egyptian culture essay

Essay on Egypt Culture

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100 Words Essay on Egypt Culture

Egyptian history.

Egypt is an old country with a rich history. It’s known for its ancient Pharaohs and Pyramids. These leaders built grand structures to show their power. Pharaohs were like kings and queens. They ruled Egypt thousands of years ago. Many people visit Egypt to see these amazing structures.

Religion in Egypt

Egyptians have always been very religious. In the past, they believed in many gods. Today, most Egyptians are Muslims. They believe in one god, Allah. They pray five times a day. Fridays are special for them. They gather in mosques for prayer.

Egyptian Food

Egyptian food is tasty and unique. It includes dishes like Koshari and Ful Medames. Koshari is a mix of rice, lentils, and pasta. Ful Medames is a dish made from fava beans. Egyptians also love to eat bread. They call it ‘Aish’, which means life.

Egyptian Clothing

Traditional Egyptian clothes are simple and comfortable. Men wear a long dress called a ‘Galabeya’. Women wear a ‘Kaftan’. These clothes are loose and cool. They are perfect for Egypt’s hot weather.

Egyptian Language

Arabic is the main language in Egypt. Many Egyptians also speak English and French. Arabic writing is beautiful. It is written from right to left. This is different from English, which is written from left to right.

250 Words Essay on Egypt Culture

Egypt’s history.

Egypt has a rich history that goes back thousands of years. This land of Pharaohs and Pyramids is known for its ancient civilization. The culture of Egypt has its roots in the past, but it also takes in new ideas.

Religion plays a big part in the culture of Egypt. In ancient times, Egyptians believed in many gods and goddesses. Today, most Egyptians are Muslims, and Islam is the main religion. There are also Christians, mainly Coptic Christians, who have been in Egypt for a long time.

Festivals and Celebrations

Festivals are a big part of Egyptian culture. One of the most famous is the Islamic festival of Eid. There is also a Christian festival called Christmas. Egyptians love to celebrate these festivals with food, music, and family gatherings.

Egyptian food is tasty and unique. It includes dishes like falafel, koshari, and molokhia. Bread, called ‘eish’, is a staple food in Egypt. They also love sweets, especially during festivals.

Egyptian Art and Architecture

Egypt is famous for its art and architecture. The Pyramids and Sphinx are examples of ancient Egyptian architecture. Egyptian art includes beautiful wall paintings and sculptures.

Language in Egypt

The main language spoken in Egypt is Arabic. Many Egyptians also speak English and French.

In conclusion, Egypt’s culture is a mix of old and new. It is full of history, religion, food, art, and language. It is a fascinating culture that continues to thrive and evolve.

500 Words Essay on Egypt Culture

Introduction.

Egypt is a country rich in history and culture. Located in North Africa, it is known for its ancient civilization and some of the world’s most famous monuments. Egypt’s culture is a unique blend of traditions and customs. This essay will explore different aspects of Egypt’s culture including its history, language, food, and arts.

Egypt’s history is one of the oldest in the world, dating back to 3100 BC. This period saw the rise of the Pharaohs, the building of the Pyramids, and the development of hieroglyphic writing. Ancient Egypt was a civilization of ancient North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River, situated in the place that is now the country Egypt. The ancient Egyptians believed in many gods and goddesses, and their religion played a big part in their daily lives.

The main language spoken in Egypt is Arabic, which is also the country’s official language. Many Egyptians also speak and understand English and French. The ancient Egyptians used hieroglyphs, a system of pictures and symbols, to write. Today, this ancient writing is often seen on monuments and in museums.

Egyptian food is a mix of all the different civilizations that came over Egypt in the history of its existence. Bread is the main food in the Egyptian diet. The Egyptian cuisine is not very fancy; it is not as elaborate as French or Italian cuisine and not as heavy as some of the food in the Arabian Gulf, it also doesn’t rely on a massive amount of spices. It is simple, and this simplicity is what makes it very tasty. Some of the popular dishes include Ful Medames (mashed fava beans), Koshari (a mix of lentils, rice, and pasta), and Molokhia (a green soup made from jute leaves).

Egypt has a rich artistic history. Ancient Egyptians created beautiful wall paintings, sculptures, and jewelry. They also developed a form of paper called papyrus, which they used for writing and painting. Today, Egypt is known for its film industry, music, and dance. Traditional music includes the sounds of the oud (a type of guitar) and the tabla (a drum). Belly dance, also known as Raqs Sharqi, is a traditional Egyptian dance that has gained popularity around the world.

In conclusion, Egypt’s culture is a complex blend of ancient traditions and modern influences. Its rich history, unique language, delicious food, and diverse arts make it a fascinating place to explore. Despite modern changes, the people of Egypt maintain a strong connection to their past, ensuring the survival of their unique culture for future generations.

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AP®︎/College Art History

Course: ap®︎/college art history   >   unit 4.

• Ancient Egypt, an introduction

Ancient Egyptian art

• Palette of King Narmer
• Seated Scribe
• The Great Pyramids of Giza
• Pyramid of Khufu
• Pyramid of Khafre and the Great Sphinx
• Pyramid of Menkaure
• King Menkaure (Mycerinus) and queen
• Temple of Amun-Re and the Hypostyle Hall, Karnak
• Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut and Large Kneeling Statue, New Kingdom, Egypt
• Ancient Thebes with its Necropolis (UNESCO/TBS)
• Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and Three Daughters
• Tutankhamun’s tomb (innermost coffin and death mask)
• Last Judgement of Hunefer, from his tomb
• Hunefer, Book of the Dead

Appreciating and understanding ancient Egyptian art

Art not meant to be seen, the function of egyptian art, what we see in museums, modes of representation for three-dimensional art, modes of representation for two-dimensional art, hierarchy of scale, text and image, want to join the conversation.

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The Egyptian Cultural Values and Traditions

Cultural awareness, physical environment.

Egypt is one of the oldest countries in the world. This populous Arab nation is located in North Africa bordering the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea, and, thus, is a gateway to the Middle East. It is famous for its ancient cultural heritage. Contemporary Egyptian culture draws from traditional and more recent developments. Various ancient cultural values, traditions, customs, and beliefs continue to shape modern-day Egyptian culture, though the influence from other countries is evident.

