phd in autism uk

Study Postgraduate

Phd/mphil in intellectual and developmental disabilities (2024 entry).

Course code

30 September 2024

3-4 years full-time; up to 7 years part-time

Qualification

CIDD Link opens in a new window

University of Warwick

Find out more about our PhD/MPhil in Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities.

Explore intellectual disabilities and autism in depth on Warwick's MPhil/PhD in Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities. The Centre for Research in Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (CIDD) is an internationally recognised research centre specialising in intellectual and developmental disabilities and autism across the lifespan.

Course overview

Students carry out a PhD by research only. There are no taught course components.

Teaching and learning

The department has several small PhD work spaces that students can access.

General entry requirements

Minimum requirements.

2.1 Upper Second Class honours undergraduate degree (or equivalent) in a related subject.

English language requirements

You can find out more about our English language requirements Link opens in a new window . This course requires the following:

• IELTS overall score of 7.0, minimum component scores of two at 6.0/6.5 and the rest at 7.0 or above.

International qualifications

We welcome applications from students with other internationally recognised qualifications.

For more information, please visit the international entry requirements page Link opens in a new window .

Additional requirements

There are no additional entry requirements for this course.

Our research

We are interested in hearing from people who are thinking of pursuing a PhD in areas of CIDD’s expertise:

• Intellectual and developmental disabilities (including autism) across the lifespan
• Assessment and diagnosis in intellectual and developmental disabilities
• Families, family adjustment, siblings of children with intellectual and developmental disabilities and sibling relationships
• Mental health in children and adults with intellectual and developmental disabilities (including autism)
• Forensic mental health in adults with intellectual disabilities and/or autism
• Developmental psychology with children and adults with intellectual disabilities and/or autism
• School attendance in children and young people with intellectual and developmental disabilities
• Early intervention in intellectual and developmental disabilities
• Early development of children with intellectual and developmental disabilities (including autism)
• Transition to adulthood for individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities
• Parenting skills and interventions in families of children and adolescents with intellectual and developmental disabilities
• Psychological and educational therapies and interventions for children, adolescents, adults and families of individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities (including autism)
• Training of education, health and social care staff who work with individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities

If you are interested in doing a PhD with us, you can look for and contact potential supervisors using our CIDD Staff Directory .

Students are encouraged to contact K dot Gray dot 1 at warwick dot ac dot uk to discuss their interest in applying to study at CIDD prior to submitting an application.

You can also see our general University guidance about finding a supervisor .

Find a supervisor

We are interested in hearing from people who are thinking of pursuing a PhD in areas of CIDD’s expertise in intellectual disability / autism:

Students are encouraged to contact K dot Gray dot 1 at warwick dot ac dot uk to discuss their interest in applying to study at CIDD prior to submitting an application.

You can also see our general University guidance about finding a supervisor. Link opens in a new window

Tuition fees

Tuition fees are payable for each year of your course at the start of the academic year, or at the start of your course, if later. Academic fees cover the cost of tuition, examinations and registration and some student amenities.

Find your research course fees

Fee Status Guidance

We carry out an initial fee status assessment based on the information you provide in your application. Students will be classified as Home or Overseas fee status. Your fee status determines tuition fees, and what financial support and scholarships may be available. If you receive an offer, your fee status will be clearly stated alongside the tuition fee information.

Do you need your fee classification to be reviewed?

If you believe that your fee status has been classified incorrectly, you can complete a fee status assessment questionnaire. Please follow the instructions in your offer information and provide the documents needed to reassess your status.

Find out more about how universities assess fee status

Additional course costs

As well as tuition fees and living expenses, some courses may require you to cover the cost of field trips or costs associated with travel abroad.

For departmental specific costs, please see the Modules tab on the course web page for the list of core and optional core modules with hyperlinks to our  Module Catalogue  (please visit the Department’s website if the Module Catalogue hyperlinks are not provided).

Associated costs can be found on the Study tab for each module listed in the Module Catalogue (please note most of the module content applies to 2022/23 year of study). Information about module department specific costs should be considered in conjunction with the more general costs below:

• Core text books
• Printer credits
• Dissertation binding
• Robe hire for your degree ceremony

Scholarships and bursaries

Scholarships and financial support

Find out about the different funding routes available, including; postgraduate loans, scholarships, fee awards and academic department bursaries.

Living costs

Find out more about the cost of living as a postgraduate student at the University of Warwick.

Centre for Research in Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (CIDD)

CIDD is an internationally recognised research centre with an applied research focus on intellectual and developmental disabilities, including autism.

We emphasise combined methods research undertaken in multi-disciplinary teams, secondary analysis approaches, and intervention evaluation designs including randomised controlled trials.

Find out more by visiting our website. Link opens in a new window

How to apply

The application process for course that start in September and October 2025 will open on 2 October 2024.

Here is our checklist on how to apply for research postgraduate degrees at the University of Warwick.  

For research courses that start in September and October 2024 the application deadline for students who require a visa to study in the UK is 2 August 2025. This should allow sufficient time to complete the admissions process and to obtain a visa to study in the UK.

How to apply for a postgraduate research course  

After you’ve applied

Find out how we process your application.

Applicant Portal

Track your application and update your details.

Admissions statement

See Warwick’s postgraduate admissions policy.

Join a live chat

Ask questions and engage with Warwick.

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Postgraduate fairs.

Throughout the year we attend exhibitions and fairs online and in-person around the UK. These events give you the chance to explore our range of postgraduate courses, and find out what it’s like studying at Warwick. You’ll also be able to speak directly with our student recruitment team, who will be able to help answer your questions.

Join a live chat with our staff and students, who are here to answer your questions and help you learn more about postgraduate life at Warwick. You can join our general drop-in sessions or talk to your prospective department and student services.

Departmental events

Some academic departments hold events for specific postgraduate programmes, these are fantastic opportunities to learn more about Warwick and your chosen department and course.

See our online departmental events

Warwick Talk and Tours

A Warwick talk and tour lasts around two hours and consists of an overview presentation from one of our Recruitment Officers covering the key features, facilities and activities that make Warwick a leading institution. The talk is followed by a campus tour which is the perfect way to view campus, with a current student guiding you around the key areas on campus.

Connect with us

Learn more about Postgraduate study at the University of Warwick.

We may have revised the information on this page since publication. See the edits we have made and content history .

Why Warwick

Discover why Warwick is one of the best universities in the UK and renowned globally.

9th in the UK (The Guardian University Guide 2024) Link opens in a new window

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(The Graduate Market in 2024, High Fliers Research Ltd. Link opens in a new window )

About the information on this page

This information is applicable for 2024 entry. Given the interval between the publication of courses and enrolment, some of the information may change. It is important to check our website before you apply. Please read our terms and conditions to find out more.

