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• How to Write a Research Proposal | Examples & Templates

How to Write a Research Proposal | Examples & Templates

Published on October 12, 2022 by Shona McCombes and Tegan George. Revised on November 21, 2023.

A research proposal describes what you will investigate, why it’s important, and how you will conduct your research.

The format of a research proposal varies between fields, but most proposals will contain at least these elements:

Introduction

Literature review.

• Research design

Reference list

While the sections may vary, the overall objective is always the same. A research proposal serves as a blueprint and guide for your research plan, helping you get organized and feel confident in the path forward you choose to take.

Table of contents

Research proposal purpose, research proposal examples, research design and methods, contribution to knowledge, research schedule, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research proposals.

Academics often have to write research proposals to get funding for their projects. As a student, you might have to write a research proposal as part of a grad school application , or prior to starting your thesis or dissertation .

In addition to helping you figure out what your research can look like, a proposal can also serve to demonstrate why your project is worth pursuing to a funder, educational institution, or supervisor.

Research proposal length

The length of a research proposal can vary quite a bit. A bachelor’s or master’s thesis proposal can be just a few pages, while proposals for PhD dissertations or research funding are usually much longer and more detailed. Your supervisor can help you determine the best length for your work.

One trick to get started is to think of your proposal’s structure as a shorter version of your thesis or dissertation , only without the results , conclusion and discussion sections.

Download our research proposal template

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Writing a research proposal can be quite challenging, but a good starting point could be to look at some examples. We’ve included a few for you below.

• Example research proposal #1: “A Conceptual Framework for Scheduling Constraint Management”
• Example research proposal #2: “Medical Students as Mediators of Change in Tobacco Use”

Like your dissertation or thesis, the proposal will usually have a title page that includes:

• The proposed title of your project
• Your supervisor’s name
• Your institution and department

The first part of your proposal is the initial pitch for your project. Make sure it succinctly explains what you want to do and why.

Your introduction should:

• Introduce your topic
• Give necessary background and context
• Outline your  problem statement  and research questions

To guide your introduction , include information about:

• Who could have an interest in the topic (e.g., scientists, policymakers)
• How much is already known about the topic
• What is missing from this current knowledge
• What new insights your research will contribute
• Why you believe this research is worth doing

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As you get started, it’s important to demonstrate that you’re familiar with the most important research on your topic. A strong literature review  shows your reader that your project has a solid foundation in existing knowledge or theory. It also shows that you’re not simply repeating what other people have already done or said, but rather using existing research as a jumping-off point for your own.

In this section, share exactly how your project will contribute to ongoing conversations in the field by:

• Comparing and contrasting the main theories, methods, and debates
• Examining the strengths and weaknesses of different approaches
• Explaining how will you build on, challenge, or synthesize prior scholarship

Following the literature review, restate your main  objectives . This brings the focus back to your own project. Next, your research design or methodology section will describe your overall approach, and the practical steps you will take to answer your research questions.

To finish your proposal on a strong note, explore the potential implications of your research for your field. Emphasize again what you aim to contribute and why it matters.

For example, your results might have implications for:

• Improving best practices
• Informing policymaking decisions
• Strengthening a theory or model
• Challenging popular or scientific beliefs
• Creating a basis for future research

Last but not least, your research proposal must include correct citations for every source you have used, compiled in a reference list . To create citations quickly and easily, you can use our free APA citation generator .

Some institutions or funders require a detailed timeline of the project, asking you to forecast what you will do at each stage and how long it may take. While not always required, be sure to check the requirements of your project.

Here’s an example schedule to help you get started. You can also download a template at the button below.

Download our research schedule template

If you are applying for research funding, chances are you will have to include a detailed budget. This shows your estimates of how much each part of your project will cost.

Make sure to check what type of costs the funding body will agree to cover. For each item, include:

• Cost : exactly how much money do you need?
• Justification : why is this cost necessary to complete the research?
• Source : how did you calculate the amount?

To determine your budget, think about:

• Travel costs : do you need to go somewhere to collect your data? How will you get there, and how much time will you need? What will you do there (e.g., interviews, archival research)?
• Materials : do you need access to any tools or technologies?
• Help : do you need to hire any research assistants for the project? What will they do, and how much will you pay them?

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Methodology

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

Once you’ve decided on your research objectives , you need to explain them in your paper, at the end of your problem statement .

Keep your research objectives clear and concise, and use appropriate verbs to accurately convey the work that you will carry out for each one.

I will compare …

A research aim is a broad statement indicating the general purpose of your research project. It should appear in your introduction at the end of your problem statement , before your research objectives.

Research objectives are more specific than your research aim. They indicate the specific ways you’ll address the overarching aim.

A PhD, which is short for philosophiae doctor (doctor of philosophy in Latin), is the highest university degree that can be obtained. In a PhD, students spend 3–5 years writing a dissertation , which aims to make a significant, original contribution to current knowledge.

A PhD is intended to prepare students for a career as a researcher, whether that be in academia, the public sector, or the private sector.

A master’s is a 1- or 2-year graduate degree that can prepare you for a variety of careers.

All master’s involve graduate-level coursework. Some are research-intensive and intend to prepare students for further study in a PhD; these usually require their students to write a master’s thesis . Others focus on professional training for a specific career.

Critical thinking refers to the ability to evaluate information and to be aware of biases or assumptions, including your own.

Like information literacy , it involves evaluating arguments, identifying and solving problems in an objective and systematic way, and clearly communicating your ideas.

The best way to remember the difference between a research plan and a research proposal is that they have fundamentally different audiences. A research plan helps you, the researcher, organize your thoughts. On the other hand, a dissertation proposal or research proposal aims to convince others (e.g., a supervisor, a funding body, or a dissertation committee) that your research topic is relevant and worthy of being conducted.

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The critical steps for successful research: The research proposal and scientific writing: (A report on the pre-conference workshop held in conjunction with the 64 th annual conference of the Indian Pharmaceutical Congress-2012)

Pitchai balakumar.

Pharmacology Unit, Faculty of Pharmacy, AIMST University, Semeling, 08100 Bedong. Kedah Darul Aman, Malaysia

Mohammed Naseeruddin Inamdar

1 Department of Pharmacology, Al-Ameen College of Pharmacy, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India

Gowraganahalli Jagadeesh

2 Division of Cardiovascular and Renal Products, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, USA

An interactive workshop on ‘The Critical Steps for Successful Research: The Research Proposal and Scientific Writing’ was conducted in conjunction with the 64 th Annual Conference of the Indian Pharmaceutical Congress-2012 at Chennai, India. In essence, research is performed to enlighten our understanding of a contemporary issue relevant to the needs of society. To accomplish this, a researcher begins search for a novel topic based on purpose, creativity, critical thinking, and logic. This leads to the fundamental pieces of the research endeavor: Question, objective, hypothesis, experimental tools to test the hypothesis, methodology, and data analysis. When correctly performed, research should produce new knowledge. The four cornerstones of good research are the well-formulated protocol or proposal that is well executed, analyzed, discussed and concluded. This recent workshop educated researchers in the critical steps involved in the development of a scientific idea to its successful execution and eventual publication.

INTRODUCTION

Creativity and critical thinking are of particular importance in scientific research. Basically, research is original investigation undertaken to gain knowledge and understand concepts in major subject areas of specialization, and includes the generation of ideas and information leading to new or substantially improved scientific insights with relevance to the needs of society. Hence, the primary objective of research is to produce new knowledge. Research is both theoretical and empirical. It is theoretical because the starting point of scientific research is the conceptualization of a research topic and development of a research question and hypothesis. Research is empirical (practical) because all of the planned studies involve a series of observations, measurements, and analyses of data that are all based on proper experimental design.[ 1 – 9 ]

The subject of this report is to inform readers of the proceedings from a recent workshop organized by the 64 th Annual conference of the ‘ Indian Pharmaceutical Congress ’ at SRM University, Chennai, India, from 05 to 06 December 2012. The objectives of the workshop titled ‘The Critical Steps for Successful Research: The Research Proposal and Scientific Writing,’ were to assist participants in developing a strong fundamental understanding of how best to develop a research or study protocol, and communicate those research findings in a conference setting or scientific journal. Completing any research project requires meticulous planning, experimental design and execution, and compilation and publication of findings in the form of a research paper. All of these are often unfamiliar to naïve researchers; thus, the purpose of this workshop was to teach participants to master the critical steps involved in the development of an idea to its execution and eventual publication of the results (See the last section for a list of learning objectives).

THE STRUCTURE OF THE WORKSHOP

The two-day workshop was formatted to include key lectures and interactive breakout sessions that focused on protocol development in six subject areas of the pharmaceutical sciences. This was followed by sessions on scientific writing. DAY 1 taught the basic concepts of scientific research, including: (1) how to formulate a topic for research and to describe the what, why , and how of the protocol, (2) biomedical literature search and review, (3) study designs, statistical concepts, and result analyses, and (4) publication ethics. DAY 2 educated the attendees on the basic elements and logistics of writing a scientific paper and thesis, and preparation of poster as well as oral presentations.