Egypt is a culturally homogeneous society that is dominated by people of Egyptian ethnicity. Most people practice the Arabic culture, particularly, Sunni traditions (Scroope, 2017). A defining feature of the cultural identity of natives is their language; they use Egyptian Arabic. However, contemporary Egyptians speak several variants of this dialect. Recent political revolutions have raised issues of the cultural affinity of people to Egypt versus the Arabic world. Thus, being Egyptian means having an ethnic identity distinct from Arabs.

Religion is central to Egyptians’ lives. Although Egypt identifies itself as a secular nation, a vast majority of people are religious. Most Egyptians profess Sunni Islam (90%), while 9% of the population comprises Coptic Orthodox Christians, with the remainder practicing minority religions (Pizzo, 2015). The atheist group is also growing in Egypt. Discrimination against people of minority faiths is prevalent with occasional feuds between Sunni Muslims and Christians (Pizzo, 2015). However, fundamental religious values are similar across religions.

Belief systems reflect Islamic principles that guide everyday life. Egyptians express their faith through dress, diet, and frequent congregational supplication. They regularly refer to the supernatural will in speech with declarations like “inshallah” to refer to the divine authority God has over the future (Scroope, 2017). Friday visits to mosques for prayer is the norm for Sunni Muslims. Minority Christians also have distinct doctrines. They use the Coptic calendar, hold their church sermons in the ancient Egyptian language, believe in Christ as a deity, and have a cross tattooed on the wrist.

Traditional religious and cultural values are cherished in Egyptian society. Compassion towards other people and piousness are highly valued virtues. Egyptian Muslims do not consume pork, as pigs are considered unclean. Egypt is a collectivist society and the needs of the family outweigh those of a person. The idea of honor (sharaf) and individual dignity (karama) are central values tied to the patriarchal responsibility and reputation of men (Baker et al., 2016). The society holds prayer in high regard. Therefore, it is forbidden to engage an individual praying in a conversation or walk in front of him or her (Baker et al., 2016). Wearing the hijab for women is a way of preserving family honor.

Some customs are unique to Egyptian culture. This society is mostly patriarchal and conservative with men having the ultimate authority over women who are expected to play traditional roles of raising children and doing household chores (Abdelmonem, 2016). However, cosmopolitan elites, following the recent spate of sociopolitical revolutions, challenge the usefulness of these customs. Communal living with the extended family is common and endogamous arranged marriages are practiced. In Egyptian culture, people typically marry from within a specific religious group or social class.

Since Egypt is a largely conservative society, some behaviors are expected from people. Basic etiquette entails not displaying one’s heel or shoe sole to others, dressing modestly, extending greetings during social encounters, and respecting seniors (Baker et al., 2016). Shoes must not be worn in mosques, as doing so will desecrate holy places. Communal eating is common in Egypt. During such events, one is not expected to use the left hand, which is meant for routine personal hygiene.

Egypt is a geographically diverse country with many unique spaces and landmarks. A large proportion of people (90%) live in the Nile River basin, a fertile crescent surrounded by arid lands (Scroope, 2017). The river divides Egypt in the middle to form two geographical spaces: the valley that is situated in the southern part of the Nile River and the delta in the north. The arid region comprises the Western Deserts that cover about 70% of landmass in Egypt. To the east between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea is another desert that features a rugged landscape.

Manmade features are key attractions and landmarks in Egypt. The Great Pyramid of Giza that was built as a tomb for Pharaoh Khufu is a historical marvel due to its great size (139m high) and architectural design (Scroope, 2017). Another major manmade feature is the Sphinx located in Cairo. Egypt is also home to the Luxor Temple and Abu Simbel, which are notable ancient religious sites. The Aswan Dam is another manmade feature constructed on River Nile to supply water for irrigation and to major Egyptian cities.

Egypt is a land of diverse climate and weather. The country is largely arid with hot dry days and cooler nights in most regions. The daily temperature is highest during the summer and ranges between 26.7 0 C and 32.2 0 C (Scroope, 2017). Winter days are much cooler (13-21 0 C). Precipitation is low since most parts of Egypt are arid lands. However, rainfall is experienced in northern Mediterranean regions with occasional snowfalls on Mount Sinai in the winter. A dry, hot wind (Khamaseen) blows in the spring, causing sand storms.

The production sector is the backbone of the Egyptian economy. It includes segments like cement, hydrocarbons, fertilizers, food, and beverages. Egyptians display unique behaviors when producing goods or in the workplace. The country is a collectivist society, thus, the commitment to the family or group is strong. In the workplace set-up, employer-employee relations are seen through the moral lens, and the decisions to recruit or promote a person involve in-group considerations (Hofstede Insights, 2020). Compromise and negotiation are a part of Egyptian business culture.

Behaviors related to distribution reflect the power distance in Egyptian society. People accept the hierarchal social system where some individuals are more powerful than others. Thus, centralization is common, which has created socioeconomic inequalities (Hofstede Insights, 2020). Relationships are formed based on the social class or religion, and wealth and opportunities are distributed in a similar way. People tend to share within the group as opposed to being charitable to all.

The consumption behavior of Egyptians reflects their normative culture. These people have a low tendency to save for the future, as they prioritize their traditions and the current situation. Communal eating and care for the wellbeing of others are habits among Egyptians. The needs of each member of the in-group take precedence over individual desires. Personal indulgence and gratification are considered wrong. Individuals work for the good of the whole group.

Egypt’s contemporary culture is a blend of ancient values and modern-day influences. Religion is central to Egyptian life and all social and economic aspects of this largely conservative society have been shaped by Islamic and Coptic Christian fundamental beliefs. Egypt boasts of unique manmade features that reflect its rich cultural heritage. The economic acts of producing, distributing, and consuming are rooted in Egyptian culture.

Abdelmonem, M. G. (2016). The modern ordinary: Changing culture of urban living in Egypt’s traditional quarters at the turn of the twentieth century. Middle Eastern Studies, 52 (5), 825-844. Web.

Baker, R. W., El-Hamamsy, L. S., Holt, P. M., Hopwood, D., Jones, M., & Smith, M. (2016).

Egypt . Britannica. Web.

Hofstede Insights. (2020). Egypt . Web.

Pizzo, P. (2015). The ‘Coptic question’ in post-revolutionary Egypt: Citizenship, democracy, religion. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 38 (14), 2598-2613. Web.

