essay about sexism

The Effects of Sexism on American Women: The Role of Norms vs. Discrimination

Based on bfi working paper no. 2018-56, “the effects of sexism on american women: the role of norms vs. discrimination,” by kerwin kofi charles, professor, uchicago’s harris school of public policy; jonathan guryan, professor, northwestern university; and jessica pan, associate professor, national university singapore.

• Sexism experienced during formative years stays with girls into adulthood
• These background norms can influence choices that women make and affect their life outcomes
• In addition, women face different levels of sexism and discrimination in the states where they live as adults
• Sexism varies across states and can have a significant impact on a woman’s wages and labor market participation, and can also influence her marriage and fertility rates

What type of life experiences will these women have in terms of the work they do and the wages they earn? Will they get married and, if so, how young? If they have children, when will they start to raise a family? How many children will they have? According to the authors of the new BFI working paper, “The Effects of Sexism on American Women: The Role of Norms vs. Discrimination,” the answers to those questions depend crucially on where women are born and where they choose to live their adult lives.

Kerwin Kofi Charles, professor at the Harris School of Public Policy, and his colleagues employ a novel approach that examines how prevailing sexist beliefs shape life outcomes for women. Essentially, they find that sexism affects women through two channels: one is their own preferences that are shaped by where they grow up, and the other is the sexism they experience in the place they choose to live as adults.

On average, not all states are average The average American woman’s socioeconomic outcomes have improved dramatically over the past 50 years. Her wages and probability of employment, relative to the average man’s, have risen steadily over that time. She is also marrying later and bearing children later, as well as having fewer total children. However, these are national averages and these phenomena do not hold in all states across America. Indeed, the gap between men and women that existed in a particular state 50 years ago is largely the same size today. In other words, if a state exhibited less gender discrimination 50 years ago, it retains that narrower gap today; a state that exhibited more discrimination in 1970 has a similarly wide gap today. Much research over the years has focused on broad national trends when measuring sexism and its effect on women’s lives. A primary contribution of this paper is that it documents cross-state differences in women’s outcomes and incorporates non-market factors, like cultural norms. The focus of the authors’ analysis are the four outcomes described above: wages, employment, marriage, and fertility. Of the many forms sexism might take, the authors focus on negative or stereotypical beliefs about whether women should enter the workplace or remain at home. Specifically, sexism prevails in a market when residents believe that:

• women’s capacities are inferior to men;

• families are hurt when women work;

• and men and women should adhere to strict roles in society.

These cultural norms are not only forces that occur to women from external sources, but they are forces that also exist within women, and are strongly affected by where a woman is raised. For example, a girl may grow up within a culture that prizes stay-at-home mothers over working moms, as well as early marriages and large families. These are what the authors describe as background norms, and they are able to estimate the influence of these background norms throughout adulthood by comparing women who were born in one place and moved to different places, and those who were born in different places and moved to the same place. Once a woman reaches adulthood and chooses a place to live, she is then influenced by discrimination in the labor market and by what the authors term residential sexism, or those current norms that they experience in their new hometown. On the question of who engages in sexist behavior, men and/ or women, the authors are clear: men are the purveyors of discrimination in the market (whether women are hired for or promoted to certain jobs), and women determine norms (or residential sexism) that influence such outcomes as marriage and fertility.

The authors conduct a number of rigorous tests based on a broad array of data to reach their conclusions about women’s wages, their labor force participation relative to men, and the ages at which women aged 20-40 married and had their first child. For example, their information on sexism comes from the General Social Survey (GSS), which is a nationally representative survey that asks respondents various questions, among others, about their attitudes or beliefs about women’s place in society.

Sexism affects women through two channels: one is their own preferences that are shaped by where they grow up, and the other is the sexism they experience in the place they choose to live as adults.

The authors reveal how prevailing sexist beliefs about women’s abilities and appropriate roles affect US women’s socioeconomic outcomes. Studying adults who live in one state but who were born in another, they show that sexism in a woman’s state of birth and in her current state of residence both lower her wages and likelihood of labor force participation, and lead her to marry and bear her first child sooner. The sexism a woman experiences where she was raised, or background sexism, affects a woman’s outcomes even after she is an adult living in another place through the influence of norms that she internalized during her formative years. Further, the sexism present where a woman lives (residential sexism) affects her non-labor market outcomes through the influence of prevailing sexist beliefs of other women where she lives. By contrast, residential sexism’s effects on her labor market outcomes seem to operate chiefly through the mechanism of market discrimination by sexist men. Finally, and importantly, the authors find sound evidence that prejudice-based discrimination, undergirded by prevailing sexist beliefs that vary across space, may be an important driver of women’s outcomes in the US.

CLOSING TAKEAWAY By studying adults who were born in one place but live in another, the authors reveal the effects of sexism on women’s outcomes in the market through discrimination (wages and jobs), as well as in non-market settings through cultural norms (marriage and fertility).

Sexism: Gender, Class and Power Essay

Introduction.

Sexism is one of the challenges that most societies in the contemporary world have struggled to address without any meaningful progress. It refers to discriminatory or abusive behavior towards members of the opposite sex. Although anybody is vulnerable to sexism, it is majorly documented as a problem faced by women and girls. According to psychologists, the challenge of sexism is necessitated by factors such as gender roles and stereotypes across various societies (Dawson, 2018).

Over the years, various human rights groups have made an effort to create awareness about sexism and the probable dangers the victims might be exposed to if effective management strategies are not put in place. Research has established that in societies where sexism is highly rooted, victims are often vulnerable to rape and sexual harassment (Brewington, 2013). Cases of sexism against women are very common in the workplace.

Women are very vulnerable to sexual harassment in the workplace as their male colleagues and bosses often ask for sexual favors in exchange for promotions and salary reviews (Tulshyan, 2016). Women also argue that they are often overlooked in leadership positions because men are considered to have a better chance of succeeding. Sexism is a deep-rooted societal vice that ought to be eliminated in order to promote the value of humanity.

Since the turn of the century, people are more vocal with regard to the danger of sexism. Social networking sites are one of the platforms that people have used to highlight the challenges faced by victims of sexism and offer solutions to the problem. In 2012, the infamous Everyday Sexism project was launched with an aim to expose the numerous acts of sexism across the United Kingdom. The project quickly got the attention of the world as people gave shocking reactions to the degree to which the vice was rampant, especially in the streets (Brewington, 2013).

According to research, social media, as well as print and electronic media, have contributed greatly to the advancement of sexism regardless of the fact that they are also being used to fight the vice. For example, the contemporary hip-hop music industry in the United States has been accused of promoting sexism through their music videos. The genre has led to women being viewed more from a sexual angle because of the way they appear in the music videos.

These videos are aired across major television channels and readily available for consumption by the global audience through YouTube. Fashion magazines have also contributed to the growing challenge of sexism, especially towards women, because the artistic presentation of the female body is angled in a sexual manner (Brewington, 2013).

Apart from the inappropriate portrayal of human bodies by media, sexism is highly prevalent in modern society in several other ways. In the workplace, women often complain of the general assumption that men are more qualified and knowledgeable compared to women (Tulshyan, 2016). It is frustrating for women when a colleague seeks advice or clarification from a male peer when they know that they are in a better position to do the same. Women also consider the inability of an employer to allocate a certain task to them simply because they are physically demanding as an act of sexism (Dawson, 2018).

Women go to the gym and participate in various sports just as men do. Thus, it is wrong to assume they cannot meet the physical demands of a task. Psychologists argue that sexism is a relative concept with regard to the way various societies explain and comprehend it. This is evidenced in the different actions or elements that are considered as being sexist. In some societies, the fact that women are made to change their surname when they get married is considered sexism. Women feel that it is not necessary for them to give up their last name because of a process that even men undergo, yet they get to retain theirs (Brewington, 2013).

Another common form of sexism is sexist language. Studies have established that men are less vulnerable compared to women when it comes to sexual objectification when being addressed. It is important for people to use gender-sensitive language, especially in situations where both men and women are involved. For example, it is wrong to use masculine generics such as “Chairman” when referring to a female leader. Instead, one should use a gender-sensitive term such as chairperson (Lipman, 2018).

It is also an act of sexism to refer to a group of people with both men and women as “Guys” because it creates an impression that women are a category below men as human beings. It is also a common occurrence to hear men referring to adult women as girls. This often infantilizes a woman because it makes one feel like the person addressing her is giving an indication that they are not mature.

The most unfortunate thing about sexist language is the casual manner in which it has been used over the years, to the extent that it has become part of the conventional glossary. This is one of the major challenges facing the fight against sexism. Objectification of women through sexist language is rooted in the stereotypes the society develops from the way girls are raised and theories about their beauty (Evans, 2016). Over the years, women have been used to market products through various forms of advertisements. This has influenced girls to believe that they are as valuable as they look. Therefore, any woman whose beauty fails to meet societal standards tends to feel less valuable.

Sexism has robbed women of their safety, comfort, and voice. Many women who have been a victim of street harassment from men argue that such experiences act as an affirmation that their bodies are owned by the society (Brewington, 2013). Due to laxity within the society, women are made to unwillingly take street harassment as intended compliments rather than abuse. Domestic violence is a form of sexism that has taken away the voice of women.

