female rump presentation

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Breech, posterior, transverse lie: What position is my baby in?

Fetal presentation, or how your baby is situated in your womb at birth, is determined by the body part that's positioned to come out first, and it can affect the way you deliver. At the time of delivery, 97 percent of babies are head-down (cephalic presentation). But there are several other possibilities, including feet or bottom first (breech) as well as sideways (transverse lie) and diagonal (oblique lie).

Fetal presentation and position

During the last trimester of your pregnancy, your provider will check your baby's presentation by feeling your belly to locate the head, bottom, and back. If it's unclear, your provider may do an ultrasound or an internal exam to feel what part of the baby is in your pelvis.

Fetal position refers to whether the baby is facing your spine (anterior position) or facing your belly (posterior position). Fetal position can change often: Your baby may be face up at the beginning of labor and face down at delivery.

Here are the many possibilities for fetal presentation and position in the womb.

Medical illustrations by Jonathan Dimes

Head down, facing down (anterior position)

A baby who is head down and facing your spine is in the anterior position. This is the most common fetal presentation and the easiest position for a vaginal delivery.

This position is also known as "occiput anterior" because the back of your baby's skull (occipital bone) is in the front (anterior) of your pelvis.

Head down, facing up (posterior position)

In the posterior position , your baby is head down and facing your belly. You may also hear it called "sunny-side up" because babies who stay in this position are born facing up. But many babies who are facing up during labor rotate to the easier face down (anterior) position before birth.

Posterior position is formally known as "occiput posterior" because the back of your baby's skull (occipital bone) is in the back (posterior) of your pelvis.

Frank breech

In the frank breech presentation, both the baby's legs are extended so that the feet are up near the face. This is the most common type of breech presentation. Breech babies are difficult to deliver vaginally, so most arrive by c-section .

Some providers will attempt to turn your baby manually to the head down position by applying pressure to your belly. This is called an external cephalic version , and it has a 58 percent success rate for turning breech babies. For more information, see our article on breech birth .

Complete breech

A complete breech is when your baby is bottom down with hips and knees bent in a tuck or cross-legged position. If your baby is in a complete breech, you may feel kicking in your lower abdomen.

Incomplete breech

In an incomplete breech, one of the baby's knees is bent so that the foot is tucked next to the bottom with the other leg extended, positioning that foot closer to the face.

Single footling breech

In the single footling breech presentation, one of the baby's feet is pointed toward your cervix.

Double footling breech

In the double footling breech presentation, both of the baby's feet are pointed toward your cervix.

Transverse lie

In a transverse lie, the baby is lying horizontally in your uterus and may be facing up toward your head or down toward your feet. Babies settle this way less than 1 percent of the time, but it happens more commonly if you're carrying multiples or deliver before your due date.

If your baby stays in a transverse lie until the end of your pregnancy, it can be dangerous for delivery. Your provider will likely schedule a c-section or attempt an external cephalic version , which is highly successful for turning babies in this position.

Oblique lie

In rare cases, your baby may lie diagonally in your uterus, with his rump facing the side of your body at an angle.

Like the transverse lie, this position is more common earlier in pregnancy, and it's likely your provider will intervene if your baby is still in the oblique lie at the end of your third trimester.

Was this article helpful?

What to know if your baby is breech

What's a sunny-side up baby?

How your twins’ fetal positions affect labor and delivery

What happens to your baby right after birth

BabyCenter's editorial team is committed to providing the most helpful and trustworthy pregnancy and parenting information in the world. When creating and updating content, we rely on credible sources: respected health organizations, professional groups of doctors and other experts, and published studies in peer-reviewed journals. We believe you should always know the source of the information you're seeing. Learn more about our editorial and medical review policies .