Scroope, C. (2017). Egyptian culture. Cultural Atlas. Web.

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Ancient Egyptian Culture

Updated 04 August 2023

Downloads 44

Category Culture ,  History

Topic Ancient Egypt

The Ancient Egyptian culture has several years of recorded history since Ancient Egypt formed part of Africa's earliest civilizations (Bleeker, 1964). Ancient Egypt had an outstandingly complex, stable, and unique culture that greatly influenced later European cultures. The Ancient Egyptian Culture thrived between c. 5500 BCE (characterized by technological advancements) and 30 BCE (marked by last Egypt's Ptolemaic ruler, Cleopatra VII) (Bleeker, 1964). Today, Egypt is famous for the significant monuments made in celebration of the rulers’ triumphs, and honor of the Ancient Egyptian gods (Caminos, 1952). The Ancient Egyptian culture is often considered to have been life-affirming. In other words, the Ancient Egyptians considered death as part of life journey, and death marked the transformation or transition to a spiritual form of life (Caminos, 1952). This paper explores the Ancient Egyptian culture with the focus on its history, its representation in the United States, its characteristics, and its artistic contributions. It further looks into the Ancient Egyptian cultural values, religion(s), sex and gender role differences, as well as how people acculturated into the Ancient Egyptian culture.

History of the Ancient Egyptian Culture

            Egypt's current rich cultural traditions can be traced back to the period of ancient Egypt. Ancient Egypt formed part of the leading civilizations in Africa, and its history has traditionally been subdivided into thirty-one dynasties. The Ancient Egyptian culture started with Manetho, the Egyptian priest, who is considered to have lived during the 3rd Century B.C (Griffiths, 1955). The first and second dynasties (archaic or early dynastic period) date back to around 5,000 years. The first dynasty was under the rule of Menes (first pharaoh). The third, fourth, fifth, and sixth dynasties date from about 2650 to 2150 B.C. and they are usually to as the Old Kingdom period, which got characterized by the construction of pyramids (Griffiths, 1955).

            The seventh to eleventh dynasties date from 2150 to 2030 B.C., and it was a period marked by weak governance and the collapse of several Middle East cities and civilizations due arid climate and drought (Caminos, 1952). The twelfth and thirteenth dynasties are usually referred to as the Middle Kingdom, which lasted from ca. 2030 to 1640 B.C. The Middle Kingdom was marked by the reunion of Egypt into one country, as well as the resumption of pyramid construction and documentation of civilization (Bleeker, 1964).  The fourteenth to seventeenth dynasties are often referred to as the Second Intermediate Period, which got characterized by the collapse of the Egyptian government, with a section of the country getting occupied by the Hyksos (Bleeker, 1964). The eighteenth to twentieth dynasties are often referred to as the New Kingdom, which lasted from ca. 1550 to 1070 B.C. The New Kingdom period occurred after a series of Egyptian rulers had driven the Hyksos out of Egypt (Caminos, 1952).

            The twenty-first to twenty-fourth dynasties are often referred to as the Third Intermediate Period, which lasted from ca. 1070 to 713 B.C. It was also marked my weak governance and disunity in the country (Geodicke & Casson, 1969). During the Third Intermediate Period, civilizations and cities across the Middle East got destroyed by Aegean people, and the loss of revenues and trade routes contributed to the weakening of the country’s central government (Geodicke & Casson, 1969). The duration between the twenty-fifth and thirty-first dynasties is usually described as the Late Period, which lasted from ca. 712 to 332 B.C. The 25th dynasty rulers were mostly Nubians (Bleeker, 1964).

            The Persians were driven out of Egypt in 332 B.C. by Alexander the Great before he incorporated Egypt into the Macedonian Empire (Caminos, 1952). Several Early Egyptian rulers descended from Ptolemy Soter after the death of Alexander the Great, and the last Ptolemaic ruler was Cleopatra VII (Caminos, 1952). In 30 B.C., Cleopatra VII committed suicide following her forces’ defeat at the Battle of Actium by Augustus, the Roman emperor. Egypt was merged into the Roman Empire after Cleopatra VII's death, and the Egyptians treated the Roman emperors as pharaohs (Caminos, 1952).

Representation of the Ancient Egyptian Culture in the United States

            Egyptian Americans form part of the latest groups to have moved or immigrated to the United States. The Egyptians, who form part of the most sedentary ethnic groups, started migrating to the United States in large numbers towards the end of the Twentieth Century (Cutter, 2015). Although most Egyptians moved to the United States for educational and economic reasons, some Jews, Copts, and conservative Egyptian Muslims immigrated to the U.S. due to political crises in Egypt (Cutter, 2015). The estimates of the population of Egyptian immigrants in the United States have been ranging between 800,000 and two million, with most Egyptian immigrants living in New York, Florida, New Jersey, California, Texas, and Illinois (Cutter, 2015).

Nature of the Ancient Egyptian Culture

            Ancient Egypt was a collectivistic culture, characterized by a long-term commitment to various member groups, such as the family and various forms of extended relationships (Geodicke & Casson, 1969). The collectivistic nature of the Ancient Egyptian culture was also evident through the society’s emphasis on loyalty, which overrode most other cultural regulations and rules. Additionally, the Ancient Egyptian society fostered strong relationships, and every member of the society had to take responsibility for other group members (Geodicke & Casson, 1969).

Artistic Contributions of the Ancient Egyptian Culture

            The Ancient Egyptian arts included paintings; drawings on ivories, jewelry, papyrus, and faience; as well as sculptures in stones, woods, and ceramics (Bleeker, 1964). The ancient Egyptian arts represented the early Egyptian society’s belief systems, as well as its socioeconomic status. Besides, the Ancient Egyptian art was both highly symbolic and stylized (Bleeker, 1964). Part of the surviving artistic contributions of the Ancient Egyptians relates to the monuments and tombs, which symbolize the culture's emphasis on the preservation of past knowledge and the belief in life after death (Bleeker, 1964).

Values of the Ancient Egypt Culture

            One of the values of the Ancient Egyptian culture revolved around the family, which was the top priority. The treatment of the members of the family translated into a comfortable public environment, and people had to conduct themselves in the most possible respectful and polite manner (Caminos, 1952). Also, the Ancient Egyptian culture valued public modesty in dressing and greetings preceded all other forms of social interaction (Caminos, 1952). Additionally, members of the younger generation were expected to exhibit respect and honor to their seniors and had they had no right to challenge their seniors (Caminos, 1952).