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PhD opportunities

We have internationally recognised research expertise in participatory and creative methods and approaches. Our vibrant ACoRNS research culture is supported by term-time, weekly online meetings for our students, staff, Visiting Fellows, and volunteers. You’ll be part of an inclusive, inspiring and collaborative research environment that includes opportunities for:   

• Presenting research ideas, progress and findings
• Hearing from invited internal and external speakers
• Taking part in ‘journal club’ discussions around a published paper or related news story
• Developing research and leadership skills including writing for publication, managing ethical dilemmas, and chairing meetings  
• Sharing triumphs as well as challenges in a supportive and collegial environment  
• Contributing to taught programmes to improve your academic skills and career development  

If you'd like to discuss our PhD opportunities informally, please email Sarah Parsons or Hanna Kovshoff:

Professor Sarah Parsons [email protected]

Dr Hanna Kovshoff [email protected]    

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• Acoustical engineering
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• A missing link between continental shelves and the deep sea: Have we underestimated the importance of land-detached canyons?
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• A study of rolling contact fatigue in electric vehicles (EVs)
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• An electromagnetic study of the continent-ocean transition southwest of the UK
• An investigation of the relationship between health, home and law in the context of poor and precarious housing, and complex and advanced illness
• Antibiotic resistance genes in chalk streams
• Being autistic in care: Understanding differences in care experiences including breakdowns in placements for autistic and non-autistic children
• Biogeochemical cycling in the critical coastal zone: Developing novel methods to make reliable measurements of geochemical fluxes in permeable sediments
• Bloom and bust: seasonal cycles of phytoplankton and carbon flux
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Laboratory for Innovation in Autism PhD Studentships

At the multidisciplinary Laboratory for Innovation in Autism we seek to understand the subtle, but significant motor disruption in autism spectrum disorder, its neurodevelopmental origins and contribution to psychological development across early childhood.  We are an engaged, award-winning team working to advance knowledge of child development with technological innovation in smart technology and serious games made fun for young children.  We work across psychology, neuropsychiatry, education, and engineering with key international collaborators at Edinburgh, Gothenburg, Pisa, and Melbourne. 

Contact us if you are interested in studying for a PhD with focus in any one of our areas:

• Child Development
• Machine Learning

Supervision is available from Prof. Jonathan Delafield-Butt (Autism and Child Development), Prof. Phil Rowe (Motor Control and Biomedical Engineering), and Dr Christos Tachtatzis and Prof Ivan Andonovic (Machine Learning and Electronic Engineering). Studentships are available from the following:

• Carnegie/Caledonia PhD Scholarships – 3 Year PhD. Closing Date: 28 February 2020
• Economic & Social Research Council – 3 Year PhD or 3 + 1. Closing Date: 10 January 2020
• Arts and Humanities Research Council – 3.5 Year PhD. Closing Date: 6 January 2020
• Student Excellence Awards – 3 Year PhD. Closing Date: 6 March 2020
• Dean’s Global Research Scholarship (HaSS) – Up to 3 Years. Closing Date: 30 March 2020

Please contact us at [email protected] or [email protected]  well in advance of the deadlines to discuss your application, and if selected for support, to prepare your submission.  Studentships offer a stipend at UKRI rates and cover UK fees.  Additional funding is available for outstanding international candidates through the Dean’s Global Research Scholarship.

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Engineering.

• Faculty of Engineering
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Department of Education

University | A to Z | Departments

• Postgraduate study
• Available research projects

Who takes part in autism research and whose voices are being heard?

• Education home
• About the Department
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Supervisor: Dr Umar Toseeb

A) rationale for the project.

Autism spectrum conditions are characterized by social and communication difficulties, repetitive behaviours, and high sensitivity to sensory stimulus (APA, 2013). In the UK, the prevalence of ASC is estimated at ~1 (Baird et al., 2006). The condition has a number of mental health correlates, which reduce the quality of life of those affected (Matson & Nebel-Schwalm, 2007).

There has been a great push towards involving the autistic community in research. For research to be conducted with autistic people rather than on autistic people. Funders expect the autistic community to have been involved in the planning of research. Some academic journals now require explicit statements about how the autistic community were involved in the reported research. This can include autistic people helping to identify areas of need, co-designing research questions, helping to interpret findings, or autistic people leading research projects. But the autistic community is so diverse - are everyone’s voices being heard?

A common criticism of psychological research is that the participants are not representative of society at large. A large proportion of existing published autism research has been conducted by White middle class academics on/with White middle class autistic individuals. Those who are struggling the most might not have time to spare to consult on the co-production of research that is unlikely to affect them directly. Some communities might be skeptical of the researchers and therefore not engage. It may well be that a vocal minority of autistic individuals are dominating the discourse. Those who shout the loudest have their needs met. But if we are serious about ensuring that the voices of the entire spectrum of autistic community are heard, we need to know who is currently being heard and who is not.

B) References that should be read

Pickard, H., Pellicano, E., den Houting, J., & Crane, L. (2021). Participatory autism research: Early career and established researchers’ views and experiences. Autism.  https://doi.org/10.1177/13623613211019594

C) Research aims and questions

The proposed project aims to address this gap in knowledge. Applicants might want to consider some of the following research questions: 

• What is the ability and demographic profile of autistic participants who take part in quantitative and/or qualitative autism research?  
• What are the ethnoracial and  profiles of authors of autism research? E.g., ethnoracial, lived experience of autism
• What requirements do funders/academic journals have for reporting the involvement of the autistic community?
• What, if any, recommendations can be made to improve the representativeness of the autistic community within research?

The project is likely to involve a combination of primary data collection and secondary analysis of existing data. A systematic review (or a few) are likely to address some of the research questions. Semi-structured interviews might also be needed with editors of academic journals, funders, research organisations (e.g., Autistica). There is lots of scope for the successful candidate to personalise the research questions and approach as long as the broad title of the project is maintained.

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Centre for Research in Autism and Education

• Research features

Enhancing the lives of autistic people and their families through ground-breaking scientific research.

Director: Professor  Anna Remington

The UCL Centre for Research in Autism and Education (CRAE) is based within the Department of Psychology and Human Development at UCL IOE.

CRAE’s mission is to help enhance the lives of autistic people and their families.

CRAE is a team of autistic and non-autistic people, headed by Professor Anna Remington. We conduct ground-breaking scientific research to enhance our knowledge about support, education and outcomes for autistic people, their families and those who support them. This research aims to be collaborative in nature; doing research with autistic people, rather than on or about them. 

We work to ensure that this evidence-based knowledge is translated to that it can have meaningful impact and make a real difference to people’s everyday lives. 

We are committed to actively engage with autistic people and their allies (e.g., families, teachers, clinicians), as well as policy-makers and the wider public to promote awareness and acceptance of autism. We strive to achieve this through collaborative research practice, sharing knowledge and hosting an active programme of free public engagement events. 

• Professor  Anna Remington , Professor of Autism Research
• Dr Laura Crane , Deputy Director and Associate Professor
• Dr Mel (Anna) Romuladez , Lecturer in Psychology
• Dr Jana Brinkert , Research Fellow
• Dr Brian Irvine , Research Communications and Engagement Officer
• Pravina Tailor , Centre Coordinator.

Research Assistants

• Jade Davies
• Freya Elise 
• Audrey Linden
• Charlie Hamilton, Communications Assistant

Doctoral students

• Heba Al-Jayoosi
• Maria Ashworth
• Ginny D'Odorico
• Emeline Han
• Alison Livemore
• Sarah Quinnell 
• Norah Richards
• Clare Truman 

Honorary staff

• Victoria Bovell OBE, Senior Research Associate
• Ali Northcott, Researcher and Artist in Residence
• Katelyn Smalley, Honorary Research Fellow
• Kana Umagami, Honorary Research Fellow

We are hugely grateful to the wonderful research participants, funders and collaborators who make the work that we do possible.