In many societies, many cases of domestic violence against men and women end up unreported because the victims know they will not get any help with ease. It’s a human rights violation that often demeans the victim because the violator perceives the victim as being weak (Evans, 2016). Unfortunately, domestic violence is legal in places such as the United Arab Emirates, where husbands are allowed to discipline their wives as long as they do not inflict visible injuries.

South Asia is common for practicing a form of sexism called Gendercide. It involves the killing of children of a specific gender. It is close to gender-selective-abortion, where women are forced to terminate their pregnancies depending on the sex of the unborn child. In these practices, girls are targeted more than boys. The same case applies to female genital mutilation, which human rights groups consider as the gravest form of sexism (Evans, 2016).

In contemporary society, technology is widely abused to advance sexist agendas. Women always complain of suffering rape anxiety because people use phone calls and social media posts to deliver threats. No one chooses to be a victim of sexism; thus, avoiding walking in the streets unaccompanied or with people of the same gender is not enough. Cyberbullying is a strategy widely used by sexist people to harass their targets. The internet has turned the world into a global village.

Thus cultural interaction has been greatly heightened (Brewington, 2013). This effect is manifested a lot in the fashion industry, where the dres’ codes for men and women have undergone a huge transformation. Psychologists argue that dres’ codes are sexist in nature. They often limit the power and confidence of women, depending on the societal perception of a certain trend. The style of women wearing pants started in the developed countries as a way of helping women address the threat of rape. Several decades later, it has become a global trend. Some women argue that their lies in wearing dresses, but they are often forced to wear pants for safety purposes (Evans, 2016).

The concept of sexism is very broad and cannot be explained exhaustively. However, it is common knowledge that there is an urgent need to address this global challenge in order to achieve the common good. Gender equality and sensitivity is a right of every human being, thus the need to ensure that we create a more inclusive society. In order to achieve this feat, a change in attitude with regard to the way different genders perceive each other is very important. Men need to understand that they are not biologically programmed to harass women or objectify them.

Brewington, C. (2013). The sacred place of exile: Pioneering women and the need for a new women’s missionary movement . New York, NY: Wipf and Stock Publishers.

Dawson, T. (2018). Gender, class and power: An analysis of pay inequalities in the workplace . New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.

Evans, M. (2016). The persistence of gender inequality . New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.

Lipman, J. (2018). That’s what she said: What men need to know and women need to tell them about working together . New York, NY: Harper Collins.

Tulshyan, R. (2016). The diversity advantage: Fixing gender inequality in the workplace . New York, NY: Create Space Independent Publishing Platform.

• When Men Experience Sexism Article by Berlatsky
• Canadian Society: Sexism and the Persistent Woman Question
• Misogyny and Sexism in Policing
• The Restricted Status of Women in Pakistan
• Diversity Organizations and Gender Issues in the US
• Gender Inequality Index 2013 in the Gulf Countries
• Feminist Perspective: “The Gender Pay Gap Explained”
• Transforming the Debate on Sexual Inequality
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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Bibliography

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11.2 Feminism and Sexism

Learning objectives.

• Define feminism, sexism, and patriarchy.
• Discuss evidence for a decline in sexism.
• Understand some correlates of feminism.

Recall that more than one-third of the public (as measured in the General Social Survey) agrees with the statement, “It is much better for everyone involved if the man is the achiever outside the home and the woman takes care of the home and family.” Do you agree or disagree with this statement? If you are like the majority of college students, you disagree.

Today a lot of women, and some men, will say, “I’m not a feminist, but…,” and then go on to add that they hold certain beliefs about women’s equality and traditional gender roles that actually fall into a feminist framework. Their reluctance to self-identify as feminists underscores the negative image that feminists and feminism hold but also suggests that the actual meaning of feminism may be unclear.

Feminism and sexism are generally two sides of the same coin. Feminism refers to the belief that women and men should have equal opportunities in economic, political, and social life, while sexism refers to a belief in traditional gender role stereotypes and in the inherent inequality between men and women. Sexism thus parallels the concept of racial and ethnic prejudice discussed in Chapter 7 “Deviance, Crime, and Social Control” . Both women and people of color are said, for biological and/or cultural reasons, to lack certain qualities for success in today’s world.

Feminism as a social movement began in the United States during the abolitionist period before the Civil War. Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott were outspoken abolitionists who made connections between slavery and the oppression of women.

The US Library of Congress – public domain; The US Library of Congress – public domain.

In the United States, feminism as a social movement began during the abolitionist period preceding the Civil War, as such women as Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, both active abolitionists, began to see similarities between slavery and the oppression of women. This new women’s movement focused on many issues but especially on the right to vote. As it quickly grew, critics charged that it would ruin the family and wreak havoc on society in other ways. They added that women were not smart enough to vote and should just concentrate on being good wives and mothers (Behling, 2001).

One of the most dramatic events in the women’s suffrage movement occurred in 1872, when Susan B. Anthony was arrested because she voted. At her trial a year later in Canandaigua, New York, the judge refused to let her say anything in her defense and ordered the jury to convict her. Anthony’s statement at sentencing won wide acclaim and ended with words that ring to this day: “I shall earnestly and persistently continue to urge all women to the practical recognition of the old revolutionary maxim, ‘Resistance to tyranny is obedience to God’” (Barry, 1988).

After women won the right to vote in 1920, the women’s movement became less active but began anew in the late 1960s and early 1970s, as women active in the Southern civil rights movement turned their attention to women’s rights, and it is still active today. To a profound degree, it has changed public thinking and social and economic institutions, but, as we will see coming up, much gender inequality remains. Because the women’s movement challenged strongly held traditional views about gender, it has prompted the same kind of controversy that its 19th-century predecessor did. Feminists quickly acquired a bra-burning image, even though there is no documented instance of a bra being burned in a public protest, and the movement led to a backlash as conservative elements echoed the concerns heard a century earlier (Faludi, 1991).

Several varieties of feminism exist. Although they all share the basic idea that women and men should be equal in their opportunities in all spheres of life, they differ in other ways (Lindsey, 2011). Liberal feminism believes that the equality of women can be achieved within our existing society by passing laws and reforming social, economic, and political institutions. In contrast, socialist feminism blames capitalism for women’s inequality and says that true gender equality can result only if fundamental changes in social institutions, and even a socialist revolution, are achieved. Radical feminism , on the other hand, says that patriarchy (male domination) lies at the root of women’s oppression and that women are oppressed even in noncapitalist societies. Patriarchy itself must be abolished, they say, if women are to become equal to men. Finally, an emerging multicultural feminism emphasizes that women of color are oppressed not only because of their gender but also because of their race and class (Andersen & Collins, 2010). They thus face a triple burden that goes beyond their gender. By focusing their attention on women of color in the United States and other nations, multicultural feminists remind us that the lives of these women differ in many ways from those of the middle-class women who historically have led U.S. feminist movements.

The Growth of Feminism and the Decline of Sexism

What evidence is there for the impact of the women’s movement on public thinking? The General Social Survey, the Gallup Poll, and other national surveys show that the public has moved away from traditional views of gender toward more modern ones. Another way of saying this is that the public has moved toward feminism.

To illustrate this, let’s return to the General Social Survey statement that it is much better for the man to achieve outside the home and for the woman to take care of home and family. Figure 11.4 “Change in Acceptance of Traditional Gender Roles in the Family, 1977–2008” shows that agreement with this statement dropped sharply during the 1970s and 1980s before leveling off afterward to slightly more than one-third of the public.

Figure 11.4 Change in Acceptance of Traditional Gender Roles in the Family, 1977–2008

Percentage agreeing that “it is much better for everyone involved if the man is the achiever outside the home and the woman takes care of the home and family.”

Source: Data from General Social Survey.

Another General Social Survey question over the years has asked whether respondents would be willing to vote for a qualified woman for president of the United States. As Figure 11.5 “Change in Willingness to Vote for a Qualified Woman for President” illustrates, this percentage rose from 74% in the early 1970s to a high of 94.1% in 2008. Although we have not yet had a woman president, despite Hillary Rodham Clinton’s historic presidential primary campaign in 2007 and 2008 and Sarah Palin’s presence on the Republican ticket in 2008, the survey evidence indicates the public is willing to vote for one. As demonstrated by the responses to the survey questions on women’s home roles and on a woman president, traditional gender views have indeed declined.

Figure 11.5 Change in Willingness to Vote for a Qualified Woman for President

Correlates of Feminism

Because of the feminist movement’s importance, scholars have investigated why some people are more likely than others to support feminist beliefs. Their research uncovers several correlates of feminism (Dauphinais, Barkan, & Cohn, 1992). We have already seen one of these when we noted that religiosity is associated with support for traditional gender roles. To turn that around, lower levels of religiosity are associated with feminist beliefs and are thus a correlate of feminism.

Several other such correlates exist. One of the strongest is education: the lower the education, the lower the support for feminist beliefs. Figure 11.6 “Education and Acceptance of Traditional Gender Roles in the Family” shows the strength of this correlation by using our familiar General Social Survey statement that men should achieve outside the home and women should take care of home and family. People without a high school degree are almost 5 times as likely as those with a graduate degree to agree with this statement.

Figure 11.6 Education and Acceptance of Traditional Gender Roles in the Family

Source: Data from General Social Survey, 2008.

