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• A Quick Guide to OSCOLA Referencing | Rules & Examples

A Quick Guide to OSCOLA Referencing | Rules & Examples

Published on 28 February 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on 5 May 2022.

The Oxford University Standard for the Citation of Legal Authorities (OSCOLA) is a referencing style used by students and academics in law.

OSCOLA referencing places citations in footnotes, which are marked in the text with footnote numbers:

The judge referred to the precedent established by Caulfield v Baldwin . 1

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Table of contents

Citing sources with oscola footnotes, oscola referencing examples, oscola tables and bibliography.

A citation footnote appears whenever you quote from, paraphrase or otherwise refer to the content of a source in your text.

A footnote is marked in the text with a footnote number, which appears at the end of the relevant sentence or clause. The number is displayed in superscript (i.e. 1) and appears after any punctuation like a comma or full stop:

These footnotes contain full information on the source cited. The format in which you present this information varies according to the type of source; examples are presented in the following section. A footnote always ends with a full stop:

Standard abbreviations

To save space in OSCOLA citations, abbreviations are used for the names of various publications and legal bodies.

For example, ‘UKSC’ is the United Kingdom Supreme Court, and ‘Cr App R’ refers to the Criminal Appeal Reports.

A full, searchable index of these abbreviations can be found here .

Pinpointing

In OSCOLA referencing, referring to a specific page number within a source is called pinpointing. To pinpoint, simply include a page number at the end of your reference, in addition to any page numbers already included.

For example, in the following citation, the first number refers to the page on which the report begins , while the second number pinpoints the passage you’re referring to :

Where available, paragraph numbers should be used instead of page numbers. Only do this if paragraph numbers are explicitly used in the text. Paragraph numbers appear in square brackets and can be used for pinpointing in the same way as page numbers:

Note that if you’re pinpointing a judge’s comments within a case report, you include the name of the judge, and some special terms and abbreviations are used in the citation and in the text.

If the judge is a peer, refer to them as ‘Lord’, e.g. Lord Williams. If they are a Lord/Lady Justice, use ‘LJ’, e.g. Williams LJ. If neither of these is the case, use ‘J’ for judge, e.g. Williams J:

Cross-referencing repeated citations of the same source

OSCOLA uses a system of cross-referencing to save space when you repeatedly cite the same source. This means that for subsequent references of a source, you don’t have to repeat the full citation.

When you refer to the same source you have just referred to (i.e. when the previous footnote was also about that source), you can simply use ‘ibid’ (Latin for ‘in the same place’):

In this example, the second footnote also refers to Davis v Dignam, but to page 522 instead of page 519.

When the previous reference to the source was in an earlier footnote (i.e. when other citations appear in between), use the author’s last name or the title (shortened if it’s a longer title), followed by the number of the previous citation (in brackets and preceded by ‘n’), then the page number you’re pinpointing (if different than the first citation):

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OSCOLA provides formats for a variety of source types. The most common ones are covered below.

Case reports

When citing a case, you’ll usually begin with a neutral citation – a way of referring to the case that does not relate to a particular report – and then give the details of the report afterwards. If no neutral citation exists, as with cases before 2002, you can just begin with the report.

Additionally, note that the year (for the report) is displayed differently depending on whether it is essential to the citation. For reports where each year is also identified with a volume number, the year appears in normal brackets. For those where multiple volumes appear in one year, the year appears in square brackets.

• Case report with neutral citation
• Case report with no neutral citation

Acts of Parliament

Use a short version of the title if the full title is longer than three words. If necessary, refer to specific parts of an Act of Parliament using section, subsection and paragraph numbers.

Statutory instruments

Statutory instruments (SIs) are numbered consecutively throughout the year; it’s this number that appears at the end of the citation – the example below is the 149th SI of 2020.

House of Commons bills are cited slightly differently from House of Lords bills. You write ‘HC Bill’ or ‘HL Bill’ depending upon which house it is, and bill numbers for Commons bills appear in square brackets.

• House of Commons bill
• House of Lords bill

Hansard is the official transcript of parliamentary debates in the UK. As with bills, write ‘HC’ for the House of Commons and ‘HL’ for the House of Lords. ‘Deb’ is short for ‘debate’, ‘vol’ for volume, and ‘col’ for column.

Use the full name of the author(s) as written in the source. List the edition (abbreviated to ‘edn’) when it is stated on the title page. Note that OSCOLA recommends abbreviating ‘Oxford University Press’ to ‘OUP’; this is not the case with other publishers.

Certain older books are listed by OSCOLA as ‘works of authority’ and given special abbreviated citations. For example, the following is a citation of volume 3, page 75 of Blackstone’s Commentaries on the Laws of England :

OSCOLA provides a list of these abbreviations in their full guide , section 4.2.3.

Journal articles

As with case reports, square brackets are used for years in a journal citation if the year also identifies the volume; normal brackets are used when there are multiple volumes in a year.

Note that standard abbreviations are also used for journal names; here ‘MLR’ refers to Modern Law Review.

In a longer work, such as a thesis or dissertation , OSCOLA requires you to include tables listing any cases and legislation you cited, as well as a bibliography listing any secondary sources . For shorter essays, this is usually not necessary, but do check your institution’s guidelines.

The tables and bibliography appear at the end of your text. The table of cases comes first, followed by the table of legislation, and then the bibliography.

Sources are listed in alphabetical order within each table and in the bibliography.

Table of cases

Cases are written in a similar format here and in the main text; the only difference is the names of the parties involved are not italicised in the table of cases:

Table of legislation

The table of legislation includes all legal sources used other than cases – for example, bills, Acts of Parliament and SIs. Items in the table of legislation are listed in identical form to how they are cited in the text.

Bibliography

A bibliography lists all your secondary sources – that is, everything other than cases and legislation. For example, here you would list Hansard , any books and journal articles cited, and other sources such as blogs, social media and newspapers.

Bibliography entries differ from citations in terms of their presentation of the author’s name. Author names in the bibliography are inverted, and initials are used in place of the first name:

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If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

Caulfield, J. (2022, May 05). A Quick Guide to OSCOLA Referencing | Rules & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 3 June 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/referencing/oscola/

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OSCOLA Referencing: Websites and Blogs

• England and Wales
• Northern Ireland
• UK Statutes
• Primary Legislation: Wales
• Primary Legislation: Scotland
• Primary Legislation: Northern Ireland
• UK Statutory Instruments
• Secondary Legislation: Wales
• Secondary Legislation: Scotland
• Secondary Legislation: Northern Ireland
• EU Legislation
• Judgments of the European Court of Justice and General Court
• European Commission Decisions
• European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) Judgments
• Decisions and Reports of the European Commission on Human Rights
• European Commission Documents (proposals, action plans etc.)
• Cases from other jurisdictions
• Legislation from other jurisdictions
• Books (Authored)
• Books (Edited or Translated)
• Chapters/Essays in edited Books
• Other Books
• Journal Articles
• Command Papers
• Law Commission Reports
• Conference Papers

Websites and Blogs

• Newspaper Articles
• Personal Communications
• Generative AI
• Citing Primary Sources
• Citing Secondary Sources
• Subsequent Citations

OSCOLA Referencing

The following are examples of how to reference websites and blogs.

Template (Footnote):

author, | ‘title’ | ( website or blog name , | publication date) | <URL> | access date.

Sarah Cole, ‘Virtual Friend Fires Employee’ (Naked Law, 1 May 2009). <http://www.nakedlaw.com/2009/05/index.html> accessed 19 November 2009.

• << Previous: Theses
• Next: Newspaper Articles >>
• Last Updated: May 28, 2024 2:17 PM
• URL: https://library.rgu.ac.uk/oscola

Referencing and citations - OSCOLA: Websites

• Legislation
• Other sources
• Cross referencing
• Referencing software
• Help and support

Websites Contents

In a nutshell.

Try and follow the general principles for citing secondary sources ie

      · Give the author’s name exactly as it appears in the publication.

      ·  If no individual author is identified, but an organisation or institution claims editorial responsibility for the work, then cite it as the author.

      ·  If appropriate to cite an anonymous source (eg blog) start citation with the title.

      ·  All titles should be within single quotation marks and in roman. Capitalize the first letter in all major words in a title.

If information is missing (eg date of publication), construct a logical citation, following OSCOLA guidelines, with such information as is available.

The most important features of a citation to a website are the web address in <angled brackets> and the date on which you accessed it. These should come at the end of the citation. If you need to pinpoint within the website, the pinpoint should come before the URL.

• Sarah Cole, ‘Virtual Friend Fires Employee’ ( Naked Law , 1 May 2009) <http://www.nakedlaw.com/2009/05/index.html> accessed 19 November 2009.

Important points to note

If you source a publication online which is also available in hard copy, cite the hard copy version. There is no need to cite an electronic source for such a publication.

You are responsible for the quality and accuracy of your sources. Try to authenticate the validity, accuracy and currency of any websites you wish to cite.

• << Previous: Journals
• Next: Other sources >>
• Last Updated: Feb 7, 2024 11:13 AM
• URL: https://libguides.ials.sas.ac.uk/referencing

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• OSCOLA Referencing – A complete guide

You’ve done it. You’ve extracted the key research, peppered your content with incisive observations, and you’ve just typed the last words of your Law essay conclusion.