Ahmad A et al. 2014. Association of fetal position at onset of labor and mode of delivery: A prospective cohort study. Ultrasound in obstetrics & gynecology 43(2):176-182. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23929533 Opens a new window [Accessed September 2021]

Gray CJ and Shanahan MM. 2019. Breech presentation. StatPearls.  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK448063/ Opens a new window [Accessed September 2021]

Hankins GD. 1990. Transverse lie. American Journal of Perinatology 7(1):66-70.  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2131781 Opens a new window [Accessed September 2021]

Medline Plus. 2020. Your baby in the birth canal. U.S. National Library of Medicine. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002060.htm Opens a new window [Accessed September 2021]

Where to go next

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Communication

Baboons have a complex system of communication that includes vocalizations, facial expressions, posturing, and gesturing. These vocalizations, which baboons use to express emotions, include grunts, lip-smacking, screams, and alarm calls. The intensity of the emotion is conveyed by repetition of the sounds in association with other forms of communication.

Baboons communicate with each other primarily through body gestures and facial expressions. The most noticeable facial expression is an open-mouth threat where the baboon bares the canine teeth. Preceding this may be an eyelid signal, raising the eyebrows and showing the whites of the eyes, that is used to show displeasure. If a baboon really becomes aggressive, the hair may also stand on end, threatening sounds will be made, and the ground will be slapped.

In response to aggressive facial expressions and body gestures, other baboons usually exhibit submissive gestures. A fear-face, a response to aggression, involves pulling the mouth back in what looks like a wide grin.

Presenting among baboons takes place in both sexual and nonsexual contexts. A female will approach a male and turn her rump for him to show that she is receptive. This type of presentation can lead to mating or to a special relationship between the pair. A female may present in the same way to an infant to let the infant know it may come close to her. She may use this body gesture as a simple greeting to a male, indicating that she respects his position. A female will also present to another female when she want to fondle the other female's infant. Males present to other males as a greeting signal. Their tails, however, are not raised as high as those of females when they present.

Presentation is also used as an invitation or request for grooming, and for protection. Baboons freely engage in embracing to show affection to infants and juveniles. The frontal embrace has also been seen as a gesture of reassurance between baboons when they are upset. Infants have their own forms of communication that involves a looping kind of walk, wrestling, and a play-face. The play-face is an open mouth gesture they use to try to bite one another.

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• Feb 17, 2023

Rump Structure & How It Affects Mammary System

By Lorelei Hallock, Coyote Kidz

Rump- strong, uniformly wide and nearly level from hips to pin bones and thurl to thurl; thurls set two thirds of the distance from hips to pin bones; well defined and wide pin bones set slightly lower than the hips; tailhead slightly above and smoothly set between pin bones; tail symmetrical to body and free from coarseness; vulva normal in size and shape in females (normal sheath and testes in males). Sr. Does-5 Jr. Does- 7 Bucks-6

Recently ADGA made changes to the official score card separating the rump into its own sub-category under general appearance. This is a really good change to emphasize just how important the rump structure is in relation to milk production. Quoting advanced ADGA Judge Trinity Smith Malmanis, the rump is like a garage for the mammary. We want Mac Truck sized udders, but if we have a garage built for a Prius and we try to park a Mac Truck in that garage, there is going to be damage to both the vehicle and the garage. So how exactly does the rump effect the mammary? Let’s take a closer look.

First off, when we start honing in on one aspect of the scorecard, it is important to keep in mind other aspects of the animal’s conformation and how biomechanics of one trait will affect other traits. In other words, the rump needs to be balanced with the rest of the body. We as breeders like seeing long rumps but that length should be in proportion to the rest of the back. The chine, loin and rump should be relatively equal in length for each of those parts to be level and smoothly blended into each other. When one of those parts is too short or excessively long, the other parts can be thrown off kilter. Much like when you have a set of link-n-logs. If one log in the basic frame is the wrong length the balance and structure is then warped. When we’re looking at a goat and we notice a steep rump, that can be caused from the rump structure being too short (from hips to pins) or too long in proportion to a shorter chine or loin. While a steep rump isn’t ideal some slope from the hips to pins is necessary. If the rump is too level or the pins are higher than the hips, we may start to see issues with conception rates as the cervix is put in a position that makes breeding difficult. This can also cause issues after kidding with those goats not being able to fully flush the birthing fluids which could lead to infections.