The final phase of the workshop was the ‘Panel Discussion,’ including ‘Feedback/Comments’ by participants. There were thirteen distinguished speakers from India and abroad. Approximately 120 post-graduate and pre-doctoral students, young faculty members, and scientists representing industries attended the workshop from different parts of the country. All participants received a printed copy of the workshop manual and supporting materials on statistical analyses of data.

THE BASIC CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH: THE KEY TO GETTING STARTED IN RESEARCH

A research project generally comprises four key components: (1) writing a protocol, (2) performing experiments, (3) tabulating and analyzing data, and (4) writing a thesis or manuscript for publication.

Fundamentals in the research process

A protocol, whether experimental or clinical, serves as a navigator that evolves from a basic outline of the study plan to become a qualified research or grant proposal. It provides the structural support for the research. Dr. G. Jagadeesh (US FDA), the first speaker of the session, spoke on ‘ Fundamentals in research process and cornerstones of a research project .’ He discussed at length the developmental and structural processes in preparing a research protocol. A systematic and step-by-step approach is necessary in planning a study. Without a well-designed protocol, there would be a little chance for successful completion of a research project or an experiment.

Research topic

The first and the foremost difficult task in research is to identify a topic for investigation. The research topic is the keystone of the entire scientific enterprise. It begins the project, drives the entire study, and is crucial for moving the project forward. It dictates the remaining elements of the study [ Table 1 ] and thus, it should not be too narrow or too broad or unfocused. Because of these potential pitfalls, it is essential that a good or novel scientific idea be based on a sound concept. Creativity, critical thinking, and logic are required to generate new concepts and ideas in solving a research problem. Creativity involves critical thinking and is associated with generating many ideas. Critical thinking is analytical, judgmental, and involves evaluating choices before making a decision.[ 4 ] Thus, critical thinking is convergent type thinking that narrows and refines those divergent ideas and finally settles to one idea for an in-depth study. The idea on which a research project is built should be novel, appropriate to achieve within the existing conditions, and useful to the society at large. Therefore, creativity and critical thinking assist biomedical scientists in research that results in funding support, novel discovery, and publication.[ 1 , 4 ]

Elements of a study protocol

Research question

The next most crucial aspect of a study protocol is identifying a research question. It should be a thought-provoking question. The question sets the framework. It emerges from the title, findings/results, and problems observed in previous studies. Thus, mastering the literature, attendance at conferences, and discussion in journal clubs/seminars are sources for developing research questions. Consider the following example in developing related research questions from the research topic.

Hepatoprotective activity of Terminalia arjuna and Apium graveolens on paracetamol-induced liver damage in albino rats.

How is paracetamol metabolized in the body? Does it involve P450 enzymes? How does paracetamol cause liver injury? What are the mechanisms by which drugs can alleviate liver damage? What biochemical parameters are indicative of liver injury? What major endogenous inflammatory molecules are involved in paracetamol-induced liver damage?

A research question is broken down into more precise objectives. The objectives lead to more precise methods and definition of key terms. The objectives should be SMART-Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, Time-framed,[ 10 ] and should cover the entire breadth of the project. The objectives are sometimes organized into hierarchies: Primary, secondary, and exploratory; or simply general and specific. Study the following example:

To evaluate the safety and tolerability of single oral doses of compound X in normal volunteers.

To assess the pharmacokinetic profile of compound X following single oral doses.

To evaluate the incidence of peripheral edema reported as an adverse event.

The objectives and research questions are then formulated into a workable or testable hypothesis. The latter forces us to think carefully about what comparisons will be needed to answer the research question, and establishes the format for applying statistical tests to interpret the results. The hypothesis should link a process to an existing or postulated biologic pathway. A hypothesis is written in a form that can yield measurable results. Studies that utilize statistics to compare groups of data should have a hypothesis. Consider the following example:

• The hepatoprotective activity of Terminalia arjuna is superior to that of Apium graveolens against paracetamol-induced liver damage in albino rats.

All biological research, including discovery science, is hypothesis-driven. However, not all studies need be conducted with a hypothesis. For example, descriptive studies (e.g., describing characteristics of a plant, or a chemical compound) do not need a hypothesis.[ 1 ]

Relevance of the study

Another important section to be included in the protocol is ‘significance of the study.’ Its purpose is to justify the need for the research that is being proposed (e.g., development of a vaccine for a disease). In summary, the proposed study should demonstrate that it represents an advancement in understanding and that the eventual results will be meaningful, contribute to the field, and possibly even impact society.

Biomedical literature

A literature search may be defined as the process of examining published sources of information on a research or review topic, thesis, grant application, chemical, drug, disease, or clinical trial, etc. The quantity of information available in print or electronically (e.g., the internet) is immense and growing with time. A researcher should be familiar with the right kinds of databases and search engines to extract the needed information.[ 3 , 6 ]

Dr. P. Balakumar (Institute of Pharmacy, Rajendra Institute of Technology and Sciences, Sirsa, Haryana; currently, Faculty of Pharmacy, AIMST University, Malaysia) spoke on ‘ Biomedical literature: Searching, reviewing and referencing .’ He schematically explained the basis of scientific literature, designing a literature review, and searching literature. After an introduction to the genesis and diverse sources of scientific literature searches, the use of PubMed, one of the premier databases used for biomedical literature searches world-wide, was illustrated with examples and screenshots. Several companion databases and search engines are also used for finding information related to health sciences, and they include Embase, Web of Science, SciFinder, The Cochrane Library, International Pharmaceutical Abstracts, Scopus, and Google Scholar.[ 3 ] Literature searches using alternative interfaces for PubMed such as GoPubMed, Quertle, PubFocus, Pubget, and BibliMed were discussed. The participants were additionally informed of databases on chemistry, drugs and drug targets, clinical trials, toxicology, and laboratory animals (reviewed in ref[ 3 ]).

Referencing and bibliography are essential in scientific writing and publication.[ 7 ] Referencing systems are broadly classified into two major types, such as Parenthetical and Notation systems. Parenthetical referencing is also known as Harvard style of referencing, while Vancouver referencing style and ‘Footnote’ or ‘Endnote’ are placed under Notation referencing systems. The participants were educated on each referencing system with examples.

Bibliography management

Dr. Raj Rajasekaran (University of California at San Diego, CA, USA) enlightened the audience on ‘ bibliography management ’ using reference management software programs such as Reference Manager ® , Endnote ® , and Zotero ® for creating and formatting bibliographies while writing a manuscript for publication. The discussion focused on the use of bibliography management software in avoiding common mistakes such as incomplete references. Important steps in bibliography management, such as creating reference libraries/databases, searching for references using PubMed/Google scholar, selecting and transferring selected references into a library, inserting citations into a research article and formatting bibliographies, were presented. A demonstration of Zotero®, a freely available reference management program, included the salient features of the software, adding references from PubMed using PubMed ID, inserting citations and formatting using different styles.

Writing experimental protocols

The workshop systematically instructed the participants in writing ‘ experimental protocols ’ in six disciplines of Pharmaceutical Sciences.: (1) Pharmaceutical Chemistry (presented by Dr. P. V. Bharatam, NIPER, Mohali, Punjab); (2) Pharmacology (presented by Dr. G. Jagadeesh and Dr. P. Balakumar); (3) Pharmaceutics (presented by Dr. Jayant Khandare, Piramal Life Sciences, Mumbai); (4) Pharmacy Practice (presented by Dr. Shobha Hiremath, Al-Ameen College of Pharmacy, Bengaluru); (5) Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry (presented by Dr. Salma Khanam, Al-Ameen College of Pharmacy, Bengaluru); and (6) Pharmaceutical Analysis (presented by Dr. Saranjit Singh, NIPER, Mohali, Punjab). The purpose of the research plan is to describe the what (Specific Aims/Objectives), why (Background and Significance), and how (Design and Methods) of the proposal.

The research plan should answer the following questions: (a) what do you intend to do; (b) what has already been done in general, and what have other researchers done in the field; (c) why is this worth doing; (d) how is it innovative; (e) what will this new work add to existing knowledge; and (f) how will the research be accomplished?

In general, the format used by the faculty in all subjects is shown in Table 2 .

Elements of a research protocol

Biostatistics

Biostatistics is a key component of biomedical research. Highly reputed journals like The Lancet, BMJ, Journal of the American Medical Association, and many other biomedical journals include biostatisticians on their editorial board or reviewers list. This indicates that a great importance is given for learning and correctly employing appropriate statistical methods in biomedical research. The post-lunch session on day 1 of the workshop was largely committed to discussion on ‘ Basic biostatistics .’ Dr. R. Raveendran (JIPMER, Puducherry) and Dr. Avijit Hazra (PGIMER, Kolkata) reviewed, in parallel sessions, descriptive statistics, probability concepts, sample size calculation, choosing a statistical test, confidence intervals, hypothesis testing and ‘ P ’ values, parametric and non-parametric statistical tests, including analysis of variance (ANOVA), t tests, Chi-square test, type I and type II errors, correlation and regression, and summary statistics. This was followed by a practice and demonstration session. Statistics CD, compiled by Dr. Raveendran, was distributed to the participants before the session began and was demonstrated live. Both speakers worked on a variety of problems that involved both clinical and experimental data. They discussed through examples the experimental designs encountered in a variety of studies and statistical analyses performed for different types of data. For the benefit of readers, we have summarized statistical tests applied frequently for different experimental designs and post-hoc tests [ Figure 1 ].

