virtue of their birth in this sub-continent especially in the country. Under the dowry system females are treated as a commercial product and they are measured as ordinary goods. This inhuman practice makes the society as unbearable situation. Greed for dowry is very much pervasive. Though currently cruelty of dowry system increases, but its root was originated in the society from the ancient society when non-Aryans started this practice in this sub-continent. In this sub-continent though dowry system is acquit in India but in Bangladesh it is widening. It is increased at a higher rate after the independence. Lot of bridegroom studied at the expenses of father in laws in the British period. Pakistani era and also in, the current age. "GHOR JAMAl" sys-tem was very popular among the Muslim society. At the expenses of father in law many people were able to establish in the society. Dowry is not only prevailing in the rural areas, but also prevailing in the urban areas. People of all religions of this country are more or less affected by this illicit practice. The situation of women in Bangladesh is still deplorable and establishment of human rights of the women in the country is far from reality. When the world is becoming a global village, and gender equality was prevailing both in the developed and developing countries, a large number of women in Bangladesh were being tortured due to dowry by their spouses/members of in laws houses. 1.1 Background of the problem: Bangladesh has already enter into modern computer and science era but Bengali’s women are downtrodden and at the bottom of development mainstream. The women are fighting for equability and social justice yet. They are still treated as second class citizen. We have seen religion, culture and society and political mirrors all these reality. A great number of the total population are depressed by the hierarchical system, which generate casts and gender discrimination, touch ability system in the society. Women are victimizing most in which various types of social discrimination existing hierarchical structure the Hindu religion is dominated to women. The United Nations Secretary-General has repeatedly emphasized that as long as violence against women continues, we cannot claim to be making real progress towards equality, development and peace. Drawing violence against women out of the private domain in to public attention and the area of state accountability has been a formidable task. Violence is any kind of oppression coercion and greatly against another being. However in a patriarchal society, the greatest violence is directed towards girls and women. This includes not only physical violence but also the mental and emotional violence that arise because of discriminatory attitude which affect women throughout their lives. The different is only the nature and its extent violence against women refers to any type of harmful behavior at women and girls. Girls and women are violated in many more forms i.e., child marriage, girls trafficking, sexual harassment, rape, forced marriage, marital rape, forced conception, domestic violence and dowry related violence minimize their human rights reproductive rights. Girls and women are neglected in every aspects of their life too. Women are neglected before their birth i.e., sex selection abortion most of Bengalis agents prefer daughter both mother and daughter get less care than she would have got in case she had a son. Domestic violence against women is a common phenomenon in a patriarchal society in which women are considered as docile, feeble and weak. The atrocity of female dominated society characterized by gender discrimination and old hackneyed socioeconomic dependence to much allegiance of their husbands fear of exposition of fact, dowry related issue, system capable of illiterate true statement from the culprit seems to existing such a situation the court is held on place for the accused to tell fabricate of domestic violence take place if the dark with none to shoot a video tape to the produces in law court as the real evidence of the event. There are various forms of violence the extent of domestic violence is also wide which was rooted very deeply in traditional Bengali community. But more incidences do not come into media. Dowry system is deeply rooted with social and religious system. Dowry is something given to bride from the side of her parents and relatives. Actually it is not any wrong system but if this gets priorities in conjugal life, then become vulnerable and ultimate results different violence. Most of the dowry related violence is seen from jhenidah district of the Bangladesh. The dowry practice is up-coming in crystal clear format. In many hilly base communities they make deal between themselves as if it an important segments of the ceremony. The practice of dowry being pained to grooms with commitment risk of extortion and dowry death, it is made spread in India, Pakistan and Nepal and has begun in Bangladesh. (UNICEF, 1999) It is not only confined to Jhenidah district only, but the increasing in villages and other parts of the country as well even through in Bangladesh also, social acts was passed in 1980 and the Women and Children Repression Prevention (Special Provision) Act 2000 of the country strictly ensures prohibition of dowry in Bangladesh society . Muhammad Nauman pratima kamble This paper explores the correlation in between dowry and their effect on education. Education is the important key of development and self-empowerment. Rural girl's education is also one of the essential part of the sustainable development of the nation