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Introduction, 1 installed capacity and application of solar energy worldwide, 2 the role of solar energy in sustainable development, 3 the perspective of solar energy, 4 conclusions, conflict of interest statement.

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Solar energy technology and its roles in sustainable development

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Ali O M Maka, Jamal M Alabid, Solar energy technology and its roles in sustainable development, Clean Energy , Volume 6, Issue 3, June 2022, Pages 476–483, https://doi.org/10.1093/ce/zkac023

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Solar energy is environmentally friendly technology, a great energy supply and one of the most significant renewable and green energy sources. It plays a substantial role in achieving sustainable development energy solutions. Therefore, the massive amount of solar energy attainable daily makes it a very attractive resource for generating electricity. Both technologies, applications of concentrated solar power or solar photovoltaics, are always under continuous development to fulfil our energy needs. Hence, a large installed capacity of solar energy applications worldwide, in the same context, supports the energy sector and meets the employment market to gain sufficient development. This paper highlights solar energy applications and their role in sustainable development and considers renewable energy’s overall employment potential. Thus, it provides insights and analysis on solar energy sustainability, including environmental and economic development. Furthermore, it has identified the contributions of solar energy applications in sustainable development by providing energy needs, creating jobs opportunities and enhancing environmental protection. Finally, the perspective of solar energy technology is drawn up in the application of the energy sector and affords a vision of future development in this domain.

With reference to the recommendations of the UN, the Climate Change Conference, COP26, was held in Glasgow , UK, in 2021. They reached an agreement through the representatives of the 197 countries, where they concurred to move towards reducing dependency on coal and fossil-fuel sources. Furthermore, the conference stated ‘the various opportunities for governments to prioritize health and equity in the international climate movement and sustainable development agenda’. Also, one of the testaments is the necessity to ‘create energy systems that protect and improve climate and health’ [ 1 , 2 ].

The Paris Climate Accords is a worldwide agreement on climate change signed in 2015, which addressed the mitigation of climate change, adaptation and finance. Consequently, the representatives of 196 countries concurred to decrease their greenhouse gas emissions [ 3 ]. The Paris Agreement is essential for present and future generations to attain a more secure and stable environment. In essence, the Paris Agreement has been about safeguarding people from such an uncertain and progressively dangerous environment and ensuring everyone can have the right to live in a healthy, pollutant-free environment without the negative impacts of climate change [ 3 , 4 ].

In recent decades, there has been an increase in demand for cleaner energy resources. Based on that, decision-makers of all countries have drawn up plans that depend on renewable sources through a long-term strategy. Thus, such plans reduce the reliance of dependence on traditional energy sources and substitute traditional energy sources with alternative energy technology. As a result, the global community is starting to shift towards utilizing sustainable energy sources and reducing dependence on traditional fossil fuels as a source of energy [ 5 , 6 ].

In 2015, the UN adopted the sustainable development goals (SDGs) and recognized them as international legislation, which demands a global effort to end poverty, safeguard the environment and guarantee that by 2030, humanity lives in prosperity and peace. Consequently, progress needs to be balanced among economic, social and environmental sustainability models [ 7 ].

Many national and international regulations have been established to control the gas emissions and pollutants that impact the environment [ 8 ]. However, the negative effects of increased carbon in the atmosphere have grown in the last 10 years. Production and use of fossil fuels emit methane (CH 4 ), carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and carbon monoxide (CO), which are the most significant contributors to environmental emissions on our planet. Additionally, coal and oil, including gasoline, coal, oil and methane, are commonly used in energy for transport or for generating electricity. Therefore, burning these fossil fuel s is deemed the largest emitter when used for electricity generation, transport, etc. However, these energy resources are considered depleted energy sources being consumed to an unsustainable degree [ 9–11 ].

Energy is an essential need for the existence and growth of human communities. Consequently, the need for energy has increased gradually as human civilization has progressed. Additionally, in the past few decades, the rapid rise of the world’s population and its reliance on technological developments have increased energy demands. Furthermore, green technology sources play an important role in sustainably providing energy supplies, especially in mitigating climate change [ 5 , 6 , 8 ].

Currently, fossil fuels remain dominant and will continue to be the primary source of large-scale energy for the foreseeable future; however, renewable energy should play a vital role in the future of global energy. The global energy system is undergoing a movement towards more sustainable sources of energy [ 12 , 13 ].

Power generation by fossil-fuel resources has peaked, whilst solar energy is predicted to be at the vanguard of energy generation in the near future. Moreover, it is predicted that by 2050, the generation of solar energy will have increased to 48% due to economic and industrial growth [ 13 , 14 ].

In recent years, it has become increasingly obvious that the globe must decrease greenhouse gas emissions by 2050, ideally towards net zero, if we are to fulfil the Paris Agreement’s goal to reduce global temperature increases [ 3 , 4 ]. The net-zero emissions complement the scenario of sustainable development assessment by 2050. According to the agreed scenario of sustainable development, many industrialized economies must achieve net-zero emissions by 2050. However, the net-zero emissions 2050 brought the first detailed International Energy Agency (IEA) modelling of what strategy will be required over the next 10 years to achieve net-zero carbon emissions worldwide by 2050 [ 15–17 ].

The global statistics of greenhouse gas emissions have been identified; in 2019, there was a 1% decrease in CO 2 emissions from the power industry; that figure dropped by 7% in 2020 due to the COVID-19 crisis, thus indicating a drop in coal-fired energy generation that is being squeezed by decreasing energy needs, growth of renewables and the shift away from fossil fuels. As a result, in 2020, the energy industry was expected to generate ~13 Gt CO 2 , representing ~40% of total world energy sector emissions related to CO 2 . The annual electricity generation stepped back to pre-crisis levels by 2021, although due to a changing ‘fuel mix’, the CO 2 emissions in the power sector will grow just a little before remaining roughly steady until 2030 [ 15 ].

Therefore, based on the information mentioned above, the advantages of solar energy technology are a renewable and clean energy source that is plentiful, cheaper costs, less maintenance and environmentally friendly, to name but a few. The significance of this paper is to highlight solar energy applications to ensure sustainable development; thus, it is vital to researchers, engineers and customers alike. The article’s primary aim is to raise public awareness and disseminate the culture of solar energy usage in daily life, since moving forward, it is the best. The scope of this paper is as follows. Section 1 represents a summary of the introduction. Section 2 represents a summary of installed capacity and the application of solar energy worldwide. Section 3 presents the role of solar energy in the sustainable development and employment of renewable energy. Section 4 represents the perspective of solar energy. Finally, Section 5 outlines the conclusions and recommendations for future work.

1.1 Installed capacity of solar energy

The history of solar energy can be traced back to the seventh century when mirrors with solar power were used. In 1893, the photovoltaic (PV) effect was discovered; after many decades, scientists developed this technology for electricity generation [ 18 ]. Based on that, after many years of research and development from scientists worldwide, solar energy technology is classified into two key applications: solar thermal and solar PV.