Religions of the Ancient Egypt Culture

            The Ancient Egyptians followed a polytheistic religion throughout much of the Ancient Egyptian history (Griffiths, 1955). The polytheistic religion got characterized by the veneration of several gods and goddesses (Griffiths, 1955). One of the famous gods was the underworld god (Osiris), and several shrines and temples were constructed at Abydos (Osiris’ cult center) in Osiris honor. The ancient Egyptians believed that the dead could have eternal life in a paradise after mummification (Griffiths, 1955).

Sex and Gender Role Differences in the Ancient Egypt Culture

            One of the differences in sex and gender roles among the ancient Egyptians related to clothing. The Ancient Egyptian men wore knee-length skirts, while the women wore light, ankle-length robes or dresses which covered or exposed their breasts depending on the fashion of the day (Geodicke & Casson, 1969). Also, the ancient Egyptians seemed to have no formal marriage ceremonies. Men had the responsibility of taking gifts to their intended brides and the acceptance of the gifts by the brides would mark the beginning of marriage (Geodicke & Casson, 1969). Additionally, the Ancient Egyptian men were the heads of their families, while the women acted as the heads of their homes, with the primary role of raising the children (Caminos, 1952).

What People Would Need to Know to Acculturate into the Ancient Egypt Culture

            One of the ways by which people could get acculturated into the Ancient Egyptian culture was through wars, which often resulted into peaceful moments, characterized by cooperation, peaceful cultural exchanges, and intermarriages (Bleeker, 1964). Another way by which people could get acculturated into the Ancient Egyptian culture was through trading with the ancient Egyptians on various commodities, such as copper tools, gold, stone vessels, faience, and pots among others (Bleeker, 1964).

            In overall, Ancient Egypt formed the center of Western Civilization, and it was already an organized society by 4000 BC. Ancient Egyptians got united by pharaoh Menes by 3100 BC. During the peak of the Ancient Egyptian culture, the Ancient Egyptians flourished in the Nile Valley (constructing huge pyramids, creating world-renowned art, establishing advanced writing systems, making scientific advancements, developing trade agreements with the Asian and Middle Eastern powers, as well as, building irrigation systems. However, the Ancient Egyptian Empire started decaying by 1085 B.C, which led to its re-division into lower and upper kingdoms. Several foreign forces then sought to conquer the Egyptian valley, including the Romans, Greeks, French, and the Turkish among others, all of which contributed to the enrichment and conservation of Ancient Egyptian culture. 

Bleeker, C. (1964). The Pattern of the Ancient Egyptian Culture. Numen, 11(1), 75. doi: 10.2307/3269300

Caminos, R. (1952). The Burden of Egypt. An Interpretation of Ancient Egyptian Culture. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 38(1), 134-135. doi: 10.1177/030751335203800121

Cutter, M. (2015). Multi-Ethnic "Literature" of the "United States": Thinking Beyond the Borders. MELUS: Multi-Ethnic Literature of The United States, 40(1), 13-17. doi: 10.1093/melus/mlu086

Goedicke, H., & Casson, L. (1969). Ancient Egypt. Journal of The American Research Center in Egypt, 8, 98. doi: 10.2307/40000059

Griffiths, J. (1955). Ancient Egyptian Religion. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 41(1), 145-145. doi: 10.1177/030751335504100139

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Ancient Egyptian Culture and Society Essay

The culture of the Egyptians was closely linked with religion so people were engaged in many artworks to please their gods, goddesses and pharaohs because they were considered as divine. The artworks obeyed the order of seniority hence pharaoh would always be drawn in a large painting thus stressing on his relevance, and importance; the pharaoh was painted in greater size in comparison with less esteemed figures (Hodge, 2006).

The culture and society of the Egyptians were classified and grouped according to their wealth, status, and class. Each province had its own deity, temple, capital, beliefs, as well as practices (Malek, 1999). In Egypt, anybody born in the social class would stay in it until their death. The issues of career, wealth and social status were passed on from one person to another. In addition, the work one did was defined by his/her family’s class.

The Egyptian social pyramid high class was the most powerful in Egypt, it was composed of the king who was the most powerful person in ancient Egypt named pharaoh, he was also the high priest and he could delegate his title (Malek, 1999). Vizier, who was the second powerful man after the king and the next person to the king, was in charge of legal matters and at the same time the commander of the police. The priests became wealthy and popular, but not all priests were powerful even though they would threaten the kingship. The king had to choose the priest who would be responsible for all religious rituals.

They gave various titles and honors and were given different gifts. Army generals who were selected from the royal family, helped to keep the ruling family together. The officials were members of the advisory committee which handled political and religious matters, they also helped in decision-making. Lastly there were mayors, referred to as monarchs, who ruled provinces. Each province had its own culture, economy and taxes (Robins & Fowler, 1994). The monarchs were answerable to the king, and they were to provide their reports and payments.

The Amarna Art of style was adopted in the Amarna Period during and after the reign of Akhenaten in the late eighteenth century. It was characterized by logic of movement and motion in images with figures having raised heads, several figures overlying. The hands and feet were was thought to be essential shown together with thin, elongated figures and pain shown on fingers and finger nails (Hagen & Hagen, 2007). To depict life the flesh of both males and females was shown being dark brown. Common people were shown with two left or two right feet.

The goddess Isis, sister-consort of Osiris, also known as the god of the dead, is represented by holding the son in a right angle. She wore a dress, headed and engulfed by a sun disk enclosed by two broken horns Hodge, 2006). Hathor, the goddess represented sun disk and the horns, but they were used by Isis, too. The mother held the child with her left arm, and the right arm helped when breastfeeding.

Horus is portrayed with the characteristic similar to those of a child, he is nude having a lessened lock of hair on the right part of his head. Isis represented motherhood and guardian of little children. After Christianity had become the official religion of the Roman Empire by the Emperor Constaine, “the image of mother-child attached to Isis and Horus, represented the virgin and child” (Schatz, 2008).

Hagen, R. & Hagen, R. (2007). Egyptian art . Cologne: Taschen.

Hodge, S. (2006). Ancient Egyptian Art . Oxford: Heinemann/Raintree.

Malek, J. (1999). Egyptian Art . London: Phaidon.