but many of the thing that restrict to girls to continue their education. The research has been conducted through analysing the primary researches and the data collected through case studies. This study shows that the dowry is one of the dangerous barrier that effects on the girl's education. this study concludes that the dowry is the influential social evil in our society and only the education can secure the girls. East west University Nadia Afroz Now-a days dowry system has become an unavoidable issue in Bangladeshi society. We are cultivating this ritual by calling it a value or norm of our society. But do we know this is actually a heinous and devastating crime in disguise of giving gifts? Yes we may know this issue, we tell everyone that we are concerned about it. But side by side, we are supporting it also, and it is us who are taking this crime step by step ahead. Where the women are held in reverence, there do gods reside is an old Sanskrit adage. Irony that we respect our mother India, self-proclaimed patriots but rape its daughter. In the amount which spends over marriage and as dowry costs around an average of 10 lakh in India. Country ranks top in the domestic violence and dowry related issues among other south Asian countries. This paper mainly deals with the dowry related domestic violence from year 2004-2016, which deals with the percentage analysis of its growth/ decline. An analysis on the statistics available with NCRB has been conducted along with to find the nature of these issues. The cultural and religious rituals has put women in an exploitable position. Rather than considering Dowry as a taboo many are considering it as privilege and customary act. Higher education directly proportional higher amount of. If it is not fulfilled it leads to violence against women dowry and also license for atrocities against women. Key words: Dowry, Domestic violence, Atrocities against women, Cultural and religious practices, Customary act. International Journal of Engineering Applied Sciences and Technology Vinod Kumari The Explorer Islamabad A dowry is an exchange of property in the form of money, land, vehicle, house or gold between the bride’s family and groom. It is one of the leading forms of marital violence, spreading like fire within our cultural web. The research was conducted to determine the influence of dowry system on rate of marriage, examine the society’s point of view about dowry system and also to explore the immersion of education in the dowry system. The study was conducted in Gulzar-e-Quaid Rawalpindi. Data of 80 respondents was collected by using purposive sampling with the help of in depth interviews and case studies. Chi-square analysis suggests that dowry system creates an imbalance between the status of women who are giving dowry and who are devoid of it. The economic exchange particularly defines and is proportional to the extent of control, respect and power she will have in the new house. Lack of dowry often becomes the cause of conflict in the family and still is a decisive factor when it comes to a woman’s marriage. The adaptation and prevalence of this system dates back to the pre-partition time and has nothing to do with our religion. Santosh K U M A R Mahato INTRODUCTION Geographically, there are three regions in Nepal i.e. mountain, hill, and Terai. Jha (2010) mentioned that Terai is a flat area located on the bottom part of Nepal stretches from the border of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, India. He added that the Terai region covers about 17% of the total area of Nepal followed by 50.2 percent of the population of Nepal. The Terai is the most vulnerable area in terms of dowry and it accompanies. Biswajit Ghosh Loading Preview Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. You can download the paper by clicking the button above. RELATED PAPERS Md. Kamruzzaman Sara Falcão Casaca bhavesh chandak countercurrents.org Shalu Nigam Prof. Dr. Yubaraj Sangroula Research for Developemnt Sheikh Tariquzzaman Roksana Badruddoja   We're Hiring!   Help Center Find new research papers in: Health Sciences Earth Sciences Cognitive Science Mathematics Computer Science Academia ©2024   Change Category Lost Password Registration, select categories of your interest.. Tuesday, 11 June 2024 04:29 AM DHM forecasts heat wave in Terai, urges caution Published On: June 9, 2024 03:15 PM NPT By: Republica  | @RepublicaNepal KATHMANDU, June 9: The Department of Hydrology and Meteorology (DHM) has urged for alertness, saying there is a possibility of excessive heat in the Terai region based on an analysis of temperature conditions throughout the country in the coming few days.  The Meteorological Forecasting Division under the DHM has urged one and all for necessary preparedness and alertness as the temperature is likely to increase. Meteorologist Binu Maharjan said that heat is predicted to intensify especially in Tarai and in Sudurpaschim and Lumbini provinces. "Necessary precaution is advised, as there is a possibility of hot wind and heat waves in the Terai region until June 10," the DHM said. Before this, the highest temperature of 44.2 degrees Celsius, this year's highest, was recorded in Nepalgunj. Similarly, Dhangadhi recorded 44.1 degrees Celsius temperature.   