Age is another correlate, as older people are more likely than younger people to believe in traditional gender roles. Again using our familiar statement about traditional gender roles, we see an example of this relationship in Figure 11.7 “Age and Acceptance of Traditional Gender Roles in the Family” , which shows that older people are more likely than younger people to accept traditional gender roles as measured by this statement.

Figure 11.7 Age and Acceptance of Traditional Gender Roles in the Family

Key Takeaways

• Feminism refers to the belief that women and men should have equal opportunities in economic, political, and social life, while sexism refers to a belief in traditional gender role stereotypes and in the inherent inequality between men and women.
• Sexist beliefs have declined in the United States since the early 1970s.
• Several correlates of feminist beliefs exist. In particular, people with higher levels of education are more likely to hold beliefs consistent with feminism.

For Your Review

• Do you consider yourself a feminist? Why or why not?
• Think about one of your parents or of another adult much older than you. Does this person hold more traditional views about gender than you do? Explain your answer.

Andersen, M. L., & Collins, P. H. (Eds.). (2010). Race, class, and gender: An anthology (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Barry, K. L. (1988). Susan B. Anthony: Biography of a singular feminist . New York, NY: New York University Press.

Behling, L. L. (2001). The masculine woman in America, 1890–1935 . Urbana: University of Illinois Press.

Dauphinais, P. D., Barkan, S. E., & Cohn, S. F. (1992). Predictors of rank-and-file feminist activism: Evidence from the 1983 General Social Survey. Social Problems, 39 , 332–344.

Faludi, S. (1991). Backlash: The undeclared war against American women . New York, NY: Crown.

Lindsey, L. L. (2011). Gender roles: A sociological perspective (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Sociology Copyright © 2016 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

What Is Sexism? Defining a Key Feminist Term

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• History Of Feminism
• Important Figures
• Women's Suffrage
• Women & War
• Laws & Womens Rights
• Feminist Texts
• American History
• African American History
• African History
• Ancient History and Culture
• Asian History
• European History
• Latin American History
• Medieval & Renaissance History
• Military History
• The 20th Century
• J.D., Hofstra University
• B.A., English and Print Journalism, University of Southern California

Sexism means discrimination based on sex or gender, or the belief that because men are superior to women, discrimination is justified. Such a belief can be conscious or unconscious . In sexism, as in racism, the differences between two (or more) groups are viewed as indications that one group is superior or inferior. Sexist discrimination against girls and women is a means of maintaining male domination and power. The oppression or discrimination can be economic, political, social, or cultural.

Elements of Sexism

• Sexism includes attitudes or ideology, including beliefs, theories, and ideas that hold one group (usually male) as deservedly superior to the other (usually female), and that justify oppressing members of the other group on the basis of their sex or gender.
• Sexism involves practices and institutions and the ways in which oppression is carried out. These need not be done with a conscious sexist attitude but may be unconscious cooperation in a system that has been in place already in which one sex (usually female) has less power and fewer goods in the society.

Oppression and Domination

Sexism is a form of oppression and domination. As author Octavia Butler put it:

"Simple peck-order bullying is only the beginning of the kind of hierarchical behavior that can lead to racism, sexism, ethnocentrism, classism, and all the other 'isms' that cause so much suffering in the world."

Some feminists have argued that sexism is the primal, or first, form of oppression in humanity and that other oppressions are built on the foundation of oppression of women. Feminist Andrea Dworkin holds that position, stating:

"Sexism is the foundation on which all tyranny is built. Every social form of hierarchy and abuse is modeled on male-over-female domination."

Feminist Origins of the Word

The word "sexism" became widely known during the women's liberation movement of the 1960s. At that time, feminist theorists explained that the oppression of women was widespread in nearly all human society, and they began to speak of sexism instead of male chauvinism. Whereas male chauvinists were usually individual men who expressed the belief that they were superior to women, sexism referred to collective behavior that reflected society as a whole.

Australian writer Dale Spender noted that she was:

"...old enough to have lived in a world without sexism and sexual harassment. Not because they weren’t everyday occurrences in my life but because THESE WORDS DIDN’T EXIST. It was not until the feminist writers of the 1970s made them up, and used them publicly and defined their meanings—an opportunity that men had enjoyed for centuries—that women could name these experiences of their daily life."

Many women in the feminist movement of the 1960s and 1970s (the so-called second wave of feminism) came to their consciousness of sexism via their work in social justice movements. Social philosopher  Bell Hooks  argues:

"Individual heterosexual women came to the movement from relationships where men were cruel, unkind, violent, unfaithful. Many of these men were radical thinkers who participated in movements for social justice, speaking out on behalf of the workers, the poor, speaking out on behalf of racial justice. However, when it came to the issue of gender they were as sexist as their conservative cohorts."

How Sexism Works

Systemic sexism, like systemic racism, is the perpetuation of the oppression and discrimination without necessarily any conscious intention. The disparities between men and women are simply taken as givens and are reinforced by practices, rules, policies, and laws that often seem neutral on the surface but in fact disadvantage women.

Sexism interacts with racism, classism, heterosexism, and other oppressions to shape the experience of individuals. This is called  intersectionality .  Compulsory heterosexuality  is the prevailing belief that heterosexuality is the only "normal" relationship between the sexes, which, in a sexist society, benefits men.

Women as Sexists

Women can be conscious or unconscious collaborators in their own oppression if they accept the basic premises of sexism: that men have more power than women because they deserve more power than women. Sexism by women against men would only be possible in a system in which the balance of social, political, cultural, and economic power was measurably in the hands of women, a situation which does not exist today.

Men May Be Oppressed by Sexism

Some feminists have argued that men should be allies in the fight against sexism because men, too, are not whole in a system of enforced male hierarchies. In a patriarchal society , men are themselves in a hierarchical relationship to each other, with more benefits to the males at the top of the power pyramid.

Others have argued that the benefit males derive from sexism—even if that benefit is not consciously experienced or sought—is more weighty than whatever negative effects those with more power may experience. Feminist Robin Morgan put it this way:

"And let's put one lie to rest for all time: the lie that men are oppressed, too, by sexism—the lie that there can be such a thing as 'men's liberation groups.' Oppression is something that one group of people commits against another group specifically because of a 'threatening' characteristic shared by the latter group—skin color or sex or age, etc."

Quotes on Sexism

Bell Hooks : "Simply put, feminism is a movement to end sexism, sexist exploitation, and oppression... I liked this definition because it did not imply that men were the enemy. By naming sexism as the problem it went directly to the heart of the matter. Practically, it is a definition that implies that all sexist thinking and action is the problem, whether those who perpetuate it are female or male, child, or adult. It is also broad enough to include an understanding of systemic institutionalized sexism. As a definition it is open-ended. To understand feminism it implies one has to necessarily understand sexism."

Caitlin Moran : “I have a rule for working out if the root problem of something is, in fact, sexism. And it is this: asking 'Are the boys doing it? Are the boys having to worry about this stuff? Are the boys the center of a gigantic global debate on this subject?”

Erica Jong : "Sexism kind of predisposes us to see men's work as more important than women's, and it is a problem, I guess, as writers, we have to change."

Kate Millett : "It is interesting that many women do not recognize themselves as discriminated against; no better proof could be found of the totality of their conditioning."

• Feminist Theory in Sociology
• 12 Types of Social Oppression
• Patriarchal Society According to Feminism
• Womanist: Definition and Examples
• Combahee River Collective in the 1970s
• The Core Ideas and Beliefs of Feminism
• What Is Radical Feminism?
• What Is Compulsory Heterosexuality?
• Socialist Feminism vs. Other Types of Feminism
• Cultural Feminism
• The Women's Liberation Movement
• Socialist Feminism Definition and Comparisons
• 10 Important Feminist Beliefs
• Top 20 Influential Modern Feminist Theorists
• Oppression and Women's History
• Definition of Intersectionality

• Choose language
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• Nedersassisch

Sexism is any expression (act, word, image, gesture) based on the idea that some persons, most often women, are inferior because of their sex.

Sexism is harmful . It produces feelings of worthlessness, self-censorship, changes in behaviour, and a deterioration in health. Sexism lies at the root of gender inequality. It affects women and girls disproportionately.

Sexism is present in all areas of life.

63% of women journalists have been confronted with verbal abuse

Women spend almost twice as much time as men on unpaid housework (OECD countries)

80% of women stated that they have been confronted with the phenomenon of “mansplaining” and “manterrupting” at work

Men represent 75% of news sources and subjects in Europe

In the UK, 66% of 16-18-year-old girls surveyed experienced or witnessed the use of sexist language at school

59% of women in Amsterdam reported some form of street harassment

In France, 50% of young women surveyed recently experienced injustice or humiliation because they are women

In Serbia, research indicates that 76% of women in business are not taken as seriously as men

Violence sometimes starts with a joke

Individual acts of sexism may seem benign, but they create a climate of intimidation, fear and insecurity. this leads to the acceptance of violence , mostly against women and girls..

This is why the Council of Europe has decided to act by adopting a Recommendation to prevent and combat sexism .

Sexism affects mostly women. It can also affect men and boys when they don’t conform to stereotyped gender roles.

