thesis about parenting styles

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Construction and validation of a four Parenting Styles Scale

• Masters Thesis
• Ribeiro, Livia Lorena
• Elmore, Bettye
• Professional Studies
• California State Polytechnic University, Humboldt
• Humboldt State University -- Theses -- Psychology
• Parental Styles Scale
• Parent-child interactions
• Parenting styles
• 2009-10-14T19:44:46Z
• http://hdl.handle.net/2148/522
• Thesis (M.A.)--Humboldt State University, Psychology: Counseling, 2009

Items in ScholarWorks are protected by copyright, with all rights reserved, unless otherwise indicated.

Thesis Topics for Parenting Styles

S.r. haines.

A college thesis on parenting styles must rely on your original research and ideas. You can build from existing definitions for parenting styles. You can also look for inspiration from theses already published and from evolving news reports and academic research on subjects ranging from “helicopter” moms to gay parents.

Explore this article

• Definitions of Parenting Styles
• Developing Your Approach
• Past Published Theses
• Other Parenting Topics

1 Definitions of Parenting Styles

Psychologist Diana Baumrind’s work on parenting styles published in 1971 and 1991 established the definitions still in use today for the effect that parenting has on children, reports Cornell University. She divided parenting behavior into controlling (managing) or warm (acceptance, responsiveness) behaviors. The four styles of parenting defined by Baumrind are: authoritative (firm, but warm), authoritarian (firm and controlling), permissive (warm, not controlling) and uninvolved (not warm or controlling). Using this foundation, you can choose which style is more appropriate for the focus of your thesis.

2 Developing Your Approach

The Writing Center at Harvard College recommends thinking of yourself as a member of a jury wanting to be persuaded as a way of approaching your topic. A thesis is not a yes-or-no proposition. State your original idea, and then prove it with original research. Like a good lawyer getting ready to present a case, anticipate opposing arguments as you develop your topic and begin your research, suggests the center.

3 Past Published Theses

Perusing past theses on parenting styles will demonstrate how others have approached such topics in the past. Many have been published online. For example, a thesis by a student at the University of Maryland in 2012 focused on “couple distress" and children's perceptions. A thesis by a Louisiana State University student in 2002 focused on how parenting styles influence a child's classroom motivation. A thesis by a University of Wisconsin-Stout student in 2011 looked at the effect of parenting styles on preschool-age children. A thesis by a Western Carolina University student in 2009 focused on the effect of intergenerational parenting styles and values.

4 Other Parenting Topics

Other sources for topic ideas include the popular media and and issues ranging from teenage binge drinking to same-sex marriage addressed in research by university professors. The "New York Times" in 2012 reported on how the phrases “tiger mom” and “helicopter parent” have become popular definitions of controlling parents. Brigham Young University in 2012 reported on a study by its professors on how parenting styles affect binge drinking by teenagers. Harvard’s Kennedy School Shorenstein Center on Media, Politics and Public Policy in 2013 compiled a list of studies on the parenting styles of same-sex parents. Among topics listed was a 2013 study on the well-being of children whose parents are gay or lesbian. A study published in 2010 by researchers from California and Netherlands zeroed in on the specific effects of parenting styles of lesbian mothers on 17-year-old sons and daughters.

• 1 University of Maryland: Effects of Differences in Parenting Styles on Couple Distress and Children’s Perceptions of Family Support; Tara Brittney Gogolinski; 2012 Thesis
• 2 University of Wisconsin-Stout: The Effects of Parenting Styles on a Preschool Aged Child’s Social Emotional Development: Brook Berg, 2011 Thesis
• 3 Western Carolina University: Parenting Styles and Values -- Mechanisms of Intergenerational Continuity and Discontinuity: Melissa Florence Littlewood; 2009 Thesis
• 4 New York Times: Raising Successful Children
• 5 Harvard Kennedy School Shorenstein Center on Media, Politics and Public Policy: Same-Sex Marriage and Children’s Well-Being: Research Roundup

About the Author

S.R. Haines is a veteran writer whose work has been published by newspapers, magazines, international news wire services and nonprofit publications on topics ranging from breaking news and politics to travel, parenting, education, business and technology. She earned a Bachelor of Journalism from the University of Texas at Austin.

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Scripps Senior Theses

Parenting styles and self-esteem.

Lucy C. Driscoll , Scripps College Follow

Graduation Year

Spring 2013

Document Type

Open Access Senior Thesis

Degree Name

Bachelor of Arts

Jennifer Ma

Judith LeMaster

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© 2012 Lucy C. Driscoll

Data from 183 participants were collected through an online survey focusing on the relationship between parenting styles and self-esteem across a specific age range. Parenting styles were assessed using a four-factor model while self-esteem was evaluated using two different scales. Multiple analyses were completed to find that self-esteem changed across the age range, and across parenting styles. The study looks at the ways in which these two variables changed. Implications, limitations and future research opportunities are discussed.

Recommended Citation

Driscoll, Lucy C., "Parenting Styles and Self-Esteem" (2013). Scripps Senior Theses . 155. https://scholarship.claremont.edu/scripps_theses/155

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• v.4(3); 2016 Jul

The influence of parenting style on academic achievement and career path

Zahra zahed zahedani.

1 Khorasgan (Isfahan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran;

RITA REZAEE

2 Education Development Center, Quality Improvement in Clinical Education Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran;

ZAHRA YAZDANI

3 Department of Educational Management, College of Education Science, Khorasgan (Isfahan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran

SINA BAGHERI

4 Student Research Committee, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran

PARISA NABEIEI

Introduction.

Several factors affect the academic performance of college students and parenting style is one significant factor. The current study has been done with the purpose of investigating the relationship between parenting styles, academic achievement and career path of students at Shiraz University of Medical Sciences.    

This is a correlation study carried out at Shiraz University of Medical Sciences. Among 1600 students, 310 students were selected randomly as the sample. Baumrind’s Parenting Style and Moqimi’s Career Path questionnaires were used and the obtained scores were correlated with the students' transcripts. To study the relation between variables Pearson correlation coefficient was used.

There was a significant relationship between authoritarian parenting style and educational success (p=0.03). Also findings showed a significant relationship between firm parenting style and Career Path of the students, authoritarian parenting style and Career Path of the students, educational success and Career Path of the students (p=0.001).

Parents have an important role in identifying children’s talent and guiding them. Mutual understanding and close relationship between parents and children are recommended. Therefore, it is recommended that the methods of correct interaction of parents and children be more valued and parents familiarize their children with roles of businesses in society and the need for employment in legitimate businesses and this important affair should be more emphasized through mass media and family training classes.

Family is the fundamental and important structure of the society that has an important role in one's life and in the society. The importance of the family as a social structure is something unmistakable. Although affected by society and peers, children are more influenced by the family. The influence of the family on the child and its roles in the creativity, cultural, social, and moral aspects are very great and important. Correct and balanced relationship between parents and their children is one of the factors influencing both their physical and mental health. Research has shown that interaction between children and parents and how parents communicate with children are considered to be the most important and fundamental factors among the various factors that affect children’s fostering and healthy character ( 1 ).

The relationship of parents with children or parenting style serves multiple purposes. Moral and psychological training, identification, growth and development of children's talents, skills, familiarizing with the rules and norms of the society from the perspective of parents are among these purposes. "Parsons also consider two basic functions for the family, i.e. socialization and prosperity of the child's personality." So it seems that parents’ parenting styles are likely to affect children's personality traits ( 2 ).