PV systems convert the Sun’s energy into electricity by utilizing solar panels. These PV devices have quickly become the cheapest option for new electricity generation in numerous world locations due to their ubiquitous deployment. For example, during the period from 2010 to 2018, the cost of generating electricity by solar PV plants decreased by 77%. However, solar PV installed capacity progress expanded 100-fold between 2005 and 2018. Consequently, solar PV has emerged as a key component in the low-carbon sustainable energy system required to provide access to affordable and dependable electricity, assisting in fulfilling the Paris climate agreement and in achieving the 2030 SDG targets [ 19 ].

The installed capacity of solar energy worldwide has been rapidly increased to meet energy demands. The installed capacity of PV technology from 2010 to 2020 increased from 40 334 to 709 674 MW, whereas the installed capacity of concentrated solar power (CSP) applications, which was 1266 MW in 2010, after 10 years had increased to 6479 MW. Therefore, solar PV technology has more deployed installations than CSP applications. So, the stand-alone solar PV and large-scale grid-connected PV plants are widely used worldwide and used in space applications. Fig. 1 represents the installation of solar energy worldwide.

Installation capacity of solar energy worldwide [ 20 ].

1.2 Application of solar energy

Energy can be obtained directly from the Sun—so-called solar energy. Globally, there has been growth in solar energy applications, as it can be used to generate electricity, desalinate water and generate heat, etc. The taxonomy of applications of solar energy is as follows: (i) PVs and (ii) CSP. Fig. 2 details the taxonomy of solar energy applications.

The taxonomy of solar energy applications.

Solar cells are devices that convert sunlight directly into electricity; typical semiconductor materials are utilized to form a PV solar cell device. These materials’ characteristics are based on atoms with four electrons in their outer orbit or shell. Semiconductor materials are from the periodic table’s group ‘IV’ or a mixture of groups ‘IV’ and ‘II’, the latter known as ‘II–VI’ semiconductors [ 21 ]. Additionally, a periodic table mixture of elements from groups ‘III’ and ‘V’ can create ‘III–V’ materials [ 22 ].

PV devices, sometimes called solar cells, are electronic devices that convert sunlight into electrical power. PVs are also one of the rapidly growing renewable-energy technologies of today. It is therefore anticipated to play a significant role in the long-term world electricity-generating mixture moving forward.

Solar PV systems can be incorporated to supply electricity on a commercial level or installed in smaller clusters for mini-grids or individual usage. Utilizing PV modules to power mini-grids is a great way to offer electricity to those who do not live close to power-transmission lines, especially in developing countries with abundant solar energy resources. In the most recent decade, the cost of producing PV modules has dropped drastically, giving them not only accessibility but sometimes making them the least expensive energy form. PV arrays have a 30-year lifetime and come in various shades based on the type of material utilized in their production.

The most typical method for solar PV desalination technology that is used for desalinating sea or salty water is electrodialysis (ED). Therefore, solar PV modules are directly connected to the desalination process. This technique employs the direct-current electricity to remove salt from the sea or salty water.

The technology of PV–thermal (PV–T) comprises conventional solar PV modules coupled with a thermal collector mounted on the rear side of the PV module to pre-heat domestic hot water. Accordingly, this enables a larger portion of the incident solar energy on the collector to be converted into beneficial electrical and thermal energy.

A zero-energy building is a building that is designed for zero net energy emissions and emits no carbon dioxide. Building-integrated PV (BIPV) technology is coupled with solar energy sources and devices in buildings that are utilized to supply energy needs. Thus, building-integrated PVs utilizing thermal energy (BIPV/T) incorporate creative technologies such as solar cooling [ 23 ].

A PV water-pumping system is typically used to pump water in rural, isolated and desert areas. The system consists of PV modules to power a water pump to the location of water need. The water-pumping rate depends on many factors such as pumping head, solar intensity, etc.

A PV-powered cathodic protection (CP) system is designed to supply a CP system to control the corrosion of a metal surface. This technique is based on the impressive current acquired from PV solar energy systems and is utilized for burying pipelines, tanks, concrete structures, etc.

Concentrated PV (CPV) technology uses either the refractive or the reflective concentrators to increase sunlight to PV cells [ 24 , 25 ]. High-efficiency solar cells are usually used, consisting of many layers of semiconductor materials that stack on top of each other. This technology has an efficiency of >47%. In addition, the devices produce electricity and the heat can be used for other purposes [ 26 , 27 ].

For CSP systems, the solar rays are concentrated using mirrors in this application. These rays will heat a fluid, resulting in steam used to power a turbine and generate electricity. Large-scale power stations employ CSP to generate electricity. A field of mirrors typically redirect rays to a tall thin tower in a CSP power station. Thus, numerous large flat heliostats (mirrors) are used to track the Sun and concentrate its light onto a receiver in power tower systems, sometimes known as central receivers. The hot fluid could be utilized right away to produce steam or stored for later usage. Another of the great benefits of a CSP power station is that it may be built with molten salts to store heat and generate electricity outside of daylight hours.

Mirrored dishes are used in dish engine systems to focus and concentrate sunlight onto a receiver. The dish assembly tracks the Sun’s movement to capture as much solar energy as possible. The engine includes thin tubes that work outside the four-piston cylinders and it opens into the cylinders containing hydrogen or helium gas. The pistons are driven by the expanding gas. Finally, the pistons drive an electric generator by turning a crankshaft.

A further water-treatment technique, using reverse osmosis, depends on the solar-thermal and using solar concentrated power through the parabolic trough technique. The desalination employs CSP technology that utilizes hybrid integration and thermal storage allows continuous operation and is a cost-effective solution. Solar thermal can be used for domestic purposes such as a dryer. In some countries or societies, the so-called food dehydration is traditionally used to preserve some food materials such as meats, fruits and vegetables.

Sustainable energy development is defined as the development of the energy sector in terms of energy generating, distributing and utilizing that are based on sustainability rules [ 28 ]. Energy systems will significantly impact the environment in both developed and developing countries. Consequently, the global sustainable energy system must optimize efficiency and reduce emissions [ 29 ].

The sustainable development scenario is built based on the economic perspective. It also examines what activities will be required to meet shared long-term climate benefits, clean air and energy access targets. The short-term details are based on the IEA’s sustainable recovery strategy, which aims to promote economies and employment through developing a cleaner and more reliable energy infrastructure [ 15 ]. In addition, sustainable development includes utilizing renewable-energy applications, smart-grid technologies, energy security, and energy pricing, and having a sound energy policy [ 29 ].

The demand-side response can help meet the flexibility requirements in electricity systems by moving demand over time. As a result, the integration of renewable technologies for helping facilitate the peak demand is reduced, system stability is maintained, and total costs and CO 2 emissions are reduced. The demand-side response is currently used mostly in Europe and North America, where it is primarily aimed at huge commercial and industrial electricity customers [ 15 ].

International standards are an essential component of high-quality infrastructure. Establishing legislative convergence, increasing competition and supporting innovation will allow participants to take part in a global world PV market [ 30 ]. Numerous additional countries might benefit from more actively engaging in developing global solar PV standards. The leading countries in solar PV manufacturing and deployment have embraced global standards for PV systems and highly contributed to clean-energy development. Additional assistance and capacity-building to enhance quality infrastructure in developing economies might also help support wider implementation and compliance with international solar PV standards. Thus, support can bring legal requirements and frameworks into consistency and give additional impetus for the trade of secure and high-quality solar PV products [ 19 ].