Robins, G. & Fowler, A. S. (1994). Proportion and Style in Ancient Egyptian Art . Texas: University of Texas Press.

Schatz, F. (2008). Ancient Egyptian Art – The Fun Way . AUC Press.

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IvyPanda. (2022, May 7). Ancient Egyptian Culture and Society. https://ivypanda.com/essays/ancient-egyptian-artwork/

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IvyPanda . "Ancient Egyptian Culture and Society." May 7, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/ancient-egyptian-artwork/.

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Donation Stela of Osorkon I dated to year 6

Stela with man offering to Re-Harakhty, unfinished

Statuette of Osiris with the epithets Neb Ankh and Khentyimentiu, donated by Padihorpare

Lentoid Bottle ("New Year's Bottle") inscribed for the God's Father Amenhotep, son of the God's Father Iufaa

Water Clock Decorated with a Baboon

Relief panel showing two baboons offering the wedjat eye to the sun god Khepri, who holds the Underworld sign

Shadow Clock

Janice Kamrin Department of Egyptian Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art

February 2017

A hallmark of almost every known culture is some system to track the passing of time. It is thought that, like most agricultural societies, the ancient Egyptians originally organized their calendar according to the cycles of the moon and the agricultural seasons ( 30.4.2 ). Most scholars agree that the Egyptian day began at dawn, before the rising of the sun, rather than sunrise. The daily cycle was divided into twenty-four hours: twelve hours of the day and twelve hours of the night, the latter apparently reckoned based on the movement of groups of stars (“decans”) across the night sky. Beginning in the New Kingdom (ca. 1500 B.C.), there is evidence that sundials, shadow clocks ( 12.181.307 ), and water clocks ( 17.194.2341 ) were used to measure the passing of the hours. There is no evidence that the Egyptians tracked minutes or seconds, although there are general terms for time segments shorter than an hour. The month was organized into three weeks of ten days each, with the start of the lunar month marked by the disappearance of the waning moon.

By at least the middle of the Old Kingdom (ca. 2450 B.C.), and quite possibly several centuries earlier, the Egyptians had developed a “civil” calendar composed of twelve months of thirty days each (360 days), divided into three seasons—Inundation ( Akhet ), Emergence ( Peret ), and Harvest ( Shemu )—of four months each, with five epagomenal days (days outside the regular months) added at the end of the year. Official dates were expressed according to this system, as a specific day within a specific month of a season (e.g., Day 15, Month 3 of the Inundation Season). At least as early as the Middle Kingdom (ca. 2030–1650 B.C.), the months had alternative names ( 22.3.522 ) that seem to echo some sort of lunar reckoning.

It is likely that New Year’s Day ( 30.8.214 ) originally was associated with the heliacal rising of the brightest star in the night sky, Sopdet (also known by its Greek name of Sothis or Latin name of Sirius). In Egypt, this star reemerged after a seventy-day sojourn beneath the horizon at about the same time as the first signs of the annual Nile flood that brought the life-giving waters down from the highlands of Ethiopia. The correlation between Sopdet and the New Year is based in part on an ancient text (from ca. 2500 B.C.) that reads: “It is Sopdet, your daughter whom you love, in this her name as Year”; an inscription from the New Kingdom that mentions the rising of Isis-Sopdet on the morning of New Year’s Day (ca. 1250 B.C.); and a reference to Isis-Sopdet from the much later temple at Dendera (late first millennium B.C.), which says specifically that the years are “reckoned from her shining forth.”

Since a true astronomical year has 365.25+ days, the Egyptian civil calendar fell back by a quarter day or so each year. This meant that the rising of Sopdet/Sothis and the seasons of this calendar did not correspond to the actual agricultural seasons for much of Egyptian history. Scholars have attempted to use this disconnect, especially between the actual Sothic rise and New Year’s Day in the civil calendar, which correspond only once every 1,460 years, to calculate when the civil system was first established, but no agreement on this point has yet been reached.

Lunar-based month names, the importance of the heliacal rising of Sothis, the fact that some Egyptian festivals were scheduled according to the lunar cycle rather than tied to specific days in the civil calendar, and some double dates, have led scholars to posit an early luni-stellar calendar that would have operated alongside the civil calendar. This presumably would have been corrected regularly (perhaps by adding a thirteenth month or an extra epagomenal day every several years) to stay in step with the actual astronomical year ( 66.99.73 ).

Although the exact format changes over time, years were for the most part counted according to the reign of a specific ruler ( 10.176.42 ; 09.184.183 ). In Dynasty 1 (ca. 3100 B.C.), each civil year within a reign was identified by important events such as the founding of a temple or the installation of a cult statue, a practice that lasted well into the Old Kingdom (ca. 2649–2130 B.C.). It is also during Dynasty 1 that the germ of a system to number the years by reign appears, in a record of “the first occasion of the Djet (“eternity”)-festival,” probably referring to the first time this festival had been celebrated during the reign of King Djer. By late Dynasty 2 (ca. 2900 B.C.), regnal years were being labeled according to the apparently biennial census of the country’s mineral, animal, and/or agricultural assets. This soon seems to have become the key event by which years were counted: through to the end of the Old Kingdom (ca. 2130 B.C.), years can be named as either renpet zep N (Year of the Nth Counting) or renpet em-khat zep N (Year after the Nth Counting). Scholars long assumed that these counts were always biennial, and that minimum reign lengths for Old Kingdom monarchs could be estimated by doubling the highest attested census. However, recent scholarship has begun to question this construct and to suggest alternatives such as biennial counts that gradually became annual; counts carried out as needed to raise funds for government projects; or counts carried out in years during which a thirteenth month was added to the theoretical luni-solar calendar. It seems likely that annual counts became the rule by Dynasty 6 (ca. 2323–2150 B.C.), but overall, this question remains open.

At some point, most likely during the First Intermediate Period (ca. 2130–2030 B.C.), years began to be numbered according to each king’s tenure on the throne. During the Middle Kingdom (ca. 2030–1650 B.C.), these years were counted from one New Year’s Day to the next; the period of time between the new king’s coronation and Day 1 of Month 1 may have been counted as his Year 1, but alternatively may have been left to his predecessor. In the New Kingdom (ca. 1550–1070 B.C.), the regnal count began when the new king took the throne, and years were calculated from one anniversary of the coronation to the next ( 50.6 ) all according to the civil calendar. It is likely that the same system pertained during the Third Intermediate Period (ca. 1070–664 B.C.). During the Late Period (ca. 664–332 B.C.), the second option outlined as a possibility for the Middle Kingdom was in use: the king’s Year 1 was counted from coronation to New Year’s Day, and his Year 2 began with the new year, so that a Year 1 could last anywhere from a week to almost a year.