Conceptual framework for statistical analyses of data. Of the two kinds of variables, qualitative (categorical) and quantitative (numerical), qualitative variables (nominal or ordinal) are not normally distributed. Numerical data that come from normal distributions are analyzed using parametric tests, if not; the data are analyzed using non-parametric tests. The most popularly used Student's t -test compares the means of two populations, data for this test could be paired or unpaired. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used to compare the means of three or more independent populations that are normally distributed. Applying t test repeatedly in pair (multiple comparison), to compare the means of more than two populations, will increase the probability of type I error (false positive). In this case, for proper interpretation, we need to adjust the P values. Repeated measures ANOVA is used to compare the population means if more than two observations coming from same subject over time. The null hypothesis is rejected with a ‘ P ’ value of less than 0.05, and the difference in population means is considered to be statistically significant. Subsequently, appropriate post-hoc tests are used for pairwise comparisons of population means. Two-way or three-way ANOVA are considered if two (diet, dose) or three (diet, dose, strain) independent factors, respectively, are analyzed in an experiment (not described in the Figure). Categorical nominal unmatched variables (counts or frequencies) are analyzed by Chi-square test (not shown in the Figure)

Research and publication ethics

The legitimate pursuit of scientific creativity is unfortunately being marred by a simultaneous increase in scientific misconduct. A disproportionate share of allegations involves scientists of many countries, and even from respected laboratories. Misconduct destroys faith in science and scientists and creates a hierarchy of fraudsters. Investigating misconduct also steals valuable time and resources. In spite of these facts, most researchers are not aware of publication ethics.

Day 1 of the workshop ended with a presentation on ‘ research and publication ethics ’ by Dr. M. K. Unnikrishnan (College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal University, Manipal). He spoke on the essentials of publication ethics that included plagiarism (attempting to take credit of the work of others), self-plagiarism (multiple publications by an author on the same content of work with slightly different wordings), falsification (manipulation of research data and processes and omitting critical data or results), gift authorship (guest authorship), ghostwriting (someone other than the named author (s) makes a major contribution), salami publishing (publishing many papers, with minor differences, from the same study), and sabotage (distracting the research works of others to halt their research completion). Additionally, Dr. Unnikrishnan pointed out the ‘ Ingelfinger rule ’ of stipulating that a scientist must not submit the same original research in two different journals. He also advised the audience that authorship is not just credit for the work but also responsibility for scientific contents of a paper. Although some Indian Universities are instituting preventive measures (e.g., use of plagiarism detecting software, Shodhganga digital archiving of doctoral theses), Dr. Unnikrishnan argued for a great need to sensitize young researchers on the nature and implications of scientific misconduct. Finally, he discussed methods on how editors and peer reviewers should ethically conduct themselves while managing a manuscript for publication.

SCIENTIFIC COMMUNICATION: THE KEY TO SUCCESSFUL SELLING OF FINDINGS

Research outcomes are measured through quality publications. Scientists must not only ‘do’ science but must ‘write’ science. The story of the project must be told in a clear, simple language weaving in previous work done in the field, answering the research question, and addressing the hypothesis set forth at the beginning of the study. Scientific publication is an organic process of planning, researching, drafting, revising, and updating the current knowledge for future perspectives. Writing a research paper is no easier than the research itself. The lectures of Day 2 of the workshop dealt with the basic elements and logistics of writing a scientific paper.

An overview of paper structure and thesis writing

Dr. Amitabh Prakash (Adis, Auckland, New Zealand) spoke on ‘ Learning how to write a good scientific paper .’ His presentation described the essential components of an original research paper and thesis (e.g., introduction, methods, results, and discussion [IMRaD]) and provided guidance on the correct order, in which data should appear within these sections. The characteristics of a good abstract and title and the creation of appropriate key words were discussed. Dr. Prakash suggested that the ‘title of a paper’ might perhaps have a chance to make a good impression, and the title might be either indicative (title that gives the purpose of the study) or declarative (title that gives the study conclusion). He also suggested that an abstract is a succinct summary of a research paper, and it should be specific, clear, and concise, and should have IMRaD structure in brief, followed by key words. Selection of appropriate papers to be cited in the reference list was also discussed. Various unethical authorships were enumerated, and ‘The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) criteria for authorship’ was explained ( http://www.icmje.org/ethical_1author.html ; also see Table 1 in reference #9). The session highlighted the need for transparency in medical publication and provided a clear description of items that needed to be included in the ‘Disclosures’ section (e.g., sources of funding for the study and potential conflicts of interest of all authors, etc.) and ‘Acknowledgements’ section (e.g., writing assistance and input from all individuals who did not meet the authorship criteria). The final part of the presentation was devoted to thesis writing, and Dr. Prakash provided the audience with a list of common mistakes that are frequently encountered when writing a manuscript.

The backbone of a study is description of results through Text, Tables, and Figures. Dr. S. B. Deshpande (Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India) spoke on ‘ Effective Presentation of Results .’ The Results section deals with the observations made by the authors and thus, is not hypothetical. This section is subdivided into three segments, that is, descriptive form of the Text, providing numerical data in Tables, and visualizing the observations in Graphs or Figures. All these are arranged in a sequential order to address the question hypothesized in the Introduction. The description in Text provides clear content of the findings highlighting the observations. It should not be the repetition of facts in tables or graphs. Tables are used to summarize or emphasize descriptive content in the text or to present the numerical data that are unrelated. Illustrations should be used when the evidence bearing on the conclusions of a paper cannot be adequately presented in a written description or in a Table. Tables or Figures should relate to each other logically in sequence and should be clear by themselves. Furthermore, the discussion is based entirely on these observations. Additionally, how the results are applied to further research in the field to advance our understanding of research questions was discussed.

Dr. Peush Sahni (All-India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi) spoke on effectively ‘ structuring the Discussion ’ for a research paper. The Discussion section deals with a systematic interpretation of study results within the available knowledge. He said the section should begin with the most important point relating to the subject studied, focusing on key issues, providing link sentences between paragraphs, and ensuring the flow of text. Points were made to avoid history, not repeat all the results, and provide limitations of the study. The strengths and novel findings of the study should be provided in the discussion, and it should open avenues for future research and new questions. The Discussion section should end with a conclusion stating the summary of key findings. Dr. Sahni gave an example from a published paper for writing a Discussion. In another presentation titled ‘ Writing an effective title and the abstract ,’ Dr. Sahni described the important components of a good title, such as, it should be simple, concise, informative, interesting and eye-catching, accurate and specific about the paper's content, and should state the subject in full indicating study design and animal species. Dr. Sahni explained structured (IMRaD) and unstructured abstracts and discussed a few selected examples with the audience.

Language and style in publication

The next lecture of Dr. Amitabh Prakash on ‘ Language and style in scientific writing: Importance of terseness, shortness and clarity in writing ’ focused on the actual sentence construction, language, grammar and punctuation in scientific manuscripts. His presentation emphasized the importance of brevity and clarity in the writing of manuscripts describing biomedical research. Starting with a guide to the appropriate construction of sentences and paragraphs, attendees were given a brief overview of the correct use of punctuation with interactive examples. Dr. Prakash discussed common errors in grammar and proactively sought audience participation in correcting some examples. Additional discussion was centered on discouraging the use of redundant and expendable words, jargon, and the use of adjectives with incomparable words. The session ended with a discussion of words and phrases that are commonly misused (e.g., data vs . datum, affect vs . effect, among vs . between, dose vs . dosage, and efficacy/efficacious vs . effective/effectiveness) in biomedical research manuscripts.

Working with journals

The appropriateness in selecting the journal for submission and acceptance of the manuscript should be determined by the experience of an author. The corresponding author must have a rationale in choosing the appropriate journal, and this depends upon the scope of the study and the quality of work performed. Dr. Amitabh Prakash spoke on ‘ Working with journals: Selecting a journal, cover letter, peer review process and impact factor ’ by instructing the audience in assessing the true value of a journal, understanding principles involved in the peer review processes, providing tips on making an initial approach to the editorial office, and drafting an appropriate cover letter to accompany the submission. His presentation defined the metrics that are most commonly used to measure journal quality (e.g., impact factor™, Eigenfactor™ score, Article Influence™ score, SCOPUS 2-year citation data, SCImago Journal Rank, h-Index, etc.) and guided attendees on the relative advantages and disadvantages of using each metric. Factors to consider when assessing journal quality were discussed, and the audience was educated on the ‘green’ and ‘gold’ open access publication models. Various peer review models (e.g., double-blind, single-blind, non-blind) were described together with the role of the journal editor in assessing manuscripts and selecting suitable reviewers. A typical checklist sent to referees was shared with the attendees, and clear guidance was provided on the best way to address referee feedback. The session concluded with a discussion of the potential drawbacks of the current peer review system.