Parenting styles can be defined as a set or a system of behaviors that describes the parent and child interactions over a wide range of situations and creates an effective interaction atmosphere ( 3 ). Parenting style is a determining and effective factor that plays an important role in children’s psychopathology and growth ( 4 ). In the present study, ponderable points in parenting styles, physical presence of parents at home, i.e. the time to be with the children and cultural spaces of the family are considered.

Educational achievement means the fulfillment of expected level of education, and an education organization approaches its predetermined goals. Educational achievement means increase of learning, increase of the level of good scores and admission of students in the courses and educational grades ( 5 , 6 ).

Traditionally, career success is defined for those who receive good salaries for their jobs or have high positions and positions with more favorable responsibilities, motivation, adequate distinction, and progress. The Employees and managers are expected alike to have a commitment to the organization. It is assumed that if the employees have appropriate jobs which they are loyal to, the management offers them the rewards such as promotion, fringe benefits, job security and more respect and even work authority.  Thus, the labor force of the organization will feel dignity ( 7 , 8 ).

Offering more job and education information and helping each student with self-image during the education can give him the logical principles to make a correct decision. Many people make decisions about their careers by observing the world around and try to match themselves with it. This is something contrary to what should be really done. The best career path is a process that begins within (a kind of evolution of self-consciousness). Individuals have to be aware of their skills, talents, abilities, capabilities and unique features because this self-consciousness is a cycle which leads the individual towards a satisfactory job. Choosing a profession proportionate to individual’s interests and abilities is one of the most important stages of life for all people ( 7 ).

In fact, all of us, not only earn money from our chosen career, but also determine our social status. Therefore, we can expect that, by choosing our profession, we determine our social status and self-respect in addition to the income level. As noted, people entering the world of work and organizations are seeking growth and progress, thus, they choose the path that has been designed by the manager’s discretion. The task of management is to determine career progress path, establish compatibility between needs, potential abilities of the people on the one hand and, on the other hand, professional needs of the organization and determine career progress path of each individual during his career. Management of career path development is one of the activities of human resources that lead each individual to ideal perfection through finding his/her progress path in the working life. This fact leads to job satisfaction and professional tenure and higher effectiveness ( 7 ).

But, the question that comes to mind is that whether the educational success relates to parents’ parenting styles. And secondly, what is the relationship of parenting styles with students' career path?

No quite similar studies on the subject of the present study have been done so far. Therefore, this study seeks to examine the relationship between parents’ parenting styles and educational success and career path of the students of Shiraz University of Medical Sciences in the academic year 2014. In this study, we intended to find out whether there is a relationship between parenting styles and students’ academic achievement and career path? The results of the previous researches suggest this relationship.

According to Sanaee (2008) career choice is one of the most important events in life that affects every aspect of human existence. In the theories of career choice, factors affecting career choice are studied and help the individual to choose an appropriate job which leads to personal satisfaction and increase of the efficiency. The results of the study showed that there was a significant relationship between self-concept and job satisfaction, as well as career self-concept and job satisfaction ( 9 ).

Mehrafza (2005) in a study examined the relationship between parenting styles and creativity and academic achievement of the students of grade three of high school and showed that there was a significantly positive relationship between the emotional atmosphere of the family, declining to the principles of democracy, and creativity. Furthermore, there was a significantly negative relationship between the creativity and dictatorship principles and there was no statistically significant relationship between the emotional atmosphere of the family, declining to absolute freedom, and creativity ( 10 ).

Abedi et al. (2005) in a study examined the relationship between motivations of educational achievement of high school students of Isfahan and their family characteristics. The results showed that from among family factors associated with educational achievement, motivation, parents’ expectations of children's success (0.28), authoritarian parenting style (0.26) and family structure (modern natural family) (0.16) explain educational achievement motivation ( 11 ).

Biabangard (2005) in a study examined the relationship of self-esteem and motivation with educational achievement among students of grade three of high school in Tehran. The researcher found that there was a significant correlation between self-esteem, achievement motivation, and educational achievement, between self-esteem and achievement motivation, between self-esteem and educational achievement, and between achievement motivation and educational achievement. There was no significant difference between self-esteem, achievement motivation, and educational achievement of both groups of male and female students of the fields of the Humanities and Experimental Sciences ( 12 ).

Kefayat (1994) conducted a study titled "Examination of the relationship of parenting styles and attitudes with creativity and its relationship with intelligence, educational achievement and progressivist behaviors of students of the first grade of high school in Ahvaz" and concluded that there was a negative correlation between the various parenting styles and creativity ( 13 ).

This is a correlation study which is done at Shiraz University of Medical Sciences. Among 1600 students, 310 students were selected randomly as the sample. Baumrind’s Parenting Style and Moqimi’s Career Path questionnaires were used and also to explain the relationship between the three variables, students' transcripts were used to determine the level of educational success. Regarding the study population, stratified random sampling method was used. Library, the Internet, local and foreign papers and studying the theoretical principles of the subject were used for access to the records. In this study, the following questionnaires were used:

• Baumrind parenting style questionnaire
• Moqimi career path questionnaire

The GPAs of senior students of various fields of study in Shiraz University of Medical Sciences in the academic year 2014 were used to determine the educational success.

To determine the face and content validities of the questionnaires, the primary questionnaires were given to 3 professors and experts and after getting their opinions, the necessary changes were applied on the questionnaire, thus, the items of the questionnaires were modified and confirmed considering professors’ opinions.  A test is reliable if it is given to the same group of people for several times in a short time, and the results are consistent. After analyzing the data from the questionnaires, their reliability coefficient (Cronbach's Alpha) was approved. Regarding the Parenting Styles Questionnaire: for permissive style, authoritarian style, and firm style, the reliability coefficients were respectively 0.72, 0.80, and 0.85 and for the Career Path Questionnaire: α = 0.82.

310 students participated in the study, 194 were male and 116 were female. In fact, the majority of subjects were male students, i.e. 62.6%, and female 37.4%. The majority of subjects were 21 to 25 years old (46.1%), the students under 20 years: (29%), those from 26 to 30 years: 18.1% and finally students over 30 years of age: 6.8%. More than half of the subjects were studying at B.S. level (61%), 21.3% at A.S. level, and 17.7% at M.S. level or higher.

The correlation matrix between the studied variables is presented in the following table that shows the correlation coefficients between all variables ( Table 1 ). According to the table, there is a positive and significant relationship between firm and reassuring parenting style and educational success and career path at the significance level of 0.01, while the authoritarian parenting style has a negative and significant relationship with educational success and career path at 0.05. There is no significant relationship between permissive parenting style and these two variables.

Correlation coefficients between parenting styles and educational success and career path of the students

**significant at p<0.01 

*significant at p<0.05

The correlation coefficient between firm and reassuring parenting styles and educational success is 0.62 with the significance level of 0.001, which is less than 0.05. In other words, this result shows that there is a significant relationship between the parents’ firm parenting style and the students’ educational success and this relationship is positive and direct. The correlation coefficient obtained shows that the relationship between these two variables is relatively high.

The results of correlation between authoritarian parenting style and educational success show that there is a significantly negative relationship between the parents’ authoritarian parenting style and the students’ educational success (p=0.03).

The results of the examination of the relationship between permissive parenting style and students’ educational success, show that this relationship is not statistically significant (p=0.36).