The length of rump will directly affect the capacity of the mammary when viewed from the side profile. When we look internally, the mammary is primarily supported by the medial suspensory ligament. This divides the halves of the udder and connects to the hip bone structure to hold the mammary close to the body. Much like supportive trusses on a bridge, the hips need to be a sturdy wide structure for the cables or connective tissue to attach to. A short and narrow rump then allows for less area for that connective tissue. Does with a short rump will often have little to no extension or fullness in the fore udder. Does with a longer rump structure tend to have more balanced capacity, one-third of the capacity visible in front of the leg, one-third under the leg, and one-third behind the leg.

We talk about width a lot in several aspects of the scorecard, and the rump is no exception. Width is what allows a goat to have room for birthing kids and a full mammary system when viewed from the rear. Anyone who has ever had to reposition a kid will tell you how much easier it is when a doe is naturally build wide and “roomy” for those kids with really big heads to come out. Width in the rump is also going to give more space between the rear legs for a larger “Mac Truck” mammary. When we have a doe that is not showing width between the thurls and/or pins, that doe is going to have a more difficult time moving her legs around a very full udder. This can lead to bruising and if severe enough, cause chronic issues with mastitis from that bruising. The wider hip structure is equivalent to stronger framework of a larger garage. When there is lots of width from thurl to thurl, the hip joint is going to allow a smoother motion of the femur and thus a stronger straighter motion in the whole leg as the goat moves. If the pin bones are wide with the rest of the hip structure, that will help the width of the rear udder and arch into the escutcheon. The continued width of the hips will allow the goat to have more natural width between the hocks, again allowing for the rest of the leg to function smoothly, walking around a large mammary instead of rubbing against it.

There are many more things that can be said about the rump, but these few things are a good start when learning to look at the rump of a dairy goat. Keep in mind this is just one portion of a bigger picture. Each part of the goat is going to have a function with cause and effect on other parts of the goat. Learning to understand the function of each area of the scorecard is a step in understanding the building blocks we use to breed balanced, healthy and efficient dairy goats.

May 2022 ANDDA Newsletter

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Bachelor and Harem Stallion Behavior and Endocrinology 1

This is a Dorothy Russell Havemeyer Foundation project conducted at the Georgia and Philip Hofmann Research Center for Animal Reproduction, with partial support from NIH #K04-NS01537.

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Sue M. McDonnell, Samantha C. Murray, Bachelor and Harem Stallion Behavior and Endocrinology, Biology of Reproduction , Volume 52, Issue monograph_series1, January 1995, Pages 577–590, https://doi.org/10.1093/biolreprod/52.monograph_series1.577

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Horses naturally breed within a harem social unit that typically includes one mature breeding stallion with several mares and their immature offspring. Non-harem stallions comprise relatively stable social groups known as bachelor bands. When a harem position becomes vacant, a stallion emerges from a bachelor band to fill the vacancy. We studied harem and bachelor stallion phenomena using a model of pony stallions pastured together under semi-feral conditions. In this model, one stallion assumed the role of “harem stallion,” vigilantly guarding an area within the stallion pasture along the fence line facing nearby mare pastures. The remaining stallions interacted as a bachelor band. If the harem stallion was removed from the pasture, a stallion from the bachelor group rapidly emerged to fill the position. If we replaced to the pasture a former harem stallion, the former harem stallion typically displaced the incumbent harem stallion back to the bachelor band. Order of emergence from the bachelor band to fill harem position vacancies, while highly repeatable, was not strongly associated with bachelor age, height, weight, testosterone concentrations, ranked level of aggressive behavior, or ranked leader-follower behavior. Emergence from bachelor to harem status consistently resulted in a sudden sharp rise in testosterone concentration, which remained high for the duration of harem status. Displacement from harem status back to the bachelor band was consistently associated with a sharp decrease in testosterone concentration. Testosterone concentrations with harem status were significantly higher than those with bachelor status for all months of the year. These changes in behavior and testosterone concentrations of sexually experienced mature stallions suggest social modulation of behavior and endocrinology, with enhancement of reproductive function as a harem stallion and/or suppression as a bachelor. Extremely wide variation in testosterone concentrations due to sociosexual conditions raises important questions about basic neuroendocrinology of stallions, including methodological concerns. Equally significant are questions raised regarding management of domestic breeding stallions.