Poster and oral presentations at conferences

Posters have become an increasingly popular mode of presentation at conferences, as it can accommodate more papers per meeting, has no time constraint, provides a better presenter-audience interaction, and allows one to select and attend papers of interest. In Figure 2 , we provide instructions, design, and layout in preparing a scientific poster. In the final presentation, Dr. Sahni provided the audience with step-by-step instructions on how to write and format posters for layout, content, font size, color, and graphics. Attendees were given specific guidance on the format of text on slides, the use of color, font type and size, and the use of illustrations and multimedia effects. Moreover, the importance of practical tips while delivering oral or poster presentation was provided to the audience, such as speak slowly and clearly, be informative, maintain eye contact, and listen to the questions from judges/audience carefully before coming up with an answer.

Guidelines and design to scientific poster presentation. The objective of scientific posters is to present laboratory work in scientific meetings. A poster is an excellent means of communicating scientific work, because it is a graphic representation of data. Posters should have focus points, and the intended message should be clearly conveyed through simple sections: Text, Tables, and Graphs. Posters should be clear, succinct, striking, and eye-catching. Colors should be used only where necessary. Use one font (Arial or Times New Roman) throughout. Fancy fonts should be avoided. All headings should have font size of 44, and be in bold capital letters. Size of Title may be a bit larger; subheading: Font size of 36, bold and caps. References and Acknowledgments, if any, should have font size of 24. Text should have font size between 24 and 30, in order to be legible from a distance of 3 to 6 feet. Do not use lengthy notes

PANEL DISCUSSION: FEEDBACK AND COMMENTS BY PARTICIPANTS

After all the presentations were made, Dr. Jagadeesh began a panel discussion that included all speakers. The discussion was aimed at what we do currently and could do in the future with respect to ‘developing a research question and then writing an effective thesis proposal/protocol followed by publication.’ Dr. Jagadeesh asked the following questions to the panelists, while receiving questions/suggestions from the participants and panelists.

• Does a Post-Graduate or Ph.D. student receive adequate training, either through an institutional course, a workshop of the present nature, or from the guide?
• Are these Post-Graduates self-taught (like most of us who learnt the hard way)?
• How are these guides trained? How do we train them to become more efficient mentors?
• Does a Post-Graduate or Ph.D. student struggle to find a method (s) to carry out studies? To what extent do seniors/guides help a post graduate overcome technical difficulties? How difficult is it for a student to find chemicals, reagents, instruments, and technical help in conducting studies?
• Analyses of data and interpretation: Most students struggle without adequate guidance.
• Thesis and publications frequently feature inadequate/incorrect statistical analyses and representation of data in tables/graphs. The student, their guide, and the reviewers all share equal responsibility.
• Who initiates and drafts the research paper? The Post-Graduate or their guide?
• What kind of assistance does a Post-Graduate get from the guide in finalizing a paper for publication?
• Does the guide insist that each Post-Graduate thesis yield at least one paper, and each Ph.D. thesis more than two papers, plus a review article?

The panelists and audience expressed a variety of views, but were unable to arrive at a decisive conclusion.

WHAT HAVE THE PARTICIPANTS LEARNED?

At the end of this fast-moving two-day workshop, the participants had opportunities in learning the following topics:

• Sequential steps in developing a study protocol, from choosing a research topic to developing research questions and a hypothesis.
• Study protocols on different topics in their subject of specialization
• Searching and reviewing the literature
• Appropriate statistical analyses in biomedical research
• Scientific ethics in publication
• Writing and understanding the components of a research paper (IMRaD)
• Recognizing the value of good title, running title, abstract, key words, etc
• Importance of Tables and Figures in the Results section, and their importance in describing findings
• Evidence-based Discussion in a research paper
• Language and style in writing a paper and expert tips on getting it published
• Presentation of research findings at a conference (oral and poster).

Overall, the workshop was deemed very helpful to participants. The participants rated the quality of workshop from “ satisfied ” to “ very satisfied .” A significant number of participants were of the opinion that the time allotted for each presentation was short and thus, be extended from the present two days to four days with adequate time to ask questions. In addition, a ‘hands-on’ session should be introduced for writing a proposal and manuscript. A large number of attendees expressed their desire to attend a similar workshop, if conducted, in the near future.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

We gratefully express our gratitude to the Organizing Committee, especially Professors K. Chinnasamy, B. G. Shivananda, N. Udupa, Jerad Suresh, Padma Parekh, A. P. Basavarajappa, Mr. S. V. Veerramani, Mr. J. Jayaseelan, and all volunteers of the SRM University. We thank Dr. Thomas Papoian (US FDA) for helpful comments on the manuscript.

The opinions expressed herein are those of Gowraganahalli Jagadeesh and do not necessarily reflect those of the US Food and Drug Administration

Source of Support: Nil

Conflict of Interest: None declared.

Research Proposal Example/Sample

Detailed Walkthrough + Free Proposal Template

If you’re getting started crafting your research proposal and are looking for a few examples of research proposals , you’ve come to the right place.

In this video, we walk you through two successful (approved) research proposals , one for a Master’s-level project, and one for a PhD-level dissertation. We also start off by unpacking our free research proposal template and discussing the four core sections of a research proposal, so that you have a clear understanding of the basics before diving into the actual proposals.

• Research proposal example/sample – Master’s-level (PDF/Word)
• Research proposal example/sample – PhD-level (PDF/Word)
• Proposal template (Fully editable) 

If you’re working on a research proposal for a dissertation or thesis, you may also find the following useful:

• Research Proposal Bootcamp : Learn how to write a research proposal as efficiently and effectively as possible
• 1:1 Proposal Coaching : Get hands-on help with your research proposal

PS – If you’re working on a dissertation, be sure to also check out our collection of dissertation and thesis examples here .

FAQ: Research Proposal Example

Research proposal example: frequently asked questions, are the sample proposals real.

Yes. The proposals are real and were approved by the respective universities.

Can I copy one of these proposals for my own research?

As we discuss in the video, every research proposal will be slightly different, depending on the university’s unique requirements, as well as the nature of the research itself. Therefore, you’ll need to tailor your research proposal to suit your specific context.

You can learn more about the basics of writing a research proposal here .

How do I get the research proposal template?

You can access our free proposal template here .

Is the proposal template really free?

Yes. There is no cost for the proposal template and you are free to use it as a foundation for your research proposal.

Where can I learn more about proposal writing?

For self-directed learners, our Research Proposal Bootcamp is a great starting point.

For students that want hands-on guidance, our private coaching service is recommended.

Psst… there’s more!

This post is an extract from our bestselling short course, Research Proposal Bootcamp . If you want to work smart, you don't want to miss this .

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A Guide to Research Proposals

• What is a research proposal?
• Searching for journal articles
• Glossary of Research

Starting with Google

Google is a powerful, easy-to-use search engine that you probably already use all the time. Why wouldn't you use it for research? It is totally understandable for you to turn to Google to find some materials you could use for your research proposal project. Here are some tips for making the most of your Googling. 

In order to find some of the research already done on a specific topic, you can do a search in  Google Scholar, over just a regular Google search. Google Scholar looks the same as Google, but searches a specific set of results: scholarly articles, books, abstracts and court decisions.

Some of the articles you will find will be freely available to you right through your Google Scholar search results, either because the entire journal is Open Access or because the author of the article has made their work available to anyone. 

Some of the articles will say that you have to pay for access. DON'T DO IT. You pay enough in tuition and fees to then be paying on top of that to read research. When you come up against a pay wall, turn to the library's resources. There are two specific tools that can help you: Citation Linker and Interlibrary Loan.

• Citation Linker

Sometimes, when using Google or Google Scholar, you come across an interesting or relevant article that is worth your time to read. If you're on-campus, you might have no trouble accessing the full-text of certain articles because, even though you found it using Google, you are using the library's resources to actually get to it. If you're an online or distance student, you might face pay walls where the journal or publisher demands money (a lot of money) to be able to read those articles. SHU Library has two tools that can help if you ever find yourself in this situation: Citation Linker and Inter Library Loan.  

The video below explains how to use Citation Linker to find an article within the library's databases. 

• Citation Linker (printable video transcript)
• Interlibrary Loan

Although we try to provide access to as many materials as possible, sometimes SHU Library will not have the full-text of a particular article, or a copy of a physical book. In those cases, you can turn to InterLibrary Loan, or ILL to get the materials you need. The video below describes the process of initiating a request. Electronic articles take about 2-3 business days to be delivered to your account, while physical books will take longer. Plan accordingly to give yourself enough time to request and receive your items. 

• Printable Tutorial - Interlibrary Loan

Using Library Databases

You may or may not find all of your resources through a Google Scholar search. If you don't find as much as you would like, consider using the library's databases and other resources to continue (or start) your search.