The results of correlation between firm parenting and career path show that there is a significantly positive relationship between parents’ firm parenting style and students’ career path. This means that when the score of the firm and reassuring parenting style increases, the score of career path increases, too, and vice versa.

Other results show that there is a significantly negative relationship between parents’ authoritarian parenting style and students’ career path. This means that the more the score of authoritarian parenting styles of parents, the less the students’ score of career path will be, and vice versa.

The result of the examination of the relationship between permissive parenting styles and students’ career paths shows that this relationship is not statistically significant since the significance level is 0.08 which is greater than 0.05.

The correlation coefficient between educational success and career path is 0.47 and the significance level is 0.001; therefore, the research hypothesis is confirmed and we can say that the relationship between educational success and students’ career path is statistically significant. The correlation coefficient, i.e. 0.47, also suggests moderate relationship.

The results show that autonomy, parental involvement and warmth are significant predictors for academic achievement. Also there is a positive significant relationship between firm parenting style and student’s academic achievement.

Other results indicate that the high success in education is strongly associated with parenting styles. It has been found that very successful students at school with high scores had parents with firm styles. Those students with authoritative parents had the least scores and it has an acceptable conformity with the results of this study. The findings of this study also have conformity with Mehrafza’s ( 10 , 14 ).

Mehrafza (2005) in a study examined the relationship between parenting styles and creativity and educational achievement of the students of grade three of high school and found that there was a significantly positive relationship between the emotional atmosphere of the family, declining to the principles of democracy, and creativity. Furthermore, there was a significantly negative relationship between the creativity and dictatorship principles and there was no statistically significant relationship between the emotional atmosphere of the family, declining to absolute freedom, and creativity which is in an acceptable conformity with the results of this study ( 10 ).

The results showed that there was a significantly positive relationship between parents’ firm parenting style and students’ career path. This means that when the score of the firm and reassuring parenting style increases, the score of career path increases, too, and vice versa. The correlation coefficients obtained shows that the relationship between these two variables is relatively high.

Other studies have also investigated the relationship between the economic status of students' families and their educational tendencies so that the students with better economic status were more willing to have university education. Also, the children of more educated families were more willing to have university education and related occupations. In addition, family members have a more determining role in all of student’s educational-occupational aspects than the other groups. Other than families, students consult school authorities and their friends for the educational and occupational affairs ( 15 - 17 ).

Children’s choice of a future career depends on many factors including the parenting styles and their education. If the child's mind is active during his development about his future career through career counseling programs, in the secondary school the child gains the necessary knowledge and information about himself, jobs and his cognitive world is organized about businesses and in high school, he learns the job search process, along with the skills thereof and has a practical relevance with the world of businesses and also continues this process at the university and also begins useful work experience at this time. So selecting a successful career proportionate to the needs and talent and personality of the person will not be inaccessible.

Recommendations

• Since the research sample is limited to the students, it is likely that factors such as age, education, culture, social situation, workplace, etc., influence educational achievement; therefore, it is recommended to consider these factors in the same future studies. 
• Present direct and indirect training of parenting styles for parents to support students’ progress and responsibility and consequently career path.

Conflict of interests: None declared.

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Open Access

Peer-reviewed

Research Article

Effect of paternal-maternal parenting styles on college students’ internet addiction of different genders: The mediating role of life satisfaction

Roles Data curation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation School of Psychology, Chengdu Medical College, Sichuan, China

Roles Investigation

Roles Data curation

Roles Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

• Zixin Liu, 
• Hui Cheng, 
• Hexu Guan, 
• Xi Yang, 

• Published: May 14, 2024
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0303554
• Peer Review
• Reader Comments

This study aimed to understand the current situation of paternal-maternal parenting style, life satisfaction, and internet addiction among college students and explored the influence of paternal-maternal parenting styles and life satisfaction on the internet addiction of male and female college students. A questionnaire survey was administered to 967 college students in China. Life satisfaction partially mediated the effect of the paternal-maternal parenting styles on the internet addiction among college students. However, this mediating role completely varied by gender, and the dimensions of parental styles also had different effects. For male college students, life satisfaction mediated the two dimensions of parenting styles (the father’s emotional warmth, the father’s overprotection) and internet addiction; the mother’s emotional warmth directly related to the internet addiction. Among females, life satisfaction played a partial mediating role between two dimensions of parenting styles (the father’s emotional warmth, the mother’s interference and protection) and internet addiction. the father’s punitiveness and over-involvement were directly related to female students’ internet addiction. The study reveals that the mediating effect of life satisfaction on parenting styles and internet addiction among college students is influenced by gender, and the relationship between different parenting styles and internet addiction also varies. These findings indicate that paying attention to the role of the family, especially the parenting style of fathers, is crucial for preventing internet addiction in the future. Prevention and intervention should be treated differently for male and female students.

Citation: Liu Z, Cheng H, Guan H, Yang X, Chen Z (2024) Effect of paternal-maternal parenting styles on college students’ internet addiction of different genders: The mediating role of life satisfaction. PLoS ONE 19(5): e0303554. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0303554

Editor: Fadwa Alhalaiqa, Qatar University College of Nursing, QATAR

Received: January 3, 2024; Accepted: April 27, 2024; Published: May 14, 2024

Copyright: © 2024 Liu et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant data are within the manuscript and its Supporting information files.

Funding: The author(s) received no specific funding for this work.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

With the continuous development of the Internet, information technology and the Internet have penetrated into the life and learning of contemporary teenagers. However, improper or excessive use of the internet may lead to addiction [ 1 ].

Internet addiction, also known as problematic internet use, pathological internet use or overuse, refers to a tolerant, withdrawal response to the Internet triggered by prolonged inappropriate internet use in which the addict has a persistent desire to access the Internet, thus leading to uncontrolled behavior [ 2 ]. Once internet addiction occurs [ 1 , 3 ], it might damage an individual’s physical, psychological, and social functions [ 4 ], leading to depression, anxiety, and insomnia disorders. College students are the susceptible population to internet addiction. A recent meta-analysis study found that about 11.3% of college students in China are addicted to the internet [ 5 ]. And another meta-analysis also indicated that the prevalence of internet addiction among Asian college students increased over time [ 6 ].

Previous studies on the potential mechanisms of internet addiction have suggested that the mechanisms are influenced by various factors, such as family function [ 7 ], peer relationships [ 8 ], personal traits [ 9 ], etc. Numerous studies have confirmed that the parenting style [ 10 – 12 ] is one of the important factors in predicting college students’ internet addiction among family factors. Moreover, previous studies have proven that life satisfaction, as an individual’s self-awareness [ 13 ], is related to their internet addiction [ 14 , 15 ]. Individuals with lower levels of life satisfaction drive the growth of internet addictive tendencies [ 15 ]. Therefore, this study infers that the family parenting style and life satisfaction may be associated with internet addiction of college students. Meanwhile, recent studies have shown that parenting styles are closely related to life satisfaction [ 16 , 17 ]. The way parents educate their children can significantly predict their life satisfaction [ 18 ]. Moreover, life satisfaction has been frequently investigated as a mediating factor [ 19 ]. Therefore, this study suggests that life satisfaction may mediate between the family parenting style and internet addiction among college students. Furthermore, studies on internet addiction behaviors [ 20 , 21 ], family parenting styles [ 22 ] and life satisfaction [ 23 ], have found gender difference. Therefore, this study will further explore the differing mechanisms of internet addiction among male and female college students.