Currently, we are generously supported by the Pears Foundation .

We are also indebted to our initial 2009 funders, alongside the Pears Foundation, the Clothworkers Foundation and the Kirby Lang Foundation we are thankful of the support of Ambitious about Autism, Autistica, The Bloomsbury Colleges, The British Academy, Economic and Social Research Council, European Research Council, UCL Grand Challenges, and the Wellcome Trust.

A huge thank you to all the autistic children, young people and adults, their families and those who support them, and to all of the schools with whom we work. Our work would simply not be possible without their continued support.

Activities 

Our centre has a broad, active programme of research including experimental work on social, cognitive and perceptual development in autistic children, adolescents and adults. Insights from this research help us to develop and test different intervention and education approaches to better understand how autistic people learn.

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Centre for Research in Autism and Education (CRAE) Department of Psychology and Human Development IOE, UCL's Faculty of Education and Society University College London 55-59 Gordon Square London WC1H 0NU

Related links

• Centre for Research in Autism and Education website

Meet our academics: Q&A with Anna Remington

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Autism Research at Kent

Featured story.

Autism Research at Kent (ARK) is made up of academics and clinicians working in the  School of Psychology  and the  Tizard Centre at the University of Kent with shared research interests. The goal of our research is to gain a fuller understanding of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), especially how it affects social communication, visual attention and everyday functioning.

The findings will be crucial to identifying the specific verbal and non-verbal elements that are impaired in people with ASD, and to guide us in developing new methods to enhance social understanding and function.

We are currently running experiments with people across the range of the Autistic spectrum, asking questions, such as:

• How do people with ASD process imagined worlds?
• How can care pathways be improved for people with ASD who are detained in hospital?
• How do things like context within a conversation impact on social communication in people with ASD?
• What is the relationship between understanding our own mental states and other people’s mental states?

If you have ASD, are a carer for someone with ASD, or if you know someone else who might be interested, we’d like to invite you to join our mailing list by  signing up .

We will keep you informed of any upcoming research that you, or someone you know, may want to take part in; events relating to ASD that we are involved in in the local area; and details of our latest research publications.

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Autism Studies (Distance Learning)

The Autism Studies MA provides the academic background necessary for good practice both with autistic individuals and organisations that provide or arrange support.

Key information

Distance learning

• Duration 1 year full-time
• Start date September
• Location Canterbury

Our programme is designed for graduates and practitioners, giving you the confidence to apply an advanced level of knowledge to many real-life situations. Gain a specialist, vocational qualification that will develop your career in the field of intellectual disabilities and autism.

The deadline for applications in consideration for entry in September is the 18 JULY , and we advise applicants who wish to be considered for entry in September to apply and provide all supporting documents by this date. Applications will remain open after the deadline, and we may be able to continue to consider applications received after this date for entry in September. However, there may be insufficient time to do so, in which case consideration would be for entry the following academic year.

Reasons to study Autism Studies (Distance Learning) at Kent

• Study alongside some of the UK’s leading academics working in autism, learning disability and community care.
• We offer a range of funding opportunities to fund your studies.
• As a student or graduate, you can join the Tizard Practitioners’ Network of experts in the field.
• Our distance learning course allows you to fit your studies around your work and personal life.
• Receive academic and professional support from leading clinicians and researchers in the field of intellectual disabilities and autism.
• Benefit from our excellent links with health and social care organisations, and other relevant establishments.

What you'll learn

You study a combination of academic modules and (if doing the MA/PDip) carry out a case study and/or dissertation which may be empirical or library-based. PDip students do the case study, while MA students do the case study and the research project.

Everything you need to know about our Autism Studies (Distance Learning) course

Entry requirements, course structure, how you'll study.

A good honours degree, typically in psychology or other relevant social sciences, or comparable professional qualifications and experience.

All applicants are considered on an individual basis and additional qualifications, professional qualifications and relevant experience may also be taken into account when considering applications. 

Please see our International Student website for entry requirements by country  and other relevant information. Due to visa restrictions, students who require a student visa to study cannot study part-time unless undertaking a distance or blended-learning programme with no on-campus provision.

English language entry requirements

This course requires a Very Good level of English language, equivalent to a high B2 on CEFR.  

Details on how to meet this requirement can be found on our  English Language requirements webpage . 

Examples:  

IELTS 6.5 with a minimum of 5.5 in each component 

PTE Academic 67 with a minimum of 59 in each sub-test 

A degree from the UK 

A degree from a Majority English Speaking Country

Please note that if you are required to meet an English language condition, we offer a number of pre-sessional courses in English for Academic Purposes through  Kent International Pathways .

The following modules are indicative of those offered on this programme. This list is based on the current curriculum and may change year to year in response to new curriculum developments and innovation.  Most programmes will require you to study a combination of compulsory and optional modules. You may also have the option to take modules from other programmes so that you may customise your programme and explore other subject areas that interest you.

• Further details

Research Methods

The aim of this module is to teach students about research methodology and the knowledge needed to access and interpret the research literature. For those who take the statistical analysis element, the aim is also to teach appropriate statistical techniques for the analysis of quantitative data. The emphasis will be on methods of data collection and analysis which will be useful in practice settings, so that advanced multivariate techniques will not be taught.

Find out more

Behaviour Analysis and Intervention

Students will receive training on behaviour analysis and broader systems of support that have emerged from the field of behavioural science to support individuals diagnosed with intellectual and/or developmental disabilities. The module will critically evaluate the historical application of behavioural approaches, focusing on ethical and empowering support frameworks that can improve people's quality of life. Training will cover basic behavioural principles that link to how we learn, assessment strategies to better understand behaviour within its context, strategies to support individuals that might be exhibiting behaviours described as challenging, and ways to promote communication and the development of skills.

Service Issues in Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities by Distance Learning

The aim of this module is to give students an understanding of organisational issues involved in learning disability services, including institutionalisation and deinstitutionalisation, theories of normalisation and criticisms of these theories, methods of analysing quality of life and care and ways of producing change in services. This module is taught as a web-based guided study module with seminars at several points in the first term. For AIIDD students, this module is closely linked to the service placement and discussion and application of web-based units will occur during placement supervision.

Extended Essay

All students will write one essay on a topic which requires them to draw on material from the service issues, social psychology and behavioural analysis and intervention modules. This will be done over the course of the year for full time students and in the second year for part time students and will be submitted during the third term of the final year.

Social Psychology of Autism

The aim of this module is to teach the basic facts about the nature and origins of autism, including definitions, epidemiology, biological, social and environmental causes. In addition, characteristics and needs of people with autism will be considered (including cognitive and social characteristics). All of this information will be set within the wider context of intellectual and developmental disabilities and students, although focusing primarily on autism, will be required to learn and know about these issues more widely. Over 50% of people with autism have a co-morbid condition and therefore this is an essential approach.