Continuous trade-led dissemination of solar PV and other renewable technologies will strengthen the national infrastructure. For instance, off-grid solar energy alternatives, such as stand-alone systems and mini-grids, could be easily deployed to assist healthcare facilities in improving their degree of services and powering portable testing sites and vaccination coolers. In addition to helping in the immediate medical crisis, trade-led solar PV adoption could aid in the improving economy from the COVID-19 outbreak, not least by providing jobs in the renewable-energy sector, which are estimated to reach >40 million by 2050 [ 19 ].

The framework for energy sustainability development, by the application of solar energy, is one way to achieve that goal. With the large availability of solar energy resources for PV and CSP energy applications, we can move towards energy sustainability. Fig. 3 illustrates plans for solar energy sustainability.

Framework for solar energy applications in energy sustainability.

The environmental consideration of such applications, including an aspect of the environmental conditions, operating conditions, etc., have been assessed. It is clean, friendly to the environment and also energy-saving. Moreover, this technology has no removable parts, low maintenance procedures and longevity.

Economic and social development are considered by offering job opportunities to the community and providing cheaper energy options. It can also improve people’s income; in turn, living standards will be enhanced. Therefore, energy is paramount, considered to be the most vital element of human life, society’s progress and economic development.

As efforts are made to increase the energy transition towards sustainable energy systems, it is anticipated that the next decade will see a continued booming of solar energy and all clean-energy technology. Scholars worldwide consider research and innovation to be substantial drivers to enhance the potency of such solar application technology.

2.1 Employment from renewable energy

The employment market has also boomed with the deployment of renewable-energy technology. Renewable-energy technology applications have created >12 million jobs worldwide. The solar PV application came as the pioneer, which created >3 million jobs. At the same time, while the solar thermal applications (solar heating and cooling) created >819 000 jobs, the CSP attained >31 000 jobs [ 20 ].

According to the reports, although top markets such as the USA, the EU and China had the highest investment in renewables jobs, other Asian countries have emerged as players in the solar PV panel manufacturers’ industry [ 31 ].

Solar energy employment has offered more employment than other renewable sources. For example, in the developing countries, there was a growth in employment chances in solar applications that powered ‘micro-enterprises’. Hence, it has been significant in eliminating poverty, which is considered the key goal of sustainable energy development. Therefore, solar energy plays a critical part in fulfilling the sustainability targets for a better plant and environment [ 31 , 32 ]. Fig. 4 illustrates distributions of world renewable-energy employment.

World renewable-energy employment [ 20 ].

The world distribution of PV jobs is disseminated across the continents as follows. There was 70% employment in PV applications available in Asia, while 10% is available in North America, 10% available in South America and 10% availability in Europe. Table 1 details the top 10 countries that have relevant jobs in Asia, North America, South America and Europe.

List of the top 10 countries that created jobs in solar PV applications [ 19 , 33 ]

Solar energy investments can meet energy targets and environmental protection by reducing carbon emissions while having no detrimental influence on the country’s development [ 32 , 34 ]. In countries located in the ‘Sunbelt’, there is huge potential for solar energy, where there is a year-round abundance of solar global horizontal irradiation. Consequently, these countries, including the Middle East, Australia, North Africa, China, the USA and Southern Africa, to name a few, have a lot of potential for solar energy technology. The average yearly solar intensity is >2800 kWh/m 2 and the average daily solar intensity is >7.5 kWh/m 2 . Fig. 5 illustrates the optimum areas for global solar irradiation.

World global solar irradiation map [ 35 ].

The distribution of solar radiation and its intensity are two important factors that influence the efficiency of solar PV technology and these two parameters vary among different countries. Therefore, it is essential to realize that some solar energy is wasted since it is not utilized. On the other hand, solar radiation is abundant in several countries, especially in developing ones, which makes it invaluable [ 36 , 37 ].

Worldwide, the PV industry has benefited recently from globalization, which has allowed huge improvements in economies of scale, while vertical integration has created strong value chains: as manufacturers source materials from an increasing number of suppliers, prices have dropped while quality has been maintained. Furthermore, the worldwide incorporated PV solar device market is growing fast, creating opportunities enabling solar energy firms to benefit from significant government help with underwriting, subsides, beneficial trading licences and training of a competent workforce, while the increased rivalry has reinforced the motivation to continue investing in research and development, both public and private [ 19 , 33 ].

The global outbreak of COVID-19 has impacted ‘cross-border supply chains’ and those investors working in the renewable-energy sector. As a result, more diversity of solar PV supply-chain processes may be required in the future to enhance long-term flexibility versus exogenous shocks [ 19 , 33 ].

It is vital to establish a well-functioning quality infrastructure to expand the distribution of solar PV technologies beyond borders and make it easier for new enterprises to enter solar PV value chains. In addition, a strong quality infrastructure system is a significant instrument for assisting local firms in meeting the demands of trade markets. Furthermore, high-quality infrastructure can help reduce associated risks with the worldwide PV project value chain, such as underperforming, inefficient and failing goods, limiting the development, improvement and export of these technologies. Governments worldwide are, at various levels, creating quality infrastructure, including the usage of metrology i.e. the science of measurement and its application, regulations, testing procedures, accreditation, certification and market monitoring [ 33 , 38 ].

The perspective is based on a continuous process of technological advancement and learning. Its speed is determined by its deployment, which varies depending on the scenario [ 39 , 40 ]. The expense trends support policy preferences for low-carbon energy sources, particularly in increased energy-alteration scenarios. Emerging technologies are introduced and implemented as quickly as they ever have been before in energy history [ 15 , 33 ].

The CSP stations have been in use since the early 1980s and are currently found all over the world. The CSP power stations in the USA currently produce >800 MW of electricity yearly, which is sufficient to power ~500 000 houses. New CSP heat-transfer fluids being developed can function at ~1288 o C, which is greater than existing fluids, to improve the efficiency of CSP systems and, as a result, to lower the cost of energy generated using this technology. Thus, as a result, CSP is considered to have a bright future, with the ability to offer large-scale renewable energy that can supplement and soon replace traditional electricity-production technologies [ 41 ]. The DESERTEC project has drawn out the possibility of CSP in the Sahara Desert regions. When completed, this investment project will have the world’s biggest energy-generation capacity through the CSP plant, which aims to transport energy from North Africa to Europe [ 42 , 43 ].

The costs of manufacturing materials for PV devices have recently decreased, which is predicted to compensate for the requirements and increase the globe’s electricity demand [ 44 ]. Solar energy is a renewable, clean and environmentally friendly source of energy. Therefore, solar PV application techniques should be widely utilized. Although PV technology has always been under development for a variety of purposes, the fact that PV solar cells convert the radiant energy from the Sun directly into electrical power means it can be applied in space and in terrestrial applications [ 38 , 45 ].

In one way or another, the whole renewable-energy sector has a benefit over other energy industries. A long-term energy development plan needs an energy source that is inexhaustible, virtually accessible and simple to gather. The Sun rises over the horizon every day around the globe and leaves behind ~108–1018 kWh of energy; consequently, it is more than humanity will ever require to fulfil its desire for electricity [ 46 ].