And then… it happens. You remember that in all those pages of research, you forgot to reference the sources you used. If only you’d done it in the first place!

Knowing how to cite sources for assignments is a hugely important skill. Even if you’re still at school, learning how to reference now means you won’t get caught out at university.

If you study Law at university, you’ll use the OSCOLA referencing system. This is the Oxford University Standard for the Citation of Legal Authorities. We’ve created a comprehensive guide on exactly what OSCLA is, and how to use it.

What is OSCOLA referencing?

OSCOLA is a footnote referencing style. That means that you add small, superscript numbers (for example, 1,2,3 ) to the sources in your text, which connect to footnotes at the bottom of your page.

You may also have to include a list of tables of cases, legislation and other primary sources at the start of your essay, and a bibliography of second sources at the end. See page 10-11 of the 4th edition of OCSCOLA.

Let’s look at the OSCOLA system in detail, and how you can cite a wide range of legal sources. Our comprehensive guide refers to the 4th edition of OSCOLA produced by the University of Oxford.

Primary Sources

Case citations with neutral citations.

An example of a typical case citation with a neutral citation is:

Corr v IBC Vehicles Ltd [2008] UKHL 13, [2008] 1 AC 884

The example above shows that this is a case involving Corr and IBC Vehicles Ltd. It was the thirteenth judgement issued by the House of Lords (UKHL) in 2008. It also indicates that a report of the judgement can be found in volume 1 of the series of the Law Reports called the Appeal Cases , beginning at page 884.

Case citations without neutral citations

An example of a typical case citation without a neutral citation is:

Page vs Smith [1996] AC 155 (HL).

When the year is used to identify the law report volume, you should always put it in square brackets. If the relevant law report series was also issued in more than one volume in that particular year, give it a volume number.

When you don’t need to use the year to identify the law report volume, give the year of judgement (not publication) in round brackets.

Where there are multiple parties in cases, you should name only the first claimant and the first defendant. Where cases concern only individuals, leave out forenames and initials. You should abbreviate common words and phrases, for example:

• BC for Borough Council
• Co for Company
• DPP for Director of Public Prosecutions.

When you want to refer to something, use Re instead of, for example, In re or in the matter of. You should use Re the Domestic Abuse Act 2017 rather than In the matter of the Domestic Abuse act 2017.

(See our ‘abbreviations’ section below for further guidance).

Short forms of case names

You should give the name of the case in full when you first mention it in the text or footnotes. After that, you can shorten it.

For example, ‘in Glebe Motors plc v Dixon-Greene’ can be shortened to ‘in the Glebe Motors case’ or ‘in Glebe Motors’. If you do shorten names this way, you should always choose the name which comes first in the full name of the case – in this case Glebe Motors, rather than Dixon-Greene.

Law Reports

A law report is a published report on a judgement. A law report includes features such as a headnote summarising the facts of a case and judgement, and lists of cases considered.

In England and Wales, there are no official law reports of any kind, but the Law Report series by the Incorporated Council of Law Reporting are considered the most authoritative.

If a case is reported in the Law Reports you should cite it in preference to any other report. If you can’t find a judgement in the Law Reports , you should cite the Weekly Law Reports or the All England Law Reports.

If you can’t find a judgement in one of these general series you should refer to a specialist series of law reports such as the Family Law Reports.

When citing courts, indicate the court in brackets after the first page of the report, and before the pinpoint if there is one. A pinpoint is a reference to a particular paragraph of a judgement or page of a report.

Use HL for the House of Lords, CA for the Court of Appeal, QB, CH and F for the division of the High Court, and Com Ct for the Commercial Court within the Queen’s Bench Division.

If you’re citing a case before 1865, it doesn’t require the court. Neither do citations of cases with a neutral citation.

Judges’ names

When you make a reference to a judge in a case, use the judge’s surname followed by the conventional abbreviation identifying their judicial office. You do not need to use ‘the Honourable’.

A High Court judge should be called, for example, ‘Mr Justice Brown’, or, if a woman (and regardless of whether she is married) ‘Mrs Justice Smith). You should abbreviate both as ‘Smith J’.

A House of Lords judge (or ‘Law Lord’) is called ‘Lord Brown’ or ‘Lady Brown’, depending on gender.

The President of the Supreme Court should be abbreviated as, for example, ‘Lord Brown P’; the Deputy President as ‘Lord Brown DP’.

The Lord Chancellor (now no longer a judge) should be abbreviated as ‘Lord Brown LC’, the Lord Chief Justice as ‘Lord Brown CJ’, and the Master of the Rolls as 20 ‘Lord Brown MR’.

The Chancellor of the High Court should be abbreviated as ‘Sir John Brown C’, and Presidents of the Queen’s Bench Division and Family Division as ‘Sir Brown P’.

UK primary legislation

Names of Statutes

You should cite an Act by its short title and year in roman, using capitals for the major words. Don’t put a comma before the year. For example:

Act of Supremacy 1558

Shipping and Trading Interests (Protection) Act 1995.

Don’t use popular titles of Acts, for example, ‘Lord Campbell’s Act’. If you are referring to a particular Act a number of times in the same place, you can provide an abbreviated form of the title in the footnotes, as long as you let your reader know in advance. So, the Children Act 1989 becomes CA 1989 (not just CA).

Parts of statues

Statues are divided into parts, sections, subsections, paragraphs and subparagraphs. The relevant abbrevations are:

part / parts to pt/ pts

section / sections to s / ss

subsection / subsections to sub-s/ sub-ss

paragraph/paragraphs to para/paras

subparagraph / subparagraphs to subpara/subparas

schedule / schedules to sch/schs

Older Statutes

For older statutes, you can give the regnal year and chapter number. For example:

Crown Debts Act 1801 (41 Geo 3 c 90)

You can see from this example that the information in brackets shows that this Act was given royal assent in the forty-first year of the reign of George III.

Explanatory notes to statutes

When citing explanatory notes to statutes, precede the name of the statue with ‘Explanatory notes to the…’. For example,

Explanatory Notes to the Charities Act 2006, para 15.

An example of how to cite a Bill is:

Consolidated Fund HC Bill (2008-09).

You can see that the Bill is cited by its title, the House in which it originated (here, House of Commons), and with the parliamentary session in brackets (here, 2008-09).

UK Secondary Legislation

Statutory Instruments

Statutory instruments (orders, regulations or rules) are numbered consecutively throughout the year. The year combines with the serial number to make an SI number that follows the abbreviations ‘SI’, which we use to identify the legislation.

When you cite a statutory instrument, give the name, year and (after a comma) the SI number. For example:

Penalties for Disorderly Behaviour (Amendment of Minimum Age) Order 2004, SI 2004/3166

Parts of statutory instruments

The rules for referring to parts of statutory instruments are the same as those referring to parts of statues. Use the following abbreviations:

• regulation / regulations to reg/regs
• rule/rules to r/rr
• article/articles to art/arts

European Union legal sources

Official notices of the EU are in the Official Journal of the European Communities ( which is abbreviated to OJ). The OJ citation should be: year, OJ series, number / page. The letter ‘L’ refers to the legislation series.

EU legislation

When you cite EU treaties and protocols, give the title of the legislation, followed by the year of publication, the OK series and the issue and page numbers. For example:

Protocol to the Agreement on the Member States that do not fully apply to the Schengen acquis – Join Declarations [2007] OJ Li129/35.

You should cite Regulations, Directives, Decisions, Recommendations and Opinions by giving the legislation type, number and title, followed by publication details in the OJ. For example:

Council Directive 2002/60/EC of 27 June 2002 laying down specific provisions for the control of African swine fever and amending Directive 92/119/EEC as regards Teschen disease and African swine fever [2002] OJ L192/27

The European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR)

For judgements of the European Court of Human Rights, you should cite either the offical reports, the Reports of Judgements and Decisions (ECHR) or the European Human Rights Reports (EHRR). Be aware of the difference before and after 1996. Before 1996, the offocial reports were known and Series A and numbered consecutively. From 2001, case numbers were used instead of page numbers. For example,

Johnston v Ireland (1986) Series A no 122

Osman v UK ECHR 1998 – VIII 3124

Balogh v Hungary App no 47940/99 (ECtHR, 20 July 2004).

Omojudi v UK (2009) EHRR 10

Secondary Sources

You should cite all publications with an ISBN as if they were books, whether you read them online or in hard copy. Older books do not have ISBNs, but you should cite them as books even if you read them online.

Authored Books

You should cite the author’s name first, followed by a comma, and then the title of the book in italics. You should then follow the title with publication information in brackets. You don’t need to give the place of publication. For example:

Tom Bingham, The Rule of Law (Alan Lane 2010).

If the book has more than one volume, you should follow the volume number with the publication details. For example:

Christian von Bar, The Common European Law of Torts, vol 2 (CH Beck 2000), para 76.

Edited and Translated Books

If there is no author, cite the editor or translator as an author, adding in brackets after their name. For example ‘(ed)’ or ‘(tr)’. If there is more than one editor or translator, put ‘(eds)’ or (trs)

Hard copy journals

When you cite hard copy journal articles, give the author’s name first, followed by a comma. Then give the title of the article within single quotation marks, and the publication information as follows:

year of publication (in square brackets if it identifies the volume, in round brackets if there is a separate volume number).