According to the cognitive-behavioral model of pathological internet use [ 24 ], factors of internet use disorder are divided into distal and proximal ones. Distal factors include life stress and vulnerability; proximal factors include maladaptive cognitive factors. Internet addiction is mainly influenced by distal factors through the mediating effect of proximal factors. As a family environment factor, parenting style is a distal factor in internet addiction, which may influence internet addiction through life satisfaction, a positive cognitive (proximal) factor. This study regards the family parenting style as a distal factor and life satisfaction as a positive cognitive factor to explore their potential mechanism on internet addiction among college students.

Parenting styles and internet addiction

Parenting styles were divided into two categories, including preference, understanding and authoritative parenting styles, that children are regarded as positive parenting styles [ 25 ], while negative parenting styles mainly refer to severe or indulgent parenting styles, such as authoritarian, overprotection, punitive and rejective parenting style [ 26 , 27 ].

Previous studies have shown that different parenting styles can lead to various psychological and behavioral problems such as substance abuse [ 28 ] and problematic internet use [ 11 ], and the parenting style is an important factor influencing the development of internet addiction [ 29 ]. Authoritarian parenting style may lead children to perceive parental supervision as a communication barrier, causing them to seek solace online to avoid stressful family interactions [ 30 ]. Ren et.al demonstrated that [ 31 ] positive parental behaviors can decrease the risk of children acquiring internet addiction. But recent studies have found that tolerant parenting styles may increase the risk of internet addiction [ 32 , 33 ]. Tolerant and strict fathers may greatly increase the risk of children becoming addicted to the Internet [ 33 ]. A child may experience identity confusion and behavioral unpredictability as a result of tolerant parenting, which increases the likelihood of the youngster developing internet addiction [ 33 ].

Meanwhile, Liu et al. [ 34 ] proposed the “theory of network satisfaction of psychological needs” based on empirical research, stating that when college students’ psychological needs are unsatisfied in real life, they seek other ways, like the Internet, to achieve satisfaction. If the Internet can satisfy the needs of such individuals, this may motivate them to use the Internet more often, thus leading to thus leading to problematic internet use. In a lack of warm home environments, adolescents often seek comfort in increased online activities, such as playing online games, which ultimately fuels their growing addiction to the internet [ 35 ].

Moreover, several studies [ 12 , 35 , 36 ] have explored the potential mechanisms of internet addiction from the perspective of specific parenting styles. Lukavská et.al [ 12 ] found that the parents’ authoritative parenting style decreased problematic internet use. Adolescents whose mother has an authoritarian parenting style and father has a neglectful parenting style had the high prevalence of internet addiction. Parenting styles and internet addiction among adolescents are significantly correlated, according to a meta-analysis [ 36 ]. Different parenting styles have different relationships on the young problems (e.g., problematic internet use), exceptionally negative parenting. For example, punitive parenting has a greater impact on adolescent problematic internet use than over-protection and rejection [ 35 ]. Some studies are focused on how different parenting styles of fathers and mothers affect adolescents’ internet addiction [ 37 – 39 ]. Lansford et.al [ 37 ] showed that fathers’ psychological control can affect children’s developmental problems. Another study [ 38 ] revealed that the mother-adolescent relationship is more closely linked to internet addiction than the father-adolescent relationship among adolescents. Fathers are more likely to promote teenage internet addiction with rejective and overprotective parenting styles [ 39 ].

Therefore, this study suggests that various dimensions of parenting styles have different effects on the mechanisms of internet addiction among college students.

The mediating role of life satisfaction

Life satisfaction is a subjective evaluation of an individual’s quality of life based on their own standards. Previous studies [ 40 , 41 ] and theory of network satisfaction of psychological needs [ 34 ] have suggested that people can use need for life satisfaction to construct cognitive and affective experiences, as life satisfaction is an externalized expression of intrinsic psychological needs that are actually met. Therefore, individuals are more likely to get addicted to the Internet when cognitive and affective experiences become problematic. Similarly, Bozoglan et al. [ 42 ] found that life satisfaction is a strong predictor of internet addiction.

Based on the cognitive-behavioral model of pathological internet use, as a positive cognitive factor, life satisfaction is a crucial factor in internet addiction, which may be influenced by distal factor to affect internet addiction [ 24 ]. Parents have long been identified as having an important influence on the wellbeing of children and adolescents [ 43 , 44 ]. Similarly, family parenting behaviors may influence a person’s level of life satisfaction [ 45 ], and both kind and understanding and overprotective parenting may impact college students. Previous study by Trong Dam et al [ 46 ] found that adolescents raised in optimistic and positive families had significantly higher life satisfaction indices than those raised in pessimistic and negative families. Adolescents’ mental health profits from the positive parenting style, such as parental emotional warmth [ 47 ]. In contrast, the mental health of adolescents is negatively associated with parental rejection [ 48 ]. Meanwhile, some studies are focused on how different parenting styles of fathers and mothers affect children’s life satisfaction [ 49 – 51 ]. Abubakar et al. [ 51 ] reported that the authoritative parenting style of fathers rather than mothers positively predicts the life satisfaction of adolescents. However, a study found that [ 49 ] in adolescents who perceived a lower paternal authoritarian style, their satisfaction sharply decreased over 2 years in China. These studies illustrate the differences in influence between mothers and fathers, but there is still controversy.

Moreover, life satisfaction has been frequently investigated as a mediating element [ 19 , 52 , 53 ]. A study examining the mediating mechanism of life satisfaction between bullying at school and internet addiction [ 19 ] found that adolescents who were bullied at school developed negative perceptions and evaluations of themselves and others because of their victimization experiences. Bullied teenagers are more inclined to extend their lives online and possibly develop internet addiction because of a lack of realistic communication in their lives. In summary, this study suggests that life satisfaction may mediate the relationship between parenting styles and internet addiction among college students.

Gender differences

Previous studies on internet addiction behaviors, family parenting practices, and life satisfaction, have found gender difference [ 22 , 23 , 54 , 55 ].

First, multiple studies [ 20 , 21 , 55 ] have revealed a higher epidemiological prevalence of internet addiction in males than females among adolescents [ 56 ]. Discrepancies in specific internet use behaviors associated with internet use have also been found [ 57 ]. Male university students spend significantly more time playing online games than female students, and female’s problematic internet use behaviors mainly concentrate on chatting and social networking.

Second, research on parenting styles [ 11 ] and the Gendered Family Process Model (GFPM) [ 22 ] have also suggested that males and females perceive parenting styles differently and that parenting styles have varying effects on the development of boys and girls. Previous research on parent-child relationships and internet addiction has found no gender differences in the parent-child relationships and internet addiction, however their possible influence on internet addiction through non-adaptive cognitions is moderated by gender, with non-adaptive cognitions having a significantly stronger effect on internet addiction for females than for males [ 58 ].

Third, research on life satisfaction suggests that there are differences in life satisfaction among adolescents of different genders, but there are still differences at different time periods [ 59 ]. Henkens research showed that [ 60 ], females report lower levels of life satisfaction and unstable development during adolescence. However, research on life satisfaction suggested that females’ life satisfaction decreases from early adolescence and stabilizes or rises from late adolescence to adulthood [ 23 ], in accordance with the accelerated maturation hypothesis and stress sensitivity perspective. Although men’s life satisfaction also decreases, it tends to start in adulthood and manifest itself slightly later than it does in women. Hence, men frequently have lower levels of life satisfaction as adults than women.