Also extremely important in the ancient Egyptian conception of the world was their larger attitude toward time. Inscriptions refer to two kinds of eternity. Linear time, or djet , associated with the funerary god Osiris ( 56.16.2 ), had a beginning and would have an end, albeit in the infinitely far future. Neheh , cyclical time, was tied to the passage of the sun through the sky during the day and the Netherworld during the night ( O.C.81 ). Ideally, an Egyptian who had lived according to the precepts of maat by supporting and maintaining the proper order of a just cosmos, and who had been accorded a proper burial, would live forever ( djet ) and ever ( neheh ).

Kamrin, Janice. “Telling Time in Ancient Egypt.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/tell/hd_tell.htm (February 2017)

Further Reading

Clagett, Marshall. 1995. Ancient Egyptian science. a source book Volume II . Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society.

Spalinger, Anthony P., 2001. “Calendars,” in Donald B. Redford, ed., The Oxford encyclopedia of ancient Egypt . Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 224-227.

Wells, Ronald A. 2001 “Astronomy,” in Donald B. Redford, ed., The Oxford encyclopedia of ancient Egypt . Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 145-151

Additional Essays by Janice Kamrin

• Kamrin, Janice. “ Papyrus in Ancient Egypt .” (March 2015)

Related Essays

• Egypt in the Late Period (ca. 664–332 B.C.)
• Egypt in the Middle Kingdom (ca. 2030–1650 B.C.)
• Egypt in the New Kingdom (ca. 1550–1070 B.C.)
• Egypt in the Old Kingdom (ca. 2649–2130 B.C.)
• Egypt in the Third Intermediate Period (ca. 1070–664 B.C.)
• Art, Architecture, and the City in the Reign of Amenhotep IV / Akhenaten (ca. 1353–1336 B.C.)
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List of Rulers

• List of Rulers of Ancient Egypt and Nubia
• List of Rulers of Ancient Sudan
• Egypt, 1000 B.C.–1 A.D.
• Egypt, 2000–1000 B.C.
• Egypt, 8000–2000 B.C.
• 10th Century B.C.
• 2nd Millennium B.C.
• 3rd Millennium B.C.
• 4th Century B.C.
• 4th Millennium B.C.
• 5th Century B.C.
• 6th Century B.C.
• 7th Century B.C.
• 8th Century B.C.
• 9th Century B.C.
• Agriculture
• Amarna Period in Egypt
• Ancient Egyptian Art
• Architecture
• Deity / Religious Figure
• Egyptian Art in the Middle Kingdom
• Egyptian Art in the New Kingdom
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• Egyptian Mythology
• First Intermediate Period of Egypt
• Hieroglyphs
• North Africa
• Religious Art
• Second Intermediate Period of Egypt
• Third Intermediate Period of Egypt

Artist or Maker

• Wilkinson, Charles K.

The Duration of Ancient Egypt’s Civilization

This essay about the duration of Ancient Egypt’s civilization outlines its extensive three-millennia span from roughly 3100 BCE to 332 BCE. It describes how Egypt’s history is divided into periods such as the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms, each marked by significant cultural, architectural, and political developments. The essay details the pivotal events and rulers of these eras, from the pyramid constructions in the Old Kingdom to the expansive conquests in the New Kingdom. It also discusses the periods of decline and foreign dominations that led up to the eventual end of Ancient Egyptian rule with Alexander the Great’s conquest. The essay underscores the civilization’s enduring legacy attributed to its innovative administrative systems and monumental architecture.

How it works

The civilization of Ancient Egypt, renowned for its remarkable architectural and cultural achievements, spanned a period that is often difficult to comprehend in its entirety due to its extensive duration. This civilization thrived for approximately three millennia, a testament to its resilient structure and adaptive culture.

Ancient Egypt’s timeline is typically divided into several periods, but for a general understanding, it can be categorized broadly into the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms, punctuated by intermediate periods of comparative instability and decentralization.

The civilization began to coalesce around 3100 BCE with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh, Narmer, often identified with Menes. This marked the commencement of the Early Dynastic Period and set the stage for the age of pyramid-building during the Old Kingdom.

The Old Kingdom, often referred to as the “Age of the Pyramids,” is most famous for the construction of the pyramids at Giza. Lasting from around 2686 to 2181 BCE, this period is characterized by the strong centralized rule of the pharaohs and the development of a sophisticated system of administration that supported the extensive construction projects and the religious life of the state. The end of this period was marked by increased power of regional governors and eventual instability that led to the First Intermediate Period, a time of political fragmentation.

Following this was the Middle Kingdom (c. 2055–1650 BCE), which is often considered the renaissance of Egyptian culture. Pharaohs such as Senusret III and Amenemhat III are notable for their reforms and efforts to centralize administrative power and boost economic prosperity. This era is also marked by a surge in arts, literature, and architectural achievements, including the expansion of temple complexes and fortresses.

The New Kingdom (c. 1550–1070 BCE), Egypt’s most prosperous and powerful period, saw the empire reach its zenith. It was during this period that pharaohs such as Ramses II and Thutmose III expanded the empire’s borders through military conquests into present-day Sudan, Libya, and the Levant. The era is noted for its extensive temple buildings and the rich, detailed records left on temple walls detailing military campaigns and diplomatic interactions. This period also includes the famous religious revolution under Akhenaten, who temporarily converted Egypt to monotheism by worshipping the sun disk, Aten.

Following the New Kingdom was the Third Intermediate Period, during which Egypt’s power waned, leading to a division between the north, governed from Tanis, and the south, ruled from Thebes. This decline set the stage for a series of foreign dominations, beginning with the Nubians, followed by the Persians, and eventually leading to Alexander the Great’s conquest in 332 BCE, which marked the end of ancient Egyptian rule and the beginning of the Ptolemaic dynasty.