• the volume number if there is one
• the name of the journal, in full or abbreviated form, with no full stops
• the first page of the article.

For example:

Paul Craig, “Theory, “Pure Theory” and Values in Public Law” [2005] PL 440.

Refence case notes with titles as if they were journal articles.

If there is no title, use the name of the case in italics instead, and put ‘note’ at the end of the citation.

Online journals

With online journals that have been published electronically, give publication details the same way you would for hard copy journal articles.

If online journals lack some of the publication elements for OSCOLA, follow the citation advice of the online journal. Remove full stops to comply with OSCOLA.

Working papers

You should cite working papers the same way as electronic journal articles. Seeing as the content of working papers are subject to change, make sure you put the date of access. For example:

Graham Greenleaf, ‘The Global Development of Free Access to Legal Information’ (2010) 1(1) EJLT accessed 27 July 2010

Other Secondary Sources

Please see the 4th edition of OSCOLA for comprehensive details on how to cite other secondary sources such as:

• Parliamentary reports
• Command papers
• Law commission reports and documents
• Conference papers
• Websites and blogs
• Newspaper articles

We hope you’ve found our complete guide to OSCOLA referencing useful. You can also use the OSCOLA Quick Reference Guide for ease when referencing.

• Subject Guides

Referencing styles - a Practical Guide

Oscola referencing style.

Used by: the York Law School

Introduction to OSCOLA referencing style

The Oxford Standard for Citation of Legal Authorities (OSCOLA) was developed at Oxford University, and is widely used by law schools and publishers to acknowledge source information.

In-text citations & footnotes

OSCOLA uses a footnote citation system.

In the text, a number in superscript 1  is added at the end of a sentence and after the punctuation. 

The reference is then given in the footnote at the bottom of the page.

Where you cite an author of a secondary source their name should appear as it does on the publication with first name/ initials before surname.

For more detailed information, see OSCOLA 1.1 and 1.2

Bibliography

The bibliography at the end of the document includes the full details of each source so the reader can find them themselves. The list is organised by type of source, and then alphabetically. See below for more details on organising the bibliography.

The information to include depends on the types of source - see the examples.

Useful resources

• OSCOLA Referencing style A downloadable version of this OSCOLA style guide, with some extra details
• OSCOLA Quick Reference Guide A handy 1 page summary of OSCOLA style
• OSCOLA 4th Edition The full OSCOLA Standard
• OSCOLA for international law Details for citing international law sources

Guidance for all source types

Citing a source multiple times in the same document.

For a case, cite in full the first time. For further references to the case, use a short form of the case name and a cross-citation in brackets to the original footnote. If the case name is included in the text, omit it in the footnote.

If the subsequent citation is directly after the full citation, simply use the term ‘ibid’. If pinpointing specific paragraphs, place these in square brackets.

When referring to a previous citation a number of footnotes back, use the short version of the case and add n as an abbreviation signposting the number of the footnote

For subsequent citation of legislation, abbreviations are acceptable. For subsequent citation of secondary sources, you only need the author’s surname.

For more detailed information see OSCOLA 1.2

Citing multiple sources in the same footnote

For  multiple references  within one footnote use semi-colons to distinguish between them and put them in chronological order with the oldest first. For example, this footnote refers to two cases:

If one or more references are more relevant than the others put these first and then ‘see also’. For example:

Also, order the sources with legislation before cases, and primary sources before secondary.

Using pinpoints and page numbers

A pinpoint is a precise reference to the part of a judgment or report through numbered paragraphs or page numbers. There are a number of ways you can pinpoint specific details within publications, depending on what the publication is. When citing more than one paragraph, place the numbers in square brackets. In this first example the pinpoints are at the end to paragraphs 42 and 45 of the case:

In this example for a secondary source the page number 131 is given at the end:

 For more detailed information, see OSCOLA 2.1.6 and OSCOLA 4.2.5

Cross-citation

Cross citation is when you are referring to discussion in another part of your writing, for example on an earlier page or in a previous chapter. It is good practice to use cross citation as little as possible.

Try to be specific and use a specific footnote number (For example  See n 52  for the footnote. OR:  See text to n 22 .)

For more detailed information see OSCOLA 1.2.2 

Direct quotes

You need to be very precise when using quotations.

Short quotations (less than three lines)

Use  single quotation marks  and include within the text. For example:

Longer quotations (longer than three lines)

Use an indented paragraph, no quotation marks and a line space above and below.

For more detailed information, see OSCOLA 1.5

Citing a source you've read about in a different source (secondary referencing)

This means referring to a source you have not read that you have found within another source that you are using.  Try to avoid secondary referencing as it is always preferable to use the original source and you should always try to locate this.

If you find you have to use secondary referencing, in the footnote cite the source you have read, followed by ‘citing’… For example:

In the bibliography insert only the source you have read. There is no specific guidance on this within OSCOLA. 

Naming judges

When referring to a judge within a case, use the judge’s surname followed by the correct abbreviation.  (Mr or Mrs Justice Smith should be called Smith J in your text).

The exception to this rule is when the judge holds a title. A Court of Appeal Judge who is Lord or Lady Smith should be referred to as  Smith LJ .

• A House of Lords judge should be referred to as  Lord or Lady Smith  and should not be abbreviated.
• A Supreme Court judge should be referred to as  Lord Smith SCJ.
• The Lord Chief Justice can be abbreviated to  Lord Woolf CJ.

For more detailed information see OSCOLA 2.1.7

Using Westlaw or Lexis Library

You do not need to include any information about Westlaw or Lexis Library in your citations, as this is just the portal through which you accessed the report, legislation or article. Simply reference the relevant source as you would a paper copy. 

Using Latin terms within footnotes

The only Latin term that is acceptable to use within the OSCOLA style is ‘ibid’, for the instances when you are referring to the same source in consecutive footnotes. Do not use other terms such as supra, op cit, loc cit.

For more information see OSCOLA 1.2.3 u 

Using abbreviations

OSCOLA abbreviates a wide range of legal sources and institutions.

Do not use punctuation when using an abbreviation. Eg, the Director of Public Prosecutions should appear as DPP not D.P.P.

For a comprehensive list of legal abbreviations, use the Cardiff index . You can search by abbreviation to find the title, or by title to find the abbreviation.

For more detailed information, see OSCOLA Appendix 4.2 

Questions about referencing?

Contact your Faculty Librarians if you have any questions about referencing.

Commonly used sources

Examples of in-text citations and reference list entries for key source types.

Use these examples alongside the information given in the 'Guidance for all source types' box.

Act of Parliament

You should refer to the year the Act was passed rather than the year it came into force. 

Use the short title and refer to specific sections of the Act eg

 OR use s for Section in the middle of a sentence. For example:

Footnote: 

You do not need to footnote an Act if you make it identifiable in the text. 

Bibliography:   List Legislation and Cases separately in alphabetical order in the bibliography. 

See the  OSCOLA guides  and our Referencing with Confidence OSCOLA Guide for more details. 

Case citations including neutral citations: List cases in the bibliography in alphabetic order of case names. Use the following format to cite cases.

Case name in italics [year] court number, [year] OR (year) volume report abbreviation first page

If you have included the case name in the text, you do not have to include the case names in the footnote: In text:  refer to the text giving case names in italics eg: In  Phipps v Boardman 31  …..

Bibliography:

For most sources in OSCOLA, the bibliographic format is the same as the footnote. List legislation, cases and secondary sources in separate sections of your bibliography in alphabetical order. 

Treat case notes with titles as if they are journal articles. Where there is no title, use the name of the case in italics instead, and add (note) at the end of the citation:

See 3.3.2 OSCOLA 4th ed. for more details. 

Book 1 author

Capitalise the first letter of each major word of the title. Page numbers stand-alone without p or pp. use the following format for the footnote:

Information to include: Author,  Title in Italics  (edition, publisher date) page.

Book 2 or 3 authors

If the book has up to three authors, include ‘and’ in between each author. Use Initials or forename unpunctuated and with no spaces followed by surname. 

Information to include: Author, Title in Italics Capitalising Major Words  (Edition, Publisher Year) page. 

Bibliography: 

See 3.2 OSCOLA 4th edn for more details. 

Book (4 or more authors)

If a book has  more than three authors,  include ‘ and others’  after the name of the first author.

Edited book (& chapters)

Chapter in an edited book.

Information to include: author, ‘Title of chapter' in editor (ed), title in italics  (additional information, publisher year)

See 3.2.3 OSCOLA 4th edn for more details. 

Edited book

See 3.2.2 OSCOLA 4th edn for more details. 

Journal article / paper

Journal article / paper (print copy).

Footnotes: author, | ‘title’ | [year] | journal name or abbreviation | first page of article / paper,| specific page referred to

author, | ‘title’ | (year) | volume | journal name or abbreviation | first page of article / paper

Put a comma after the first page of the article / paper if you want to refer to a particular page or set of pages:

If the year serves as the volume identifier, put the year in square brackets [ ]. If there is a separate volume number, put the year in round brackets  ().

In the Young example, 72 is the volume number. Bibliography:

Omit reference to specific page numbers (other than the first page of the article / paper) in your bibliographic entry.

Journal article / paper (electronic copy)

If you source a publication online which is also available in hard copy, cite the hard copy version. There is no need to cite an electronic source for such a publication.

author, | ‘title’ | [year] OR (year) | volume/issue | journal name or abbreviation | <web address> | date accessed

If the information is only available online, give the URL before the accessed date information.