Therefore, this study focuses on gender difference, and aims to explore whether the mechanism of mediation in different gender groups should be different.

The present study

The relationship of parenting styles and adolescent behaviors has been discussed in the literature, while the mediating mechanisms between parenting styles and young internet addiction are frequently omitted. To prevent or reduce internet addiction, however, and to better understand the relationship between parenting styles and internet addiction, this research is needed. Therefore, this study combines the cognitive behavioral model of pathological internet use to explore the mediating role of life satisfaction as a cognitive factor in the relationship between family parenting styles and internet addiction. The hypotheses are presented below. Fig 1 illustrates the proposed model:

• Hypothesis 1 (H1): The emotional warmth of parenting styles may be negatively correlated with internet addiction, while parenting styles such as overprotection, involvement, punishment, and preference are positively correlated with internet addiction. Life satisfaction has a mediating role in the relationship of parenting styles and internet addiction among Chinese college students.
• Hypothesis 2 (H2): The mechanism of mediation in different gender groups should be different.

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https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0303554.g001

Participants

This study used a convenient sampling method to randomly select classes from a college in China from September to October 2021, and conducted a questionnaire survey through the psychological organization. Questionnaires totaling 1,048 were distributed, and 620 (64%) female and 338 (35%) male students participated in the survey. The average ages for the whole, male, and female samples were 19.74 ± 1.11, 19.83 ± 1.27, and 19.68 ± 1.01 years, respectively. The data showed a difference in the mean ages ( p < .01).

This study was reviewed by the Ethics Review Committee of Chengdu Medical College (2021NO.07).

Egma Minnen av Bardndosna Uppfostran (EMBU) [ 27 ]: The 66-item EMBU was used to assess college students’ perceived parenting styles. This scale is divided into two parent sections: The mother’s with five factors (emotional warmth, over interference and protection, rejection, punitiveness, and preference) and the father’s with six factors (emotional warmth, punitiveness, over-involvement, preference, rejection, and overprotection). Previous studies [ 61 ] classified parenting styles as either positive (emotional warmth) or negative (characterized by punitiveness, involvement, rejection, overprotection, and preference). The scale is graded on a four-point scale ranging from 1 (never) to 4 (always). Each subscale’s score is the sum of the corresponding items’ scores. Higher subscale scores suggest more frequent usage of a parenting method by the participant’s parents. The Cronbach’s α for each dimension of this scale are ranging from 0.629 to 0.934. The scale’s total Cronbach’s α was 0.936. The structural validity of EMBU in the present study was tested by confirmatory factor analysis and results indicated acceptable model fit indices for maternal styles maternal parenting style ( χ 2 /df = 3.367, RMSEA = 0.049, GFI = 0.828, SRMR = 0.090, TLI = 0.843), paternal parenting style ( χ 2 /df = 3.449, RMSEA = 0.050, GFI = 0.820, SRMR = 0.090, TLI = 0.833).

Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS) [ 62 ]: This scale comprises five questions on one dimension and based on a seven-point scale ranging from 1 (strong disagreement) to 7 (strong agreement). The final grade is the sum of the scores for the five questions. The Cronbach’s α for this scale was 0.896. The structural validity of SWLS in the present study was tested by confirmatory factor analysis and results indicated acceptable model fit: χ 2 /df = 4.439, RMSEA = 0.032, GFI = 0.992, SRMR = 0.014, TLI = 0.989.

Chinese Internet Addiction Scale (CIAS-R) [ 63 ]: This scale comprises 26 items, divided into five dimensions (compulsive use of Internet, withdrawal symptoms of internet addiction, tolerance symptoms of internet addiction, interpersonal and health-related problems of internet addiction, and time management problems). It is scored on a four-point scale ranging from 1 (extreme non-conformity) to 4 (extreme conformity). The Cronbach’s α for each dimension of this scale are ranging from 0.708 to 0.834. The scale’s Cronbach’s α was 0.934. The structural validity of CIAS in the present study was tested by confirmatory factor analysis and results indicated acceptable model fit: χ 2 /df = 4.078, RMSEA = 0.056, GFI = 0.907, SRMR = 0.042, TLI = 0.903.

This study contacted professional psychological commissioners through the college psychological organization and collected paper questionnaires offline. Two psychology graduate students and one psychological commissioner from each major jointly distributed and collected questionnaires. The two psychology graduate students read out guidance before distributing the questionnaires, and after distribution, they were collected uniformly. The questionnaire included the instructions, requirements, and precautions. If the number of questions filled in the questionnaire is less than one-third, it will be considered invalid. A total of 1,048 questionnaires were collected: 967 valid (92% recovery rate).

Data analysis

The results were analyzed using SPSS21.0. An independent samples t-test was used to compare gender differences in the variables, and Pearson correlation analysis was applied to examine the relationships among variables. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was developed using AMOS24.0, and the mediating effect of life satisfaction was tested for significance using the bootstrap method. In this study, the reliability and validity tests of each measurement instrument were conducted. When Cronbach’s α> 0.6 is considered acceptable and >0.7 is considered greater [ 64 ]. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to test structural validity. the following model fit indexes were reported: GFI>0.80, TLI>0.80, RMSEA<0.08, χ 2 /df <5 and SRMR<0.1 [ 65 – 67 ]. If the above criteria are satisfied, the structural validity fitness is acceptable. A significance level of p < .05 was used in this study, and the model fit indicators and scoring criteria were as follows: χ 2 /df <2 (good model); 2< χ 2 /df <5 (acceptable); GFI, AGFI, NFI, and CFI> .90; RMSEA < .05 (good); and RMSEA < .08 (acceptable) [ 68 ]. In this study, Harman’s One-Factor test was used to test the Common Method Variance. The explanatory power of the first factor no exceeding the critical value of 50% [ 69 ].

Common method deviation test

The Harman’s One-Factor test was used to conduct a common method deviation test using exploratory factor analysis. The first common factor interpretation percentage was 19.214%, which was less than 50%, suggesting no serious common method bias.

Basic information about parenting styles, life satisfaction, internet use, and gender differences

Table 1 shows gender differences in all variables. In addition to the dimensions of compulsive use of the internet and tolerance symptoms of internet addiction, there were no gender differences in the total score and other dimensions of internet addiction. Gender differences appeared in all dimensions of fathers’ and life satisfaction and mothers’ parenting styles and life satisfaction. The life satisfaction score of males was significantly lower than that of females.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0303554.t001

Correlation analysis

Table 2 shows significant associations of parenting style dimensions with life satisfaction level, except for paternal preference. All parenting style dimensions except for parental preference were substantially correlated with the overall score of internet use. All parenting style dimensions except for parental preference were also strongly correlated with each dimension of internet addiction. The mother’s preference was substantially correlated with the interpersonal and health-related problems of internet addiction. Internet addiction among students was strongly and negatively correlated with life satisfaction.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0303554.t002

Mediating effect test of the overall model

A final model with a decent fit was obtained after deleting non-statistically significant routes and correcting them with suggestions of MI coefficients. The model’s goodness of fit values was as follows: RMSEA = 0.052<0.08, GFI = 0.981>0.9, TLI = 0.977>0.9, NFI = 0.980>0.9, and χ 2 /df = 3.60<5. The final model ( Fig 2 ) demonstrated that life satisfaction has a mediating role in two dimensions of parenting style (the father’s overprotection and the father’s emotional warmth). Life satisfaction fully mediated the association between the father’s overprotection and students’ internet addiction while partially mediating the relationship between the father’s emotional warmth and students’ internet addiction. The students’ internet addiction was directly related to maternal over interference and protection.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0303554.g002