Most equids, including free-running domestic and feral horses, Przewalski horses, and common zebra, breed within a harem social unit [ Berger, 1977 ; Feist & McCullough, 1975 ; Hoffmann, 1985 ; Klingel, 1975 ; Kownacki et al., 1978 ; McCort, 1984 ; Miller, 1981 ; Penzorn, 1984; Penzorn & Novellie, 1991; Salter & Hudson, 1982 ; Schilder & Boer, 1987 ; Tilson et al., 1988 ; Turner et al., 1981 ; Wells & von Gold-schmidt-Rothschild, 1979 ]. Each harem typically includes one mature breeding stallion with 5–10 adult mares and their immature offspring. Male offspring are evicted from their natal band around the time of puberty. They then typically join with other young adult and mature males (that do not have a harem) to form social groups of 5–20 animals, known as bachelor bands. The bachelor band is a relatively stable social unit. Although most of the bachelor males are post-pubertal, they remain heterosexually inactive until and unless they become a harem stallion. Bachelor bands generally travel near harem bands, but apparently do not continuously challenge harem stallions for access to females. When a harem becomes available due to death or incapacitation of the harem stallion, one of the bachelors emerges from the band to assume the position. Transition from a bachelor band to a harem is a relatively orderly event, with apparently little fighting among the bachelors at the time one takes a harem. Descriptions of behavior of free-running bachelor bands indicate day-today fighting, both play and serious, and elimination marking sequences among bachelors.

At our facility, for several years we have kept pony stallions pastured together under semi-feral conditions. In any one grouping, one stallion reliably assumes the role of "harem stallion," vigilantly guarding an area within the stallion pasture and the fence line facing nearby mare pastures. The remaining stallions interact as a group, with behavior similar to that described for bachelor bands among free-running equids. If we remove the harem stallion from the pasture, one of the bachelor stallions quickly emerges from the band to fill the vacated position. Casual observations have suggested to us that, within a bachelor band, there may be an established order in which bachelors take over the harem position when a vacancy arises. In instances when we have returned a former harem stallion to the pasture, he has invariably resumed his previous position within a few minutes to a few hours. The incumbent harem stallion has either immediately retreated with little aggressive interaction or has been aggressively displaced from harem status by the returning former harem stallion.

Considering that our pastured pony groups provide a suitable model, we have been studying behavior and endocrinology of harem and bachelor stallions. The work reported here includes description of behavior associated with harem and bachelor status, evaluation of stallion characteristics associated with achieving harem status, and evaluation of testosterone concentrations associated with bachelor and harem status. Specific objectives for these experiments included the following:

Experiment 1. General description of behavior and preliminary quantitative time budgets for bachelor and harem stallions during periods of stability as well as during periods when the harem position was contested.

Experiment 2. Evaluation of repeatability of the order of emergence of stallions from an established bachelor band into harem status.

Experiment 3. Evaluation of associations of age, physical size, tenure in the herd, leadership and aggression within the bachelor band, and testosterone concentrations with order of emergence to harem status.

Experiment 4. Comparison of testosterone concentrations of harem and bachelor stallions, including longitudinal evaluation of stallions as they emerged from bachelor to harem status.

Experiment 5. Evaluation of displacement from harem status in this model, and description of associated behavior and testosterone concentrations.

Experiment 1

Study site. The study site consisted of one main pasture (2.1 hectares) and several nearby smaller (0.4-1.2 hectares) holding pastures. The main pasture contained a natural stream with adjacent light forest running diagonally across the long axis of the pasture. Also used were two traditional horse stables with a combination of individual box or tie-stalls for housing stallions for short periods. These facilities were adjacent to an equine reproduction clinical and teaching facility where mares were pastured and stabled throughout the year. Approximately 20 horse and pony mares were kept in several small pastures within 15–300 m of the western fence line of the main pasture. The main bachelor and harem pasture shared no fence lines with mare pastures.