This section has interactive tutorials that will teach you how to approach searching in some of the library's databases. All the tutorials will open in a new window or tab.

If you are unsure of how to get started when searching library databases, complete this Keywords tutorial first:

Here are some interactive tutorials to help you navigate some of our databases:

Using QuickSearch

Help with Citations:

Some professors will tell you a specific citation style to use.

Most databases have tools that will generate citations for you--YAY! These are great time savers, but remember to double check that they are accurate. Here is a video about how to find the citation tool in QuickSearch (and other EBSCO databases).

• Research 911 Citations Script
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Writing the Research Proposal: The Art and the Science

• Open Access
• First Online: 24 October 2021

Cite this chapter

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• Samiran Nundy 4 ,
• Atul Kakar 5 &
• Zulfiqar A. Bhutta 6  

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A research proposal is a document containing details about the research which is to be undertaken. It should be self-contained and start with a fundamental enquiry related to the research questions(s) and the hypothesis (es) on which it is based. The objectives and key questions are the fundamental pillars of a research proposal and formal grant application.

Research is to see what everybody else has seen, and to think what nobody else has thought — Albert Szent-Györgyi, Hungarian Biochemist (1893–1986) No Research without Action, No Action without Research —Kurt Lewin, German-American psychologist (1890–1947)

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Writing a Research Proposal

Basic Research

Research Threads

1 what is a research proposal.

A study protocol, often used for clinical trials, is a document that describes the objectives, elucidates the methodology, ethical considerations (consent process) as well as the overall execution template to guide the research [ 1 ]. Journals dedicated to studying protocols also encourage publication of research protocols prior to the wrap-up and conclusion of studies to encourage transparency and avoid duplication of research.

A research proposal can be in a free form or follow a suggested format, usually prescribed by the science funding body or organization. In general, a proposal format includes:

Background and Rationale

Aims and Objectives of the study

Details of the Research Question

Methodology

Ethical considerations

Details of the primary investigator, co-investigator. Internal and external collaborators.

Estimated Budget

1.1 The Title

The title should be composed of key substantive words, which may include the characteristics and geographical location of research, the sample population as well as a hint of the result. The title may at times be interrogative.

For example, the title of this study protocol— Study protocol of a cluster randomized controlled trial to evaluate the effectiveness of a system for maintaining high-quality early essential newborn care in Lao PDR [ 2 ]. conveys the study design, i.e., the cluster randomized trial, the purpose of the research and also the study population and site of the research.

Many grant organizations have specific requirements for space and characters for titles, so ensure conformity with those.

1.2 Abstract

Some organizations require an abstract or an executive summary at the beginning of the research proposal. This is a brief precis and description of your research project, background, methods, and analytical plan.

1.3 Background and Rationale

What is already known about this research area? Have there been any previous studies already addressing this issue? Many research funding bodies expect the investigators to cite a systematic review related to the subject area, typically the most credible review available on the subject. The literature review ought to highlight why the research question being addressed in the project is important.

1.4 Aims and Objectives of the Research

The primary goals of the research study are described in terms of its aims and objectives. Aims are general and broad statements that state the intent of the researchers and what they hope to achieve, while objectives are more specific that describe the path to achieving those aims.

Aims and Objectives are encouraged to follow the SMART criteria:

Specific— Precision about what is going to be done

Measurable— Outcomes clearly defined

Attainable— Can be possibly achieved and not overly ambitious

Realistic— Possible in the presence of available resources, e.g., finances, time, and manpower

Time Constrained— Bound by time

1.5 Details of the Research Question

The PICOT format ( P opulation, I ntervention, C ontrol or comparison group, O utcome of disease, T ime, or T ype of study) helps to frame a good research question.

1.6 Methodology

The Methodology section follows the background and literature review so should organically follow through with a recapitulation of your research question, the related scholarly research available, and your own aims and objectives [ 3 ].

This section attempts to answer the 5 W and One H questions—Who, What, When, Where, Why and How.

This section should be written carefully in full detail in such a way that anyone who reads it can replicate the experiment; if it is a new statistical model that you propose, you should be able to apply it to your own dataset. This section is like a road map that helps the investigator to navigate the planned study and should be written in the future tense. The methodology section should not just state the methods chosen, but should appropriately justify why it was selected based on sound scholarly research. It should also discuss the limitations in the proposed methods and compromises made based on existing constraints, for example, the choice of sampling and the inclusion and exclusion criteria. This section should include the following details [ 3 ]:

1.6.1 Study Area/Location

This subsection states the institutional and departmental affiliation or the site where the research is to be conducted. If it is clinical research, data on the patient enrolment area, patient catchment area and patient recruitment area, and whether they were from the outpatient or inpatient departments.

In other instances, with population-based research, the study population may be a community, region, or even a larger population aggregate, comprising the universe of the study from which subjects will be recruited.

1.6.2 Study Population

The enrolment should always be according to a pre-defined population. The inclusion and exclusion criteria to be used for the study should also be mentioned in this section.

For example, ‘to study the prevalence of lymphoma in Sjogren’s syndrome’, the inclusion will include all known cases of Sjogren’s syndrome and those with a histologically confirmed diagnosis of lymphoma. The exclusion criteria will be lymphoma associated with HIV, hepatitis B and C viral infections, or due to other causes.

1.6.3 Sample Size

The number of cases to be recruited into the study should be stated here. The formula that is intended to be used to derive the sample size should also be included as well as the statistical power, the expected prevalence of the disease, or the shift in outcome if relevant. Recent statistical software has made this step much easier so the statistical software employed for these calculations, e.g., EPI INFO should be mentioned.

1.6.4 Study Design

The designs are broadly experimental or observational and may utilize primary or secondary data. Differences between both are tabulated in Table 12.1 [ 4 ].

1.6.5 Study Duration

The date of initiation and expected completion date are mentioned. The study can start only after the institutional board gives ethical clearance.

1.6.6 Methodology of the Trial

In this section, the step-by-step approach of the study is described. It could begin with patient recruitment and the patient consent approval process and could be followed by a description of the physical examination and a systemic examination to be carried out. It should include whether there are tests to be done in the intervention and the length of period after which any change in the intervention will be studied.

1.6.7 Outcome of the Disease

This is the most important consequence of the study. Mention what change you are expecting during the experiment. For any disease, the outcome can be:

Complete recovery

Incomplete recovery

There may also be disease-specific outcome measures like in rheumatology one can use a visual analogue scale, ESR, CRP, Disease Activity Score (DAS), Simplified Disease Activity Index, and Clinical Disease Activity Index.

1.6.8 Data Collection

The data collected may be qualitative or quantitative. A protocol for data collection which incorporates and satisfies the requirements of Good Clinical Practice (GCP) should be included. For example, in a study around the effect of pomegranate juice on lipid profile and type 2 diabetes, the systolic and diastolic blood pressures, and the lipid profile of the patients were measured at baseline and end-line following 12–14 h of fasting (5).

Furthermore, a data analysis plan, a data quality assurance plan, a statistical plan, and a contingency plan for missing and spurious data should also be discussed.

2 What Are Study Designs?

Experimental studies are further divided into randomized controlled trials or nonrandomized trials. The observational studies are of four types, cohort studies, case–control studies, cross-sectional, and ecological studies (Fig. 12.1 ).

Overview of types of study design

3 What Is an Intervention?

The intervention can be in the form of treatment using a drug, vaccine, or even a dietary supplement, the use of a diagnostic or therapeutic procedure or the introduction of an educational tool (Table 12.2 ).

4 What Are the Various Type of Trials with Interventions?

There are various types of intervention-based trials that are listed below:

Randomized controlled trials

In this, a patient in one arm of the trial gets the intervention and the others get the placebo or the standard of care. Randomized Controlled Trials are considered the gold standard in clinical research, and evidence generated is considered to be the highest in the hierarchy of evidence.

Nonrandomized trials

In this, the intervention is given only to some participants, e.g., those who can afford the drug or vaccine and the others get standard care.

Interventional studies without concurrent controls

If a new drug is to be given in a particular condition to a study population, historical controls are used (Fig. 12.2 ).

Study with external controls

Pre- and post-intervention study

An example is the use of an educational tool applied in a specific population - the change is noted before and after the intervention.

Factorial studies

In this, two or more interventions are examined and their effects are studied collectively and separately.

Crossover studies

Each patient is given one type of intervention and then after a predefined time a washout period is instituted where controls and experimental subjects are swapped and then given the other trial intervention (Fig. 12.3 ).

RCT crossover design

Cluster randomization trials

The intervention in a single person may be easy to apply but once the trial is done on a community it requires to be studied in a cluster of the population. Units of randomization are clusters, and not individuals. By design, they are large and complex studies but more definitive in terms of health population and systems research.

In the cluster randomized trial in Matiari and Hala in Sindh Pakistan (Fig. 12.4 ), clusters were allocated to intervention and control groups through stratified randomization. The intervention package included health promotive MNCH activities through community healthcare workers and this RCT. Neonatal mortality rate was lower in intervention clusters at 43.0 deaths per 1000 live births and 49.1 per 1000 in control groups (RR 0.85, 0.76−0.96; p  = 0.02) [ 5 ].