The technology that converts solar radiation into electricity is well known and utilizes PV cells, which are already in use worldwide. In addition, various solar PV technologies are available today, including hybrid solar cells, inorganic solar cells and organic solar cells. So far, solar PV devices made from silicon have led the solar market; however, these PVs have certain drawbacks, such as expenditure of material, time-consuming production, etc. It is important to mention here the operational challenges of solar energy in that it does not work at night, has less output in cloudy weather and does not work in sandstorm conditions. PV battery storage is widely used to reduce the challenges to gain high reliability. Therefore, attempts have been made to find alternative materials to address these constraints. Currently, this domination is challenged by the evolution of the emerging generation of solar PV devices based on perovskite, organic and organic/inorganic hybrid materials.

This paper highlights the significance of sustainable energy development. Solar energy would help steady energy prices and give numerous social, environmental and economic benefits. This has been indicated by solar energy’s contribution to achieving sustainable development through meeting energy demands, creating jobs and protecting the environment. Hence, a paramount critical component of long-term sustainability should be investigated. Based on the current condition of fossil-fuel resources, which are deemed to be depleting energy sources, finding an innovative technique to deploy clean-energy technology is both essential and expected. Notwithstanding, solar energy has yet to reach maturity in development, especially CSP technology. Also, with growing developments in PV systems, there has been a huge rise in demand for PV technology applications all over the globe. Further work needs to be undertaken to develop energy sustainably and consider other clean energy resources. Moreover, a comprehensive experimental and validation process for such applications is required to develop cleaner energy sources to decarbonize our planet.

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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• Solar Energy

Technologies, Design, Modeling, and Economics

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• Ibrahim Moukhtar 0 ,
• Adel Z. El Dein 1 ,
• Adel A. Elbaset 2 ,
• Yasunori Mitani 3

Faculty of Energy Engineering, Electrical Engineering Department, Aswan University, Aswan, Egypt

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Faculty of Engineering, Electrical Engineering Department, Minia University, El-Minia, Egypt

Electrical and electronic engineering, kyushu art institute of technology, tobata-ku, japan.

• Provides an introduction to renewable energy and the advantages of solar energy systems
• Outlines methods for modeling central tower receiver power plants
• Includes case studies on photovoltaic (PV) and hybrid PV and concentrated solar power systems

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Solar Radiation Fundamentals and PV System Components

A thorough review of the existing concentrated solar power technologies and various performance enhancing techniques

A comprehensive review and analysis of solar forecasting techniques

• Electrical Power Engineering
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• Ibrahim Moukhtar, Adel Z. El Dein, Adel A. Elbaset, Yasunori Mitani

Solar Power Plants Design

Modelling of a central tower receiver power plant, ann-based ctr modelling and validation results, penetration characteristics of hybrid csp and pv solar plants economic, economic study of solar energy systems, conclusions and future works, back matter, authors and affiliations.

Ibrahim Moukhtar, Adel Z. El Dein

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Book Title : Solar Energy

Book Subtitle : Technologies, Design, Modeling, and Economics

Authors : Ibrahim Moukhtar, Adel Z. El Dein, Adel A. Elbaset, Yasunori Mitani

Series Title : Power Systems

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-61307-5

Publisher : Springer Cham

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Hardcover ISBN : 978-3-030-61306-8 Published: 14 November 2020

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eBook ISBN : 978-3-030-61307-5 Published: 13 November 2020

Series ISSN : 1612-1287

Series E-ISSN : 1860-4676

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Number of Pages : XXVI, 140

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Topics : Renewable and Green Energy , Energy Systems , Energy Policy, Economics and Management

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• Published: 29 May 2024

Wind power and solar photovoltaics found to have higher energy returns than fossil fuels

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A key issue in net energy analysis is the omission of the effects of end-use efficiencies on the energy returns of technologies. Now, an analysis shows that these effects strongly favour the energy returns of wind power and solar photovoltaics, which are found to be higher than those of fossil fuels.

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Raugei, M. & Leccisi, E. A comprehensive assessment of the energy performance of electricity generation technologies deployed in the United Kingdom. Energy Policy 90 , 46–59 (2020). This article presents a net energy analysis of electricity generation technologies.

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Marshall, Z. et al. A country-level primary-final-useful (CL-PFU) energy and exergy database v1.2, 1960-2020. University of Leeds Data Repository (5 February 2024); https://archive.researchdata.leeds.ac.uk/1234/ . The online repository associated with the CL-PFU database that we used to determine the useful-stage EROIs.

Slameršak, A., Kallis, G. & O’Neill, D. W. Energy requirements and carbon emissions for a low-carbon energy transition. Nat. Commun. 13 , 6932 (2022). This paper reports a dynamic analysis of the net energy aspects and CO 2 emissions of the energy transition.

Heun, M. K., Marshall, Z. & Aramendia, E. CLPFUDatabase: A suite of R packages for energy conversion chain analysis. J. Open Source Softw. 9 , 6057 (2024). This paper introduces the software developed to build the CL-PFU database used in this work.

Murphy, D. J., Raugei, M., Carbajales-Dale, M. & Rubio Estrada, B. Energy return on investment of major energy carriers: review and harmonisation. Sustainability 14 , 7098 (2022). An article that reviews and harmonizes the EROIs published in the literature for major energy carriers.

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This is a summary of: Aramendia, A. et al. Estimation of useful-stage energy returns on investment for fossil fuels and implications for renewable energy systems. Nat. Energy https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-024-01518-6 (2024).

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Wind power and solar photovoltaics found to have higher energy returns than fossil fuels. Nat Energy (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-024-01520-y

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Energy & Environmental Science

Triggering favorable energy landscape: a general approach towards highly efficient and photostable organic solar cells †.

* Corresponding authors

a School of Physics, State Key Laboratory of Crystal Materials, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong 250100, P. R. China E-mail: [email protected] , [email protected]

b ARC Centre of Excellence in Exciton Science, School of Chemistry, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia

An unfavorable energy landscape can create intra-bandgap tail states, induce extra energy loss and enhance photocarrier trapping, thereby limiting both the performance and stability of non-fullerene organic solar cells (OSCs). Herein, a favorable energy landscape picture at the device level is conceived by a synergistic approach of interface modification and morphology control to overcome the conundrum between performance and stability in BTP-based OSCs. With synergistic optimization of bilayered interfaces and ternary strategies, the energetic disorder for the charge carrier transport and the generation of trap states have been obviously suppressed in target OSCs. The resultant favorable energy landscape with less energy losses and charge recombination leads to simultaneously improved efficiency and photostability in target OSCs based on multiple organic photovoltaic (OPV) systems. Moreover, the multiple approaches of photophysical characterization of neat acceptor and blend films reveal that light soaking induces an additionally unfavorable energy landscape, which intensifies the nonradiative trapping of exciton-polaron species formed by enhanced back charge recombination from electronic to excitonic excitations due to reduced energy barrier. These results emphasize the importance of constructing and stabilizing a favorable energy landscape in addressing the performance-photostability problem of BTP-based small molecules and all-polymer OSCs.

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Triggering favorable energy landscape: a general approach towards highly efficient and photostable organic solar cells

K. Zhang, X. Du, J. Qiao, H. Hu, W. Zhang, L. Wang, M. Gao, H. Yin, W. Qin and X. Hao, Energy Environ. Sci. , 2022,  15 , 5261 DOI: 10.1039/D2EE01894B

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Solar Power 101

How renewable energy from the sun can mean a brighter future for people and the planet.