The mediating effect was further examined using the bias-corrected percentile bootstrap method (5,000 replicate samples), and the results showed ( Table 3 ) that life satisfaction partially mediated the effect of father’s emotional warmth and overprotection on college students’ internet addiction.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0303554.t003

Life satisfaction as a mediator of parenting style and student internet addiction: A male-female comparison

According to previous studies, males and females differ significantly in terms of family parenting style, life satisfaction, and internet addiction behavior. This study compared and analyzed the male and female subgroups based on the overall theoretical composition to determine whether differences exist in the mediation mechanisms among college students of different genders. After deleting non-statistically significant paths and correcting by the MI coefficients, two models with better fit were identified. All paths in the model were statistically significant ( p < .05; see Table 4 ).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0303554.t004

Figs 3 and 4 show the final models among male and female college students, respectively. These figures reveal that the parental dimensions’ impact and the mediating role of life satisfaction completely differed by gender. Among males, life satisfaction played a full mediating role on the effect of the two dimensions of father (emotional warmth and overprotection) on internet addiction; and one dimension of mother (emotional warmth) was directly related to males’ internet addiction ( Fig 3 ). Among females, life satisfaction played a partial mediating role on the effect of the two dimensions of parents (the father’s emotional warmth and the mother’s over interference and protection) on internet addiction; two dimensions of father (punitiveness and over-involvement) were directly related to females’ internet addiction ( Fig 4 ).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0303554.g003

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0303554.g004

Mediating effects across gender were further examined using a bias-corrected percentile bootstrap method (5,000 replicate samples). The results showed ( Table 3 ) life satisfaction partially mediated the relationship between the father’s emotional warmth and internet addiction, and life satisfaction fully mediated the impact of the father’s overprotection on internet addiction among males. Life satisfaction played a mediating role in the relationship between the father’s emotional warmth and the mother’s interference and protection and internet addiction in females, with both direct and indirect effects being significant. In short, life satisfaction played a partial mediating role.

The current situation between college students’ paternal-maternal parenting style, life satisfaction, and internet addiction

The results revealed that female college students scored significantly higher than male college students on the family parenting styles’ positive dimensions, whereas males scored significantly higher on the negative dimensions. These findings suggest that males (females) are more likely to grow up in harsh and negative (warm and positive) families. The traditional Chinese concept of “Sons be raised in frugality and daughters in abundance” may help explain this—in contrast to females, who are more likely to feel loved by their parents, have their material and emotional needs satisfied, and receive a positive and warm parenting style that promotes the development of their personality and personal skills, males are more likely to grow up with a free-range parenting style. This study supports earlier research [ 23 , 59 , 70 ] about gender differences in life satisfaction by showing that females report higher levels of life satisfaction than males. This might be a result of the psychological maturity difference between males and females, with females being more psychologically developed, typically more psychologically resilient than males, and possessing more coping mechanisms. In contrast to the majority of earlier studies, no gender difference was found in the respondents’ levels of internet addiction [ 20 , 55 , 56 , 71 ]. This may be caused by the different problematic internet use behaviors among males and females. Males play online games more than females, and females engage in online social interactions and shopping more than males [ 72 ]. However, this study also found that females scored significantly higher than males in the compulsive internet use and tolerance dimensions. This suggests an increase in internet addiction behaviors among females. The Internet provides faster and more convenient communication, shopping, and entertainment, and Chinese women spend a lot of time interacting with friends and family on social applications and shop online using applications like Taobao. These indicate a gradual increase in various online behaviors among females; hence, female college students may also become addicted to the Internet through these online behaviors.

Mediating role model

This study also examined the mediating mechanism of life satisfaction on the relationship of parenting style and internet addiction among college students. The result demonstrated that life satisfaction has a mediating role in two dimensions of parenting style (the father’s overprotection and the father’s emotional warmth). Then the H1 was partly supported.

First, the results showed that the father’s emotional warmth could positively associate with internet addiction behaviors directly and indirectly by the mediating role of life satisfaction. However, a previous study concluded that a father’s permissive parenting may lead to identity confusion, likely causing children to become internet addicts [ 33 ]. Conversely, the present study revealed that college students who experience their fathers’ tolerance and understanding were less likely to become addicted. The father is essential to the growth of adolescents, and their moral influence has a lasting effect far into adulthood. In addition, college students who perceive their parents as kind and understanding are less likely to become internet addiction, but too much tolerance or understanding might be construed as pampering. Future research on the relationship between warm parenting styles and children’s internet addiction should focus on the degree of parental tolerance for adolescents. Previous studies have found that maternal emotional warmth and understanding are protective factors for internet addictive behaviors, and parental rejection can exacerbate adolescent internet addictive behaviors [ 73 , 74 ]. However, maternal warmth perceived by college students and parental rejection were not found to exacerbate the participants’ internet addiction.

Second, maternal interference and protection was directly related to a person’s internet addiction. Li et.al demonstrated that parental over protection may influence problematic behaviors, such as internet addiction, in adolescents [ 74 ]. In the present study, only maternal interference and protection directly influenced internet addiction; college students perceived that their fathers’ overprotection do not directly exacerbate their internet addiction but rather influenced internet addiction through the mediating effect of life satisfaction. Overly protective mothers may impact internet addiction because mothers frequently contribute to the development of a stable home environment [ 75 ]. Third, overprotective fathers indirectly associated with college students’ internet addiction. Harsh parenting represents excessive parental interference and control at home. Adolescents who experience harsh parenting may interact negatively with their parents and others, making them more likely to form negative opinions of others and of reality, which may lead to internet addiction [ 76 ].

Gender differences in the mediating role model

A key finding of this study is the significant gender differences in the mediation mechanisms of life satisfaction on the effect of parenting style on internet addiction and H2 was supported.

Among male students, life satisfaction partially mediated the relationship between fathers’ emotional warmth, maternal overprotection and internet addiction; the father’s punitiveness directly related to the participants’ internet addiction. Previous studies have revealed that parental emotional warmth and the father’s overprotection are predictors of male students’ internet addiction [ 11 , 77 ]. The present study found that the mothers’ tolerant style protected males from becoming internet addicts, whereas the fathers’ parenting style indirectly influenced men’s internet addiction behavior through the mediating role of life satisfaction. According to Bronte-Tinkew et al. [ 78 ], strict fathers contribute to adolescents’ risk for criminal behavior and drug use. A strict parenting style may cause children to perceive parental supervision as a barrier to communication, and youngsters who spend more time online to avoid difficult family interactions are more likely to display indicators of internet addiction [ 77 ]. However, social class psychology research has discovered that life satisfaction is positively predicted by family socioeconomic status, and better family socioeconomic status typically begets higher life satisfaction [ 79 ]. Conversely, in traditional families, the father is the main breadwinner, and students’ living expenses mainly come from their families. Thus, an individual’s level of life satisfaction is more closely associated with the father. An increase or decrease in a student’s monthly living costs decided by the father may impact the life satisfaction of the student, who may turn online as compensation. The mechanism by which a mother’s care impacts men’s internet addiction may be connected to attachment theory [ 80 ], which holds that if a caregiver is caring and helpful during one’s childhood, the child will grow up with a positive perception and consider both themselves and their caregivers as trustworthy and reliable. These motivating beliefs progressively become generalized and assimilated, thus changing the child’s behavior over time.