See 3.3.4 OSCOLA 4th edn for more details. 

Further sources

Examples of in-text citations and reference list entries for other source types.

Cite a Bill by its title, the House in which it originated, the Parliamentary session in brackets, and the running number assigned to it. Running numbers for House of Commons Bills are put in square brackets; those for House of Lords Bills are not. When a Bill is reprinted at any stage it is given a new running number.

Title | HC Bill | (session) | [number] OR title | HL Bill | (session) | number

Footnote and bibliography: 

In the bibliography, list bills in alphabetical order under the heading Secondary Sources.

Copied from 2.4.5 OSCOLA 4th edn. 

Where there is no relevant advice elsewhere in OSCOLA, follow the general principles for secondary sources when citing websites and blogs. If there is no author identified, and it is appropriate to cite an anonymous source, begin the citation with the title in the usual way. If there is no date of publication on the website, give only the date of access.

Author, 'Web page title' ( Website in Italics , Full Date) <URL> accessed Date

See OSCOLA 4th edn 3.4.8 for more details. 

Book (translated to English)

If you read a book that was translated from another language (eg, you read an English translation of a book orginally written in German), cite the translation:

If there is an author and translator, reference as follows:

See 3.2.2  OSCOLA 4th ed. for more details. 

Book (read in another language)

If you read a book in a language other than English (eg, you read a book written in German), cite the primary source in the original language:

Footnote:  

Bibliography:  

See 1.4 OSCOLA 4th edn for more details. 

Book review

Cite a book review in the same way as a journal article, but without the quote marks. For example,

Copied from  OSCOLA FAQs

Command paper

The abbreviation preceding a command paper number depends on the year of publication:

1833–69 (C (1stseries)) 1870–99 (C (2nd series)) 1900–18 (Cd) 1919–56 (Cmd) 1957–86 (Cmnd) 1986– (Cm)

Footnotes and bibliography:

In the bibliography, list Command Papers alphabetically by author in Secondary Sources. 

For more details see 3.4.3 OSCOLA 4th ed. 

Conference papers

See 3.4.6 OSCOLA 4th ed. for more details. 

Dictionary (hard copy)

Dictionary (online).

Also consider elements of the style advice for websites and blogs (section 3.4.8).

For the OED online, open the full entry for the word, and click on the Cite button (top right above the definition). Follow that example, tidying it up to make it consistent with OSCOLA styles (eg, change double quotes to single and full stops to commas, removing those that are unnecessary; change OED Online to italics; change Oxford University Press to OUP and put it before the date; and remove http:// from the web address and delete any text after the Entry number, then put angle brackets around the url):

For other online dictionaries, follow the general advice above. You need a date of publication or at least a date of access (ie when you looked at it), as they are generally updated regularly.

Copied from  OSCOLA FAQs. 

When citing personal communications, such as emails and letters, give the author and recipient of the communication, and the date. If you are yourself the author or recipient of the communication, say ‘from author’ or ‘to author’ as appropriate.

See 3.4.11 OSCOLA 4th edn for more details

Encyclopedia

Cite as a book but exclude author or editor and publisher. Include the edition and year. Pinpoints such as volumes and page numbers come after the publication information.

If citing an online encyclopedia, give the URL and date of access:

See OSCOLA 4th edn 3.2.6 for more details. 

Entry in a reference book

List in the bibliography in alphabetical order under Secondary Sources. 

European Court of Justice case

European union regulation, hansard & parliamentary reports.

There are three series of Hansard, one reporting debates on the floor of the House of Commons, one debates in the House of Lords, and one debates in the Public Bill committees of the House of Commons, which replaced standing committees in 2007. When referring to the first two series, cite the House abbreviation (HL or HC), followed by ‘Deb’, then the full date, the volume and the column. Use ‘col’ or ‘cols’ for column(s). In the House of Commons, written answers are indicated by the suffix ‘W’ after the column number; in the House of Lords, they are indicated by the prefix ‘WA’ before the column number.

HL Deb OR HC Deb | date, | volume, | column

See 3.4.2 OSCOLA 4th ed. for more details. 

When citing an interview you conducted yourself, give the name, position and institution (as relevant) of the interviewee, and the location and full date of the interview. If the interview was conducted by someone else, the interviewer’s name should appear at the beginning of the citation.

See 3.4.10 OSCOLA 4th ed. for more details. 

Footnote and bibliography:

Newspaper article

When citing newspaper articles, give the author, the title, the name of the newspaper in italics and then in brackets the city of publication and the date. Some newspapers have ‘The’ in the title and some do not. If known, give the number of the page on which the article was published, after the brackets. If the newspaper is divided into sections, and the page numbering begins afresh in each section, put the section name in roman before the page number, with a space but no comma between the two. If the reference is to an editorial, cite the author as ‘Editorial’. If the article is sourced from the web and there is no page number available, provide the web address and date of access.

List under Secondary Sources

Copied from OSCOLA 4th edn 3.4.9 

The general principles for ‘other secondary sources’ (OSCOLA 4th ed. 3.4.1) suggest the following form for citing podcasts, YouTube videos and similar sources:

Author, ‘Title’ (publication date) <url> accessed xx month 2014

If there is no clear author, give the organisation providing the source as the author. The examples below include a suggestion for citing the comments of a particular person.

If referring to comments by someone in particular, add that information as you would a pinpoint, before the url. Include the person's position if relevant. For example:

Another alternative, particularly if the podcast is quite long, would be to provide the minutes and seconds of the excerpt:

Copied from  OSCOLA FAQs 

Public communication

Author, 'Title' (additional information, publisher year)

Examples taken from  OSCOLA FAQs

List by author in Secondary Sources 

Radio programme

Footnote: Speaker (if a direct quote)/Presenter, 'Title of the programme' (Radio station, date of the programme)

Enter in alphabetical order in the Secondary Sources. If there is a direct quote/speaker, reverse the author's name as usual.

Use this format:

Author, 'Title' (Additonal information, edition if later than first, Publisher day Month year if available) page number if required.

Footnotes: 

Bibliography : 

List alphabetically in author order in secondary sources, giving the authors surname first.

Republished source

Author,  Title of book  (First published publication year, Edition if late than first, publisher, publication year) page if required.

Television programme

Footnote:  Use the following format: Main contributor [Role of main contributor],'Title of programme' [Television series episode] in Title of series (Additional information if required, Publisher, Year )

If you wish to refer to someone speaking during the programme, follow this format: Cite the name of the speaker (if a direct quote), the title of the programme, the radio station and the date of the programme. If there is no obvious author/speaker, begin the citation with the title of the programme. If available online, include the URL and date of access. For example:

List under Secondary Sources in alphabetical order

When citing an unpublished thesis, give the author, the title and then in brackets the type of thesis, university and year of completion.

Copied from 3.4.7 OSCOLA 4th edn.

United Nations Court of Human Rights

If the information is available in print, reference the print version. If only available on the web, reference as follows: 

Footnote and Bibliography:

In the bibliography, list in Secondary Sources.

YouTube video

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Library Guide for Law

Referencing - oscola.

OSCOLA Ireland  is the most commonly used system for the citation of legal authorities in Irish Higher Education.

OSCOLA provides a uniform way to reference all types of primary and secondary materials which you will need to cite in your written work. All quotations, direct and indirect references, and cited examples need to be clearly marked up in footnotes on each page (OSCOLA does not use endnotes or in-text citations).

OSCOLA links

► OSCOLA Ireland style guide (full-text version of 2nd ed)

► OSCOLA quick reference guide   (this one-page guide has examples of citing cases, legislation, books, articles and websites)

► Cardiff Index to Legal Abbreviations   (this database allows you to search for the meaning of abbreviations for English language legal publications)

This short video introduces you to citing and referencing in OSCOLA style

• Cite Them Right Online  is incomplete for OSCOLA
• Examples: footnotes only
• Limited cover on case law citation or international legislation

The  OSCOLA Ireland  style guide  (full-text version of 2nd ed)  is your comprehensive OSCOLA style guide!

Legal citing and writing skills

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• Journals, databases & websites
• Books & eBooks
• Irish Legislation & Case Law
• Citing and referencing (OSCOLA)
• Legal research & writing skills

Alexander Kouker | ​ O'Reilly Library | Glasnevin Campus | [email protected]

Click here to view our guide to finding Irish and European cases

Click here to view our guide to finding Irish and European legislation

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• Last Updated: May 15, 2023 9:52 PM
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• Writing Tips

Citing Primary Sources in OSCOLA Referencing

3-minute read

• 17th August 2019

Most countries have their own legal processes, so it makes sense that they have their own legal citation systems as well. In the UK, the most common form of legal referencing is OSCOLA (or the Oxford Standard for Citation of Legal Authorities ). And in this post, we look at how to cite primary sources with OSCOLA. First, though, what exactly is a primary source?

Primary and Secondary Sources

OSCOLA classes sources as either “primary” or “secondary.” Primary sources are legal sources, such as cases and legislative documents. Secondary sources cover everything else, including books, journal articles, and websites.

In either case, you will use superscript numbers (e.g., 1 , 2 , 3 ) to indicate a citation, with details of the source given in a footnote. But the information you give here will depend on the source in question. For primary sources, this usually means either a case report or a legislative act.