The longevity of Ancient Egypt’s civilization is striking, not only for its duration but for its ability to adapt and reinvent itself through various periods of both prosperity and adversity. Its sophisticated bureaucratic system, innovative agricultural techniques, and monumental architecture allowed it to thrive in an environment that was often unforgiving. The civilization’s decline was gradual and influenced by both internal factors, such as political fragmentation and economic difficulties, and external pressures from invading forces.

In conclusion, the civilization of Ancient Egypt lasted from approximately 3100 BCE until the conquest by Alexander the Great in 332 BCE. Its ability to sustain itself for nearly three thousand years is a profound testament to its societal, administrative, and religious innovations, which continue to fascinate scholars and enthusiasts alike to this day.

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How to plan the ultimate adventure in Egypt, from Cairo to the Red Sea

Feluccas drifting down the River Nile, ancient wonders found in dusty temples, warm waters filled with tropical fish: Egypt remains one of the world’s most atmospheric destinations.

With millennia-old pyramids, hallowed temples and intricately painted tombs worthy of an art gallery, Egypt has a mindboggling amount of history on show. Some of the first threads of human civilisation started here over 5,000 years ago, and Egyptians still call their country umm al dunya — mother of the world.

Egypt offers the opportunity to time-travel like few other places. The past seems to keep careful watch over the present. The Pyramids of Giza — the last survivor of the original seven wonders of the ancient world — overlook cacophonous Cairo , the third-largest metropolis in Africa and the biggest in the Middle East. South along the River Nile, a temple built more than 3,400 years ago stands in the centre of the modern city of Luxor, which was once ancient Thebes.

The Nile flows through the hearts of most of Egypt’s major cities. This blue-green ribbon keeps the ever-encroaching biscuit-coloured desert at bay, coaxing lush plant life amid the Saharan sands. Fly in a hot-air balloon over the west bank of Luxor to see just how abruptly the desert reasserts its dominance over riverbanks lined with date palms and green grasses. Or travel like royalty, following in the footsteps of legendary pharaohs and their armies and merchants, on a scenic multi-day cruise along the Nile, making the temples and tombs between riverside Luxor and Aswan easily accessible.

( A practical guide to travelling in Egypt. )

Egypt’s extensive pharaonic history takes centre stage for most travellers, but even more adventure awaits on a different waterfront, to the east along the Red Sea in the Sinai Peninsula. The three Abrahamic faiths — Christianity, Islam and Judaism — put great credence in stories said to have unfolded in the mountains of the Sinai. Most famously, Moses is supposed to have received the Ten Commandments on Mount Sinai, and listened to God at the burning bush, where he was instructed to lead the Israelites out of Egypt.

These high peaks make a stunning backdrop for surfacing snorkellers and for scuba divers returning from explorations of the Red Sea. Beneath the water’s surface, a bountiful aquarium of sea turtles, sharks and neon-bright fish dart around flourishing coral reefs that sprout along the sea floor and scale the vertical walls. Witnessing the wildlife of the Red Sea is one of the world’s great underwater experiences, and pairing it with a Nile cruise allows travellers to experience the broad range of Egyptian adventures.

Itinerary 1: The Nile Valley

Start point: Cairo End point: Abu Simbel Distance travelled: 725 miles Average length: 10 days

Herodotus, the 5th-century BCE Greek historian, famously called Egypt the ‘gift of the Nile’, but perhaps that description doesn’t go far enough. Egypt would be almost nothing without it. The river, the longest in the world, isn’t simply a watery artery stretching nearly 1,000 miles across the length of the country — it’s a genuine lifeline, and one of the world’s earliest civilisations wouldn’t have started here without its life-giving properties.

Ancient Egypt’s major temples and cities were located along the Nile’s fertile banks, called Kemet (‘the black land’) by its inhabitants. The fact that the river flows from south to north was key to the Egyptians’ worldview, with its focus on the daily journey of the sun between the horizons. The desert fringes on the Nile’s west bank — symbolically associated with the land of the dead — are where you’ll find most of the country’s tombs and pyramids. The ancient Egyptian idea of paradise, the ‘Field of Reeds’, was but a heavenly version of the real-life abundance of greenery along the Nile. Today, some 95% of Egyptians still live within a few miles of the water.

This itinerary, following the Nile’s course upriver on a boat cruise, has been travelled since the days of the pharaohs, and it remains the most popular way to explore Egypt, hitting all of the country’s major historic sites. To escape the crowds, slow down — linger longer in Luxor, dig deeper in Cairo and relax in Aswan. Egypt hides many more treasures beyond the Pyramids of Giza and the Valley of the Kings for travellers who take the time to seek them out.

Highlights along the Nile Valley

1. Cairo Dive into Egypt’s chaotic capital. The Pyramids of Giza are the stars of the show, and the nearby Grand Egyptian Museum will be a blockbuster when it finally opens. For now, marvel at the 20 royal mummies at the National Museum of Egyptian Civilization and find the gold death mask of Tutankhamun, housed in the Egyptian Museum on Tahrir Square until the GEM is ready.

2. Luxor Take the train (around 10 hours, daytime or sleeper) to Luxor, built atop the ancient capital of Thebes. Big-hitters at this UNESCO site include the Luxor Temple and religious complex of Karnak, and the tombs of pharaohs in the Valley of the Kings outside town. Other nearby sites include the Ramesseum, whose giant statues inspired the poem ‘Ozymandias’, and the temple of the female pharaoh Hatshepsut.

3. Edfu Board a cruise boat in Luxor and spend the best part of the day sailing the Nile, with scenes of desert dunes and a shoreline punctuated with date palms unspooling outside your cabin. The standard first stop 70 miles upriver is Edfu, a tiny town with a well-preserved temple.

4. Kom Ombo The Nile crocodile takes centre stage at Kom Ombo, another 40 miles or around five hours’ sailing from Edfu. Half of the unique ‘double’ temple is dedicated to Sobek, the crocodile-headed god of pharaonic power and fertility, and an intriguing museum of mummified crocodiles awaits at the end of your visit.

5. Aswan All cruises dock at Aswan, after two nights on board en route from Luxor. The Nile is at its most fascinating here. Take a felucca (small sailboat) to Gharb Soheil, a brightly painted village home to a few thousand Nubians, an Indigenous group that has lived in the region since pharaonic times. For sunset, have a drink on the terrace of the Old Cataract Hotel , made famous by Agatha Christie, who wrote part of Death on the Nile here.