Social Psychology of Autism: Advanced

The aim of this module is to teach advanced facts about the nature and origins of autism, including definitions, epidemiology, biological, social and environmental causes and autism specific interventions. This module will build on the knowledge of characteristics and needs of people with autism (including co-morbidities), set within the wider context of intellectual and developmental disabilities. Whist TZRD8660 (Social Psychology of Autism by Distance Learning) introduced students to intervention and approaches to supporting people with autism, this module will expand this knowledge to include the critical understanding of the research evidence around intervention in autism. Theories used to explain autism will be discussed in depth, with students supported to critically interrogate the evidence base. The knowledge and understanding developed will be used to compare and contrast approaches to intervention and draw intelligent conclusions about policy and practice. Issues from across the lifespan will be addressed, including early intervention.

Case Study Assessment and Intervention 1

This module is intended for health or social care professionals who are working with people who are on the autism spectrum (either in a paid or voluntary basis), or those who are family carers. Students will be able to apply their theoretical learning from TZRD8660 (Social Psychology of Autism) and TZRD8730 (Social psychology of autism: Advanced) to case studies.

Students will work their way through the case study material provided. As they do so, they draw on the knowledge they have gained from the academic modules related to the characteristics and nature of autism, the causes and theories of autism, intervention and approaches to support, challenging behaviour and complex needs, and service design, service quality and organisation change. They will use this knowledge to analyse case study data, produce formulations, plan interventions, interpret outcome data and describe methods of implementation, monitoring and evaluation.

Case Study Assessment and Intervention 2

This module is intended for health or social care professionals who are working with people with autism (either in a paid or voluntary basis), or those who are family carers. Students will be able to apply their theoretical learning from TZRD8660 (Social Psychology of Autism) and TZRD8730 (Social psychology of autism: Advanced) to case studies.

Students will work their way through the case study material provided. As they do so, they draw on the knowledge they have gained from the academic modules related to the characteristics and nature of autism, the causes and theories of autism, intervention and approaches to support, challenging behaviour and complex needs, and service design, service quality and organisation change. They will use this knowledge to analyse case study data, produce formulations, plan interventions, interpret outcome data and describe methods of implementation, monitoring and evaluation

Research Project in Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities

During the first term of the course students will develop ideas for their research project and will be given the opportunity to choose a research project proposed and supervised by members of the course team or other Tizard staff ( course handbook for the list of topics for the current year). Students who choose to design their own project will be allocated a project supervisor. Students following the MSc in Analysis and Intervention in Intellectual and Developmental Disability are required to do an empirical project. All other students can choose between either an empirical or a non-empirical (e.g. policy or research review) project.

Students develop a proposal (assessed) for their research project with advice from their supervisor and apply for ethical approval either to the Tizard Ethics Committee (Ethical Review Checklist available on web-based resources) or to another ethics committee such as those in the NHS.

Write,Right

Duration: One year full-time, two years part-time

Coursework is taught through a mixture of web-based resources, directed reading, videos, lectures, seminars and practical sessions, supported by a number of workshops, where you work with skilled professionals and have the opportunity to share ideas and experiences with fellow students.

Note:  Workshop one and exam attendance is compulsory for all postgraduate distance learning students on this course.

Teaching and assessment

Each of the five taught modules is assessed by a computer-based exam and an extended essay. In addition, the Research Methods module involves short assignments and a worked problem.

Programme aims

This programme aims to:

• provide you with a detailed knowledge of autism and other developmental disabilities
• provide you with experience of conducting research or intervention in the field of autism.

Learning outcomes

Knowledge and understanding.

You will gain knowledge and understanding of:

• the characteristics, diagnosis and epidemiology of autism
• cognitive, communicative and social characteristics of people with intellectual disabilities
• biological, social and environmental causes of autism
• behaviour analysis
• intervention and approaches to supporting people with autism
• challenging behaviour and other associated complex needs
• ideology, policy and service development
• definition and measurement of service quality
• the relationships between service organisation and quality research methodology.

Intellectual skills

You develop intellectual skills in:

• appraising and interpreting evidence from the academic literature and personal/work experience
• presenting critical, balanced arguments.

Subject-specific skills

You gain subject-specific skills in:

• (applies to MA and PDip only) conducting research on a topic relevant to autism and / or conducting an intervention study and case study assignment relevant to autism.

Transferable skills

You will gain the following transferable skills:

• communication: the ability to organise information clearly and respond to written sources
• numeracy: if you are doing the statistical element of the research methods module, you will make sense of statistical materials and integrate quantitative and qualitative information. You will also become familiar with ways of summarising and presenting data
• information technology: the ability to produce written documents, undertake online research
• working with others:  the ability to work co-operatively on group tasks both within the virtual learning environment and during the residential workshops
• improve your own learning: the ability to explore your strengths and weaknesses, time management skills and review your working environment
• problem-solving: the ability to identify and define complex problems, explore alternative solutions and discriminate between them.

Study support

All teaching takes place at the Tizard Centre. Postgraduate research students have a shared office space with a computer and telephone.

Acclaimed active department

The Tizard Centre runs an annual seminar series where staff or guest lecturers present the results of research or highlight recent developments in the field of social care. The Jim Mansell Memorial Lecture invites public figures or distinguished academics to discuss topics that could interest a wider audience. The Centre also publishes the Tizard Learning Disability Review (in conjunction with Emerald Publishing) to provide a source of up-to-date information for professionals and carers.

The Tizard Centre provides consultancy to organisations in the statutory and independent sectors, both nationally and internationally, in diversified areas such as service assessment, person-centred approaches, active support and adult protection. The Centre also teaches a range of short courses, often in conjunction with other organisations.

Dynamic publishing culture

Staff publish regularly and widely in journals, conference proceedings and books. Among others, they have recently contributed to: Journal of Mental Health ; Journal of Applied Research and Intellectual Disabilities ; American Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities ; and Journal of Intellectual Disability Research .

Global Skills Award

All students registered for a taught Master's programme are eligible to apply for a place on our  Global Skills Award Programme . The programme is designed to broaden your understanding of global issues and current affairs as well as to develop personal skills which will enhance your employability.

Current research areas include: social inequalities and community care; intellectual and developmental disabilities.

Staff research interests

Full details of staff research interests can be found on the School's website .

Our postgraduate courses improve employability prospects for both those with established careers and new entrants to the field. Many of our students already work with people with intellectual and developmental disabilities in professional, management or supporting capacities.

Our programmes support their continuing professional development and enhance their opportunities for career advancement. Other students, who are at the beginning of their careers, move on to a range of professional roles in health and social care including working as psychologists in learning disability or behavioural specialists in community learning disability teams; service management of development roles; clinical psychology training or a PhD.

Career destinations include working as a clinical specialist, special needs advisor, autism teacher and ABA tutor for various health and special needs organisations such as the Step by Step School, Special Help 4 Special Needs and WA Health.

The 2024/25 annual tuition fees for this course are:

• Autism Studies (Distance Learning) - PCert at Canterbury
• Autism Studies (Distance Learning) - PDip at Canterbury
• Autism Studies (Distance Learning) - MA at Canterbury

For details of when and how to pay fees and charges, please see our Student Finance Guide .