Citing Case Reports in OSCOLA

When citing a UK case with a neutral citation , you will need to provide the following information in the accompanying footnote:

Case Name | [Year] | Court | Number,| [Year] | Volume | Report Abbreviation | First Page

However, you only need to include the case name in the footnote if it is not used in the text. And as shown, the neutral citation should be separated from the law report citation by a comma.

Cases from before 2001 will not have a neutral citation, so footnotes for older cases should only include the following details:

Case Name | [Year] | Volume | Report Abbreviation | First Page | (Court)

Examples of the above would thus appear as follows in footnote citations:

Neutral Citation: PI vs Walls [2008] UKHL 15, [2008] 4 AC 1284

No Neutral Citation: GM vs Nissan [1983] 1 AC 154 (UKHL)

Citing Legislation in OSCOLA

Other than cases, the main primary sources in OSCOLA referencing are legislative acts and statutory instruments. When citing a UK legislative act, all you need is the short title and year. For instance:

Act of Supremacy 1558

To reference a particular section, meanwhile, simply add it after the year:

Human Rights Act 1998 s 7

The “s” before the “7” above is short for “section.” However, the correct abbreviation here may depend on what you’re citing:

You may also need to cite a statutory instrument at some point. To do this, the footnote should include the title, year and the SI number (after a comma). So, for instance, we could cite a statutory instrument as follows:

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The Deregulation Act 2015 (Commencement No. 4) Order 2015, SI 2015 2074 (C. 130)

Cases and Legislation in an OSCOLA Bibliography

As well as footnote citations, you will need to list all primary sources in a bibliography at the end of your document. For primary sources, the general rules in an OSCOLA bibliography are:

• Provide full information for each source.
• Divide primary sources into a Table of Cases and a Table of Legislation (you may also want to separate acts of legislation from legislative instruments).
• Sort cases/acts into separate sections by jurisdiction (unless you have not cited many sources, in which case they can be combined).
• List sources within their categories alphabetically by case name/title.
• List secondary sources separately under the heading “Bibliography.”

This will make it easy for readers to find the various primary sources you have used in your work. And if you’d like someone to double check your referencing when you’ve finished writing, we’re always happy to help.

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OSCOLA referencing

• Introduction to referencing
• Printing USW OSCOLA Guide and Full OSCOLA guide
• OSCOLA referencing - the basics

Including sources in your work

Direct quotations, what is secondary referencing.

• UK case law
• UK legislation
• European case law
• EU Legislation
• Official publications
• Books and eBooks
• Journals and newspapers
• Websites and Blogs
• Other jurisdictions
• International
• Tables of Cases and Legislation and Bibliography
• Common mistakes
• Example assignment

There are several ways of including sources in your work . You can summarise , paraphrase or directly quote the information. Whichever you use, you let your reader know by setting out the referencing details in a subtly different way as below.

• Summarising is briefly stating in your own words the main points of a longer text, often to give an overview of a topic. At the end of your sentence put a footnote marker and include details of the original source in the footnotes and in your Tables or Bibliography
• Paraphrasing is re-writing the statements of others in your own words often to clarify a point, rather than quoting their words exactly. At the end of your sentence put a footnote marker an  include details of the original source in the footnotes and in your Tables or Bibliography.
• Direct quotation is copying a short or long section of text, word for word, directly from a source into your work
• Direct quotes (Short)
• Direct quotes (Long)

Incorporate quotations of up to three lines into the text, within single quotation marks. Quotations within short quotations take double quotation marks:

Present quotations longer than three lines in an indented paragraph. Leave a line space either side of the indented paragraph. You do not need to use quotation marks.

 A secondary reference is when you read a text in which the author refers to the work of another and you wish to refer to that work in your assignment. This practice is  discouraged  as you should always attempt to find the original source which you can analyse and evaluate on its own terms.  If it is not possible to find the original source, reference the source that you have not personally read first by adding a "Quoted in" at the beginning; then in brackets put ‘as cited in’ and cite the secondary source that you have read including the page number.

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Bibcitation is a free citation generator that creates bibliographies, references and works cited. Automatically generate MLA, APA, Chicago and other citations and create an accurate bibliography in one click.

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Our Complete Guide to Citing in OSCOLA Format

Welcome aboard our easy-to-understand guide, designed to walk you through the winding roads of the OSCOLA citation style. We'll be your co-pilots, helping you chart the terrain of footnotes and develop a comprehensive bibliography with simplicity.

Let's dive into how an OSCOLA citation generator can be your secret weapon in streamlining your referencing process and unravel the mysteries of perfect footnote and reference formatting.

We promise that creating an OSCOLA bibliography will be a breeze!

Discover More Bibcitation Guides

Oscola referencing style overview.

The OSCOLA referencing format is widely accepted within legal academia and legal publications. It provides a standardized approach to referencing legal documents and cases, ensuring that the citations are clear, consistent, and easily traceable. By following OSCOLA guidelines, your legal arguments will be underpinned by properly attributed sources, thereby adding credibility and professionalism to your work.

In the OSCOLA system, there are two primary aspects of citation: footnotes and the bibliography.

Footnotes: Footnotes in OSCOLA are used for citing the sources of information or the legal authorities being referred to within the main text. These are detailed references that include the specific parts of the source being cited, such as page numbers or paragraph numbers in a judgment.

Bibliography: The bibliography in OSCOLA gathers all the sources cited in footnotes and lists them at the end of the document. The bibliography is separated into tables, cases, legislation, and secondary sources.

By adhering to the OSCOLA referencing style, you create a bridge between your arguments and the legal authorities that support them. This enhances the coherence and reliability of your work and facilitates the readers' ability to engage with and assess your legal reasoning. Whether you are a law student, an academic, or a legal professional, understanding and applying the OSCOLA style is a crucial skill in crafting persuasive and credible legal writing.

Format OSCOLA Footnotes

In the OSCOLA Referencing Style, footnotes serve as brief references at the bottom of the page, leading readers to the full citation in the bibliography. These references typically include the title of the case or statute, the year of publication, and specific details such as page numbers.

The following examples illustrate how to cite various legal documents using the OSCOLA style:

Legal cases: The primary method for citing cases includes the parties' names, year, and report citation. For example: R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union [2017] UKSC 5.

Legislation: For statutes, use the short title and the year in italics. For example: Equality Act 2010.

Secondary sources - Books: For books, include the author's initials, last name, title in italics, edition if relevant, (publisher, year), and specific pages. For example: J M Finnis, Natural Law and Natural Rights (2nd edn, OUP 2011) 275.

Secondary sources - Articles: For journal articles, use the author's initials, last name, title in single quotes, [year], volume (issue number), journal name or abbreviation, and first page of the article. For example: P Craig, 'Theory and Values in Public Law' [2004] PL 598.

Multiple citations in one footnote: If referencing multiple sources in one footnote, separate each citation with a semicolon. For example: Equality Act 2010, s 15(1)(a); R (Miller) [2017] UKSC 5, para 57.

Electronic sources: Include the author's name, title in italics, web address, and accessed date for online materials. For example: T Bingham, 'The Rule of Law' (The Rule of Law, 2007) <www.cps.org.uk accessed 10 March 2022>.

Extended quotations: In OSCOLA, it is common to place a lengthy quotation within the footnotes rather than the main body text.

Example: M Lord Neuberger emphasizes the importance of the rule of law, stating: 'Adherence to the rule of law informs every aspect of the judicial duty, including, of course, the determination, interpretation, and application of the law.'^1

^1 R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the EU [2017] UKSC 5, para 40.

The OSCOLA referencing style ensures a standardized method of citation within the field of law. By carefully following these rules, you can construct a precise and professional legal document that appropriately credits the works and authorities that have informed your arguments.

Generate Bibliography in OSCOLA

The OSCOLA citation style, used predominantly in legal studies, follows a distinct approach that often involves footnotes for citations and may also include a bibliography. Here's how to format a bibliography in the OSCOLA style:

Title and placement: The bibliography should begin on a new page at the end of your work. Center the heading "Bibliography" (without quotation marks) at the top of the page. Do not bold, italicize, or underline the heading.

Spacing and margins: Employ single-spacing within entries and double-spacing between them in the bibliography. Keep 1-inch margins on all sides of the page. Unlike the Harvard style, OSCOLA does not use hanging indents; instead, the first line of each citation should align with the left margin.

Organize your citations: OSCOLA recommends separating primary sources such as cases and legislation from secondary sources like books and articles. Within these categories, you should alphabetize the list by the first significant word of the citation.

Pay attention to punctuation and italics: Use italics for the titles of books, reports, and legislation. Quotation marks are used for article titles. Ensure that punctuation marks are consistently applied following the OSCOLA guidelines.

Check for accuracy: Ensure that each reference is accurate, including the correct use of italics, capitalization, and other formatting as per OSCOLA standards.

By adhering to these rules, you can create a bibliography that aligns with the specific requirements of the OSCOLA citation style, helping your readers easily navigate and verify the legal authorities cited in your work.

Cite Books in OSCOLA

Law is built upon centuries of tradition, so it's only fitting that the citation of legal documents should have its own unique set of rules. Enter OSCOLA, a standardized citation system that brings order to the potentially chaotic world of legal citation. Let's take a closer look at how to reference books in OSCOLA, with examples and some surprising exceptions.