The harmful impact of sexism can be worse for some women and men due to their ethnicity, age, disability, social origin, religion, gender identity, sexual orientation or other factors.

Some groups of women, for example young women, politicians, journalists or public figures, are particular targets of sexism

of women elected to Parliament have been the target of sexist attacks on social networks

See it. Name it. Stop it.

Language and communication.

Examples of sexism in language and communications:

The generic use of the masculine gender by a speaker (“he/his/him” to refer to an unspecific person). The cover of a publication depicting men only . The naming of a woman by the masculine term for her profession. A communication campaign including gratuitous nudity . An advertisement with a man showing a woman how to use a washing machine.

Why should it be addressed?

Language and communication matter because they make people visible or invisible and recognise or demean their contribution to society. Our language shapes our thought , and the way we think influences our actions. Gender-blind or discriminatory language reinforces sexist attitudes and behaviour.

How to prevent it?

Use both the feminine and the masculine when addressing a mixed audience. Review public communication to make sure it uses gender-sensitive language and imagery. Produce manuals on gender-sensitive communication for different audiences. Promote research in this area.

Media, Internet and social media

Examples of sexism in the media:

A sexualised depiction of women in the media. An all-male TV show. Media reporting on violence against women which blames the victim . Journalists, most often women, receiving comments on social media based on their appearance instead of the issues they discuss. Internet applications sending some job adverts to men only because algorithms are built in a discriminatory way.

Children and others are bombarded with sexist media messages and influenced by them. Such messages limit their own choices in life. They give the impression that men are the keepers of knowledge and power and that women are objects and it’s ok to comment freely on their appearance. Online sexism pushes women out of online spaces . Online sexism can cause very real harm. Abusing or mocking someone online creates a permanent digital record that can be further disseminated and is difficult to erase.

Implement legislation on gender equality in media . Train media and communication professionals on gender equality. Ensure that women and men are represented in a balanced way and in diverse, non-stereotypical roles in the media . Promote advertisements that play with, and raise awareness of, gender stereotypes rather than reinforce them. Provide digital literacy training especially for young people and children. Legally define and criminalise (online) sexist hate speech . Put in place specialised services to provide advice on how to deal with online sexism .

Examples of sexism at the workplace:

The practice of unofficially excluding women who have children from career opportunities. In meetings, ignoring women , appropriating their contributions or silencing them. Favouring a man rather than a woman for a managerial position by presuming her lack of authority . Gratuitous comments about physical appearance or dress (which undermine women as professionals). Derogatory comments to men taking on caring roles. “ Mansplaining ”.

Workplace sexism undermines the efficiency of victims and their sense of belonging. Silencing through sexism means that ideas or talents are ignored or under-used. Belittling comments create an intimidating/oppressive atmosphere for those confronted with them and can degenerate in violence/harassment . Victims may develop higher anxiety levels , be more prone to outbursts and depression. More generally, sexism leads to lower salaries and fewer opportunities for those confronted with it.

Adopt and implement codes of conduct defining sexist behaviour and prevent it through training. Put in place complaint mechanisms , disciplinary measures and support services. Managers must state and show their commitment to act against sexism .

Public sector

Examples of sexism in the public sector:

Sexualised comments or comments about the appearance or family situation of politicians, most often women, including within parliaments. Comments about the sexual orientation or appearance of users by staff of public services. Sexist representations / posting of images of naked women in public workplaces (e.g. hospital staff rooms). Comments on women’s appearance in public spaces, including public transport.

The public sector has a duty to lead by example . Sexism in parliaments is very common but it limits the opportunities and freedom of women in parliaments, be they elected or staff. Sexism undermines equal access to public services . Sexism in public spaces limits women’s freedom of movement. Sexism can lead to violence and creates an oppressive environment preventing mostly women from fully participating in public life.

Training of staff. Put in place codes of conduct , complaint mechanisms, disciplinary measures and support services.  Implement awareness raising campaigns , such as toolkits or posters in public space explaining what sexism is. Promote gender balance in decision-making . Promote research and the gathering of data on the issue.

Examples of sexism in the justice system:

A judge implying to a victim of sexual violence that she was ‘asking for it’ . A law professional commenting on the appearance of a woman who is a colleague. A police officer not taking an allegation of violence against women seriously or trivialising it.

Such behaviour can lead to victims dropping cases . They create distrust in the justice system. They can lead to misinformed judgments . They demean women and can push them out of legal professions .

Implement policies on women’s equal access to justice . Train legal and law enforcement professionals. Deconstruct judicial stereotyping through awareness-raising campaigns. Ensure professionals base their judgments on facts , on the behaviour of the perpetrator and the context of the case rather than the victim’s clothing, for example.

Examples of sexism in education:

Textbooks containing stereotypical images of women/men, boys/girls. The absence of women as writers, historical or cultural figures in textbooks . Career and education counselling discouraging non-stereotypical career or study choices . Teachers making comments about the appearance of pupils/students/fellow teachers. Sexualised comments to girls. Bullying of non-conforming pupils /students by fellow pupils /students or education professionals. The absence of awareness /procedures / reactions to address such sexist behaviour.

The content of education and behaviour of education professionals heavily influences perceptions and behaviour . A climate of sexism in learning establishments negatively affects the achievements of pupils/students. Sexism in education can limit future individual career and lifestyle choices .

Implement policies and legislation on gender equality in education . Review textbooks to ensure that they are free of sexism and that they depict women as well as men in non-stereotypical roles. Ensure the representation of women as scientists, artists, athletes, leaders, politicians in textbooks and programmes . Teach women’s history . Ensure the availability of complaint mechanisms. Teach gender equality issues as well as sexuality education (including consent and personal boundaries). Train education professionals on unconscious bias .

Culture and sport

Examples of sexism in culture and sport:

Sportswomen depicted in the media according to their family role and not their skills and strengths. Trivialising women’s sporting achievements . Demeaning men who play “feminine” sports. Women in sexy outfits as “decoration” in cultural or sporting events. Absence of women’s work in art exhibitions. Scarcity of meaningful roles for women in cinema and the virtual absence of roles for older actresses. Scarcity of funding for film production in which women have a leadership role. Under-resourcing of women’s art.

Both culture and sport are shapers of attitudes . If women and men are depicted in stereotyped ways, this will feed into gender stereotyping. When mostly men are visible in these areas, this influences the way women are seen as potential artists or athletes and narrows the range of role models for children and young people. Gender stereotypes limit the choice of women/men girls/boys to practice sports that are not considered “feminine” or “masculine” ; this leads to self-censorship . In both areas, sexism leads to lower salaries and fewer opportunities for those confronted with it.

Measures to encourage creative work by women and gender mainstreaming in cultural and sport policies (scholarships, exhibitions, training, provision of space/workshops). Ensure better and more media coverage of women’s sports and art. Encourage sponsors to support women’s arts and sports. Adopt codes of conduct to prevent sexist behaviour, including provision for disciplinary action in sports federations. Encourage leading sport and cultural figures to speak up against sexism and implement campaigns to denounce violence in sport and sexist hate speech.

Private sphere

Examples of sexism in the private sphere:

Women performing more unpaid (care and household) work than men, for example only women helping to wash dishes at a dinner party. Sexist jokes between friends. Systematically offering “feminine” or “masculine” toys to girls/boys. Boys being encouraged to run and take risks and girls to be docile and compliant. The use of expressions like “running like a girl” or “boys will be boys”.

Unpaid work weighs on women’s participation in the labour market, on their economic independence as well as on their participation in sport and leisure activities. Toys (e.g. a mini kitchen or a construction game) influence gender roles, but also future study or career choices. Sexist jokes can intimidate and silence people and they trivialise sexist behaviour.

Awareness-raising measures and research on the impact and the sharing of unpaid work between women and men. Measures for reconciling private and working life for all . Promotion of non-gendered toys . Encouraging boys as well as girls to participate in household tasks. Giving girls , too, the space and freedom to play, explore and be themselves.

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Sexism, Essay Example

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Sexism is a term used to indicate discrimination or the prejudiced faced by person based on the persons sex. Thoman, Dustin, Paul White, Niwako Yamawaki, and Hirofumi Koishi indicated that the attitude of the sexist has its origin for the stereotypes that existed traditionally in the gender roles of the people in the society (10). As a result, sexism can include the feeling that people of particular sex are superior or better than the other sex. For instance, a person seeking for a job may encounter discriminatory hiring practises because she is a woman. In such most societies, when a lady is hired for a certain job, they tend to receive unequal treatment or compensation when compared to the men working in the same capacity.  The other extreme form of sexism may include sexual harassment, rape and similar type of sexual violence especially targeted towards the female gender.

The origin of the term as used currently can be traced to the Pauline Leet who coined the word in 1965 in which she compared sexism to the racism. In her contribution that was titled, ”women and the undergraduate” she argued that both the sexist and the racists act as if all that has not happened will never happen and therefore coming to a conclusion about someone’s value based on the irrelevant factors like sex and skin colour. Sexism is judging people by the sex when the sex does not matter really. It is used to keep the sex in power established and entrenched in power Watson, Robinson, Dispenza, & Nazari, (233).