For female participants, the present study’s findings mostly concur with the previous studies [ 11 , 75 ]: The father’s emotional warmth and the mother’s interference and protection not only directly exacerbated female students’ internet addiction but also indirectly associated with it through life satisfaction. Mothers frequently foster a positive home environment for adolescents. However, too many limitations or a lack of support from the mother may cause a youngster to become an internet addict [ 41 ]. Several previous studies also concluded that harsh parental punishment could predict internet addiction [ 35 , 41 , 81 ]. Second, the present study found that a father’s harsh punishment may detrimentally related to female students’ internet addiction. Less communication and connection between parents and children, and increased family conflict have been found in students who perceive harsh parental punishment [ 82 , 83 ]. Students are more likely to use the Internet because they find it difficult to receive the desired emotional response, attention, and care from their parents [ 84 ]. The negative parenting style of fathers directly associated with the risk of internet addiction among female college students, which is consistent with Zhang et al. [ 35 ]. If adolescents experience punishment from their parents, they are more likely to become Internet addict. The negative correlation between father’s over-involvement and female internet addiction may be related to cultural background. China is a typical collectivist cultural country, and in this context, psychological control is often seen as a manifestation of parental care. Adolescents have a relatively high level of acceptance of control intervention behavior. The results indicated that compared with male students, female students’ internet addiction was influenced by a variety of circumstances, including their parents’ parenting styles both directly and indirectly through the psychological aspects.

The current study found that fathers, more than mothers, significantly influenced their female or male offspring’s behavior; only the mothers’ emotional warmth and over interference and protection associated with their internet addiction behavior. Previous studies found that the father’s parenting style is more crucial to children’s development than the mother’s [ 78 , 85 ]. Bronte-Tinkew et al. [ 78 ] indicated that the father-child relationship has a considerable impact on risky teenage behavior as children outgrow, whereas fathers play a more essential role in adolescent development [ 86 ]. The results indicate the need for further research on the underlying mechanisms through which fathers impact adolescents’ addictive behavior, and suggest that fathers should be cognizant of how their parenting style affects their adolescents’ problematic behavior. This study might be helpful for parents to rethink about their parenting styles, such as improving or adjusting their parenting behavior to reduce the risk of adolescent internet addiction. More specifically, parents should care about and support adolescents, develop positive interactions with them, praise them. Meanwhile, the influence of parenting styles on college students’ internet addiction is also influenced by the self-awareness factor of life satisfaction. This suggests that in the future, prevention and intervention for college students’ internet addiction should not only involve parental intervention, but also help college students improve their own life satisfaction, for example, helping to improve emotional regulation, relax, and increase effective interpersonal communication. Moreover, the prevention and intervention of internet addiction in both male and female college students deserve different treatments: When focusing on the work of both males and females, attention should be paid to the impact of different parenting dimensions on individuals’ internet addiction. In conclusion, this study suggests that in the future, more attention should be paid to the role of family factors in solving the internet addiction among college students. Starting from the cooperation between families and schools, the prevalence of internet addiction among college students may be reduced.

Limitations

Despite the study’s contribution to the literature, it is subject to some limitations. First, the sample was concentrated in one college in China; hence, the possibility of geographical differences in the sample cannot be ruled out. Future research will expand the sample size and collect samples from multiple universities and wider regions. Second, this study employed a cross-sectional design that made it difficult to infer causality. Future researchers may use longitudinal designs and panel study to explore the underlying mechanisms. Finally, the internet addiction measurement tool used here does not differentiate between various forms of internet addiction (Internet shopping, social media, Internet game), and given the current state of internet addiction, future research may consider specific differentiation to explore the different internet addiction behaviors that are likely to be affected.

This study mainly explored the potential mechanisms of internet addiction, the impact of family parenting styles on college students’ internet addiction, the mediating role of life satisfaction, and the role of gender in it. Parenting styles, particularly that of the father, have a major effect on students’ internet addiction, which is partially mediated by life satisfaction. For students of different genders, life satisfaction has different mediating effects, and the influence of parenting styles also present different forms. These findings indicate that paying attention to the role of the family, especially the parenting style of fathers, is crucial for preventing internet addiction in the future. This study may help parents rethink their parenting styles, such as improving or adjusting their parenting behavior based on gender, to reduce the risk of adolescent internet addiction.

Supporting information

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0303554.s001

S1 Raw data.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0303554.s002

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Chengdu Medical College for providing the participants. Also, the authors thank Editage ( www.editage.cn ) for English language editing.

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5 myths about disability mothering

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Understanding and empathizing with the realities of the disability mothering experience is the first step toward building a society that supports, includes and celebrates the diverse abilities of all its members.

By Dr. Kimberly Idoko May 14, 2024

My daughter has considerable difficulties with communication, and both fine and gross motor skills . On a memorable evening, as the sky blushed with orange and pink hues at sunset, our family sat together at the dinner table. It was during this ordinary moment that my daughter achieved something extraordinary: she successfully used her adaptive spoon to eat a bite of her meal by herself. Our joy was so immense, we erupted in cheers and applause—akin to celebrating a championship-winning goal. My 11-year-old son—my 6-year-old daughter’s biggest cheerleader—beamed with pride as he shouted, “She did it! Did you see that? She did it all by herself!”

In the grand scheme, this might seem like a small moment; however, for us, it was monumental. It signified not just progress in my daughter’s development but also hope. Our family’s journey, like that of many other mothers navigating the complexities of disability , is woven into a collective narrative of dedication centered on the profound impact of love. These experiences fuel our steadfast commitment to a future where each of our children can thrive, unrestricted by their abilities. Against this backdrop, I want to address five common myths about disability mothering, shedding light on the resilience and joy that define so many families:

Related: My child’s disability does not define him—or me

Myth 1: Mothering a child with disabilities is primarily about overcoming hardship

The truth: we have a rich variety of experiences.

Viewing our experience of mothering a child with disabilities solely through the lens of hardship overlooks the rich variety of experiences we navigate. While marked by challenges, our journey is equally filled with moments of deep joy and significant achievements. Imagine the immense pride we feel when our child expresses a preference for the first time, perhaps through an alternative method, but no less meaningful. These milestones are celebrated with heightened emotion, enriching our daily lives and creating a rewarding and complex tapestry.

Myth 2: Mothers of children with disabilities are overwhelmed and unhappy

The truth: stress is balanced by overwhelming joy.

The narrative that equates mothering children with disabilities to a constant state of stress and sadness does not capture the nuanced reality of our families. Stress, undoubtedly present, is balanced by moments of unmatched happiness and fulfillment, arising from witnessing the unique achievements and viewpoints of our children. These experiences provide us with a distinct perspective on the world, enhancing the lives of our entire family.

Related: My neurodivergent child has turned me into a neurodivergent parent

Myth 3: Children with disabilities cannot form social connections

The truth: our children form meaningful relationships.

Assuming that our children with disabilities are inherently isolated and unable to forge meaningful relationships underestimates their incredible capacity for connection. With appropriate support and an enabling environment, our children often astonish and inspire with their ability to interact and bond. Through shared activities, communication devices or the universal language of play, they establish deep connections, challenging the notion of isolation.

Myth 4: Mothers of children with disabilities seek sympathy

The truth: understanding goes beyond pity.