For students continuing on this programme fees will increase year on year by no more than RPI + 3% in each academic year of study except where regulated.* If you are uncertain about your fee status please contact [email protected] .

Your fee status

The University will assess your fee status as part of the application process. If you are uncertain about your fee status you may wish to seek advice from  UKCISA  before applying.

General information

For students continuing on this programme, fees will increase year on year by no more than RPI + 3% in each academic year of study except where regulated.* 

Additional costs

General additional costs.

Find out more about  general additional costs  that you may pay when studying at Kent. 

Search our scholarships finder for possible funding opportunities. You may find it helpful to look at both:

• University and external funds
• Scholarships specific to the academic school delivering this programme.

We have a range of subject-specific awards and scholarships for academic, sporting and musical achievement.

Ready to apply?

Learn more about the  application process  or begin your application by clicking on a link below.

You will be able to choose your preferred year of entry once you have started your application. You can also save and return to your application at any time.

Need help deciding?

Our friendly team is on hand to help you with any queries you have.

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Research in autism

The Autism Centre for Education and Research (ACER) contributes to improving quality of life for autistic people by conducting research that is meaningful to their lives. We conceptualise and base our work in educational, community and cultural contexts. The challenges experienced by autistic individuals, their families and educators shape our research.

Recent research and development projects related to educational provision and practice in autism

The research centre undertakes a number of research and development projects related to educational provision and practice, which informs their teaching courses . These projects include, but are not limited to the research listed below.

Developing Communication and Clarity between Stakeholders

The video below is a conversation between a researcher, parent, educational psychologist, teacher, lead teacher (autism) and SENCO. It gives professionals and the public broader and in-depth understanding of challenges parents experience and its impact on their children's educational experiences. The panel discussion contributes to knowledge by sharing knowledge of existing policy and ways educational professionals can support parents in general, and their autistic children.

Marginalised families experiences of education for their children

The Autism Centre for Education and Research has conducted a research to understand the educational provision for children on the autism spectrum coming from marginalised families. For this project we classified marginalisation as families coming from minority ethnic communities, those who have English as additional language, families from socially disadvantaged backgrounds, and children who are in social care. We surveyed the views of educational professionals, interviewed parents/ carers and teaching professionals, as well as consulting with a wide range of educational professionals.

Our research highlighted the impact of marginalisation for these children and their families more broadly as well as within education context. We also identified examples of good practice that are already being used in some settings, and what families and professionals consider is required to improve the current provision.

Download the research report

Black fathers' experiences of their child's autism

Black fathers’ experiences of autism in the UK are yet to be captured or represented in research. Dr Eli Gemegah's doctoral findings conveyed fathers’ limited involvement in their child’s care needs . Individual experiences differ according to one’s socio-demographics (gender, race, socio-economic status) and this study recognises the role that each of these factors can play on fathers’ experiences and as Black men in the UK. There is currently little research that explores Black fathers’ experiences of their child’s autism in the UK. The information fathers provide will help us to understand more about their experiences and inform ways to better support dads specifically, in the future.

This research provides an opportunity to share fathers’ experiences of raising their child with autism and contribute to much needed research evidence on Black fathers and autism discourse.

Covid-19 and the impact on families with autistic children

During the summer 2020, The Autism Centre for Education and Research (ACER) at the University of Birmingham surveyed parents of autistic children about their experiences during the Covid-19 pandemic lockdown . We particularly focussed on what home education was like and how schools supported families.

We produced a set of videos, to capture the personal experiences of some families. The films cover various topics:

• Autism, Covid-19 lockdown and school support
• Positives from the Covid-19 lockdown
• Struggles during lockdown and managing home education
• Transitioning back to school after lockdown
• Learning points for teachers post-lockdown

As well as the videos, we also produced a factsheet for teachers called  The Good, the Bad and the Helpful  to summarise what families told us. This has a number of recommendations and resources that teaching staff can use. Please feel free to share it and/or print it out.

Excellence in Autism Research and Practice

Using telepractice to train and coach parents of children with autism in rural areas in north england.

Parents play a crucial role in the education of children with autism and due to substantial cuts in the provision for people with disabilities the need to train parents using technology in innovative ways is more pressing than ever. The need for such training is greater in rural areas where parents and children have to travel long distances to get the support they are entitled to. Professionals in these areas also spend many of their working hours travelling. This study will replicate a study conducted in the US (Meadan et al., 2016) and will explore the extent to which training and coaching parents of children with autism in a county of North West England via telepractice can be an effective alternative or supplemental service. This is a 12 month project funded by BA/Leverhulme Small Research Grants (funding awarded: £9,027.27). 

Find out more about the project  Using telepractice to train and coach parents of children with autism in rural areas in North England

Teacher Training and Attention in Autism

Dr. Lila Kossyvaki is leading a new study Teacher Training and Attention in Autism funded by Erasmus Plus which started in October 2019. She is working with nine partners from four different countries (UK, Greece, Spain and Israel) and the collaboration involves universities, schools and a professional development body. The team have been awarded nearly €300,000 and the funding is for two years. The main objective of the project is to provide resources on the topic of attention and autism for teachers and professionals working with children with autism.

The project will generate three intellectual outputs. These will be a report on best practice on attention in autism in the four participating countries; a freely available cross platform version of CPAT, a successful attention intervention programme (Shalev et al., 2007) together with a detailed implementation protocol and a Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) targeted at teacher professional development on the topic in the four languages of the programme.

Report for Finnish Service Provider on research review of autism research

Dr Simon Wallace, Professor Karen Guldberg and Professor Anthony Bailey conducted a research review undertaken for an educational consultancy in Finland (Deduktia) and funded by a Finnish service provider to review the current research landscape in the field of autism studies.

This research review summarised and critiqued discovery research that covers the causes of autism, areas of difference and co-occurring difficulties. Secondly, it provided an overview of research related to practice (signs and diagnosis, interventions, education and adult services).

Cultural and Linguistic diversity

Through a partnership with Hedda Meadan-Kaplansly at University of Illinois, ACER members Professor Karen Guldberg and Dr Despina Papoudi received seed corn funding for a project entitled “Understanding the needs of culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) families with children with autism: implications for professional development.”

The aims of this project were to advance research on the needs of culturally and linguistically diverse families with children with autism in the USA and UK. This included enhancing understanding of nuanced differences in policy and service delivery; identifying currently available training resources for practitioners to support CLD families; presenting at two conferences and undertaking collaborative work to co-design a future funded project.

Transforming Autism Education

The Transforming Educational Practice in Autism: enhancing the skills, knowledge and understanding of teachers in the UK, Italy and Greece project, also known as ' Transform Autism Education ,' was a research and development project (2014 - 2017) funded by the European Commission, to gather together a community of researchers, policy makers and practitioners in the UK, Italy and Greece to research current educational practices in autism in those respective contexts and to create professional development programmes in Greece and Italy. Led by Principal Investigator Professor Karen Guldberg, it involved a partnership of seven organisations in England, Greece and Italy.

Meeting the needs of pupils with autism in Qatar: moving forward

Professor Karen Guldberg was commissioned by the World Innovation Summit for Education (WISE), an initiative of the Qatar Foundation, to undertake fieldwork and write a research report on ‘Meeting the needs of pupils with autism: moving forward.’ Dr. Lila Kossyvaki was co-investigator with Dr. Bradley, Dr. Ashbee and Dr Basulayyim as researchers.