Historically, until the 20 th century, the US and English law in general was based on a system of covertures in which during the marriage, the husband and the wife become one person in legal resulting in the suspension of the legal existence of the woman during the marriage. As a consequence, the women in the US were not legally defined as persons until 1975 while the married women in France received the right to work without their husband permission in 1965, it is important to note that in many countries around the globe; the women still loose significant rights when they get married. For instance, in Iraq, the husbands had the right to punish their wives. This is not a criminal act but is similar to parents or teacher disciplining the children within regulation of the customs and laws.

Sexism in any given society is driven by the gender stereotypes that consist of the beliefs about the characteristics of men and women. Numerous empirical studies have shown that men are socially valued and more competent that the women in undertaking different activities. In one such study done in the US, the diverse sample of the people surveyed consistently rated the category of the men as being hire that the category of the woman.

According to another survey, it has been found that stereotype against the women has actually contributed to the lowering of the women’s performance in mathematics test. This is a self fulfilling stereotype that women have inferior quantitative skills when compared to the men. The women and men’s perceptions of those abilities are then affected as it results in the men rating their own tasks ability higher than that of the women who perform in the same level (Thoman, Dustin, Paul White, Niwako Yamawaki, and Hirofumi Koishi, 9). Such gender based biases affects the women and men’s education and career decisions.

Occupational sexism is  refers to the discriminatory practises and actions based on the sex that occurs in the work place. The most common form of the occupational sexism is the wage discrimination. According to the organisation for the Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), as much has the employment of the female has greatly expanded and the wage gap has also tremendously narrowed, when compared with the male counterpart, the female still have 20 percent less chance of being employed and when they are finally employed, they are paid 17% less that the male with the same qualification. Despite the establishment if the anti discrimination and equality of employment laws,  the implementation of the Law is very difficult in many countries including the western nations.

According to Fortin Nicole Gender stereotypes play very crucial role in encouraging stereotypes in the society. This mainly comes from the gender roles, which are the behaviours that the society associates with each of the genders. For example, in the united state, while the male are expected to be decisive, direct, stoic, strong, athletic, brave and driven, the women on the other hand are culturally expected to be not only emotional, weak and nurturing but affectionate and home oriented (428). OECD therefore argues that the women’s labour market is influences by learned cultural and social values that may be seen as discriminatory towards women by stereotyping certain lifestyle and work as being for men or women. This is because the women educational and career choice may be dictated in part by the expectations that certain job opportunities are not open to the people of their gender. In the US, the women formed about 87 percent of all the people employed in the child care industry and 86 percent of the people working in the health aide sector.

Professional discrimination still exists against women in the work place although there has been a slow improvement. A study done in 2007 indicated that for every $1.00 earned by the men annually, the median pay for the women was $ 0.78. the people that contend the wage gap argues that the difference in the pay between the male and the female is not based on sexism in the work place but is a product of the career choice and the working house differences between the male and females.

Watson, Robinson, Dispenza, & Nazari argue that another form of sexism in the society is portrayed by the sexual objectification of women in advertisement and promotion of items. Objectification can be defined as the treatment of women as an object that is viewed primarily as a source of sexual gratification or to bring about sexual appeal (232). While there are laws that govern advertising in western countries, this only regulate the obscenity of the adverts and prevent indecent poses but does not avert objectification of the women. While in some countries like Norway and Denmark that has not banned Nudity in advertising relevant products, other countries like Israel has continue to ban nudity and makes a reference to the sexual objectification of the women.

Pornography is another practise that contributes to the sexism by not only objectifying women but also portraying them in submissive roles. it has also been noted that some types of pornography contribute to the violence against the women by producing scenes that present women has being dominated, humiliated and coerced. As a form of sexism, pornography depict women as continually available and willing to engage in sexual act with any man and in accordance to their terms and promote rape myth as it desensitises people to violence against the women. This is because it creates a feeling that the lady consented no matter what was said.

Sexism is driven by the consisted desire of one gender to exercise full power over the victim. Studies have shown that the perpetrators of rape for instance have not only hatred towards the women but also get pleasure in inflicting physical and psychological trauma on the victims.

There is continual need to promote gender equality in the different aspects of life so as to eliminate discrimination and violence against women.

Works cited

Thoman, Dustin, Paul White, Niwako Yamawaki, and Hirofumi Koishi. “Variations of Gender–math Stereotype Content Affect Women’s Vulnerability to Stereotype  Threat.” Sex Roles 58.9-10 (2008): 702-12. Print.

Fortin, Nicole, “Gender Role Attitudes and the Labour Market Outcomes of Women Across OECD Countries”, Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 2005, 21, 416–438.

Watson, L., Robinson, D., Dispenza, F., & Nazari, N., African American women’s sexual objectification experiences: A qualitative study. Psychology of Women Quarterly, (2012)36, 227-239

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5 stories that show women fighting sexism around the world

Women's empowerment is key to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals Image:  REUTERS/Dado Ruvic

.chakra .wef-1c7l3mo{-webkit-transition:all 0.15s ease-out;transition:all 0.15s ease-out;cursor:pointer;-webkit-text-decoration:none;text-decoration:none;outline:none;color:inherit;}.chakra .wef-1c7l3mo:hover,.chakra .wef-1c7l3mo[data-hover]{-webkit-text-decoration:underline;text-decoration:underline;}.chakra .wef-1c7l3mo:focus,.chakra .wef-1c7l3mo[data-focus]{box-shadow:0 0 0 3px rgba(168,203,251,0.5);} Nanette Braun

.chakra .wef-9dduvl{margin-top:16px;margin-bottom:16px;line-height:1.388;font-size:1.25rem;}@media screen and (min-width:56.5rem){.chakra .wef-9dduvl{font-size:1.125rem;}} Explore and monitor how .chakra .wef-15eoq1r{margin-top:16px;margin-bottom:16px;line-height:1.388;font-size:1.25rem;color:#F7DB5E;}@media screen and (min-width:56.5rem){.chakra .wef-15eoq1r{font-size:1.125rem;}} Gender Inequality is affecting economies, industries and global issues

.chakra .wef-1nk5u5d{margin-top:16px;margin-bottom:16px;line-height:1.388;color:#2846F8;font-size:1.25rem;}@media screen and (min-width:56.5rem){.chakra .wef-1nk5u5d{font-size:1.125rem;}} Get involved with our crowdsourced digital platform to deliver impact at scale

Stay up to date:, gender inequality.

Women and girls make up more than half the world’s population — and they are on the frontlines, often more deeply affected than men and boys by poverty, climate change, food insecurity, lack of healthcare, and global economic crises.

Their contributions and leadership are central to finding solutions, yet persistent discrimination prevents them from living up to their potential. Only one in five Parliamentarians worldwide are female; women earn 23% less than men on global average, and at least one in three women and girls are subjected to physical or sexual violence in their lifetimes.

Adopted by global leaders in September 2015, the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) represent the global community’s roadmap for achieving a more equitable, safe and just world for all by 2030. Women’s empowerment and gender equality are recognized as key factors for success for this ambitious agenda. UN Women’s “From where I stand” series presents snapshots from women's lives around the world to showcase how their struggles illustrate the problems each SDG seeks to address, and how women are at the center of bringing about change.

“My husband accuses me of abandoning our children” Laura Bosnea, one of the first Roma women councillors in Moldova

When I was 21, my husband ‘stole’ me from my father. I was a student at the time. My father agreed, on one condition—if my husband would allow me to finish law school. But we ended up having two kids and I couldn’t complete my studies.

I wasn’t the type to stay at home so I got involved in community affairs. As a Roma woman, I wanted to make sure the rights of Roma are respected in our community, so I became a community mediator between the Roma and the local administration. It didn’t take long before I got elected to the local council. In 2015, I became one of the first two Roma women councillors in Moldova. But I am only 28 years old and as a young Roma woman, it is difficult to get recognition.

My husband accuses me of abandoning my children. Day after day, from sunrise to sunset, I try to help other children, while a nanny takes care of my own. For my husband, a woman must stay home to take care of household chores and children. I try to persuade him that my purpose is to help disadvantaged people and to fight for justice.

But my efforts are bearing fruit. Since I became councillor, 79 Roma children have been registered in schools. Now, the streets inhabited by Roma have lighting and garbage bins have been installed. You may think these are minor accomplishments, but I fought hard to get them done. My future plan is to graduate from law school and build a community centre for women and children from vulnerable groups. I feel that this is my mission here.”

Laura Bosnea, 28, was elected to the local council in Râșcani City in 2015, as one of the first Roma women councillors in Moldova.

“In most cases men will feel degraded if I arrest them” Lucy Nduati, police officer, Kenya

Where I come from, police officers are some of the most highly respected people, and becoming one brought pride to my family. However, being a female police officer in Kenya can pose challenges. Kenyan culture is part of the African old patriarchal system where women are not placed in places of power. In most cases men will feel degraded if I arrest them. Sometimes they even use sexual advances, thinking that’s what I need to get them off the hook.

It is important that women are part of the police force because most people find women more understanding. Women have a unique way of policing that is generally based on communications.

I have been part of the Administration Police Headquarters for the last six years.

In my tenure as the Secretary of the Kenya Association of Women in Policing, I have gained an immense interest in cases relating to sexual or gender-based violence. I am currently running a network of middle and junior management-level police officers and we push for cases they are handling to reach successful prosecution.