Subjects. A total of twenty-five Shetland-sized mixed-breed pony stallions (2–21 yr of age; 100–275 kg; all sexually experienced) were used. At pasture, these stallions were left undisturbed and were maintained on grass alone (March through November) or grass and supplemental hay dispersed throughout the pasture once daily (December through February). Throughout the year, stallions were removed or added to the main pasture, with the number of stallions at any one time ranging from 10 to 19.

Behavior observations and measures. Over a period of two years, the herd was observed 10–60 daylight hours (0600–2000 h) weekly, in 4-h sessions with equivalent weekly coverage of morning, afternoon, and evening periods. Observers were on foot when inside the pasture or in vehicles when outside the pasture. The method of observation was to continuously scan the herd to record ongoing maintenance activities (grazing, drinking, moving, elimination-marking, standing rest or recumbency, and rolling) of each stallion as well as each occurrence of self or mutual grooming, masturbation, and aggressive interaction, as previously defined by McDonnell & Haviland [1995] . Hand-held computer event-recorders and prepared checksheets enabled scanning of the entire herd approximately once every 5 min. For most scans, one to three stallions were out of sight, and were recorded as such. Observers moved about within the pasture as necessary to locate each stallion at least once every 10 min. In addition, the harem or bachelor status and location within the pasture of each stallion was recorded 1–3 times daily during 10-min drive-by observations with prepared pasture maps. Harem stallion status was defined as maintaining proximity to and control of the fence line closest to the mare pastures. Bachelor status was defined as affiliation with the non-harem stallions and/or apparent avoidance of the area guarded by the harem stallion.

For each stallion, the percentages of time spent grazing, moving, resting (standing or recumbent), interacting aggressively with other bachelor/s (play, sparring, and serious), and performing elimination/marking were calculated, on the basis of total durations of each behavior and total time observed over all sessions. Frequencies (episodes per hour) of drinking, self-grooming, mutual grooming, and masturbation were similarly obtained for each stallion. Of the 25 stallions, 24 were observed as bachelors and 15 as harem stallions. For stallions observed as both, harem and bachelor values were calculated separately. Paired t-test procedures were used to compare harem and bachelor masturbation frequency, drinking frequency, and percentages of time spent performing elimination-marking.

Experiment 2

Sixteen pony stallions were pastured together as described in experiment 1. After a stallion had established his harem position for at least 1 wk (range 1–3 wk), he was removed from the pasture, allowing another stallion to emerge from the bachelor band to fill the vacancy. Removal of the established harem stallion was repeated, with the goal of allowing each of the 16 stallions the opportunity to establish harem status. After 13 harem stallions had been removed, none of the three remaining stallions established harem status within 4 wk. The series of removals was terminated, and then the 13 previously removed stallions were simultaneously returned to the pasture, and the removal procedure was repeated twice for 8 sequential harem stallions. Spearman rank order correlation procedures were used to evaluate repeatability of order of emergence.

Experiment 3

Twenty-five pony stallions (described in experiment 1) were ranked according to their order of emergence from bachelor to harem status in this system as described in experiment 2. For each stallion, the following measures were obtained at the time of assuming harem status:

Age: estimated on the basis of dentition.

Height: measured in inches to the top of the withers.

Weight: estimated from girth circumference.

Tenure within the herd: estimated as the number of years the stallion had been kept at this study site.

Leader-follower rank: based on nine 4-h observation sessions representing morning, afternoon, and evening daylight hours over a 3-wk period beginning 1 wk after the group had been assembled. For each observed movement of a group or sub-group of bachelors to water, rest areas, or grazing areas, each stallion involved was recorded as having led or directed the group or as having been a follower. For each session, each stallion was ranked from 1 (least leadership) to 5 (most leadership). For each stallion, a mean rank over all observation sessions was calculated.

Aggressiveness rank: based on number of aggressive interactions initiated. Specific behaviors considered aggressive included arched neck threat, posturing, bite or bite threat, box, chase, head and neck wrestling, head threat, kick or kick threat, stomp, and strike or strike threat [McDonnell & Haviland, 1995). For each session, each stallion was ranked from 1 (least aggressive) to 5 (most aggressive). For each stallion, a mean rank over all observation sessions was calculated.