Solar farms, like this one located in the Carrizo Plain in California, use the sun's rays to generate clean, renewable energy.

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Did you know that people have harnessed the power of the sun at least as far back as 700 BCE, when glass lenses were used to magnify sunlight and create fire? It’s easy to imagine how the sun’s energy—the way it provides warmth and light—has always inspired the human mind.

Today, we know that the sun’s rays can actually provide endless clean electricity, and great progress has been made to make that renewable energy as affordable as possible. In fact, solar power is one of the nation’s fastest-growing energy sectors, with  more than half of all new generating capacity coming from solar in 2023.

But how can sunshine recharge your smartphone, refuel your electric car, warm your bath, and keep your appliances humming? Read on to learn more.

What is solar energy?

Types of solar power, advantages of solar energy, challenges with solar energy, the future of solar energy.

Solar energy refers to the electrical or thermal energy that is created from solar radiation—the power of the sun. Solar energy is also called  solar power, or even just  solar , for short.

The sun emits an enormous amount of radiation onto Earth: around 44 quadrillion watts of power a year. However, the amount of solar energy that can be generated depends not only on the technology and equipment used but factors like geography, season, time of day, and even the shade of local trees and buildings. 

Because the energy source—the sun—is not depleted over time (or at least in a timeline that concerns us mortal humans), it is considered renewable energy. 

One important note: Throughout this guide, we’ll reference solar power at two scales, which have different qualities and costs: 

• Residential, or rooftop, solar: small systems installed on top of or near homes or businesses. These energy sources are relatively easy to install, often taking advantage of existing infrastructure like rooftops. Because of the way these smaller, scattered systems plug into the grid, they’re considered “distributed” energy resources.
• Utility-scale, or commercial, solar: larger systems that operate like a typical power plant, providing energy to entire neighborhoods. These systems require more space and infrastructure than residential solar and are typically owned by utilities (aka power companies), which sell the energy to their customers on the local grid. Terms like  solar farms and  solar plants refer to these utility-scale solar power plants. While distributed solar may be cheaper to set up because they are smaller, utility-scale solar systems cost less per kilowatt-hour (kWh) because of economies of scale.

There are two main types of solar energy: photovoltaic power and thermal power. Both utilize sunlight as a fuel but they harness it in different ways. 

Photovoltaic power

Photovoltaic (PV) energy, which converts sunlight directly into electricity, is what most people think of when we talk about solar power. PV panels are the large black or blue modules you see in places like residential rooftops and parking lots, or clustered together in utility-scale solar farms. Each PV panel is made up of individual PV cells, and several connected panels form a solar array.

Solar installers set up panels at the Van Nuys Airport in Los Angeles, taking advantage of the vast rooftop space.

Richard Vogel/AP Photo

But how does sunlight become electricity, exactly? PV cells contain semiconductor material: silicon, most commonly. When sunlight—which is made up of tiny bits of energy called photons—hits the PV cell, the material absorbs the photons, which dislodge electrons. This movement of electrons creates an electrical current. 

Metal connectors on the side of each PV cell then transfer the electricity to wires and to an inverter, which feeds this current into our electrical grid. 

It takes about 20 solar panels to satisfy the 11,000 kWh of power consumed by a typical U.S. household every year.

Thermal power 

There’s nothing quite like the feeling of warm sunlight on a cool, crisp day. Amazingly, we can harness this heat, or thermal energy, for many things. Thermal energy can be used to warm the water for your shower or, more passively, maintain a comfortable temperature inside your home. We can even use it to generate electricity at a massive scale.

When it opened in 2014, the Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating System in California was the world’s largest concentrated solar-thermal plant.

Mlenny/Getty Images

Concentrated solar-thermal power 

Just as humans first focused sunlight with glass lenses more than 2,700 years ago, concentrated solar-thermal power (CSP) creates electricity using the same basic mechanism. CSP utilizes mirrors to point sunlight into a receiver to heat up a fluid and generate steam. That steam spins the turbines that then create electricity. 

CPS systems are utility-scale solar plants that are typically built on large swaths of land and can power tens of thousands of homes and businesses.

One of the advantages of a CPS system is that the fluid can retain the heat for a long time, which is especially handy on cloudy days when CPS systems aren’t able to harness as much sunlight. However, the technology is still in limited use and the industry is not expected to grow as much as utility-scale PV solar. 

Gas- and coal-powered plants also use steam to spin turbines but with CSP, there’s no nasty pollution or waste—or climate-warming emissions—like there are from burning fossil fuels.

Passive solar design

Most of us have seen at least one example of passive solar heating: a greenhouse, which is designed to take maximum advantage of sunlight. 

A passive solar system isn’t so much about equipment as it is about strategy. This method of controlling indoor temperatures doesn’t even require electricity—just the right building materials and conditions to take advantage of the sun’s warmth.

Whether it’s primarily for heating or cooling, there are a few key requirements for a passive solar system in a building: 

• Aperture: large windows that face within 30 degrees of true south, with no shade between 9 a.m. and 3 p.m. (In North America, this is where the sun sits the highest during the day.)
• Thermal mass: materials like concrete, brick, or stone that can hold onto heat
• Distribution: Thermal energy is distributed around the building via: conduction, like when you touch the thermal mass; convection, moving thermal energy through the air, as through vents and fans; or radiation, moving through electromagnetic waves.
• Controls: things like thermostats, awnings, or blinds that can help prevent overheating or under-heating the building throughout all kinds of weather 

Solar water heaters

The sun’s thermal power can also be used to heat tap water in a home or business. Similar to the PV systems, solar water heaters utilize collector panels to absorb solar radiation. Water will heat up as it’s circulated through the panels and sent to a storage tank. These panels are typically installed on rooftops to capture the most direct sunlight, and some systems include pumps and valves to move the water through the system. 

For a typical U.S. home, heating water accounts for a good chunk of its total energy use: about 20 percent. The cost of a solar water heater varies, based on factors such as the size of the storage tank, how many collector panels are needed, and installation fees. And while it can be pricier up-front compared with a conventional water heater, a solar water heater can cut your water heating bills by 50 to 80 percent. That’s because sunlight is free!

(If you’re not in such a sunny location,  heat pump water heaters are another efficient and eco-friendly option.)

Solar power—along with wind energy and other renewable technologies—is lighting the path toward a future without fossil fuels. 

Clean and renewable energy source

Unlike power plants that rely on fossil fuels, solar energy does not produce greenhouse gases or air and water pollution. That’s because nothing is burned. And the more we develop and install solar power, the less we will have to depend on dirty sources of electricity. 

Building up more solar energy at residential and utility scales also  makes our electrical grid more reliable , especially under the stress of extreme weather—like the heat waves that can send our energy consumption soaring to the point of blackouts. Solar energy is a major  climate solution , helping us not only adapt to climate change but to mitigate it.

Job creation and economic growth

Clean energy jobs are on the rise across the United States, especially as private and public investments are plugged in. Solar leads as a top employer within renewable energy, with more than  346,000 people employed in the U.S. solar sector in 2022. And these jobs aren’t limited to installing solar panels on rooftops but spread out across construction, manufacturing, software, and science.