Lucy Nduati is a 34-year-old single mother and a police officer from Nairobi. Over the course of her career, she has handled cases of sexual and gender-based violence and has been relentless in helping survivors obtain justice.

“When I arrive home, I wash my hands and head straight to the kitchen” Pelin Aslantaş, only female bus driver in Edirne, Turkey

I am the only woman bus driver in the city, among 202 men drivers. I’ve always wanted to drive big vehicles. I learned how to drive when I was 10 with my father’s four-wheel-drive, but it was my mother who taught me how to drive.

One day, my son noticed the municipality’s call for applications for women bus drivers online. I was very interested but I had to get a special license for public transportation, which is 10 times more difficult than getting a regular driver’s license. My male colleagues were taken aback by me in the beginning. They started a rumour among themselves that I would have an accident or would quit in no time. But after a while, they became convinced that I’m a good driver.

This is an incredibly demanding job. We work very long hours and have only one day off. For my male colleagues, their work ends here and when they go home, they can rest. But when I arrive at home, I wash my hands and head straight to the kitchen. I feel like I’m resting more in the bus while driving.

I love what I’m doing, it would have been impossible to do this job otherwise. My only rule in life is to continue what I start. I’m not a quitter, and I will go on doing my job for as long as I can.

Pelin Aslantaş, 43, is the only female bus driver in the city of Edirne, in north-western Turkey.

“Gaining visibility brought with it death threats from the religious extremists” Atefe Mansoori, Director of Abdullah Muslim Company, Afghanistan

Farmers didn’t think that I would be able to handle this business, because I am a woman and this is not a woman’s job.

When I started working to process and export saffron to international markets, the farmers and saffron producers didn’t want to give me their saffron to process and export because they thought that as a woman, I was too weak to handle this business. With the help of my husband and male members of my family, I sat down with the saffron producers and I explained to them that I have good knowledge, some experience and the ability to run this business. I assured them that they would not suffer losses if they put their trust in me. After many discussions, a couple of saffron farmers agreed to work with me, to test whether I had the ability to handle this business.

Then, I had to convince women to work with me. In my village, women were not used to working outside the home. I talked to their husbands and other members of their families and explained to them the benefits of working outside the home. I told their husbands: ‘your wives and daughters will earn money to boost the family income. And the place where your women would work are all full of women.’ After many, many conversations with each family, they agreed to work with me. Now most of them are businesswomen and they run their own companies.

Gaining visibility, however, brought with it death threats from the religious extremists because I was going out in the markets. Despite several challenges, I never gave up because I knew the only way to eliminate violence against women is to help women become economically independent and empowered. With this in mind, I worked hard and struggled to help women to learn, work and earn. And this worked.”

Atefe Mansoori, 52, from Heart Province, Afghanistan, is Director of Abdullah Muslim Company, which processes and exports saffron.

“My first battle was to save my own girls” Assétou Touré, campaigner against Female Genital Mutilation, Mali

I was 6 years old when I was cut. But for me, the most traumatic experience was seeing what my older sister went through. She wasn't as lucky as me. She suffered terrible injuries and almost died. The scars will remain with us for life. Where we live, more than 80 per cent of girls go under the knife.

Some 20 years ago, I decided I wanted to become a leader and educator and devote my energy to combating gender-based violence. My first battle was to save my own girls. I have four daughters, aged between 19 and 27, and not one has been cut. It wasn't easy for my husband, but he listened to my arguments. My first-hand experience and other testimonies convinced him.

We have a duty to act and to ensure that every girl is able to live a dignified and fulfilled life. I love my job. I have no shame or fear. My role is to save lives and to protect people's dignity. I've saved thousands of lives by asking women and men to sign agreements and to take formal oaths. In doing so, they agree not to engage in female genital mutilation themselves, and not to stand back and allow it to happen to others. On average, I secure at least 100 new signatures each month. I've also managed to persuade two leading cutters in Kita, which has one of the highest rates of FGM in Mali, to stop performing female genital mutilation.”

Assétou Touré is a 49-year-old woman from Mali and a survivor of Female Genital Mutilation.

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The Theme of Sexism and Gender Roles in The Color Purple

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How to Reduce Sexism: The Latest Research

A new jsi issue explores techniques that can reduce sexism in the real world..

Posted December 17, 2014

Many women routinely experience small sexist incidents that may be minor in themselves but have a cumulative effect on their well-being and career trajectories. Women are told to “smile more,” or that “they’re overreacting” or “being bitchy.” They’re asked to take notes during meetings or to plan the office party. They’re expected to be more committed to their family life and less devoted than male colleagues to their work. Over time, these daily hassles can make women feel depressed , angry and anxious .

Yet there has been surprisingly little research on the best ways to confront and reduce sexism . The latest issue of the Journal of Social Issues provides an overview of the field and introduces some cutting -edge research on interventions that work.

In “ Using Experiential Learning to Increase the Recognition of Everyday Sexism as Harmful ,” Jessica Cundiff et al explore the impact of different programs to educate participants about the harms of subtle sexism in the academic workplace. Subjects who participated in an experiential learning program called WAGES were less likely to reject the information provided and more likely to feel they capable of intervening successfully when sexist incidents occur (click here to watch Jessica Cundiff describe this project) .

In “ Ways to Go: Men’s and Women’s Support for Aggressive and Non-aggressive Confrontation of Sexism as a function of Gender Identification ,” Julia Becker and Manuela Barreto examine how men and women react to different sorts of responses to sexist behavior. Both men and women favored an assertive over an aggressive or non-response. Two groups especially disliked the aggressive response: women who do not strongly identify with other women and men who have a strong male in-group identification.

NiCole T. Buchannan et al review the U.S. military’s response to sexual harassment . Drawing on Defense Department’s survey’s on the frequency, reporting and outcomes of sexual harassment over 20 years, the authors find that the most important element to successfully combating harassment is clear and consistent anti-harassment message from organizational leaders.

Marc Halusic researches self determination theory and topics such as the relation between autonomy and personality development as well as autonomy supportive teaching styles.

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How to win every sexist argument: an 11-point guide

Essay About Sexism 

Sexism is a term best defined by Webster’s as being prejudice, stereotyping and or discrimination against the opposite gender typically women. To me sexism is pointless and isn’t the reason why women are discriminated against, my thought is that if women think that they are being treated unfairly is because of their ability to do certain objectives. Obviously, men are considered to be workers and are expected to be the leader and the top money makers of their family, women are expected to have the capabilities of nurturing and caring so this thought of women being discriminated against makes no sense. In 2017 the Institute For Women’s Policy Research Conducted a study was on the median weekly earnings and gender earnings ratio for full time workers, the study showed that men made $220 more than women. Nowadays women have the same jobs as men whether its construction or an office worker there’s a wage gap, this is where my opinion changes slightly.

Moving into a different subject most say sexism is caused by feminism, also other causes come from the the workplace. To me sexism is portrayed on both sides’ women and men, often women aren’t welcomed into certain environments as well as men. We can solve this problem by making equal opportunities for both genders, we should also set expectations for men and women who feel that they are being discriminated against. I personally believe that discrimination of sex isn’t an issue under certain circumstances, for example when a man is chosen over a female for a job in most cases the reason isn’t because of sex, it could be because of the ability to work, the effort or even because of comfortability. To put this into a better perspective, due to the sexual abuse controversies in the workplace, companies nowadays prefer to hire one gender or the other. This of course leads to the thought of sexism and gender discrimination. Others say protesting for equal pay, stopping “rape culture” and making girls and boys feel safe to speak on their non-consensual sexual encounters. To me “rape culture” and sexism are two different things and shouldn’t be compared, as “it’s one thing to tell a sexist joke, quite another to run your hand up a colleagues skirt, and worse” said by The Guardians Fionola Meredith.

Whilst I’ve never had sexist encounters and my opinion on sexism is very wrangling, it is still a big problem and we should stop it from happening. A solution to possibly fix sexism is by offering equal opportunities for everyone, but we should also set expectations for those of that opposite sex. I also believe sexism can be resolved by both genders respecting boundaries between each other, another way is by asserting ourselves into the opposite gender positions, just so we can realize what’s the best fit.

Sexism affected the church heavily. People of faith may even experience this as well. It is also to note that the people of faith aren’t welcomed to sexism and other practices. Also People Of the church sees everyone as created in the likeness of God wheatear male or female we are pure of spirit.    

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When Men Experience Sexism

There are some practices and policies that are unfair to men. But this fact should unite men with feminists, not drive them apart.

Can men be victims of sexism?

An NPR Morning Edition report this week suggests strongly that the answer is "yes." As Jennifer Ludden reports , after divorce men can face burdensome alimony payments even in situations where their ex-wives are capable of working and earning a substantial income. Even in cases where temporary alimony makes sense—as when a spouse has quit a job to raise the children—it's hard to understand the need for lifetime alimony payments, given women's current levels of workforce participation. As one alimony-paying ex-husband says, "The theory behind this was fine back in the '50s, when everybody was a housewife and stayed home." But today, it looks like an antiquated perpetuation of retrograde gender roles—a perpetuation which, disproportionately, harms men.