The weather is presently partly cloudy in the hilly areas and clear in the rest of the country. This is due to the effect of local and westerly winds and a low pressure area formed around Bihar, India, say DHM officials. Later this afternoon, the weather will remain partly and generally cloudy in the hilly parts of Koshi, Bagmati and Gandaki provinces and clear in the remaining parts of the country. There is a possibility of light to moderate rain with thunder and lightning at some places in the hilly parts of Bagmati, Gandaki and Koshi provinces. There is also a possibility of storms in some places of Lumbini, Karnali and Sudurpaschim provinces. Department_of_Hydrology_and_Meteorology excessive_heat Terai_region Leave A Comment You may like this, take measures to minimize the impacts of heat waves. As the scorching heat continues to grip our nation, it is imperative that the government takes immediate and effective measures... Read More... Weather to be generally clear to partly cloudy today KATHMANDU, Feb 3: The weather is generally clear in the hilly areas of the country and partly cloudy in other... Read More... Impact-based weather forecast from now onward KATHMANDU, March 24: The Department of Hydrology and Meteorology has been releasing a bulletin of weather forecast every three days. Read More... Recommended Construction of 154 km stretch of Dhalkebar-Inaruwa transmission line completed Budget booklets of 13 ministries and Vice President's Office printed, discussion on Appropriation Bill to commence from Tuesday Early monsoon expected to bring relief from sweltering heat across Nepal President Paudel to embark on 9-day visit to Switzerland and Germany on Tuesday Sajha Yatayat to operate electric microbuses, invites tender for 25 microbuses Bangladesh and South Africa to face off in T20 World Cup today Rare talent Carlos Alcaraz on way to '30 Grand Slams' NEPSE gains 8.90 points; daily turnover rises to Rs 5.49 billion 145 COMMENTS Essay on Terai Region Of Nepal The Terai faces problems like flooding during the rainy season and deforestation. These issues threaten the way of life for people and animals in the region. 250 Words Essay on Terai Region Of Nepal Terai Region: Nepal's Diverse Treasure. Nepal's Terai region is a vibrant and diverse treasure stretching along the southern border of the country. Terai A crowd of devotees in front of Janaki Mandir in Janakpur, home to Mithila culture. Tharu Heritage . Primarily in the outskirts of Chitwan, Morang, and Sunsari the Tharu community is the largest ethnic group in the Terai region, deeply rooted in time as the probable original inhabitants of the Terai. With features reflecting their Mongoloid heritage and a warm, dark-brown complexion, the Tharu ... Terai The Terai or Tarai is to a lowland region in parts of northern India and southern Nepal that lies to the south of the outer foothills of the Himalayas, the Sivalik Hills and north of the Indo-Gangetic Plain.This lowland belt is characterised by tall grasslands, scrub savannah, sal forests and clay rich swamps.In North India, the Terai spreads from the Yamuna River eastward across Haryana ... Terai Region of Nepal The Terai region of Nepal is a vast lowland area that stretches along the southern border with India. It is a fertile plain characterized by lush green fields, dense forests, and numerous rivers. The Terai is known for its rich biodiversity, with a variety of flora and fauna, including endangered species like the Bengal tiger, one-horned ... Terai Arc Landscape The ecosystem services provided by the region plays a major role in supporting the socioeconomic well-being and development of people in the Terai and extended Churia regions of Nepal. Located in the shadows of the Himalayas, the trans-boundary Terai Arc belt stretches from Nepal's Bagmati River in the east to India's Yamuna River in the ... Ultimate Guide to the Nepali Terai Nepal is a geographically diverse place. Though many travelers associate the country with the Himalayas, a significant portion of Nepal's land is flat—including on the Terai, the plains and forests near the border of India. With this ultimate guide to the Terai, discover another side of Nepal, from national parks filled with rhinos to the birthplace of the Buddha. PDF Nepal's Terai: Constructing an Ethnic Conflict Nepal's recent history has been fraught with civil violence. After a peace agreement was signed to end a 10-year civil war between the government of Nepal and the Communist Party of Nepal-Maoist in 2006, local and international observers were surprised to see new fighting erupt in southern Nepal, within a region known as the Terai. Insights from Nepal's Terai Context of Nepal's Terai Spreading in the 26-32 km wide transect through east to west, the Terai physio-graphic region is a plain and fertile land, supporting 6.9% of the total forest area of the country [20]. Though Terai covers only 13.7% of the total land of Nepal (Fig. 2), it sup- Mitigating the Impacts of Climate Change in Nepal's Terai Region The region situated in the southern portion of the nation, characterised by its flat and fertile terrain, is now undergoing the effects of climate change. Challenges in the Terai Region. The Terai area of Nepal, noted for its lush farmland and dynamic people, is facing a multidimensional challenge posed by climate change. Terai Arc Landscape (TAL), Nepal Terai Arc Landscape, Nepal. The Terai Arc Landscape in Nepal is populated by 6.7 million people. 60 per cent of households own less than 1 hectare of land. The average annual income for a person is US$100. 