The research report was published in English and Arabic. It has been well received, including recommendations and citations from a number of academics in the Gulf region. Professor Guldberg was invited to present at the WISE Summit in Doha in November 2017.

Scientific Review of the Benchmarking Autism Services Efficacy (BASE) report

Professor Guldberg was commissioned by the prestigious John and Lorna Wing Foundation to undertake a scientific review of the Benchmarking Autism Services Efficacy (BASE) report in Northern Ireland. This scientific report was undertaken with Professor Guldberg as Principal Investigator and Professor Sarah Parsons at University of Southampton as Co-Investigator.

Ten senior academics were also involved  in the scientific review. These reviewers included Consultant Clinical Psychologist Judy Gould; Professor Connie Kasari (UCLA); Emeritus Professor Patricia Howlin (Kings College); Professor Graeme Douglas (UoB); Professor Neil Humphreys (University of Manchester); Dr. Abigail Knight (UCL); Professor Melanie Nind (University of Southampton); Dr. Samantha Parsons (UCL); Professor Jill Porter (University of Reading); Professor Emma Smith (University of Warwick) and Professor Patrick Sturgis (University of Southampton).

The charity ‘Autism Northern Ireland’ discussed the findings from the report with members of the Executive Office in Northern Ireland. This led the Ministry of Health there to nullify the recommendations made by the initial research that all Early Years children should receive Early Intensive Behavioural Interventions.

University of Birmingham Autism Courses: impact beyond certification

Research and development projects related to technology enhanced learning .

Members of ACER have undertaken a number of projects that look at how technology enhanced learning can support autistic children and young people in their learning.

Using new technologies at schools: working with pupils with autism and additional needs

Share-it: school-home autism research environment through intelligent technologies, robots in the classroom.

The aim of this project in 2013 was to establish a bridge between groups in the School of Education, the School of Computer Science and the School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, thus providing the basis for a collaboration between researchers within University of Birmingham. Professor Karen Guldberg was the Principal investigator, with Dr Nick Hawes, and Dr Ginevra Castellano. PhD student Patricia Perez-Fuster and Dr Lila Kossyvaki were involved from the School of Education, with students Tristan Bell and Alex Maley from the School of Computer Science.

Shaping the future of educational technologies today: from prototypes to practice

The aim of this ESRC funded project (2012-2013), was to contribute to shaping the future landscape of technology use for children on the autism spectrum in the classroom, and through this to contribute to educational advancement, emotional wellbeing and positive outcomes for children. The project was led by Professor Karen Guldberg, with Professors Sarah Parsons (University of Southampton), Kaska Porayska-Pomsta (UCL) and Wendy Keay-Bright (Cardiff Metropolitan University) as Co-investigators, and with Dr. Lila Kossyvaki and Dr Marilena Mademtzi as researchers at University of Birmingham.

Selected publications

Journal articles.

Ashbee, E. & Guldberg, K. (2017) Using a ‘collaborative contextual enquiry’ methodology for understanding inclusion for autistic pupils in Palestine , Educational Review,

Bradley, R. and Newbutt, N. (2018) Autism and virtual reality head-mounted displays: A state of the art systematic review . Journal of Enabling Technologies , 12 (3): 101-113. 

Bradley, R. (2016). ‘ Why single me out? Peer mentoring, autism, and inclusion in mainstream secondary schools. British Journal of Special Education. Vol 43, Issue 3: 272-288. 

Guldberg, K., Achtypi, A., D’Alonzo,L., Laskaridou, K., Milton, D., Molteni, P., & Wood, R. (in press) Using the value-creation framework to capture knowledge co-creation and pathways to impact in a transnational community of practice in autism education’, International Journal of Research & Method in Education.  

Guldberg, K. (2017) Evidence Based Practice in autism educational research: can we bridge the research and practice gap?  Oxford Review of Education, Vol. 43 (2): 149-161. 

Guldberg, K., Parsons, S., Porayska-Pomsta, K. & Keay-Bright, W. (2017) Challenging the knowledge transfer orthodoxy: knowledge co-construction in technology enhanced learning for children with autism , British Educational Research Journal, 43 (2): 394-413. 

Kossyvaki, L. and Curran, S. (2018) The role of technology-mediated music-making in enhancing engagement and social communication in children with autism and intellectual disabilities.   Journal of Intellectual Disabilities . 

Kossyvaki, L., & Papoudi, D. (2016). A Review of Play Interventions for Children with Autism at School. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education , 63(1). 

Kourti, M., & MacLeod, A. (2018). “I Don't Feel Like a Gender, I Feel Like Myself”: Autistic Individuals Raised as Girls Exploring Gender Identity . Autism in Adulthood: Knowledge, Practice, and Policy. 1:1, p. 1-8.  

Loukisas, T., & Papoudi, D. (2016). Mothers’ Experiences of Children in the Autistic Spectrum in Greece: Narratives of development, education and disability across their blogs . International Journal of Disability, Development and Education 63(1). 

MacLeod, A., Allan, J., Lewis, A., & Robertson, C. (2018). ‘Here I come again’: the cost of success for higher education students diagnosed with autism . International Journal of Inclusive Education, 22(6), 683-697. 

Mengoni, S.E., Irvine,K., Thakur, D., Barton, G., Dautenhahn, K., Guldberg, K., Robins, B., Wellsted, D. & Sharma, S. (2017) Feasibility study of a randomised controlled trial to investigate the effectiveness of using a humanoid robot to improve the social skills of children with autism spectrum disorder (Kaspar RCT): a study protocol. BMJ Open.  

Parr, J. R., De Jonge, M. V., Wallace, S., Pickles, A., Rutter, M. L., ... Wittemeyer, K., … & Bailey, A. J. (2015). New Interview and Observation Measures of the Broader Autism Phenotype: Description of Strategy and Reliability Findings for the Interview Measures.  Autism Research , 8 (5), 522-533. 

Parsons, S., Guldberg, K., Porayska-Pomsta, K. & Lee, R. (2015) Digital Stories as a method for evidence-based practice and knowledge co-creation in technology-enhanced learning for children with autism , International Journal of Research Methods in Education, Special Issue: E-research in educational contexts, 3: 247-271. 

Perepa, P. (2019) A Curriculum for the Dual Disability of Autism & Severe Intellectual Impairment, In R. Jordan, K. Hume and J. Roberts (Eds) Sage  Handbook on Autism and Education , London: Sage

Perepa, P. (2019)  Autism, Ethnicity and Culture: Working with Children and Families from Minority Communities , London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers

Pinto, D., Delaby, E., Merico, D., Barbosa, M., Merikangas, A., ... Wittemeyer, K. ,… & Rogé, B. (2014). Convergence of genes and cellular pathways dysregulated in autism spectrum disorders.   The American Journal of Human Genetics ,  94 (5), 677-694. 