Far from seeking sympathy, many of us mothers within the disability community desire empathy—an understanding that goes beyond pity and recognizes the strength, capabilities and potential of our children. We advocate for an inclusive world where our children are supported to thrive and make their unique contributions to society.

Related: 5 smart steps for parenting neurodivergent kids

Myth 5: Mothering a child with disabilities limits personal growth

The truth: a catalyst for profound personal development .

Contrary to limiting personal growth, mothering a child with disabilities often acts as a catalyst for profound personal development. Faced with unique challenges, we embark on a journey of learning that fosters resilience, empathy and advocacy. These skills, sharpened by our experiences, enrich not only our own lives but also those of our families, creating a legacy of growth and understanding.

Related: What moms of kids with invisible disabilities want you to know

By challenging these myths, we reveal the true essence of mothering children with disabilities—a journey marked by its depth of challenges, certainly, but also by its immense capacity for joy, growth and community. Understanding and empathizing with the realities of the disability mothering experience is the first step toward building a society that supports, includes and celebrates the diverse abilities of all its members.

This story is a part of The Motherly Collective contributor network where we showcase the stories, experiences and advice from brands, writers and experts who want to share their perspective with our community. We believe that there is no single story of motherhood, and that every mother's journey is unique. By amplifying each mother's experience and offering expert-driven content, we can support, inform and inspire each other on this incredible journey. If you're interested in contributing to The Motherly Collective please click here .

Motherly’s 2024 State of Motherhood Report

Mom of three explains why she doesn’t ask her kids to ‘help’ around the house, mass retailers have pulled weighted infant sleepwear from shelves due to safety concerns, i got my 7-year-old a therapist—and it helped my own anxiety, too, our editors also recommend....

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They Were Once ‘Hippie vs. Soviet.’ Now They’re the Best of Friends.

“We genuinely like each other,” Alex Yaroslavsky said of his ex-wife and co-parent, Liza Cooper. They even live in the same apartment building.

By Louise Rafkin

In Unhitched , couples tell the stories of their relationships, from romance to vows to divorce to life afterward.

Liza Cooper and Alex Yaroslavsky, both from New York City, met in their late 30s, in March 2007, through a dating app; they married about a year later. Both secular Jews, the two seemed compatible on paper, yet differences in their communication styles sometimes created conflict and ultimately brought an end to their marriage.

But with patience, work and a sympathetic landlord, the two managed to become dear friends and co-parents after their divorce. They now live on different floors of the same Upper West Side apartment building.

Dates of marriage June 15, 2008 to Dec. 13, 2018

Age when married Ms. Cooper was 37; Mr. Yaroslavsky was 38. (They are now 53 and 54.)

Current occupations She is an administrator in a hospital and a dating coach; he is an executive coach with his own company.

Children One son, age 14.

Where did they grow up? In 1980, Mr. Yaroslavsky, an only child, immigrated to the United States with his parents when he was 10. The family had lived in Lviv, which was then part of the Soviet Union and is now Ukraine. He quickly learned English.

Ms. Cooper was raised in Providence, R.I., by New Yorkers who were devoted to each other and attentive to her. Her mother died before she met Mr. Yaroslavsky; her father, who never remarried, now lives nearby. She has an older sister.

How did they meet? In March 2007, they connected on a now-defunct dating app for Ivy League graduates — he went to Cornell and she Brown. He had been engaged before. She also had been in several serious relationships. Both felt some pressure to start a family.

What was it about the other? Over coffee in a Union Square cafe, they bonded over their love for Costa Rica where each had traveled. She found him smart, driven, funny and cute. “I had never met anyone with as many friends as Alex,” she said. “Great people from all over the globe.”

He found her pretty and sensual, and appreciated her directness. “Talking with Liza was fun and easy,” he said. “I could tell she would be a great mother.”

Why did they marry? One date led to another, but he was skittish about taking their relationship to another level. Within a few months, she pushed him to clarify his long-term plan. Once he committed, with no red flags yet having surfaced, they set a steady pace toward marriage. On New Year’s Eve 2007 he proposed, and they married six months later. She fell in love with his parents; he adored her father. Both families were very pleased.

How were the early times? Both said they were good. They volunteered together at a dog shelter and enjoyed dining out. In February 2010, after their son was born, differences began to emerge. He was organized and neat; she was messier. “Alex is all hospital corners,” she said. “I am more bohemian.” He wanted to talk about budgeting and the future; she was more comfortable in the present. Sometimes what he thought were “normal” conversations erupted into fights.

Were they happy? Some of the time. “I was never taught to negotiate,” she said. She was unhappy and disappointed a lot. He wanted to talk out problems but said she never wanted to revisit their issues or arguments. “It’s important to me and what I do in my work, and we just couldn’t do it,” he said. “I didn’t find it pleasurable to rehash everything with Alex,” she said. “I always just wanted to move on.”

First signs of trouble? They began to fight constantly, even at the dinner table. “Hippie versus Soviet,” she said of their differing styles. “We really polarized each other,” he said.

Did they try to work on things? Starting when she was pregnant, they saw four therapists over five years. There were moments of understanding, but over all, their differences — and their arguments — prevailed. He wanted the two of them to have time together, away from their son, and she didn’t like leaving their son with others. He began to feel like a third wheel in the family. “We didn’t develop the skills to stay together,” he said. “Therapy showed me our relationship was untenable,” she said. “We often walked out of the sessions feeling worse.”

Who asked for the split? She did, in 2017. “It felt like throwing a hand grenade into the family structure,” she said. But he said, “Liza was absolutely right to ask. I would never have asked or would have waited until our son was at college.”

The final break up? They spent a year planning their split. On Valentine’s Day of 2018, they moved into different apartments in the same building next door to where they were living. A sympathetic landlord, also divorced, adjusted their rents so each paid the same. Their divorce was finalized on Dec. 13 of that year.

How did their son react? Both think he was relieved to be away from conflict. He complained — and still does — about having to travel three floors if he forgets something in one of their homes.

Did they feel stigmatized? They had a friend going through an acrimonious divorce and both agreed not make theirs ugly. Everyone was supportive about their co-parenting plan. Many women opened up to her about their unhappy marriages.

How did they fare financially? With a mediator, they split assets and custody evenly despite making slightly different salaries. “We wanted to have money for our child and not spend it on the divorce,” she said. Both appreciate the generosity they afforded each other during the split.

How did they move on? As they grew comfortable with being single again, each started dating. Occasionally they ran into each other in the elevator while with their dates, which was comically awkward, but soon a friendship solidified. Now they share dating advice and she recently helped him with his dating profile. “We still have some conflict but nowhere near as much,” he said.

What would they have done differently? “Being unhappy made me angry,” she said. “If I had known Alex would become one of my best friends, it would have calmed me down.”

“In retrospect, many of our conflicts stemmed from the way our brains work differently,” he said. “Had I known this before I might have been more patient and empathetic.”

Looking back, what advice would they offer others? Both said that working with a mediator made the split more civilized and helped the family heal.

“Be kind and don’t hurt someone you married,” she added. “I want my son to pick a good partner and be happy. We need to show our children that path.”

What is life like now? Both have maintained close ties to each other’s families, and though they have many close friends, they are still each other’s go-to. “Our marriage gave us a friendship, but it also gave us our son which is the biggest joy of my life,” she said.

“We genuinely like each other,” he added.

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