6. Abu Simbel Abu Simbel sits on the shore of Lake Nasser, created by the construction of the Aswan High Dam in 1970. The temples were rescued from rising waters by moving them stone by stone to higher ground. Twice a year, the sun still illuminates the figure of Ramses II and two of the three gods in the temple’s inner sanctum.

Itinerary 2: The Red Sea & Sinai

Start point: Sharm el-Sheikh End point: Nuweiba Distance travelled: 250 miles Average length: 7 days

Egypt’s best-known body of water is a river, but the Red Sea that stretches along the country’s eastern coast guarantees some thrilling aquatic adventures of its own. Suitable for all levels of underwater explorers, from snorkellers to advanced scuba divers, the Red Sea is a technicolour dream world beneath its surface. There are a huge number of endemic fish — including species of elegant highlighter-yellow butterflyfish, neon parrotfish and shy clownfish lingering in finger-like anemones — and thriving coral reefs.

Sprawling resorts have taken up much Red Sea real estate around Sharm el-Sheikh, but the development and crowds thin out as you travel north. Just a few miles inland from the coast, Sinai’s interior reaches for the sky, a sacred land of pilgrimage and revelations still lived in by long-established Bedouin tribes. Hiking trails climb to mountain summits and wind through valleys carved with centuries of graffiti left by visitors from the Nabataeans (of Petra fame) to the Crusaders, leading to secret wild swimming pools and small waterfalls.

This itinerary hits Egypt’s superlative highs and lows — from the country’s loftiest peaks to its deepest dive sites — as it traces the eastern edge of Sinai and traverses the peninsula’s biblically connected mountains.

Highlights on the Red Sea and Sinai

1. Sharm el-Sheikh When you need a break from sun, sand and snorkelling, Sharm has a couple of worthy distractions. The Sharm el-Sheikh Museum — the only such collection on the peninsula — has a digestible assortment of artefacts that span Egypt’s history from the pharaohs to the Bedouin. At the heart of the Old Market, which, despite its name, is quite new, the Sahaba Mosque looks like it could have come from the drawing board of Gaudí, with spiralling brick columns and honeycombed minarets.

2. Ras Mohamed National Park At the southernmost tip of Sinai, Egypt’s first national park is blessed with incredible dive sites. Vertical reef walls have names that hint at the types of species scuba divers and snorkellers can see: Jackfish Alley, Eel Garden, Shark Observatory and Anemone City. Divers with advanced certifications can check the shockingly large concentration of shipwrecks and the contents that have spilled out on the sea floor. Sleep in a canvas tent on the beach within the park boundaries at Bedouin-owned Bedawi Eco Camping .

3. Dahab A chilled hangout spot for a curious mix of nomadic types — of both the digital and Bedouin varieties — Dahab is Egypt’s most laid-back destination. Whitewashed cafes draped with colourful Bedouin-style rugs line the crescent-shaped bays, where flippered snorkellers waddle past remote workers clacking away on laptops. North of town, the Blue Hole is infamous for its underwater tunnel, the Arch, which has seen a number of fatalities over the years; it is a safe and popular spot for responsible snorkelling and diving outside of that.

4. St Catherine Sacred to Christians, Jews and Muslims, the UNESCO-listed area around St Catherine’s contains the world’s oldest continuously lived-in Christian monastery, watched over by majestic mountains that are some of the tallest in the country. No matter your religious beliefs, join a night-time pilgrimage, arriving to witness sunrise from the summit of   Mt Sinai , or Jebel Musa (Mt Moses) in Arabic. Add on a day or more to walk with the local Jebeliya Bedouin through the neighbouring valleys that few outside visitors make time to see.

5. Nuweiba A small town with a laidback vibe and quiet golden beaches, one of Nuweiba’s main attractions is Dar Jan . A passion project by a couple who left the big smoke of Cairo, the nine-acre organic farm north of town is unlike elsewhere on the peninsula. Travellers can join creative workshops, including organic agriculture and outdoor survival skills, and spend artsy afternoons of pottery, meditation and mosaic-making. You can stay overnight, too.

Related Topics

• ANCIENT HISTORY
• ANCIENT EGYPT
• WORLD HERITAGE SITES

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Cumulative mortalities in white leg shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei Boone 1931, cultured in biofloc system in Egypt reflected new record of Fusarium verticillioides infection

• Hussein, Mortada M. A.
• Hassan, Walid H.
• El-Ghany, Nadia N. A. Abd
• Ghanem, Nourhan H.

The Egyptian aquaculture sector is still struggling to establish L. vannamei culture. In an effort to stimulate shrimp production with minimal environmental impact and less water loss, biofloc technology (BFT) has been employed. Chronic mortality was recently observed in L. vannamei which was raised in the BFT system. Examining samples of moribund shrimp revealed sporadic melanization on the musculature and gills, suggesting the potential existence of black gill disease. The present work was carried out to isolate and identify potentially implicated fungus species based on mycological properties of interest. To isolate and serve as initial identification tools, wet mount preparations and colonial features, along with slide culture techniques, were used. PCR assays, gene sequencing, and phylogenetic analyses were used in the molecular identification process to clarify the confirmation of the fungal isolates that were acquired. The pathogenicity tests were designed to fulfil Koch's postulates in addition to clarifying the infectivity of isolated fungus. Moreover, histopathological examination was employed to notice tissues' alterations associated with experimentally infected shrimp. The results revealed the isolation of three fungal isolates, namely, BNS 1117, BNS 2117, and BNS 3117, that were confirmatively identified as Fusarium verticillioides, and their selected sequences were submitted to Genbank. Moreover, experimental infection using F. verticillioides selected isolate (BNS 31,117) at both high (5 × 10 5 CFU/mL, group A) and low (3 × 10 5 CFU/mL, group B) doses of its conidial suspensions experienced cumulative mortality of 72.2% and 21.1%, respectively. Besides, the selected isolate was re-isolated from the experimentally infected shrimp in a pure form, which satisfied Koch's postulates. Histopathological alterations demonstrated several degrees of either degenerative, oedema, or proliferative changes in the hepatopancreas, musculatures, and gills, respectively. This study sets a new record for F. verticillioides to be included in Fusarium species linked to shrimp mortality.

• Chronic mortality;
• L. vannamei;
• F. verticillioides