Testosterone concentrations: based on jugular plasma samples obtained 1–3 times weekly while in the bachelor band. All samples were obtained between 1400 and 1700 h. (In preliminary studies of diurnal variation in testosterone of these pony stallions, concentrations were found to be relatively stable within this time window. Testosterone concentration was measured by RIA with use of a commercially available kit (Coat-A-Count Total Testosterone, Diagnostic Products Corporation, Los Angeles, CA) validated for equine plasma by a commercial clinical veterinary laboratory (BET Reproductive Laboratories, Inc., Lexington, KY). Sensitivity is 0.02 ng/ml. Cross-reactivity with dihydrotestosterone is < 5%. Inter-assay and intraassay coefficients of variation were 8.1%. and 4.1%, respectively. For each stallion, mean testosterone concentrations a) for the entire period in the bachelor band and b) for the week preceding transition to harem status were calculated.

Spearman rank order correlation procedures were used to evaluate associations of these variables with order of emergence from the bachelor band.

Experiment 4

Over a period of one year, testosterone concentrations were measured (as described in experiment 3) 1–3 times weekly for all bachelor and harem stallions. Stallions and pasture arrangements were similar to those described in the earlier experiments. Monthly means for harem and bachelor status were calculated on the basis of monthly averages of individual stallion monthly means (varying number of bachelor and harem stallions for each month). Also, for comparison, testosterone concentrations were similarly obtained for 12 horse and pony stallions stabled in barns with other stallions at the adjacent breeding facility described in experiment 1.

Harem stallion fighting with intruder bachelor along harem fence line.

Experiment 5

Fifteen stallions were sequentially removed from harem status as described in experiment 2, and were held in individual stalls or holding paddocks. The stallions were sequentially returned at approximately 1-wk intervals to the pasture in the reverse order of their emergence. Each time a stallion was returned to the pasture, the herd was observed continuously during daylight hours until the harem position appeared stable. Observations focused on the harem fence line area, with methods followed as described in experiment 1. Jugular plasma samples were obtained 1–3 times weekly from all stallions throughout for assay of testosterone as described in experiment 3. Sampling was continued for stallions when outside the pasture in barns or holding paddocks.

General behavior patterns. Harem stallion behavior primarily included guarding of the harem fence line area, with most harem stallions pacing along a portion of the fence line most of the time with attention apparently focused on the mares in nearby pastures. Grazing and resting typically occurred in bouts lasting less than 5 min interspersed with longer bouts of pacing of the fence line. For most harem stallions, their interactions with other stallions were limited to serious fighting ( Fig. 1 ) and aggressive chases of stallions from the harem fence line area and periodic unprovoked raids on the bachelor band, in which the bachelors were herded together to the area of the pasture furthest from the harem fence line area. Individual harem stallions varied with regard to their level of vigilance, tolerance, and aggressiveness in guarding the harem fence line area and keeping bachelors away. Unprovoked raids on bachelors occurred as frequently as every hour and lasted as long as 10 min for some harem stallions. For others, raids were as infrequent as once every 5 h and were as brief as 2 min. Five harem stallions did not perform unprovoked raids at regular intervals.

Stallion with erection mounting another bachelor stallion.

Elimination-marking behavior occurred at least once per hour for most harem stallions. Once a stallion had established harem status, all elimination-marking behavior was solitary.

Bachelor stallions interacted almost continuously with other bachelor stallions, with most of their time spent in quiet side-by-side grazing and resting. These quiet interactions are similar to those of mares at pasture (McDonnell, unpublished observations). They included mutual grooming, usually as a pair, but sometimes involving three or four participants, at a rate of approximately one episode per 4-h observation session for a band of 12–18 bachelors. Interspersed with these quiet grazing and resting periods were episodes of aggressive interaction. Aggressive interaction among bachelors consisted mostly of sparring. Serious fighting and play-like aggressive interaction were seen much less frequently. Any one aggressive episode usually involved only 2 or 3 stallions, and typically did not disturb ongoing activities of the remaining bachelors.