The booming clean energy industry is making way for new jobs, including solar installation and manufacturing.

Sandy Huffaker/Bloomberg via Getty Images

Megan Jelinger/Reuters

Cost savings

With the increased efficiency of solar technology comes decreased costs. And these aren’t small savings, either. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory found an  85 percent cost reduction in PV modules between 2010 and 2021, whether residential or utility scale. In fact, electricity from utility-scale solar is now almost always  less expensive than electricity from gas or coal.

And if we compare clean solar with the polluting fossil fuel technologies that have dominated the energy landscape for the past century, the  savings for public health care are astronomical.

Although solar technology isn’t new, the sector is still evolving to become more efficient, affordable, and accessible. Here are some of the challenges the sector is working to address.

Weather and location dependency

Naturally, solar power depends on how much sunlight can be reached. For instance, PV panels do not generate as much energy on a cloudy day, or if they’re blocked by a tree during daylight hours—and they stop generating electricity altogether at night. 

This is where  battery storage comes in. Whether at the residential or utility scale, batteries can store the energy generated during sunny periods so that it can be accessed when the sun isn’t shining or energy use is extra high.

Energy storage, like at Orsted’s Eleven Mile Solar lithium-ion battery storage facility in Coolidge, Arizona, helps maintain a steady supply of electricity when the sun isn’t shining.

Ross D. Franklin/AP Photo

The future looks even brighter as the United States  modernizes its grid infrastructure , including increasing capacity, plugging in more distributed energy sources (including small solar systems), and building new transmission lines. And solar energy isn’t the only renewable energy source on the market:  Wind energy is also rapidly expanding across the country.

High initial cost

While the cost of installing a residential solar system has dropped, a typical home system requires an average initial investment of about  $25,000 . The good news is that if the solar system can cover all of your electricity needs, you can save that amount or even thousands more over the 35-year lifetime of the system. And  clean energy tax credits are making it that much easier to recoup your initial investment.

Community solar projects, through which customers join together to collectively purchase and use locally produced solar energy, are also a great option for businesses and homes (benefiting owners and renters alike). Typically, participants can pay a monthly subscription to access solar energy or purchase a portion of the panels. Both subscribers and owners will also receive credit from the utility to cover any excess energy that their share of solar panels produce to reduce their electricity bills. Community solar is also a good solution if your rooftop isn’t suitable for solar panels, like if your property is shaded or your roof is aging.

Solar owners can potentially pay little or nothing for electricity if they generate more energy than they use. Depending on the specific city and state policies, some utility companies (as in  California ) offer net metering programs that exchange access to residents’ and businesses’ excess electricity for credits toward their bills.

Environmental concerns 

Since utility-scale solar farms and plants do not generate any carbon emissions while operating, solar energy is an asset in the fight against climate change. In fact, moving from fossil fuels to clean energy means reduced air and water pollution, as well as water consumption.

However, the siting, production, and end-of-life phases of solar equipment, like in any other power sector, involve resources and waste that can potentially have negative impacts.

A sorting machine breaks down solar panels at North America’s first utility-scale solar panel recycling plant, We Recycle Solar, in Yuma, Arizona.

Gregory Bull/AP Photo

Thankfully, end-of-life impacts from solar are low, as the materials in modern panels pose no threat of leaching. Nevertheless, recycling panels is better but currently very limited. NRDC, the electric utility industry, and the solar industry have jointly called for more investment and public support for building the infrastructure needed to support more recycling.

The growing industry is taking steps to address other issues head-on. For example, utility-size solar plants require a lot of space. One way to address this is with agrivoltaics, which  combines solar and farming on the same land. The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) has designated millions of dollars to researching how this promising field can grow. The land usage challenge can also be addressed by siting solar farms on degraded land, such as brownfields or retired  landfills .

Sheep graze and rest among solar panels at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York.

Heather Ainsworth/AP Photo

Part of the responsibilities of the DOE’s Solar Energy Technologies Office is researching best practices for developing solar energy with minimal impacts on the environment. This includes how PV cells and other solar components might be built to last longer and then recycled at the  end of their lifespan .  

NRDC and other organizations are advocating for a circular economy approach, in which we invest the resources and build out infrastructure so that solar panel components are reused as much as possible, or otherwise safely recycled. 

Trade and labor concerns

As we push for a faster transition to renewable energy, it’s important that we avoid the harms that have become the trademarks of the fossil fuel industry. That means fostering an environment where workers are treated as valued stakeholders—investing in the skills and well-being of workers so they can provide positive contributions to local economies and workforce diversity. 

Investing in domestic manufacturing is another way in which we can address concerns around labor exploitation in the global solar industry. The 2022 Inflation Reduction Act, which includes the Advanced Manufacturing Production tax credit, does just that by spurring the creation of  stable, family-supporting jobs as well as helping the U.S. solar industry compete on the international stage. Moreover, partnership with labor unions can help to reduce burdens on developers, contractors, and customers to meet the requirements of the Inflation Reduction Act and other regulatory hurdles, so we can get solar to market much more efficiently.

With greater incentives and access, more residents can benefit from rooftop solar, like these homes in Folsom, California.

Rich Pedroncelli/AP Photo

As mentioned above, the  Inflation Reduction Act has helped to energize the clean power industry, with $369 billion in investments to help fight climate change. That includes billions to spur solar development, like the clean energy Investment Tax Credit, which provides a 30 percent credit for qualifying solar investments, as well as the extended Residential Clean Energy Credit, which can cover 30 percent of costs for solar installation, among others. 

While solar power accounts for just  4 percent of electricity generated in the United States right now, it’s an integral part of a broader, booming  renewable energy market. 

Unfortunately, fossil fuels are still the primary energy source in the world, by far, and we’ve got a long way to go in achieving  net zero emissions by 2050 , as scientists are telling us we must do to avoid the worst impacts of climate change. 

The good news is, according to  NRDC’s modeling , the recent tax credits could boost generation from utility-scale wind and solar to account for around one-third of the country’s electricity portfolio by 2030—and up to 46 percent by 2035. And unprecedented investments, like  Solar for All , are expanding access to residential solar and creating solar programs where none previously existed. So don’t count us down-and-out. A future where it’s lights out for fossil fuels remains in reach.

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Authors are responsible to submit an original research work and ensure that his work was not published before and is not intended to be published elsewhere if accepted for publication. Authors are requested to cite all references in appropriate way according to the journal requirements. All authors are obliged to significantly contribute to the research work and provide retractions or corrections of misconduct. They are encouraged to provide any related data to their article.Authors are requested to declare any financial funds or other facilities they received for conducting their research work and state any conflict of interest.  

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All manuscripts are peer-reviewed through an appropriate evaluation process. A manuscript write template is provided here.

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The JSESD accepts manuscripts with either Arabic or English language. All scientific terms and abbreviations should be well defined.