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Perhaps most hideously, men through history have been subject to genocidal, or gendercidal, violence targeted at them specifically because they are men. Writers like Susan Brownmiller have over the last decades helped to show how mass rape and sexual violence against women are often a deliberate part of genocide; similarly, there has been increasing awareness in recent years of the gendercidal results of sex-selective abortion and infanticide in places like India and China. But the way gendercide can be directed against men is much less discussed. One of the worst recent examples of this was in the Balkans war, where, according to genocide researcher Adam Jones , " All of the largest atrocities... target[ed] males almost exclusively, and for the most part "battle-age" males. " Similarly, in Rwanda according to Judy El-Bushra (as quoted by Jones):

it was principally the men of the targeted populations who lost their lives or fled to other countries in fear. ... This targeting of men for slaughter was not confined to adults: boys were similarly decimated, raising the possibility that the demographic imbalance will continue for generations. Large numbers of women also lost their lives; however, mutilation and rape were the principal strategies used against women, and these did not necessarily result in death.

Many of these examples—particularly the points about custody inequities and conscription—are popular with men's rights activists. MRAs tend to deploy the arguments as evidence that men are oppressed by women and, especially, by feminists. Yet, what's striking about instances of sexism against men is how often the perpetrators are not women but other men. The gendercides in Serbia and Rwanda were committed against men, not by feminists, but by other men. Prison rape is, again, overwhelmingly committed by men against other men—with (often male) prison officials sitting by and shrugging. Conscription in the U.S. was implemented overwhelmingly by male civilian politicians and military authorities, not by women.

Even in cases where women clearly benefit from sexism, it's generally not the case that women, as a class, are the ones doing the discriminating. Neither alimony nor custody discussions are central to current feminist theory or current feminist pop cultural discussions. Thereis no ideological feminist commitment to either of these discussions in the way there is to, say, abortion rights, or workplace equity. On the contrary, the alimony and custody inequities we have at the moment seem mostly based, not on progressive feminism, but rather on the reactionary image of female domesticity that feminism has spent most of the last 60-odd years fighting against.

When men suffer from sexism, then, they do so in much the same way women do. That is, they suffer not because women rule the world and are targeting men, nor because feminism has somehow triumphed and brainwashed all of our elected officials (most of them still men) into ideological misandry. Rather, men suffer because of the same gender role stereotypes that hurt and restrict women—though men, being of a different gender, fall afoul of those stereotypes in different ways. Women are supposed to be passive and domestic and sexual—so their employment options and autonomy are restricted and they are fetishized and targeted for sexual assault and exploitation. Men are supposed to be active and violent—so their claims to domestic rights are denigrated and violence directed against them is shrugged off as natural or non-notable.

"For me," Heather McRobie wrote in an excellent 2008 article about genercide, "feminism has always been about how rigid gender roles harm everyone, albeit primarily women." Talking about sexism against men is often seen—by MRAs and feminists alike—as an attack on feminism. But it shouldn't be. Rather, recognizing how, say, stereotypical ideas about domesticity hurt men in custody disputes as well as women in the job market should be a spur to creating alliances, not fissures. Women have been fighting against sexism for a long time. If men can learn from them, it will be to everyone's benefit.

States Have Restricted Teaching on Social Justice. Is Teacher Preparation Next?

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When Andrew Spar first started teaching music to elementary students at Turie T. Small Elementary School in Daytona Beach, Fla., he assumed they all would know to be gentle with instruments.

Spar, now president of the Florida Education Association (FEA) and a vice president of the American Federation of Teachers (AFT), quickly learned the importance of understanding the differences between his upbringing and that of the students he served.

He grew up in a middle-class neighborhood in the suburbs of New York City, and was a trained violinist from an early age. But Spar was teaching in a school where he said a majority of students lived in poverty, he said, and his students hadn’t had the same opportunities to play instruments like he had.

The concept of preparing teachers to understand their students’ backgrounds—and how systemic racism and sexism impact those backgrounds—has been a growing feature of many teacher-preparation programs, some of which pride themselves on integrating social justice themes into their coursework.

Now, that’s being called into question as more state legislatures take aim at how those issues can be taught in teacher preparation. The efforts have left educators and advocates concerned it will encompass culturally responsive teaching methods, and fearing it will ultimately negatively impact student learning.

Earlier this month, Florida Republican Gov. Ron DeSantis signed into law a measure prohibiting teacher training and education preparation programs from delving into “identity politics,” and teaching that “systemic racism, sexism, oppression, and privilege are inherent in the institutions of the United States and were created to maintain social, political, and economic inequities.”

The measure was part of an effort to “fight back against indoctrination in education and the workplace,” DeSantis said in a news release. It appears to build on the state’s other similar efforts, including a law that restricts what teachers can say about LGBTQ+ individuals in their classrooms.

(DeSantis’ office did not respond to a request for comment before publication.)

Republican Florida Rep. Berny Jacques, a sponsor of the legislation, said in an email to EdWeek that the legislation addressed concerns lawmakers have about teaching about race and oppression.

“This legislation will allow students to be taught by teachers focused on delivering exceptional education,” he said.

The recent Florida law is part of a larger, years-long effort to restrict discussions of racism or sexism in schools, taking particular aim at educator preparation. Broadly, at least nine states have enacted legislation in the last three years to prohibit mandatory professional development or training of public school teachers on topics such as racism or sexism, according to data from the National Conference of State Legislatures. Legislation is pending in at least four others.

Several states have introduced similar bills or taken other steps that would limit how teachers can discuss racism and sexism in the classroom . Those efforts have faced legal challenges in some states, even as some social studies groups have started training teachers to navigate these so-called “divisive concepts” laws . However, momentum has largely been slowing for measures targeting “divisive concepts,” and research has found most lessons are kept politically neutral.

Spar said he had to learn to adapt to his students’ backgrounds to effectively teach them early in his teaching career. (The FEA, a major political opponent of DeSantis, criticized the Florida legislation as harmful.)

“I think it’s just so important, and it required me to really open my horizons and open my view of the world so that I could better interact and support the students I was teaching,” he said. “It’s something you have to be able to do if you’re going to truly connect with the kids, and it doesn’t happen unless we’re deliberately having that discussion.”

Educators worry the legislation will impact student learning

Dr. Kai Mathews, the director of the California Educator Diversity Project at the University of California, Los Angeles’ Center for the Transformation of Schools, says it’s taken time for teacher-preparation courses to begin embedding culturally responsive teaching. The 2020 racial reckoning following the public killing of George Floyd and protests of injustices against Black people nationwide fueled that work, she said.

“It’s not just for the historical knowledge and facts. It is also when we’re including students from a diverse background, to see themselves in the making up, and in the composite of, history and of society, and we’re bringing it into the classroom,” Mathews said. “There’s a relatability that then comes with the content that we’re teaching. It’s not just math for math’s sake.”

With schools facing a student chronic absenteeism crisis and competing with student apathy , connecting students to their education is even more vital, she said.

“I don’t know how many more ways students need to show us that disengagement is attached to our inability to make our education relevant and meaningful,” she said.

Dr. Omiunota N. Ukpokodu, a professor of education at the University of Missouri, Kansas City, said so often she hears from student teachers that their classes are struggling academically, with many testing two grades below their level. She pointed to the 2023 results of the National Assessment of Educational Progress, which showed a significant decrease in 8th grade students’ civics scores.

There’s a gap caused by teachers being afraid to teach critically about racism in the wake of laws restricting class discussions, she said. That’s troubling when the U.S. is multicultural and multiracial, and the world is becoming more and more interdependent, she said.

“How are they being prepared to take this responsibility of preparing the young for the world that we live in, that they will be part of in a workforce that is diverse? How can they learn to become participatory citizens when they don’t have the critical thinking skills that they need to engage?” she said.

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This ‘Russian Woman’ Loves China. Too Bad She’s a Deepfake.

A.I.-manipulated videos on Chinese sites use young, supposedly Russian women to promote China-Russia ties, stoke patriotism — and make money.

By Vivian Wang and Siyi Zhao

Vivian Wang reported from Beijing and Siyi Zhao from Seoul.

The woman declares, in Mandarin inflected with a slight accent, that Chinese men should marry “ us Russian women .” In other videos on the Chinese short video platform Douyin, she describes how much she loves Chinese food, and hawks salt and soap from her country. “Russian people don’t trick Chinese people,” she promises.

But her lip movements don’t quite match the audio of the videos, which were posted recently to an account using the name “Ladina.” That is because it is footage of Shadé Zahrai , an Australian career strategist with more than 1.7 million TikTok followers, that has been modified using artificial intelligence. Someone dubbed Ms. Zahrai’s video clips with a voice speaking Mandarin Chinese to make it seem that she was peddling Russian products.

Welcome to a flourishing genre on Chinese social media: A.I.-manipulated videos that use young, purportedly Russian, women to rally support for China-Russia ties, stoke patriotic fervor or make money — and sometimes all three at once.

It is unclear who is behind many of the videos, but most eventually direct viewers to a product link, suggesting that the primary aim is commercial. And the main target audience seems to be nationalist Chinese men.

The videos are often labeled with hash tags such as “Russian wife” and “Russian beauty.” The women featured describe how accomplished Chinese men are, or plead to be rescued by them from poverty or their own less idyllic country.

Another set of videos feature a blond woman, describing her gratitude for having landed in China.