61 per cent of households rely on wood as their main fuel for cooking. Most get their fodder from forests. The health of Nepal's Terai Arc ... Geography of Nepal The Terai region, covering 17% of Nepal's area, is a lowland region with some hill ranges and is culturally more similar to parts of India. The Hilly region, encompassing 68% of the country's area, consists of mountainous terrain without snow and is inhabited by various indigenous ethnic groups. The Himal region, covering 15% of Nepal's area ... Reflections of Nepal: The Tharu of the Terai W e felt a mixture of excitement and anxiety after learning the finalized details of our volunteer placement: We were to work with and learn from the Tharu people, an indigenous group who inhabited the Terai region of Nepal. Arriving after an eleven-hour bus ride to the small town of Lamahi in Dang District, we were once again reminded of the country's spectacular geographic diversity. Nepal's Terai: Constructing an Ethnic Conflict Oslo: PRIO. After the government of Nepal signed a peace agreement with the Communist Party of Nepal-Maoist in 2006 to end a 10 year civil war, local and international observers were surprised to see new fighting erupt in the Terai region of southern Nepal. The violence, however, was initiated not by either party to the civil war but by groups ... The Western Terai Travel Guide Travel ideas for Nepal, created by local experts. 11 days / from3248 USD. Exclusive Everest. Trek in the Everest region of Nepal's Himalayas, absorbing spectacular views at every step, including Everest rising above the Nuptse Ridge, Lhotse, the iconic peak of Ama Dablam and other Himalayan giants too. Terai Region Of Nepal: Southern Part Of Nepal The Terai region is composed of a 26 to 32 km wide broad belt of alluvial and fertile plain in the southern part of the country. This belt extends from the westernmost part of the country to the eastern limit and covers about 17% of the total land area. In complete topographic contrast to the Mountain and Hill regions, the Tarai Region is a ... Local people's perception on Climate Change, its impact and adaptation 1 Local people's perception on Climate Change, its impact and adaptation practices in Himalaya to Terai regions of Nepal. Abstract: The study showed that average temperature has increased from 0.6 to 0.980 C over the last 30 years and precipitation is characterized by large inter-annual variability with substantial Nepal: Ensuring Rapid Rate Of Terai's Economic Growth The IRR in most of the road projects is much higher in the Terai as compared to other regions of Nepal. For example, in the hill the IRR was found to be 7.2 per cent in the Ilam-Fidim road and 3.3 ... Nepal: Background of the Terai's Madhesi people KATHMANDU, 8 Feb 2007 (IRIN) - The flat southern region of Nepal - the Terai - is known as Madhes in the Nepalese language and its indigenous inhabitants are called Madhesi. PDF Dowry System: Continuity and Changes: a Study Terai Region Changes: A Study Terai Region" under my supervision. This dissertation is the outcome of her own enthusiastic and independent research work and has been ... First Written act of Nepal. Muluki Ain, 1910 was Amended with Muluki Ain, 2020 16 . vi 2.4.2 International Legal mechanism 16 2.4.2.1 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), 1948 16 Diversity of Agroforestry Species and Uses in Two Ecological Regions: A The study was carried in the Bahigaon Village of Chhatradev Rural Municipality and the Bodgaon Village of Banganga Municipality of Arghakhanchi and Kapilbastu districts of midhill and Terai regions of central Nepal, respectively (Figure 1). These municipalities were selected purposively based on a good number of home garden practices and their ... Services and legitimacy: Everyday experiences of the state in Nepal's We explore the state's legitimacy in the Terai/Madhesh region of Nepal, using data from Bardiya in western Terai and Dhanusha in eastern Terai. ... The issues at the heart of state legitimacy in the Terai are how it provides material support, infrastructure and security, and how it respects cultural and religious practices. ... Dowry System and its Impact on Women in Terai Region of Nepal Jha (2010) mentioned that Terai is a flat area located on the bottom part of Nepal stretches from the border of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, India. He added that the Terai region covers about 17% of the total area of Nepal followed by 50.2 percent of the population of Nepal. The Terai is the most vulnerable area in terms of dowry and it accompanies. Terai Region of Nepal The flat land area located in the southern part of Nepal is coined as terai. This fertile area coverage around seventeen percent of land area of Nepal. Decl... PDF Childhood Malnuhtion and Schooling in the Terai Region of Nepal Nepal's reported school. enrollment ratios in 1980 were 0.91 at the primary level (1.26 for boys and. 0.53 for girls) and 0.21 at the secondary level [World Bank (1983)]. School participationin Nepal declines rapidly by grade; the enrollment. ratio for grade 1 was reported to be 1.15 in 1976, while the ratio for. Full article: Factors affecting the technical efficiency of potato 1. Introduction. Potato, being a major cash crop in Nepal, is way behind (16.72 ton/ha) in productivity compared to the global average (20.95 ton/ha) (MoALD, Citation 2019).It is used along with vegetables in the Terai region and as a staple food in the hilly regions of Nepal (Bajracharya & Sapkota, Citation 2017).Potato ranks fourth in terms of area coverage of food crop in Nepal and second ... DHM forecasts heat wave in Terai, urges caution "Necessary precaution is advised, as there is a possibility of hot wind and heat waves in the Terai region until June 10," the DHM said. Before this, the highest temperature of 44.2 degrees Celsius, this year's highest, was recorded in Nepalgunj. Similarly, Dhangadhi recorded 44.1 degrees Celsius temperature. assignment essay homework paper phd report resume review speech thesis