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Peer review is an essential process to maintain high standards of papers publication at JSESD. All manuscripts are subject to the evaluation according to the peer review procedure and cannot be published unless all the required corrections are met and the author’s guideline for publication is followed. The manuscript must comply with the journal’s scope and aim, it must be of acceptable quality, and it is written correctly to the peer-reviewing level. Publication process takes 3 months since paper submission. The peer review process takes 2 months followed by the editing process and other publishing issues of about a month.   JSESD use double-blinded Peer review process. All articles will be initially assessed by the editor-in-chief and editorial board for suitability to the journal. Suitable articles will be sent to three reviewers to evaluate the scientific content and quality of the article. Final decision of acceptance or rejection of the article is done by the editorial board. The decision is final and will be reported to the author. Manuscripts written by editors or any of their relatives or colleagues in which editors have an interest are subject to all the journal usual procedures of peer review and are handled by the relevant editor in the editorial board.  The cleared manuscripts are sent to at least three peer reviewers. They should follow the instructions requested by the editorial board, including points on how to prepare a reviewer report, and how to evaluate the technical quality of the manuscript (as instructed in the evaluation form). They must provide the editors with their recommendation to accept or reject the manuscript.The reviewers’ comments are highly considered in the editorial final decision of the article. Their decision is considered as two out of three.  Also, in case a reviewer did not respond in time, the editorial board will assign another reviewer. This could prolong the evaluation process. The reviewers are asked to perform their review and submit their reports within 3-4 weeks. The whole process should not exceed 2-3 months. Peer reviewers are selected according to their experience in the field from different nationality in order to widen the data base of the journal and maintain high quality standards of articles. After the peer review process is finalized, the editors (editor in chief and associate editors) will give their final decision in the light of the referee recommendation and their own evaluation and judgment to either ( as attached flowchart Click here ):

• Accepted for Publication Without Revision.
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Editors ensure fair double-blind peer-review of the submitted articles for publication. They ensure the confidentiality of all information concerning reviewing process of all manuscripts submitted to the journal. They attempt to avoided conflict of interest between authors and reviewers as well as with editorial board.The editorial board does not allow any type of research misconduct. It takes appropriate steps to deal with any misconduct. The publisher and the editorial board will publish any corrections, retractions and clarifications whenever needed. Editors are responsible for the following issues:

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• Maintain confidentiality of both reviewers and authors by preserving the reviewer’s names and by preservation of the author’s work.
• Sustain all publication’s ethical policies.

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The JSESD maintains and adheres high standards of publication ethics, adapting all stick ethical rules to maintain high level of adjective, proper, original research activities, as listed in authors’ responsibility, reviewers’ responsibility and editors’ responsibility. The editorial board does not allow any type of research misconduct and publication malpractice such as:

• Plagiarism: this is when author/s take substantial parts of others research work as their own work without referring to the original work.
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The editorial bord takes appropriate steps to deal with any misconduct. The publisher and the editorial board will publish any corrections, retractions and clarifications whenever needed.

All manuscripts published are made available online for viewing and downloading free of charge. The journal is open access with no charges for article submission and processing. It is free of charge for authors and readers. Its content is freely available to researchers and academics to support the exchange of knowledge.

The SESD journal content is digitally preserved in PKP Preservation Network (PKP PN). Also, it is digitally preserved in Keepers’ Registry and ROAD.

The Journal of Solar Energy and Sustainable Development (JSESD) is committed to real and immediate open access for academic work. All of the JSESD’s articles and reviews are free to access immediately from the date of publication. There are no author charges (commonly known as APCs) prior to publication, and no charge for any reader to download articles and reviews for their own scholarly use. The JSESD is free to all at any time and in perpetuity. To facilitate this, the JSESD depends upon the financial underwriting provided by the Centre for Solar Energy Research and Studies, the goodwill of its editorial team and advisory board, and the continuing support of its network of peer reviewers.A Creative Commons  Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 (CC BY-NC 4.0)  license applies to all contents published in JSESD. While articles published on JSESD can be copied by anyone for non-commercial purposes if proper credit and cite is given, all materials are published under an open-access license with authors retaining full and permanent ownership of their work. JSESD retains a perpetual, non-exclusive right to publish the work and to include it in other aggregations and indexes to achieve broader impact and visibility.Authors are responsible for and required to ascertain that they are in possession of image rights for any and all photographs, illustrations, and figures included in their work or to obtain publication or reproduction rights from the rights holders. In submitting their work for publication in JSESD, authors agree to the terms set above. Authors are free and encouraged to store their work elsewhere, for instance in institutional repositories or websites to increase circulation (see  The Effects of Open Access ). Authors are also able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal. JSESD does not charge any reprint fees and it is not necessary to contact JSESD for permission.The journal may advertise contents related to scientific conferences and workshops beside announcements of call for papers. It will not accept advertising for products or services that are not related to its core work.

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New electrolysis cells make hydrogen production cheaper, more sustainable

A chemical process that utilizes electrical energy to drive a non-spontaneous chemical reaction called electrolysis has been closely studied recently to advance sustainable energy solutions .

Now, scientists at the Technical University of Denmark (DTU) have undertaken a study to fabricate and test a new type of ceramic electrolysis cells with nickel-gadolinium-doped ceria (Ni-GDC) fuel electrodes. 

This is in an ambition to convert green electricity from wind turbines and solar cells into sustainable fuels like hydrogen , methanol, and ammonia.

Affordable, sustainable electrolysis enable green fuel production

The team of researchers has discovered a new affordable and more sustainable long-lasting approach to enable the production of carbon-negative fuels such as hydrogen, methanol, and ammonia when met with the limitations of renewable sources.

The research demonstrated that the Ni-GDC fuel electrodes maintain their performance even after 1,000 hours of testing, showing only slight degradation under high current draws.

Researchers say that the new ceramic electrodes based on Ni-GDC fuel that the electrodes maintained their performance instead of wearing out. 

According to Henrik Lund Frandsen, Professor at DTU, estimations denoted that the increased lifetime of Ni-GDC electrolysis cells can lead to significant savings in material consumption in future power-to-x plants and reduce the price of green hydrogen by up to five percent.

The increased lifespan of the chemical composition implies its longer lifespan which helps retain the performance in the long run, reducing the frequency of replacements and repairs, leading to lower material and maintenance costs.

“If we can get ceramic electrolysis cells into power-to-x technology in enough places around the world, their efficiency means that you can save 25 percent of all the electricity needed to produce the same amount of green fuel and save up to about 20 percent of the price of hydrogen,” stated Frandsen. 

“And if we also improve the lifespan of the technology, it will result in material savings, which will mean a further price reduction of five percent.”

To boost sustainable transportation and industry

The production and scale-up of the electrolysis cells to manufacture sustainable fuels will take place at a large-scale factory currently under construction by Topsoe in Herning, Denmark.

The research sought to improve the efficiency and lifespan of electrolysis cells used in the production of green fuels. 

This advancement comes at a time when the globe is trying to achieve net-zero goals and reduce carbon dioxide emissions The new technology could help promote sustainable transportation and industry. 

By increasing the lifespan of the cells and maintaining their performance, significant savings in material consumption and production costs can be achieved. This, in turn, can reduce the price of green hydrogen and other fuels, making sustainable energy solutions more economically viable.

The results showed minimal degradation of the electrodes, even under high current draws, due to the nickel in the electrode not moving. Scientists have noted that this stability is a considerable improvement over conventional ceramic electrolysis cells.