Cluster randomized trial in Matiary and Hala in Sindh Pakistan

4.1 Observational Studies

4.1.1 cross-sectional study.

These studies represent data collected over a defined period of time, and are often used to calculate the prevalence of a certain disease or condition (Fig. 12.5 ). However, a major limitation is that they do not help establish causality due to unknown temporality. They are also vulnerable to recall error and response bias when questions about the past are assessed.

Cross-sectional study (Basic design)

4.1.2 Cohort Studies

This study design is longitudinal in nature and involves following a group of participants who have a particular characteristic in common, for example, they may all be in the same geographical region or in a particular occupation (Fig. 12.6 ). The study involves following them prospectively and studying associations between exposure and outcome.

Cohort study (Basic design)

4.1.3 Case–Control Studies

By definition, case studies are observational and retrospective. Also known as ‘case-referent studies’. They are observational because they compare patients who have the disease or outcome of interest (cases) with patients who do not have the disease or outcome (controls) and look back retrospectively to compare how frequently the exposure to a risk factor is associated with the disease (Fig. 12.7 ).

Retrospective study

Case–control studies are observational because no intervention is attempted and no attempt is made to alter the course of the disease. The goal is to retrospectively determine the exposure to the risk factor of interest from each of the two groups of individuals: cases and controls. These studies are designed to estimate odds.

4.1.4 Ecological Studies

Ecological studies the association between exposure and disease, but the unit of observation is a community or even a broader regional area such as a country. The ecological study design is relatively cheaper as it often utilizes published population-level statistics such as mortality and morbidity estimates.

5 What Are the Ways to Do Randomization?

5.1 the methods of randomization in a clinical trial.

Blinding refers to keeping trial subjects, doctors, and trial-related persons or data collectors unaware of the allocated intervention to eliminate bias.

Various methods of randomization are used:

Simple randomization—Using techniques like a pack of cards, flipping of a coin (even—control, odd—treatment), or throwing dice (e.g., below and equal to 3—control, over 3—treatment) can be used.

Random allocation is done using random number tables.

Block randomization—This method is designed to randomize subjects into groups.

Stratification randomization—This is a two-stage procedure where the first randomization is done according to clinical features which may influence the outcome and in the second a particular treatment is given to that arm.

Minimization—The aim of minimization is to minimize the imbalance between the number of patients in each treatment over a number of factors.

6 What Are Other Considerations Before Conditional Trial?

6.1 ethical considerations.

IRB approval must be discussed and the data collection protocol’s adherence to the World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki on Ethical Principles for Medical research involving Human Subjects should be discussed.

6.2 Clinical Trial Registration

Clinical trials are registered mainly to avoid publication bias and selective reporting . In addition, clinical trial registries serve to increase transparency and access to clinical trials for the public. There have been recently much efforts to increase standardization of registration of clinical trials with the WHO aim to ‘achieving consensus on both the minimal and the optimal operating standards for trial registration’. The largest and most frequently used repository of trials is ClinicalTrials.gov , run by the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM). Others include Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ANSCTR), the International Standard Randomised Controlled Trial Number in the UK, and the Clinical Trials Registry in India.

6.3 Details of Primary Investigator, Co-Investigator, Internal and External Collaborators

Rich and salubrious scholarship is obtained through active collaborations between multiple centres of research. Individual and institutional collaborations should be listed.

This is an estimation of the expenses which are likely to be incurred during the study period. It should include travel costs, costs of reagents, instrumentation, special software, and manpower. Each cost should be justified and if the research is expected to run for several years, the inflation cost should also be added.

7 What Are the Various Extramural Source of Funding for Doctors for a Research Project?

Usually, there are two mechanisms for grants, i.e., sole-source grants commissioned grants for pre-qualified organizations, and competitive grants. Sole source grants are non-competitive with contractual arrangements whereas competitive grants are managed through call for proposal where individuals or organizations are required to go through a competitive process. The various funding agencies are given below. Besides the government authorities, many speciality associations also offer funding for MD, DM projects. Many universities and colleges have travel grants for students who present papers in national or international conferences. The details and age limits and inclusion criteria need to be checked on their websites (Table 12.3 ).

8 Conclusions

The application for study proposal should be well-structured and free from any grammatical and scientific errors.

Not all research projects receive funding.

For protocol and research grants, the methodology should be written in the future tense.

Use references in this section for the definition of various terms related to your study.

Write comprehensively describing minute details of the experiment.

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Nundy, S., Kakar, A., Bhutta, Z.A. (2022). Writing the Research Proposal: The Art and the Science. In: How to Practice Academic Medicine and Publish from Developing Countries?. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5248-6_12

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Google PhD fellowship program

Google PhD Fellowships directly support graduate students as they pursue their PhD, as well as connect them to a Google Research Mentor.

Nurturing and maintaining strong relations with the academic community is a top priority at Google. The Google PhD Fellowship Program was created to recognize outstanding graduate students doing exceptional and innovative research in areas relevant to computer science and related fields. Fellowships support promising PhD candidates of all backgrounds who seek to influence the future of technology. Google’s mission is to foster inclusive research communities and encourage people of diverse backgrounds to apply. We currently offer fellowships in Africa, Australia, Canada, East Asia, Europe, India, Latin America, New Zealand, Southeast Asia and the United States.

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Decisions for the 2024 application cycle will be announced via email in July 2024. Please check back in 2025 for details on future application cycles.

• Launch March 27, 2024
• Deadline May 8, 2024
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The details of each Fellowship vary by region. Please see our FAQ for eligibility requirements and application instructions.

PhD students must be nominated by their university. Applications should be submitted by an official representative of the university during the application window. Please see the FAQ for more information.

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PhD students in Japan, Korea and Taiwan must be nominated by their university. After the university's nomination is completed, either an official representative of the university or the nominated students can submit applications during the application window. Please see the FAQ for more information.

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PhD students apply directly during the application window. Please see the FAQ for more information.

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The 2024 application cycle is postponed. Please check back in 2025 for details on future application cycles.

Google PhD Fellowship students are a select group recognized by Google researchers and their institutions as some of the most promising young academics in the world. The Fellowships are awarded to students who represent the future of research in the fields listed below. Note that region-specific research areas will be listed in application forms during the application window.

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Applications are evaluated on the strength of the research proposal, research impact, student academic achievements, and leadership potential. Research proposals are evaluated for innovative concepts that are relevant to Google’s research areas, as well as aspects of robustness and potential impact to the field. Proposals should include the direction and any plans of where your work is going in addition to a comprehensive description of the research you are pursuing.

In Canada and the United States, East Asia and Latin America, essay responses are evaluated in addition to application materials to determine an overall recommendation.

What does the Google PhD Fellowship include?

Students receive named Fellowships which include a monetary award. The funds are given directly to the university to be distributed to cover the student’s expenses and stipend as appropriate. In addition, the student will be matched with a Google Research Mentor. There is no employee relationship between the student and Google as a result of receiving the fellowship. The award does not preclude future eligibility for internships or employment opportunities at Google, nor does it increase the chances of obtaining them. If students wish to apply for a job at Google, they are welcome to apply for jobs and go through the same hiring process as any other person.

• Up to 3 year Fellowship
• US $12K to cover stipend and other research related activities, travel expenses including overseas travel
• Google Research Mentor
• 1 year Fellowship
• AUD $15K to cover stipend and other research related activities, travel expenses including overseas travel
• Up to 2 year Fellowship (effective from 2024 for new recipients)
• Full tuition and fees (enrollment fees, health insurance, books) plus a stipend to be used for living expenses, travel and personal equipment
• US $10K to cover stipend and other research related activities, travel expenses including overseas travel
• Yearly bursary towards stipend / salary, health care, social benefits, tuition and fees, conference travel and personal computing equipment. The bursary varies by country.

Early-stage PhD students

• Up to 4 year Fellowship
• US $50K to cover stipend and other research related activities, travel expenses including overseas travel

Late-stage PhD students

• US $10K to recognise research contributions, cover stipend and other research related activities, travel expenses including overseas travel
• US $15K per year to cover stipend and other research related activities, travel expenses including overseas travel

Southeast Asia

• US $10K per year for up to 3 years (or up to graduation, whichever is earlier) to cover stipend and other research related activities, travel expenses including overseas travel

Is my university eligible for the PhD Fellowship Program?

Africa, Australia/New Zealand , Canada, East Asia, Europe and the United States : universities must be an accredited research institution that awards research degrees to PhD students in computer science (or an adjacent field).

India, Latin America and Southeast Asia : applications are open to universities/institutes in India, Latin America (excluding Cuba), and in eligible Southeast Asian countries/regions (Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam).

Restrictions : All award payments and recipients will be reviewed for compliance with relevant US and international laws, regulations and policies. Google reserves the right to withhold funding that may violate laws, regulations or our policies.

What are the eligibility requirements for students?