For Example:

Multiple authors. If the book has multiple authors, list them in the order they appear in the book, using "and" between authors:

Chapter in an edited book. For a chapter in an edited book, use the author's name of the chapter, the chapter title, the editor's initials and last name, the book title, and publication details:

No author. In cases where the author of the book is not known, the title of the book is used instead, followed by the publisher's name and year of publication:

Citing multiple volumes: When citing a multi-volume work, include the volume number after the year of publication.

Pro Tip: Reference List Order

In OSCOLA, your reference list must be sorted by author's surname and then chronologically by publication date.

OSCOLA citation brings consistency and professionalism to legal writing. The guidance provided above for citing books, from single authors to multiple volumes, ensures you have the tools to cite correctly.

As you engage in the practice of law, remember that proper citation not only follows rules but acknowledges the intellectual heritage of your work, connecting you to the broader legal conversation.

Cite Journal Articles in OSCOLA

Journal articles, as valuable sources of up-to-date research and commentary, form an integral part of legal scholarship. Referencing them correctly is crucial in legal writing. The OSCOLA style, devised by Oxford University, gives us a structured, professional, and widely-accepted method to do this.

For example:

Journal articles available online. If the journal is only available electronically or is paginated separately to a print version, the citation should include [online], the volume number and the web address where the article can be found:

No volume number. If a journal doesn't have volume numbers, you should use the issue number instead, after the year:

No page numbers. Some online journals do not have page numbers. In such cases, you can omit the page numbers:

Article from an online database. If you accessed an article from a web database, you should cite the database name, the document number, and the URL:

Pro Tip: Using Footnotes

In OSCOLA, in-text citations are replaced by footnotes. Each time you reference a source, you should provide a footnote with the full citation details. This applies to all references, including those to journal articles.

Referencing journal articles accurately in OSCOLA style adds credibility and professionalism to your writing. Whether your sources are single-author, multi-author, anonymous, or electronic, the guidance provided above ensures you have the tools to cite correctly.

Cite Websites in OSCOLA

Websites offer a plethora of information, both official and unofficial, that can be pertinent to legal studies. Correctly referencing this online material, in compliance with OSCOLA guidelines, ensures your work maintains its integrity. While it might feel like traversing a new frontier, citing web sources doesn't have to be daunting.

Website with corporate author. If the website has a corporate author, the citation should begin with the corporate entity's name, followed by the title of the webpage, the full date the page was last updated, and the web address:

No Known Author. In instances where the author of a webpage is not known, start with the title of the webpage, followed by the full date the page was last updated, and the web address:

Blogs or online articles. Blogs or online articles follow the same general structure, with the addition of the name of the blog or the publication in italics after the author's name:

Pro Tip: Access Dates

Remember to always include the access date when citing web sources, as online content can change over time. The access date serves to let readers know when you last verified the information on the webpage.

While it may seem intimidating at first, referencing websites in OSCOLA style can be a straightforward process when following these guidelines. Whether your sources are webpages, corporate websites, or blogs, you are now equipped with the tools necessary for accurate citation.

Cite Book Chapters in OSCOLA

In legal scholarship, book chapters often provide in-depth coverage of a specific topic, making them an indispensable resource. When it comes to citing these chapters using the OSCOLA referencing style, precision is key. Let's walk you through the citation process.

Book chapter with multiple authors. When citing a book chapter written by multiple authors, list the authors as they appear in the chapter, using 'and' between the authors:

No author: In cases where the author of the chapter is not mentioned, start with the title of the chapter, followed by the title of the book, editors of the book, and the first page of the chapter.

Book with single author, citing specific chapter: When citing a specific chapter of a book written by a single author, mention chapter details after the book's details.

Pro Tip: The Pinpoint Citation

In OSCOLA, 'pinpoint citations' allow you to direct the reader to a specific page or pages where the cited information can be found. The first page of the chapter, followed by the specific page number, should be provided at the end of the citation (e.g., 121-122).

Remember, citing book chapters accurately in OSCOLA style is crucial for acknowledging the work of authors and editors, and for guiding your readers to your sources. Whether your sources are single-author, multi-author, or anonymous, this guide has provided you with the know-how to tackle your citations with confidence.

Cite Newspapers & Magazines in OSCOLA

Conference papers are vital sources of latest research findings and theories before they make it to formal publications. When referencing these sources in legal studies and scholarly works, the OSCOLA referencing style provides a professional, structured and well-accepted format to do so.

Online articles. For online articles, include the web address (URL) at the end of the citation, and the access date if no publication date is available:

Pro Tip: Secondary Referencing

In OSCOLA, secondary referencing (citing a source you haven't read yourself, but which is cited in a source you have read) is generally discouraged. It's always better to read the original source for yourself. However, if the original is not available, make it clear you have not read the original source by acknowledging the secondary source in your footnote.

Citing newspaper and magazine articles accurately in OSCOLA style enhances the diversity of your legal arguments, demonstrates the breadth of your research, and respects the journalistic craft.

Cite Conference Papers in OSCOLA

Multiple authors: If the paper has multiple authors, list them in the order they appear in the paper, using 'and' between authors.

Online conference papers: If the conference paper is accessed online, the citation should include the web address or DOI (if available) at the end.

Pro Tip: Always in Footnotes

OSCOLA uses footnotes for citations. Each time you reference a source, you should provide a footnote with the full citation details. This applies to all references, including those to conference papers.

Citing conference papers correctly in OSCOLA style not only provides your work with accurate references, but also adds an element of professionalism to your writing. So, whether you're citing single-author, multi-author, anonymous, or electronic papers, our citation generator equips you to do so effectively.

Cite Theses & Dissertations in OSCOLA

Theses and dissertations serve as rich sources of specialised research and novel insights. In law and other scholarly works, the OSCOLA referencing style offers a well-structured and professionally accepted means of citing these sources. Let's dive in and explore how to do this effectively.

Online theses or dissertations. If the thesis or dissertation is accessed online, the citation should include the URL or DOI (if available) at the end:

Pro Tip: Unique Identifiers for Easy Access

Consider including unique identifiers such as DOIs (Digital Object Identifier) or a URL in your citation whenever they are available, especially for online theses or dissertations. They help readers to directly access the source and make your work more credible and reproducible. Remember, a well-cited paper reflects your thorough research and respect for original authors' work.

Cite Social Media Posts in OSCOLA

As the digital age evolves, so does our approach to sourcing information. Social media posts are increasingly being used as sources of information in academic and legal writing. OSCOLA referencing style provides us with a clear and professional way of citing these unconventional sources.

Citing Twitter posts: When citing a tweet, you should start with the author's Twitter handle, followed by the text of the tweet in single quotation marks, then 'Twitter' and the date of the tweet.

Citing Facebook posts: For Facebook posts, begin with the individual or group authoring the post, followed by (Facebook) and the precise date of the post.

Citing blog posts: To cite a blog post, include the author's name, the title of the blog post in single quotes, the name of the blog, and the date of the blog post.

Citing Instagram posts: For Instagram posts, cite as you would a blog post, but include 'Instagram post' at the end of the citation.

Pro Tip: Capture the Moment

Due to the transient nature of social media posts, it's important to capture a screenshot or download a copy of the posts you cite. This will ensure you have a record in case the post is deleted or edited in future. This evidence may be necessary for submitting your work, depending on your institution's guidelines.

Cite Legal Cases in OSCOLA

Legal cases form the backbone of law and legal studies. They set precedents, create laws, and provide explanations for complicated legal concepts. When writing legal essays, assignments, or dissertations, citing these cases accurately using the OSCOLA referencing style adds authenticity to your work.

UK cases: When citing a UK case, you should start with the case name (in italics), followed by the neutral citation (if there is one), and then the volume number, the abbreviated name of the report, and the first page of the report.

EU Cases: For EU cases, cite the case name (in italics), then the case number and the report citation.

No neutral citation: If there's no neutral citation for a UK case, start with the case name, followed by the volume number, the abbreviated name of the report, and the first page of the report.

Pro Tip: Law Report Hierarchy

When citing UK cases, OSCOLA has a hierarchy of law reports. The 'Law Reports' (Appeal Cases (AC), Queen's Bench Division (QB), Chancery Division (Ch), and Family Division (Fam)) take precedence. If a case isn't reported in the Law Reports, use the Weekly Law Reports (WLR) or the All England Reports (All ER). Always check your university or institution's guidelines as preferences can vary.

Cite Primary Legislation in OSCOLA

Primary legislation refers to laws or statutes that have been enacted by a legislative body such as Parliament in the UK. This includes Acts of Parliament and Bills, which are often integral to legal arguments and discussions. When citing these sources in your work, you should use the OSCOLA referencing style, which provides clear guidelines for accurate citation.

Acts of Parliament: When citing an Act of Parliament, you should give the short title (in italics), followed by the chapter number.

Bills: For a Bill, cite the short title (in italics), followed by the type of Bill and the parliamentary session in brackets.

Pre-1963 Acts: If you are citing an Act that was passed before 1963, the year it was enacted should be included in roman numerals in the title.

Amended or repealed Acts: If an Act has been significantly amended or repealed, you should indicate this in your citation.