Porayska-Pomsta, K., Alcorn, A., Avramides, K., Beale, S., Bernardini, S., Foster, M-E., Frauenberger, C., Good, J., Guldberg, K., Keay-Bright, W., Kossyvaki, L., Lemon, O., Mademtzi, M., Menzies, R., Pain, H., Rajendran, G., Waller, A. (2018) Blending Human and Artificial Intelligence to Support Autistic Children’s Social Communication Skills , ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction , Vol. 25, No. 6, Article 35. 

Searle, K. A., Ellis, L., & Kourti, M., MacLeod, A., Lear, C., Duckworth, C., Irvine, D., Jones, H. & Simpson, J. (2019). Participatory autism research with students at a UK university: evidence from a small-scale empirical project. Advances in Autism.  

Spaniol, M.M., Shalev, L., Kossyvaki, L. and Mevorach, C. (2017) Attention Training in Autism as a Potential Approach to Improving Academic Performance: A School-Based Pilot Study.   Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders.  

Wood, R. and Milton, D. (2018) Reflections on the value of autistic participation in a tri-national teacher-training project through discourses of acceptance, othering and power, British Journal of Special Education, 45 (2): 157-171. 

Wood, R. (2018) The Wrong Kind of Noise: Understanding and Valuing the Communication of Autistic Children in Schools , Educational Review.  

Wood, R. (2019) Autism, Intense Interests and Support in School: From Wasted Efforts to Shared Understandings, Educational Review (Funded by ESRC grant number ES/S011161/1). 

Guldberg, K. (forthcoming)  Developing Excellence in Autism Practice: Making a difference in education . London: Routledge.

Jordan, R.,  Roberts, J. and Hume, K. (2019)  Autism and education: an international Handbook. London: Sage.

Kossyvaki, L. (2017)  Adult Interactive Style Intervention and Participatory Research Designs in Autism: Bridging the gap between academic research and practice .  London: Routledge.  

Wood, R. (2019)  Inclusive Education for Autistic Children: Helping Children to Learn and Flourish in the Classroom , London and New York: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. (Funded by ESRC grant number ES/S011161/1). 

Book Chapters

Guldberg, K. (2017), ‘Enhancing the impact of research and knowledge co-production in Higher Education through communities of practice’, in MacDonald, J. and Cater-Steel, A. (2016) Communities of Practice- facilitating social learning in Higher Education. Springer. 

Guldberg, K. (2019) ‘Tiers of education: the power of collaborative partnership in the creation and delivery of professional development for autism practitioners.’ In Hume, K., Jordan, R., and Roberts, J., Autism and education: an international Handbook.   SAGE.

MacLeod, A. (2019) Overcoming Barriers to Educational Opportunities post school. In Jordan, R., Roberts, J. and Hume, K. (eds.) International Handbook in Autism and Education .  London: Sage. 

Papoudi, D. and Kossyvaki, L. (2018). Play and children with autism: insights from research and implications for practice. In: P. K. Smith and J. L. Roopnarine (Eds.) Cambridge Handbook of Play: Developmental and Disciplinary Perspectives . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 

Perepa, P. (2019) A Curriculum for the Dual Disability of Autism & Severe Intellectual Impairment, In R. Jordan, K. Hume and J. Roberts (Eds) Sage Handbook on Autism and Education , London: Sage

Wood, R. (2019) ‘Freda Fry, Foucault, and the Power of Silent Characters on the Radio’, in Headlam, N. and Courage, C. (eds) Gender, Sex and Gossip in Ambridge , Bingley: Emerald Publishing (Funded by ESRC grant number ES/S011161/1). 

Runswick-Cole, K. and Wood, R. (2017) ‘Bag of the Devil: The Disablement of Rob Titchener’, in Courage, C. and Headlam, N. (eds) Custard, Culverts and Cakes: Academics on Life in The Archers , Bingley: Emerald Publishing.

Research reports

Guldberg, K., Bradley, R. & Wittemeyer, K., (in press) Principles of Good Autism Practice in Education, Autism Education Trust. 

Guldberg, K., Bradley, R., Baskerville, K., Butler, M. & Simpson, P. (in press), Local Authority Impact Study. Autism Education Trust. 

Guldberg, G., Wallace, S., Bradley, R., Perepa, P., Elliz, L. amd MacLeod, A. (2021) Investigation of the causes and implications of exclusion for autistic children and young people , The Autism Education Trust

Guldberg, G., Wallace, S., Bradley, R., Perepa, P., Elliz, L. amd MacLeod, A. (2021) Investigation of the causes and implications of exclusion for autistic children and young people: Executive Summary , The Autism Education Trust

Guldberg, K., Ashbee, E., Kossyvaki, L., Bradley, R. & Basulayyim, A. (2017) Meeting the needs of pupils in Qatar: moving forward. WISE, Qatar.  

Guldberg, K. & Parsons, S. (2018) Scientific review of the ‘benchmarking autism services efficacy, (BASE) report (2015). 

Guldberg, K., Achtypi, A., Angelidi, E., Baker, L., Bradley, R., Colombo, M., Critchley,S-J., Cumino, R., D’Alonzo,L., Folci,I., Giouroukou, E., Hadjipateras-Giannoulis,K., Huggett, S., Kerem, M., Kokounaras-Liagkis, M., Kossyvaki, A, Laskaridou, K., Milton, D., Molteni,P., Sala, R., Simpson, P., Sofianopolou, K., Wood, R., Zanfroni, E. (2017) Transform Autism Education: final report. EU Erasmus Plus Dissemination Platform. 

MacLeod, A., Ellis, L., Lear, C., Kourti, M., Searle, K., Duckworth, C., Irvine, D., Jones, H., King, M., Ling, J. and Simpson, J. (2017) Enhancing Outcomes for Autistic Students: Executive Summary of the AuVision Project , Birmingham: University of Birmingham. 

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Our research into autism goes on to inform teaching on a number of taught courses and research programmes at the University.

Academics and researchers in the Autism@Manchester network are involved in autism related teaching on the following courses.

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We choose projects that align with our organisational priorities and work with universities and other partners. We also commission evaluations that allow us to better understand the impact of our services. Here are some of our current research and evaluation projects.

Right from the Start - support for parents of young autistic children

We commissioned a piece of research from the University of Warwick and University College London (UCL) to examine the needs of parents who have young autistic children, and their access to services including barriers and facilitators.

The methodology included an online survey and follow up interviews with parents of young autistic children and was carried out from December 2018 to July 2019. We used the findings of this research to support the development of our Right from the Start toolkit  providing information and signposting to parents of young autistic children.

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The challenges that autistic young people face as they transition to adulthood are well documented. Only one in four autistic young people continue their education beyond school. We are supporting a team of four young researchers to co-produce a piece of research into post-16 education and training for autistic young people working with the Centre for Research in Autism and Education (CRAE).

Funded by the Department for Education through the Autism Education Trust (AET), this research considers what change there have been for autistic young people in post–16 education, since the introduction of new entitlements to education provision to age 25 under the Children and Families Act 2014. The final report will be presented to the Department for Education in March 2020.