The cells were fabricated by gluing different ceramic layers together, cutting them into squares, and firing them at 1,250 degrees Celsius in a furnace.

Despite some challenges with new materials causing problems in the electrolyte, the overall results indicate a positive and scalable path forward for manufacturing efficient and long-lasting electrolysis cells.

Scientists are hoping that complete international employment of the Ni-GDC electrolysis cells in power-to-X plants is estimated to take up to ten years.

The study was published on ResearchGate earlier this month [May, 2024].

Norilsk: The city built by gulag prisoners where Russia guards its Arctic secrets

Environmental activists are frustrated by how authorities handled a diesel spill which poured into two Arctic rivers in late May.

International correspondent @DiMagnaySky

Friday 3 July 2020 23:41, UK

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The drive from Norilsk airport to the city takes you past mile after mile of crumbling, Soviet-era factories.

It looks like an endless, rusting scrapyard - a jumble of pipes, industrial junk and frost-bitten brickwork. If you were looking for an industrial apocalypse film setting, this would be your place - but you're unlikely to get the permissions.

Norilsk was built in Stalin's times by gulag prisoners. This gritty industrial city is a testament to their endurance both of the cruelty of Stalin's regime and of the harsh polar climate. There were no thoughts then on how to build to protect the environment, just to survive it.

Vasily Ryabinin doesn't think much has changed, at least in ecological terms. He used to work for the local branch of the federal environmental watchdog, Rosprirodnadzor, but quit in June after exposing what he says was a failure to investigate properly the environmental impact of the gigantic diesel spill which poured into two Arctic rivers in late May.

At 21,000 tonnes, it was the largest industrial spill in the polar Arctic .

Despite the Kremlin declaring a federal emergency and sending a host of different agencies to participate in the clean-up, just last week Mr Ryabinin and activists from Greenpeace Russia found another area where technical water used in industrial processes was being pumped directly into the tundra from a nearby tailing pond. Russia's investigative committee has promised to investigate.

"The ecological situation here is so bad," Mr Ryabinin says.

"The latest constructions such as the tailing pond at the Talnack ore-processing plant were built exclusively by Nornickel chief executive Vladimir Potanin's team and supposedly in accordance with ecological standards, but on satellite images you can see that all the lakes in the vicinity have unnatural colours and obviously something has got into them."

Mining company Nornickel would disagree. It has admitted flagrant violations at the tailing pond and suspended staff it deems responsible at both the Talnack plant and at Norilsk Heat and Power plant no 3 where the diesel spill originated from.

On Thursday it appointed Andrey Bougrov, from its senior management board, to the newly-created role of senior vice president for environmental protection. It has a clear environmental strategy, provides regular updates on the status of the spill, and its Twitter feed is filled with climate-related alerts.

But what investors read is very different to the picture on the ground.

Norilsk used to be a closed city - one of dozens across the Soviet Union shut off to protect industrial secrets. Foreigners need special permissions approved by the Federal Security Service (FSB) to enter the region. It would take an invitation from Nornickel to make that happen and, for the past month since the spill, that has not been forthcoming.

Unlike in Soviet times, Russian citizens are now free to come and go. That's why our Sky News Moscow team were able to fly in and travel around the city, even if getting to the spill site was blocked. What they were able to film provides a snapshot of the immense challenge Russia faces in upgrading its Soviet-era industrial infrastructure, particularly at a time when climate change is melting the permafrost on which much of it was built.

Just downwind from one of the rusting factories on the city outskirts is a huge expanse of dead land. The skeletal remains of trees stand forlorn against the howling Arctic winds. Sulphur dioxide poisoning has snuffed the life out of all that lived here. Norilsk is the world's worst emitter of sulphur dioxide by a substantial margin.

"For 80km south of here everything is dead," Mr Ryabinin says, "and for at least 10km in that direction too. Everything here depends on the wind."

Immediately after the spill, Mr Ryabinin filmed and took samples from the Daldykan river just a few kilometres from the fuel tank which had leaked. By that point the river was a churning mix of diesel and red sludge dredged up from the riverbed by the force of the leak. Norilsk's rivers have turned red before and the chemical residues have sunk to the bottom, killing all life there. Nothing has lived in those rivers for decades.

In his capacity as deputy head of the local environmental watchdog, Mr Ryabinin says he insisted that he be allowed to fly further north to check the levels of contamination in Lake Pyasino and beyond.

Nornickel at the time claimed the lake was untouched by the spill. Mr Ryabinin says his boss encouraged him to let things be.

"I can't be sure I would have found anything, but this sort of confrontation - making sure I didn't go there with a camera, let alone with bottles for taking samples, it was all very clear to me. It was the final straw."

Rosprirodnadzor refused to comment to Sky News on Mr Ryabinin's allegations or suggestions that the agency was working hand in hand with Nornickel.

Georgy Kavanosyan is an environmental blogger with a healthy 37,000 following on YouTube. Shortly after the spill, he set out for Lake Pyasino and to the Pyasina River beyond to see how far the diesel had spread.

"We set out at night so that the Norilsk Nickel security wouldn't detect us. I say at night, but they've got polar nights there now, north of the Arctic Circle. So it's still light but it's quieter and we managed to go past all the cordons."

He is one of the few to have provided evidence that the diesel has in fact travelled far beyond where the company admits. Not just the 1,200km (745m) length of Lake Pyasino but into the river beyond.

He says his measurements indicated a volume of hydrocarbons dissolved in the water of between two and three times normal levels. He thinks after he published his findings on YouTube, the authorities' vigilance increased.

Greenpeace Russia have spent the last two weeks trying to obtain samples from Lake Pyasino and the surrounding area. They have faced difficulties getting around and flying their samples out for independent analysis.

They are now waiting for results from a laboratory in St Petersburg but say the samples remain valid technically for just four days after collection and that they weren't able to make that deadline due to the authorities' actively obstructing their work.

Elena Sakirko from Greenpeace Russia specialises in oil spills and says this has happened to her before. This time, a police helicopter flew to the hunter's hut where they were staying and confiscated the fuel for the boat they were using. Then a deputy for the Moscow city parliament tasked with bringing the samples back from Norilsk was forced to go back empty-handed.

"We were told at the airport we needed permission from the security department of Nornickel," Ms Sakirko says. "We asked them to show us some law or statement to prove that this was legal or what the basis for this was, but they haven't showed us anything and we still don't understand it."

Nornickel announced this week that the critical stage of the diesel spill is over. The company is now finalising dates for a press tour for foreign media and for other international environmentalists.

Mr Ryabinin thinks this should have happened weeks ago.

"If we don't let scientists come to the Arctic region to evaluate the impact of the accident, then in the future if anything similar happens, we won't know what to do."

A spokesperson for Nornickel said the company "is actively cooperating with the scientific community and will meticulously assess both the causes and effects of the accident."

Nornickel considers permafrost thawing to be the primary cause of the accident, but is waiting for the end of investigation before making a final statement, the spokesperson said.

They added that the company "accepts full responsibility for the incidents on its sites these past two months and holds itself accountable for any infrastructural deficits or poor decisions by personnel.

"The imperative is to do everything to clean up our sites, instil a stronger culture of transparency and safety in our workforce, and ensure that such situations do not occur in the future."