Pro Tip: Referenceing Secondary Legislation

Secondary legislation, such as Statutory Instruments or Orders in Council, are typically cited similarly to Acts but include the SI number. For example, The Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986 Amendment Regulations 2012 SI 2012/3039. Always refer to OSCOLA guidelines to ensure accurate citation of different types of legislation.

Cite EU Legal Sources in OSCOLA

The European Union's legal system is one of the most intricate in the world, generating a vast array of legislation, case law, and official documents. The OSCOLA referencing style provides a standardised method for citing these diverse sources in academic work, maintaining clarity and precision in legal citation.

Treaties: For EU treaties, begin with the name of the treaty in italics, followed by the year of signing and the OJ reference in brackets.

Regulations and Directives: EU regulations and directives are cited with the type of instrument and number, title, and OJ reference.

Communications and reports: Communications from the European Commission and other EU bodies, as well as reports, are cited similarly to EU legislation, but may not always have an OJ reference.

Pro Tip: Getting the Details Right

OSCOLA provides detailed instructions for referencing EU legal materials, including guidelines for citing materials in languages other than English. Always refer to the most recent version of the OSCOLA guide to ensure you're following the correct format.

Cite Cases from Other Jurisdictions in OSCOLA

Globalization has made it increasingly common for legal scholars and practitioners to refer to case law from jurisdictions outside their own. The OSCOLA referencing style offers a framework for citing these cases, enabling a clear and uniform approach to international legal citation.

USA cases: When citing cases from the United States, provide the name of the case, the reporter volume number, the abbreviated name of the reporter, the first page of the report, and the year in brackets.

Australia and Canada Cases: Australian and Canadian cases should be cited by the case name, the year of the report in square brackets, the volume number (if available), the report abbreviation, and the first page.

European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) cases: For ECHR cases, start with the case name, followed by the application number, the court name, and the date of the decision.

Pro Tip: Adding Context

When citing cases from jurisdictions with which your reader might be unfamiliar, it can be helpful to provide a bit of context, either in the text of your paper or in a footnote. This might include the legal issue at stake, the jurisdiction's legal tradition, or the significance of the case in that jurisdiction's law.

Cite Hansard in OSCOLA

Hansard is the traditional name for the transcripts of Parliamentary debates and is an invaluable resource for anyone researching the legislative history of a particular act, or understanding the policy debates of a certain era. As such, it is a source that often needs to be cited in legal documents.

Citing a debate: If you're citing a debate, start with the house (either HL Deb or HC Deb for the House of Lords or House of Commons respectively), followed by the date (in square brackets), the volume, 'col' and the column number.

Citing a written answer: If you're citing a written answer, the citation structure remains the same, but the house will be either HL WA or HC WA.

Pro Tip: Using Online Resources

Since 2005, Hansard has been available online and the website offers an easy way to access both recent debates and historic ones. It's a good idea to hyperlink to the online version of Hansard if you are working on an electronic document, allowing your readers to access the full text of the debate you are citing. Be sure to check the URL for permanency if you intend to do this.

Cite Encyclopedias in OSCOLA

Legal encyclopedias are a cornerstone of comprehensive legal research, providing a digest of law that is written in a narrative form. These resources come in handy when you need a concise, accurate and up-to-date overview of a legal topic. Referencing these properly, thus, is a critical skill in crafting sound legal arguments.

Citing general legal encyclopedias: When citing from a the title of the encyclopedia should be in italics, followed by the edition, the volume number, the title of the entry in single quotes, and the paragraph or page number.

Citing a specific entry: When citing a specific entry within an encyclopedia, you'll still need to include the title of the encyclopedia, the edition, volume, title of the entry, but you also include a pinpoint reference to the relevant paragraph or page number.

Pro Tip: Making Use of Legal Encyclopedias

Legal encyclopedias, like Halsbury's Laws of England, are a great starting point for any legal research. These resources provide a high-level overview of legal topics and can help guide your further research by pointing you to relevant cases, legislation, and secondary sources. As always, ensure to reference these resources accurately when used.

Cite Interviews in OSCOLA

Interviews can provide a treasure trove of insights, especially when researching a contentious legal issue or trying to glean a practitioner's viewpoint. In legal scholarship, whether these interviews are conducted by you or you are citing an interview conducted by another, they should be accurately referenced in OSCOLA.

Citing published interviews: For published interviews, start with the name of the interviewee, followed by the title of the interview in single quotes, the name of the publication in italics, and the date.

Citing unpublished interviews: For unpublished interviews that you conducted, include the name of the interviewee, the format (eg, interview), the location of the interview, and the date.

Pro Tip: Using First-Person

OSCOLA referencing style does not shy away from the first person. So when you're citing an interview that you've conducted, you can use 'I' in your footnote. For instance, 'In an interview, I conducted with Justice Smith on 3 March 2023 in Oxford…'.

Cite Case Notes in OSCOLA

Case notes, or case comments, can be a goldmine of legal analysis, elucidating the nuances of a court's decision and its implications on existing law. When you're writing a legal essay, thesis or article, citing these valuable sources accurately in OSCOLA style is crucial to creating a robust piece of legal scholarship.

Case notes: When citing a case note, begin with the author's name, the title of the note in single quotes, the year of the case note, the volume number, the abbreviated name of the law report, and the page number.

Pro Tip: Citing Multiple Authors

In the event that the case note has multiple authors, list them in the order they appear in the article, using 'and' between authors. For example, Smith A and Brown B, 'Title of Case Note' [Year] Abbreviated Report Name Page.

Cite Personal Communications in OSCOLA

Personal communications can offer unique insights and perspectives that enrich your legal argument. They may come in the form of emails, interviews, conversations, letters, or similar. Given their value, it's important to know how to reference them appropriately in your legal writing using OSCOLA style.

Personal communication: When citing a personal communication, begin with the name of the person from whom the communication originated, followed by (in brackets) the description of the communication and the date.

Email: For emails, the structure remains the same, except the description of the communication would be 'Email to the author'.

Pro Tip: Unpublished Works

Remember that personal communications are considered 'unpublished works', which means they cannot be accessed by the reader. Therefore, it is important to obtain the sender's permission before citing their communication in your work. Also, the reader cannot verify personal communications, so use them sparingly and only when necessary.

OSCOLA Style: Final Notes

Embarking on your journey of understanding the OSCOLA referencing style might initially seem daunting, but with the comprehensive guide provided by Bibcitation, you're now well-equipped to handle the citation challenges that lie ahead. From citing books, journals, and legal cases to personal communications, you now have the knowledge to create citations that adhere to the stringent standards of academic integrity and reflect your commitment to scholarly professionalism.

In the landscape of legal writing, the ability to format citations accurately and swiftly is invaluable. While Bibcitation can aid you in this process, having a deep understanding of the principles underpinning the OSCOLA referencing style enhances your academic prowess significantly. While our citation generator Bibcitation.com can prove to be undeniably handy, your newfound expertise in OSCOLA formatting can make you self-reliant and confident in your scholarly endeavors.

As we navigate through this digital age, the nature and format of academic references continue to evolve. However, your knowledge of the OSCOLA referencing style, combined with Bibcitation features, ensures that you're equipped to tackle any referencing task that comes your way. By learning and applying OSCOLA, you're not just preparing yourself to create accurate citations; you're readying yourself to contribute meaningfully to the rich tapestry of legal scholarship. And remember, every perfectly formatted OSCOLA citation is a silent, respectful nod to the intellectual contributions of others in your field.

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If you're trying to determine what source to choose or what you should cite, read on for FAQs and helpful answers.

I'm citing a book, article, video, photo, etc., that I found online. Does that mean it's a "website"?

If you can classify your source as something other than a website/web page, choose that as your source. Be as specific as possible. Most times, the source citation form will give you the option to cite the source as something found online (see tabs at the top of the citation form).

• E-book -- choose "Book"
• Online newspaper article -- choose "Newspaper"
• Digital photo -- choose "Photo"

What's the difference between an "Online database" and a "Journal"?

In research, a journal is a scholarly or academic periodical featuring articles written by experts. These articles are reviewed by fellow experts (peer-reviewed) before being published.

An online database is an electronic collection of information. They are searchable and most databases found at your library provide credible, published content. Depending on the database, it might also let you access information in various formats (e.g., journals, videos, books, newspapers, etc.).

This means an online database could have several journals.

• Journals -- Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA), PLOS One, New Scientist, Ecology Letters
• Online databases --- Academic One File, Britannica Academic, EBSCOHost, Facts on File

I'm still not sure what source I have. What should I do?

Scroll through our long list of source options and make your best educated guess. If you're still unsure, choose "Miscellaneous."

If there is no author, can I still cite a source?

Yes! It's always better to cite a source, even if you're unsure of all the source details. Also, not everything has an indicated author so it's ok to leave an author out in those cases. When this happens, most citation styles will list the source by its title instead of the author's last name.

I only need to cite one source, right?

A well-balanced paper usually cites several sources; often in different formats (e.g., books, journals, interviews, etc.). There isn't an exact number of sources that is ideal, but try to have more than a couple sources listed.

Also, you should cite everything you've consulted or mentioned in your paper. It's the ethical thing to do.

If I have a full citation at the end of my paper, do I really need to make in-text citations (e.g., parenthetical citations, footnotes, etc.)?

Yes, absolutely! Showing where you got certain ideas or points in your paper will help support any arguments you make. Including in-text citations is also ethical — give credit where it is due.