“I really envy my Chinese friends. You’re born with the world’s most precious identity and most profound and charming language,” she says in a video posted to another platform, Xiaohongshu, which is similar to Instagram.

A different video shows the woman thanking the Chinese people for supporting Russia through its economic difficulty by buying Russian chocolates from her. “In the past year, the entire world is boycotting Russia, imposing all kinds of restrictions and difficulties on us. China is like a savior,” she says.

These videos looked much more natural, with the woman’s lips synced to the fluent Mandarin. But they are fake, too. They were retooled from YouTube videos posted by Olga Loiek , a college student whose real videos are about self-improvement and her gap year in Germany.

Why do we stop ourselves from chasing our dreams? Most of the time, fear is the answer.

Ms. Loiek doesn’t speak Chinese. And she would never praise Russia like that, she said in an interview. She is from Ukraine, and some of her relatives are still there.

The makers of these videos are trying to capitalize on a market born of China’s current moment in geopolitics, technology and public sentiment.

Relations between Russia and China have deepened significantly in recent years, with the countries’ leaders, Vladimir V. Putin and Xi Jinping, declaring a “no limits” partnership in the face of mounting hostility from the West. Mr. Putin visited Beijing last week, where Mr. Xi welcomed him with great fanfare.

The use of foreign faces to laud China also seeks to tap into a sense of national pride, or nationalism, among the Chinese audience. Nationalist content has become one of the surest drivers of internet traffic in China, in a censorship environment where more and more topics are off limits.

That nationalism — like nationalism around the world — has often included a strain of sexism, said Chenchen Zhang , a professor of international relations at Durham University in England.

“This representation of young white women in sexually objectified ways is a typical trope of gendered nationalism, or nationalistic sexism,” Professor Zhang wrote in an email. “Viewers can get both their nationalistic and masculine pride reaffirmed in consuming this content.”

In several of the videos featuring Ms. Zahrai’s manipulated likeness, the faked character calls her viewers “big brothers.” The persona also notes that Russia is not selling those products in Japan or South Korea, two countries with which China has fraught relations.

The Chinese government has often encouraged online nationalism, but there is no indication that it has anything to do with the deepfake videos (though some local governments have partnered with real Russian women to promote similar messages about China’s appeal). There is also a small economy of real Russian influencers, many of them young women, on Chinese social media.

Many of the video makers may simply be taking advantage of China’s embrace of shopping via livestreaming and short videos . As A.I. technology has become more advanced, some Chinese companies have already switched from real to virtual salespeople to save money.

Artificially generated videos are likely to become more and more common as a sales tactic, since A.I. technology has advanced so quickly and become so much more accessible to the general public, said Haibing Lu , a professor at Santa Clara University who studies A.I. governance.

Ms. Zahrai’s management company said in an email that the A.I. modifications were “poor quality,” and that they “would likely appear to be fake” even to casual viewers. Some of the account’s videos had only a few dozen views, though the one discussing marrying Russian women had 22,000.

It didn’t seem to matter. An automated counter that pops up in one of the account’s videos suggests that the brand of salt being pitched has already been bought 360,000 times across the platform.

When The New York Times reached out to the Douyin account with the videos of the manipulated Ms. Zahrai, the account holder confirmed in an audio message that he had made the videos. “You set up three things: audio, video and mouth. You can build any video you want,” he said, before unfriending a reporter.

The levels of sophistication vary. Some of the fake women appear entirely computer generated, move stiffly and look like glorified Sims . Some, like those featuring Ms. Loiek’s likeness, are very good.

“Even though I knew it wasn’t me, the realism was frightening,” said Ms. Loiek, who recently found out that more than 30 different social media accounts in China had co-opted her image. “When I decided to create my YouTube channel, I was aware of the dangers of deepfakes, but I believed it was primarily a concern for famous political and entertainment figures. Now I realize that anyone with video footage of themselves online can be affected.”

Ms. Loiek reported the accounts on Xiaohongshu and made a YouTube video about her experience. Eventually, most of the profiles using her likeness were shut down.

In recent weeks, the social media platforms have tightened scrutiny, removing A.I. videos or adding labels to some of them. China was the first country to enact regulations around generative A.I., and on paper, some of its policies are stricter than those in the West.

But countries worldwide are struggling with enforcing their rules. Detecting wrongdoing may be especially difficult in China, because of its closed internet environment, where many foreign social media outlets are banned.

Foreign influencers are unlikely to know their image has been used on Chinese social media and file a copyright complaint. And the Chinese platforms may not be drawing on overseas content, either, when checking for A.I. manipulation, said a 35-year-old man who ran two accounts featuring A.I.-generated Russian women. The man, who gave only his surname, Chen, said he earned about $1,000 a month from the accounts before he shut them down in March, fearing greater regulation.

But more are still proliferating. And Russia may be the hot topic now, but the practice will probably soon spread to whatever the next trend is, said Professor Lu at Santa Clara.

“The people behind this would manipulate any possible topic to attract people’s attention,” he said. “Show ‘how to go to top schools’ to parents; ‘how to become beautiful,’ to young ladies. I believe going forward, everyone will use A.I. technology to customize topics to make videos appealing to a certain audience.”

Vivian Wang is a China correspondent based in Beijing, where she writes about how the country’s global rise and ambitions are shaping the daily lives of its people. More about Vivian Wang

Siyi Zhao is a reporter and researcher who covers news in mainland China for The Times in Seoul. More about Siyi Zhao

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Royal Family Quietly Deleted Prince Harry's Rare Statement Confirming His Romance with Meghan Markle from Website

In a groundbreaking 2016 plea, Prince Harry said he was worried about Meghan's safety as she'd been subjected to a "wave of abuse and harassment"

Stephanie Petit is a Royals Editor, Writer and Reporter at PEOPLE.

Matt Dunham - WPA Pool/Getty

Prince Harry 's groundbreaking statement from 2016 confirming for the first time that he was dating Meghan Markle  is no longer available on the British royal family's website.

In November 2016, Harry's communications secretary released a rare statement condemning the "wave of abuse and harassment" experienced by his then-girlfriend after news of their romance became public. The statement remained on the royal family's official website in the years since, but the link is no longer active.

According to Newsweek , the internet archive site Wayback Machine was able to access the link on Dec. 3, 2023, but not a week later on Dec. 10, indicating it was removed during that span.

Harry's spokesperson said in the statement, in part: "His girlfriend, Meghan Markle, has been subject to a wave of abuse and harassment. Some of this has been very public — the smear on the front page of a national newspaper; the racial undertones of comment pieces; and the outright sexism and racism of social media trolls and web article comments. Some of it has been hidden from the public — the nightly legal battles to keep defamatory stories out of papers; her mother having to struggle past photographers in order to get to her front door; the attempts of reporters and photographers to gain illegal entry to her home and the calls to police that followed; the substantial bribes offered by papers to her ex-boyfriend; the bombardment of nearly every friend, co-worker, and loved one in her life.

“Prince Harry is worried about Ms. Markle’s safety and is deeply disappointed that he has not been able to protect her," he continued. "It is not right that a few months into a relationship with him that Ms. Markle should be subjected to such a storm. He knows commentators will say this is ‘the price she has to pay’ and that 'this is all part of the game.' He strongly disagrees. This is not a game — it is her life and his."

Samir Hussein/Samir Hussein/WireImage

The Duke of Sussex, 39, recalled in his memoir, Spare , that he was advised "silence is the best option" regarding the media attention surrounding his newly unveiled romance with the Suits actress, but he pushed for a "course correction immediately."

"We needed a statement out there," he wrote in the book. "Within a day we had a draft. Strong, precise, angry, honest."

Prince Harry said the statement was "everywhere. And changing nothing. The onslaught continued." He added that the move also made his father, now King Charles , and brother, Prince William , "furious."

"Because they'd never put out a statement for their girlfriends or wives when they were being harassed," he wrote.

Phil Harris / POOL / AFP/ Getty

Prince Harry and Meghan, 42, wed in May 2018 but stepped back as working members of the royal family in 2020, relocating to her home state of California.

Can't get enough of PEOPLE's Royals coverage?  Sign up for our free Royals newsletter  to get the latest updates on Kate Middleton, Meghan Markle and more!

The removal of Prince Harry's statement isn't the only change to royal.uk since then. In March, the Duke and Duchess of Sussex’s bios on the website were merged into a joint profile . At the top of the page reads, "As announced in January 2020, The Duke and Duchess of Sussex have stepped back as working members of The Royal Family."

There is also a link out to Meghan and Harry's recently launched website , sussex.com .

The bottom of the profile page shows links to the announcements that Harry and Meghan would no longer be working royals, including Queen Elizabeth's 2020 statement following the Sandringham Summit .

Emmanuel Osodi/Anadolu via Getty

"Following many months of conversations and more recent discussions, I am pleased that together we have found a constructive and supportive way forward for my grandson and his family," she said. "Harry, Meghan and Archie will always be much-loved members of my family. I recognize the challenges they have experienced as a result of intense scrutiny over the last two years and support their wish for a more independent life. I want to thank them for all their dedicated work across this country, the Commonwealth and beyond, and am particularly proud of how Meghan has so quickly become one of the family. It is my whole family’s hope that today’s agreement allows them to start building a happy and peaceful new life."

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