Family History Of Autism And ADHD Vary With Recruitment Approach And SES

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Autism and ADHD are neurodevelopmental conditions that impact an individual’s behavior, communication, and cognitive processes. Autism is characterized by challenges in social interaction, restricted interests, and repetitive behaviors, while ADHD is associated with inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. Research suggests a strong genetic component to both conditions, with increased likelihood of diagnosis among individuals who have a sibling or parent with autism or ADHD. Moreover, there is significant co-occurrence between autism and ADHD, further indicating potential shared genetic underpinnings. Understanding the heritability and familial patterns of these conditions is crucial for early identification, intervention, and support for individuals and families affected by autism and ADHD.

• The prevalence of family history (FH) of autism and ADHD varies depending on the recruitment approach used in developmental studies. Rates were 3-9% for diagnosed cases.
• The highest rate of FH-autism/ADHD was in the sample recruited through an online participant pool, which also had the most socio-economically diverse families.
• Lower parental education and income were associated with higher rates of FH-ADHD. Lower parental education was associated with increased FH-autism.
• Recruitment strategies meaningfully impact sample neurodiversity and the generalizability of findings. Online crowdsourced samples may be more representative than university databases/social media.

Autism and ADHD are highly heritable neurodevelopmental conditions. Children with a parent or sibling diagnosed with autism or ADHD have a significantly higher likelihood of receiving a diagnosis themselves (Chen et al., 2017; Constantino et al., 2010; Messinger et al., 2013; Miller et al., 2019; Risch et al., 2014).

Around 30-40% of individuals with autism or ADHD have a co-occurring diagnosis of the other condition (Lai et al., 2019; Rong et al., 2021).

However, family history of autism/ADHD is not often considered during recruitment for developmental studies, despite the high recurrence rates and impact on neurodivergent development.

This study aimed to examine how rates of FH-autism/ADHD vary across different recruitment methods and family socioeconomic factors in young children.

The researchers looked at rates of autism or ADHD among family members of children who are autistic or have ADHD.

Participants were 1055 children aged 9-46 months from three UK-based samples recruited using different methods. The samples varied in socioeconomic diversity.

• The rate of FH-autism or FH-ADHD was 3–9% for diagnosed cases.
• The rate was highest in the sample recruited through an online participant pool, which also consisted of the most socio-economically diverse families.
• Lower parental education and family income were associated with higher rates of FH-ADHD. Lower parental education was associated with increased FH-autism.

This study provides important insights into how recruitment methods and family socioeconomic factors relate to rates of FH-autism/ADHD in developmental research samples.

The finding that online crowdsourced samples had the highest rates of FH-autism/ADHD and greatest socioeconomic diversity suggests this recruitment approach may yield more representative samples than university databases or social media.

The associations between lower parental education/income and higher rates of FH-ADHD/autism align with previous research linking autism and ADHD to socioeconomic status (Durkin et al., 2017; Russel et al., 2016).

Future research should examine potential mechanisms underlying these associations and take family history and socioeconomic diversity into account when developing recruitment strategies.

Below are some notable strengths with this study:

• Examined rates of FH-autism/ADHD across multiple samples recruited using different methods
• Large total sample size of over 1,000 participants
• Included socioeconomically diverse families

Limitations

Below are some of the limitations of this study:

• Samples were all from the UK, limiting geographic generalizability
• Family history was based on parent-report, not verified diagnoses
• Cross-sectional design prevents causal conclusions about links between socioeconomic factors and FH-autism/ADHD

Implications

The results suggest that developmental researchers should carefully consider how their recruitment strategies may impact the neurodiversity and representativeness of their samples.

In particular, online crowdsourcing may be an effective way to recruit more socioeconomically diverse samples with higher rates of FH-autism/ADHD compared to traditional university or social media-based approaches.

Clinically, the findings highlight the importance of screening for family history, especially among socioeconomically disadvantaged families, to identify children at higher likelihood of autism/ADHD.

Finally, the socioeconomic associations underscore the need for policies and services that support neurodivergent individuals and families across the socioeconomic spectrum.

Primary reference

Bazelmans, T., Scerif, G., Holmboe, K., Gonzalez‐Gomez, N., & Hendry, A. (2024). Rates of family history of autism and ADHD varies with recruitment approach and socio‐economic status.  British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 42 (2), 117–132.  https://doi.org/10.1111/bjdp.12469

Other references

Chen, Q., Brikell, I., Lichtenstein, P., Serlachius, E., Kuja‐Halkola, R., Sandin, S., & Larsson, H. (2017). Familial aggregation of attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder.  Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry ,  58 (3), 231-239. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12616

Constantino, J. N., Zhang, Y. I., Frazier, T., Abbacchi, A. M., & Law, P. (2010). Sibling recurrence and the genetic epidemiology of autism.  American Journal of Psychiatry ,  167 (11), 1349-1356. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.09101470

Durkin, M. S., Maenner, M. J., Baio, J., Christensen, D., Daniels, J., Fitzgerald, R., … & Yeargin-Allsopp, M. (2017). Autism spectrum disorder among US children (2002–2010): Socioeconomic, racial, and ethnic disparities.  American journal of public health ,  107 (11), 1818-1826. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2017.304032

Lai, M. C., Kassee, C., Besney, R., Bonato, S., Hull, L., Mandy, W., Szartmari, P., & Ameis, S. H. (2019). Prevalence of co-occurring mental health diagnoses in the autism population: a systematic review and meta-analysis.  The Lancet Psychiatry ,  6 (10), 819-829. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(19)30289-

Messinger, D. S., Young, G. S., Webb, S. J., Ozonoff, S., Bryson, S. E., Carter, A., … & Zwaigenbaum, L. (2015). Early sex differences are not autism-specific: A Baby Siblings Research Consortium (BSRC) study.  Molecular autism ,  6 , 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13229-015-0027-y

Miller, M., Musser, E. D., Young, G. S., Olson, B., Steiner, R. D., & Nigg, J. T. (2019). Sibling recurrence risk and cross-aggregation of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder.  JAMA pediatrics ,  173 (2), 147-152.

Risch, N., Hoffmann, T. J., Anderson, M., Croen, L. A., Grether, J. K., & Windham, G. C. (2014). Familial recurrence of autism spectrum disorder: evaluating genetic and environmental contributions.  American Journal of Psychiatry ,  171 (11), 1206-1213. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2014.13101359

Rong, Y., Yang, C. J., Jin, Y., & Wang, Y. (2021). Prevalence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in individuals with autism spectrum disorder: A meta-analysis.  Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders ,  83 , 101759. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2021.101759

Russell, A. E., Ford, T., Williams, R., & Russell, G. (2016). The association between socioeconomic disadvantage and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a systematic review.  Child Psychiatry & Human Development ,  47 , 440-458. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-015-0578-3

Keep Learning

Here are some potential discussion questions for a college class on this paper:

• How might researchers weigh the pros and cons of different recruitment strategies in light of these findings? What additional factors should they consider?
• What potential mechanisms might explain the associations between lower socioeconomic status and higher rates of FH-autism/ADHD? How could future research test these mechanisms?
• How can developmental research become more inclusive and representative of the full spectrum of neurodiversity? What other steps, beyond broadening recruitment, may be needed?
• What are the implications of these findings for clinical screening and support services for families of children with or at risk for autism/ADHD? How can we ensure equitable access?
• How might intersectionality between neurodivergence and socioeconomic disadvantage shape individuals’ and families’ experiences and outcomes? What related research questions does this study raise?

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