All regions

• Students must remain enrolled full-time in the PhD program for the duration of the Fellowship or forfeit the award.
• Google employees, and their spouses, children, and members of their household are not eligible.
• Students that are already supported by a comparable industry award are not eligible. Government or non-profit organization funding is exempt.
• Past awardees from the PhD Fellowship program are not eligible to apply again.
• Grant of the Fellowship does not mean admission to a PhD program. The awardee must separately apply and be accepted to a PhD program in computer science (or an adjacent field) at an eligible institution.
• Grant of the Fellowship will be subject to the rules and guidelines applicable in the institution where the awardee registers for the PhD program.

Nominated students in Africa, Australia and New Zealand, Canada and the United States, East Asia and Europe.

Universities should only nominate students that meet the following requirements:

• Africa: Incoming PhD students are eligible to apply, but the Fellowship award shall be contingent on the awardee registering for a full-time PhD program in computer science (or an adjacent field) within the academic award year of the Fellowship award, or the award shall be forfeited.
• Australia and New Zealand : early-stage students enrolled in the first or second year of their PhD (no requirement for completion of graduate coursework by the academic award year).
• Canada and the United States : students who have completed graduate coursework in their PhD by the academic award year when the Fellowship begins.
• East Asia: students who have completed most of graduate coursework in their PhD by the academic award year when the Fellowship begins. Students should have sufficient time for research projects after receiving a fellowship.
• Europe: Students enrolled at any stage of their PhD are eligible to apply.

Direct applicant students in India, Latin America and Southeast Asia

• Latin America : incoming or early stage-students enrolled in the first or second year of their PhD (no requirement for completion of graduate coursework by the academic award year).

What should be included in an application? What language should the application be in?

All application materials should be submitted in English.

For each student nomination, the university will be asked to submit the following material in a single, flat (not portfolio) PDF file:

• Student CV with links to website and publications (if available)
• Short (1-page) resume/CV of the student's primary PhD program advisor
• Available transcripts (mark sheets) starting from first year/semester of Bachelor's degree to date
• Research proposal (maximum 3 pages, excluding references)
• 2-3 letters of recommendation from those familiar with the nominee''s work (at least one from the thesis advisor for current PhD students)
• Student essay response (350-word limit) to: What impact would receiving this Fellowship have on your education? Describe any circumstances affecting your need for a Fellowship and what educational goals this Fellowship will enable you to accomplish.
• Transcripts of current and previous academic records
• 1-2 letters of recommendation from those familiar with the nominee's work (at least one from the thesis advisor)

Canada, East Asia, the United States

• Cover sheet signed by the Department Chair confirming the student passes eligibility requirements. (See FAQ "What are the eligibility requirements for students?")
• Short (1-page) CV of the student's primary advisor
• 2-3 letters of recommendation from those familiar with the nominee's work (at least one from the thesis advisor)
• Research / dissertation proposal (maximum 3 pages, excluding references)
• Student essay response (350-word limit) to: Describe the desired impact your research will make on the field and society, and why this is important to you. Include any personal, educational and/or professional experiences that have motivated your research interests.
• Student essay response (350-word limit) to: Describe an example of your leadership experience in which you have positively influenced others, helped resolve disputes or contributed to group efforts over time. (A leadership role can mean more than just a title. It can mean being a mentor to others, acting as the person in charge of a specific task, or taking the lead role in organizing an event or project. Think about what you accomplished and what you learned from the experience. What were your responsibilities? Did you lead a team? How did your experience change your perspective on leading others? Did you help to resolve an important dispute at your school, church, in your community or an organization? And your leadership role doesn’t necessarily have to be limited to school activities. For example, do you help out or take care of your family?)

Students will need the following documents in a single, flat (not portfolio) PDF file in order to complete an application (in English only):

• Student applicant’s resume with links to website and publications (if available)
• Short (one-page) resume/CV of the student applicant's primary PhD program advisor
• 2-3 letters of recommendation from those familiar with the applicant's work (at least one from the thesis advisor for current PhD students)
• Applicant's essay response (350-word limit) to: Describe the desired impact your research will make on the field and society, and why this is important to you. Include any personal, educational and/or professional experiences that have motivated your research interests.
• Applicant's essay response (350-word limit) to: What are your long-term goals for your pathway in computing research, and how would receiving the Google PhD Fellowship help you progress toward those goals in the short-term?

How do I apply for the PhD Fellowship Program? Who should submit the applications? Can students apply directly for a Fellowship?

Check the eligibility and application requirements in your region before applying. Submission forms are available on this page when the application period begins.

India, Latin America and Southeast Asia: students may apply directly during the application period.

Africa, Australia, Canada, East Asia, Europe, New Zealand, and the United States : students cannot apply directly to the program; they must be nominated by an eligible university during the application period.

How many students may each university nominate?

India, Latin America and Southeast Asia : applications are open directly to students with no limit to the number of students that can apply from a university.

Australia and New Zealand : universities may nominate up to two eligible students.

Canada and the United States : Universities may nominate up to four eligible students. We encourage nominating students with diverse backgrounds especially those from historically marginalized groups in the field of computing. If more than two students are nominated then we strongly encourage additional nominees who self-identify as a woman, Black / African descent, Hispanic / Latino / Latinx, Indigenous, and/or a person with a disability.

Africa, East Asia and Europe : Universities may nominate up to three eligible students. We encourage nominating students with diverse backgrounds especially those from historically marginalized groups in the field of computing. If more than two students are nominated then we strongly encourage the additional nominee who self-identifies as a woman.

*Applications are evaluated on merit. Please see FAQ for details on how applications are evaluated.

How are applications evaluated?

In Canada and the United State, East Asia and Latin America, essay responses are evaluated in addition to application materials to determine an overall recommendation.

A nominee's status as a member of a historically marginalized group is not considered in the selection of award recipients.

Research should align with Google AI Principles .

Incomplete proposals will not be considered.

How are Google PhD Fellowships given?

Any monetary awards will be paid directly to the Fellow's university for distribution. No overhead should be assessed against them.

What are the intellectual property implications of a Google PhD Fellowship?

Fellowship recipients are not subject to intellectual property restrictions unless they complete an internship at Google. If that is the case, they are subject to the same intellectual property restrictions as any other Google intern.

Will the Fellowship recipients become employees of Google?

No, Fellowship recipients do not become employees of Google due to receiving the award. The award does not preclude future eligibility for internships or employment opportunities at Google, nor does it increase the chances of obtaining them. If they are interested in working at Google, they are welcome to apply for jobs and go through the same hiring process as any other person.

Can Fellowship recipients also be considered for other Google scholarships?

Yes, Fellowship recipients are eligible for these scholarships .

After award notification, when do the Google PhD Fellowships begin?

After Google PhD Fellowship recipients are notified, the Fellowship is effective starting the following school year.

What is the program application time period?

Applications for the 2024 program will open in March 2024 and close in May 2024 for all regions. Refer to the main Google PhD Fellowship Program page for each region’s application details.

A global awards announcement will be made in September on the Google Research Blog publicly announcing all award recipients.

How can I ask additional questions?

Due to the volume of emails we receive, we may not be able to respond to questions where the answer is available on the website. If your question has not been answered by a FAQ, email:

Africa: [email protected]

Australia and New Zealand: [email protected]

Canada and the United States: [email protected]

East Asia: [email protected]

Europe: [email protected]

India: [email protected]

Latin America: [email protected]

Southeast Asia: [email protected]

See past PhD Fellowship recipients.

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• Open access
• Published: 06 June 2024

A critical reappraisal of vasopressin and steroids in in-hospital cardiac arrest

• Spyros D. Mentzelopoulos 1 , 2 &
• Athanasios Chalkias 3 , 4  

Critical Care volume  28 , Article number:  191 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

271 Accesses

Metrics details

Epinephrine during resuscitation

Advanced life support (ALS) objectives include maximization of coronary perfusion pressure (CPP) for prompt return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC) and minimization of cardiac arrest-associated ischemia–reperfusion injury. Epinephrine, the standard ALS vasopressor, improves ROSC rate, with uncertain effect on neurological outcome [ 1 ]. Epinephrine efficacy is limited by its potential to cause arrhythmias, myocardial ischemic contracture, and cerebral microcirculatory dysfunction [ 2 ].

Combined stress-hormone approaches

Effectiveness of stress-hormone interventions may depend on timely administration and/or dose for prompt onset of action, and/or use of concurrently administered combinations. In a recent, two-center, randomized clinical trial (RCT) of in-hospital cardiac arrest (IHCA; participants, n = 184) [ 3 ], we assessed the effect of methylprednisolone 40 mg, or placebo (plus repeated 1-mg epinephrine) during ALS, followed by postresuscitation hydrocortisone (240 mg/day for 7 days maximum and gradual taper) or placebo on several physiological and long-term outcomes. Neutral results, primarily on early post-ROSC arterial pressure and inflammatory response, strongly implied a resistance to previously well-documented, circulatory and immunomodulatory effects of steroids [ 3 ]. Nevertheless, single, high-dose (i.e., 250 mg) methylprednisolone within 5–30 min following successful out-of-hospital ALS has been recently associated with lower postresuscitation interleukin-6, improved postresuscitation hemodynamics and higher probability of survival to discharge [ 4 , 5 ]; these benefits might reflect a rapid, nongenomic, high-dose methylprednisolone action [ 4 ].