I heard that "common knowledge" does NOT need to be cited. What is it?

Common knowledge is general information that you can assume a normal individual would know without needing to consult a source. Yes, you do not necessarily need to cite common knowledge. However, if you are unsure if you should cite a fact or source, err on the side of caution and cite it.

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OSCOLA referencing guide

• Elements of OSCOLA referencing
• General principles
• Order of author’s name
• Source abbreviations
• Page numbers and other pinpoints
• Secondary references
• Footnotes referencing style

Bibliography

• Encyclopaedias
• Government publications
• Conference papers (published)
• Journal articles
• Newspaper articles
• UK Statutes (Acts)
• European cases
• European legislation
• Repeating citations – short forms and ibid
• Need help with referencing?

Author, Title of the Book (Edition, Publisher Year).

John Knowles, Effective Legal Research (4 th edn, Sweet & Maxwell 2016).

Footnote with page number

John Knowles, Effective Legal Research (4 th edn, Sweet & Maxwell 2016) 33.

Knowles J, Effective Legal Research (4 th edn, Sweet & Maxwell 2016)

Note: Only include edition details for 2 nd edition and later. Do not include 1 st edn.

Book chapters

Author, ‘Title of Chapter’ in Editor (ed), Title of the Book (Edition, Publisher Year).

Panu Minkkinen, ‘Critical Legal Method as Attitude’ in Dawn Watkins and Mandy Burton (eds), Research Methods in Law (2 nd edn, Routledge 2018).

Minkkinen P, ‘Critical Legal Method as Attitude’ in Dawn Watkins and Mandy Burton (eds), Research Methods in Law (2 nd edn, Routledge 2018)

Most e-books will have the same pages as the print version, and you can cite them in the same way as printed books. There is no need to acknowledge the electronic format, database supplier, web address (URL) or digital object identifier (DOI).

If resources are published online only, with no print equivalent, then you should follow the guidance for referencing websites.

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• Last Updated: Mar 5, 2024 1:30 PM
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Consider your source's credibility. ask these questions:, contributor/author.

• Has the author written several articles on the topic, and do they have the credentials to be an expert in their field?
• Can you contact them? Do they have social media profiles?
• Have other credible individuals referenced this source or author?
• Book: What have reviews said about it?
• What do you know about the publisher/sponsor? Are they well-respected?
• Do they take responsibility for the content? Are they selective about what they publish?
• Take a look at their other content. Do these other articles generally appear credible?
• Does the author or the organization have a bias? Does bias make sense in relation to your argument?
• Is the purpose of the content to inform, entertain, or to spread an agenda? Is there commercial intent?
• Are there ads?
• When was the source published or updated? Is there a date shown?
• Does the publication date make sense in relation to the information presented to your argument?
• Does the source even have a date?
• Was it reproduced? If so, from where?
• If it was reproduced, was it done so with permission? Copyright/disclaimer included?

MLA Format: Everything You Need to Know and More

Filled with a wide variety of examples and visuals, our Citation Machine® MLA guide will help you master the citation process. Learn how to cite websites, books, journal articles, magazines, newspapers, films, social media, and more!

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Our Citation Machine® APA guide is a one-stop shop for learning how to cite in APA format. Read up on what APA is, or use our citing tools and APA examples to create citations for websites, books, journals, and more!

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Creating citations in Chicago style has never been easier thanks to our extensive Citation Machine® Chicago style guide and tools. Learn about footnotes, endnotes, and everything in between, or easily create citations for websites, books, journal articles, and more!

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The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

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• Federal judge affirms 2022 citation, penalties against United Airlines for failing to protect employee seriously injured when 737 crushes footb

OSHA News Release - Region 2

May 31, 2024

Federal judge affirms 2022 citation, penalties against United Airlines for failing to protect employee seriously injured when 737 crushes foot

Department of Labor obtains decision in Newark Liberty International Airport incident

NEWARK, NJ – A federal administrative law judge has affirmed safety violations against United Airlines related to a 2021 incident at Newark Liberty International Airport in which a 737's tire crushed a technician's foot as they worked with one of the company's towing crews.

The decision by the Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission on April 23, 2024, agreed with the citation issued by the Department of Labor's Occupational Safety and Health Administration for violating the general duty clause and its proposed $14,502 penalty, the maximum amount allowed at the time of the citation.

The commission's action follows an OSHA investigation into how the technician's right foot was crushed on Nov. 24, 2021, leading to the employee's hospitalization and amputation of five toes. Agency investigators determined United Airlines violated federal regulations by failing to follow its own policies and procedures for towing a plane safely. The airline contested the citation before the OSHRC, and on May 28 filed a petition seeking to appeal the judge's decision.

"United Airlines could have prevented an employee from suffering a debilitating injury had the company followed its own safety procedures for towing a jet weighing as much as 50 tons," said OSHA Area Director Joseph Czapik in Parsippany, New Jersey. "This operation is recognized by the airline industry as a dangerous and well-known hazard and proper procedures must be followed to prevent serious injuries or worse."

The judge found that the department's Office of the Solicitor proved United Airlines did not implement feasible and effective means to abate the hazards by following important tow-safety policies. The jurist also concluded the aircraft exposed technicians to serious struck-by and crushed-by hazards during the towing process. In the decision, the judge denied United Airlines' attempt to cite employee misconduct given the finding that, while tow-safety rules were violated routinely, the company failed to take corrective action in response.

"The Department of Labor takes the importance of protecting employees from recognized hazards very seriously. While not specifically regulated by an OSHA standard, there can be no argument that towing an airplane is, in fact, hazardous work," said Regional Solicitor Jeffrey S. Rogoff in New York. "As our case vigorously demonstrated — and the judge agreed — United Airlines was liable for not enforcing its own safety procedures for this dangerous operation."

OSHA's Parsippany Area Office conducted the workplace safety investigation, and attorneys Jordan Laris Cohen and Jacob Heyman-Kantor in the department's Office of the Solicitor in New York litigated the case.

Docket Number: 22-0744

Media Contacts:

Leni Fortson, 215-861-5102, [email protected] Joanna Hawkins, 215-861-5101, [email protected]

Release Number:  24-1034-NEW

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How Marketers Can Adapt to LLM-Powered Search

• Stefano Puntoni,
• Mike Ensing,
• Jarvis Bowers

With the addition of AI-generated overviews, Google, Perplexity, OpenAI and other search engines are changing how consumers find information.

Large language models (LLMs) provide a search experience that’s dramatically different from the web-browser experience. The biggest difference is this: LLMs promise to answer queries not with links, as web browsers do, but with answers . Increasingly, using apps such as ChatGPT or Perplexity, or search portals such as Google’s Search Generative Experience (now AI Overviews) or Bing’s Copilot, customers will learn about products and brands through natural-language outputs. And that process, which will be highly consultative and conversational, will create a new information pipeline that marketers need to monitor to ensure their brands are presented for relevant prompts and described accurately. The authors present three ways for marketers to rise to this challenge.

For millions of consumers around the world, Google is the access point to the internet — and as a result, the company today enjoys a 91% market share in the $50 billion market for search ads. However, thanks to the advent of large language models (LLMs), a shakeup now seems possible for the first time in two decades.

• SP Stefano Puntoni is a professor of marketing at the Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania, and the co-author of  Decision-Driven Analytics: Leveraging Human Intelligence to Unlock the Power of Data (Wharton Press).  
• ME Mike Ensing is the CEO and co-founder of Revere. He is an entrepreneur, advisor, and tech-industry executive focused on generative AI and its applications for enterprises and brands and has held senior and advisory positions with leading companies such as RealNetworks, Microsoft, and McKinsey.
• JB Jarvis Bowers is the COO and co-founder of Revere, an emerging marketing-technology company focused on elevating brands with LLMs and generative AI. Jarvis is an experienced marketing leader focused on the use of consumer and creative insights, customer data, and emerging platforms to deliver unique brand experiences.

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OSCOLA referencing guide (Online): Official Publications

• Paraphrasing
• Repeating Citations
• Secondary Referencing
• Bibliography
• Referencing Tools
• Two or Three Authors
• Four plus Authors
• Chapter in an Edited Book
• Editor or Translator
• Author & Editor or Translator
• Encyclopaedias
• Books of Authority
• Cases with Neutral Citation
• Cases without neutral citation
• Unreported Cases
• Cases before 1865
• Judges' Names
• Scot, NI & International
• Parts of Statutes
• Statutory Instruments
• Journal Articles
• Forthcoming Articles
• Working Papers
• Newspaper Articles
• Hansard & Select Committee reports
• Command Papers
• Law Commission Reports
• Official reports

Official Publications

• Legislation
• ECJ & GC cases
• Decisions of the European Commission
• European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) cases
• Websites & Blogs
• Personal Communications
• Press Release
• Podcasts & Youtube videos
• Insight & LPC

An official publication is a publication published by Parliament, a government department (UK or foreign), devolved government or an international organisation such as the European Union or World Health Organization. Sometimes there is no personal author so the organisation is deemed to be the corporate author. Check the different pages in this guide for how to cite specifical forms of official publications.

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• Next: Hansard & Select Committee reports >>
• Last Updated: May 29, 2024 9:51 AM
• URL: https://libguides.swansea.ac.uk/oscola