A major characteristic of our IHCA-steroids RCT was prolonged median ALS duration, i.e. 25–27 min [ 3 ]. Notably, pooled data analyses (n = 368) from our two, prior vasopressin-steroids-epinephrine (VSE) RCTs [ 6 , 7 ] revealed median ALS duration of just 14 min in VSE patients, as opposed to 20 min in controls [ 3 ]. In these RCTs, we added up to five doses of 20-IU vasopressin to epinephrine during ALS to maximize CPP/expedite ROSC by concurrent stimulation of V1A vasopressin and alpha-1 adrenergic receptors [ 2 , 6 , 7 ]; stress-dose steroids were also given during and after ALS for their hypertensive/anti-inflammatory effects. Triple stress-hormone intervention resulted in higher ROSC-rates and postresuscitation arterial pressure, lower serum cytokine concentrations, more organ failure-free days, and improved long-term outcomes [ 6 , 7 ].

A follow-up, Danish RCT (n = 501) testing vasopressin, adrenaline and methylprednisolone (VAM) during ALS (without postresuscitation steroids) reported improved ROSC-rate and neutral results on long-term outcomes [ 8 ]. The results of an individual patient-data meta-analysis (IPDMA) including all 3 RCTs were inconclusive [ 9 ], supporting a suggestion against VSE/VAM in IHCA [ 10 ]. However, following correction of misclassification of a VSE-2 study participant [ 7 ], IPDMA’s adjusted odds ratio (aOR) (95% confidence interval (CI) for cerebral performance category (CPC) score ≤ 2 at discharge rose to 1.80 (1.08–3.01), in favor of VSE/VAM [ 9 ].

Correction-associated, main changes in IPDMA results are summarized in Table  1 . Key pertinent messages include (1) frailty/fragility of results’ positivity, depending on minor changes in a small absolute difference of approximately 4% in favorable neurological outcome; and (2) lack of power of included RCTs to detect differences in favorable neurological outcome at a level of 4–5%.

Major, corrected IPDMA results were primarily driven by our RCTs [ 9 ], which had key differences from the Danish trial [ 2 ], as further detailed in Table  2 . Regarding time-to-study drugs (T DRUG ), IPDMA data correction revealed significant effect measure modification, with decremental T DRUG of ≤ 6 min, favoring VSE/VAM as regards survival to discharge and CPC score ≤ 2 at discharge [ 9 ]. Danish trial subgroup point estimates for both ROSC and 30-day survival/neurological outcome were also favorable for VAM (ranging within 1.17–1.46) at T DRUG  ≤ 8 min [ 8 ], implying a T DRUG -dependent, favorable response to VAM in 251/501 (50%) of study participants.

Multi-level VSE effects in IHCA

Transcriptional signaling by glucocorticoids is limited by proteasome degradation of the phosphorylated (oxidized) glucocorticoid receptor (GR) [ 3 , 12 ]. During ischemia and reperfusion, proteasome mediates removal of oxidized, intracellular proteins [ 12 ]. Furthermore, the longer the duration of ischemia, the greater the degradation of adenosine 5′-triphosphate and intracellular accumulation of hypoxanthine [ 13 ]. During subsequent reperfusion, hypoxanthine is reconverted to xanthine, by xanthine oxidase, with concurrent production of toxic, reactive oxygen species [ 12 ]. Consequently, prolonged ischemia time (followed by reperfusion) is associated with greater, intracellular, oxidative stress [ 13 ], and likely, more extensive oxidation and loss of function [ 12 ] of various proteins, including the GR. Accordingly, a recent study reported rapid, post-ROSC decline in B/T lymphocyte GR-expression [ 14 ].

In our trials [ 6 , 7 ], VSE patients received post-ROSC stress-dose hydrocortisone (300 mg/day for 7 days maximum and gradual taper). Furthermore, the shorter "low-flow/ischemia" time might have mitigated the ischemia–reperfusion induced oxidation/proteasome degradation of GR, with consequent preservation of vasopressor and anti-inflammatory effects of steroids. These two pharmaco-physiological factors explain the decreased frequency of potentially detrimental, early, postresuscitation hypotension in VSE patients (Table  2 ). Also, in our trials, steroid treatment was associated with lower postresuscitation cytokine concentrations [ 6 ]. This indicates attenuation of cardiac arrest-associated systemic inflammatory response, and partly explains the lesser organ dysfunction in VSE groups [ 6 , 7 ].

Additional key facts supporting VSE use in IHCA

IHCA nonshockable rhythms’ incidence and long-term outcomes are comparably high and poor (respectively) across Registry studies and control groups of VSE/VAM RCTs [Table  3 ; 6–8; Additional file 1]. Relatively minor differences can be partly explained by potentially more frequent pseudo-pulseless electrical activity (PEA) (which has better prognosis) in studies with high, overall incidence of PEA; also, in Registry studies, epinephrine was not given to some patients and this was associated with improved survival (Table  3 ; Additional file 1). Thus, our combined VSE 1 and 2 group results of nonshockable rhythms’ survival to discharge and CPC ≤ 2 at discharge of 17% and 14% (respectively) [ 6 , 7 ] suggest VSE benefit in the large subgroup of nonshockable IHCA. Accordingly, corrected IPDMA aOR (95%CI) of VSE/VAM versus control for CPC score ≤ 2 at discharge was 2.02 (1.11–3.67) [ 9 ].

Regarding VSE practicability, vasopressin/methylprednisolone physical/chemical stability in normal saline solutions has been previously confirmed [ 6 ]. Routinely using prefilled syringes for prompt VSE-administration is feasible/effective [ 6 , 7 ].

In view of the above-presented discussion/evidence and until publication of new evidence from a large, ongoing Swedish RCT ( www.clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT05139849 ), we suggest that VSE [ 6 , 7 ] might be considered in IHCA [ 15 ]. However, the frailty/fragility of the corrected meta-analysis results needs to be considered.

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First Department of Intensive Care Medicine, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece

Spyros D. Mentzelopoulos

Department of Intensive Care Medicine, Evaggelismos General Hospital, 45-47 Ipsilandou St, 10675, Athens, Greece

Institute for Translational Medicine and Therapeutics, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19104-5158, USA

Athanasios Chalkias

Outcomes Research Consortium, Cleveland, OH, 44195, USA

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Concept: SDM; pooled data analysis: SDM; data interpretation in the context of relevant published evidence: SDM and AC; critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content: SDM and AC.

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Mentzelopoulos, S.D., Chalkias, A. A critical reappraisal of vasopressin and steroids in in-hospital cardiac arrest. Crit Care 28 , 191 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13054-024-04962-8

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• Author Correction
• Published: 04 June 2024

Author Correction: Current national proposals are off track to meet carbon dioxide removal needs

• William F. Lamb   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3273-7878 1 , 2 ,
• Thomas Gasser 3 ,
• Rosa M. Roman-Cuesta 4 ,
• Giacomo Grassi   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0650-0391 4 ,
• Matthew J. Gidden   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0687-414X 3 ,
• Carter M. Powis 5 ,
• Oliver Geden   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9456-4218 6 ,
• Gregory Nemet   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7859-4580 7 ,
• Yoga Pratama   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7660-4666 3 ,
• Keywan Riah   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7193-3498 3 ,
• Stephen M. Smith   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5737-0155 5 ,
• Jan Steinhauser   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5989-6855 3 ,
• Naomi E. Vaughan   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4532-2084 8 , 9 ,
• Harry Smith   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8149-4764 8 , 9 &
• Jan C. Minx   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2862-0178 1 , 2  

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The Original Article was published on 03 May 2024

Correction to: Nature Climate Change https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-024-01993-5 , published online 3 May 2024

In the version of the article initially published, Giacomo Grassi’s surname appeared incorrectly (as Grass) and has now been amended in the HTML and PDF versions of the article.

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Mercator Research Institute on Global Commons and Climate Change (MCC), Berlin, Germany

William F. Lamb & Jan C. Minx

Priestley International Centre for Climate, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK

International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), Laxenburg, Austria

Thomas Gasser, Matthew J. Gidden, Yoga Pratama, Keywan Riah & Jan Steinhauser

Joint Research Centre, European Commission, Ispra, Italy

Rosa M. Roman-Cuesta & Giacomo Grassi

School of Enterprise and the Environment, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

Carter M. Powis & Stephen M. Smith

German Institute for International and Security Affairs (SWP), Berlin, Germany

Oliver Geden

University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA

Gregory Nemet

School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK

Naomi E. Vaughan & Harry Smith

Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK

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Lamb, W.F., Gasser, T., Roman-Cuesta, R.M. et al. Author Correction: Current national proposals are off track to meet carbon dioxide removal needs. Nat. Clim. Chang. (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-024-02052-9

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