Male-male mounting, sometimes with erection, was a relatively common occurrence among bachelors (see Fig. 2 ). Roughly half of the time, the target stallion appeared to present his rump, soliciting and tolerating the mount. In two such instances, anal insertion occurred and ejaculation was apparent. In three additional instances, ejaculation occurred with thrusting of the penis against the flank or perineum of the target stallion. The remaining mounts appeared to be unsolicited and occurred during sparring and chasing episodes. During these encounters, the mount was often sideways or even head-on across the back or shoulder of the target stallion. In these seemingly unsolicited mounts, erection, thrusting, insertion, and ejaculation were rare.

All bachelor stallions within the pasture interacted as a group. Most of these stallions were together in the same area of the pasture, engaging in the same activities together within a 50-m span ( Fig. 3 a). Within the group, there were obvious sub-associations of pairs and groups of three to five individuals that typically grazed, rested, moved about in close consort, and engaged in periodic sparring ( Fig. 3 , b-d). A common association was an older stallion and one or two 2-yr-old stallions, with the older stallion herding and guarding the younger as a harem stallion would herd and guard a mare. Also, usually one or two bachelors spent a large percentage of each day grazing and resting within the area of the other bachelors, but with no close association to a sub-group. More rarely, a "loner" bachelor grazed and rested at a relatively great distance from the other bachelors, maintaining a seemingly independent activity pattern. When an environmental event or disturbance occurred, the bachelors quickly came together and moved about within the pasture as a single tight band spanning less than 15 m. For example, during raids by the harem stallion, loners almost always joined the tightly banded bachelor group, or in some cases were chased and herded into the bachelor band by the harem stallion. Bachelor stallions in general appeared submissive to an established harem stallion. Most bachelors appeared to remain alert to the location of the harem stallion and quickly retreated when he approached.

a) Typical band of bachelor stallions grazing quietly together at pasture. A sub-association of two stallions (b) sparring, and moments later (c) grazing together, then (d) resting together with simultaneous masturbation.

Over the course of the experiment, stallions tended to maintain their particular tendencies to pair off or graze alone. They also maintained affiliations with particular individual ponies, even after periods of weeks or months of separation.

Time budgets. Bachelor and harem time budgets are summarized in Table 1 . The most salient difference was that for harem stallions, the percentage of time spent moving was approximately seven times that for bachelors, reflecting the pacing of the harem fence line and the raids on bachelors. Percentage of time spent resting and grazing was considerably less for harem than for bachelor stallions.

Behavioral time budgets ol harem anf bachelor stallions.

For the 14 stallions observed during both harem and bachelor status, masturbation frequency was similar with harem and bachelor status (dependents-tests, 13 df, p > 0.10). Masturbation episodes occurred similarly during resting and grazing for both harem and bachelor stallions. For bachelor stallions, a mean of approximately 60% of masturbation episodes were simultaneous ( Fig. 3 d); that is, they occurred while another bachelor was also masturbating in close proximity. Quite curiously, on four occasions, two stallions were observed in what we have called simultaneous synchronous masturbation. This involved standing nose-to-nose, simultaneously achieving erection, commencing synchronous movements of the penis, and then simultaneously losing erection and retracting the penis. Drinking frequency was also similar for harem and bachelor status (dependent t- -tests, 13 df, p > 0.10). Percentage of time spent engaging in elimination-marking behavior was greater with harem status than with bachelor status (dependent t- test, 13 df,p <0.05).

Transition from bachelor to harem status. Twelve transitions from bachelor to harem status were included in these observations. In all cases, we removed the harem stallion from the pasture, creating a vacancy. Within 1 min to 3 h of removal of the harem stallion, one or more bachelors approached the harem fence line area and engaged in posturing, elimination-marking, and rolling sequences along the fence line. Usually within 1–5 min of such interaction, one bachelor appeared to assume the harem position, pacing the harem fence line and chasing other bachelors away from the area. In 8 of these 12 observed transitions, a second stallion commenced similar guarding of the harem fence line. The two then engaged in more intense aggressive sparring, chasing, and serious fighting for the position. Usually within less than 1 h, one of these two succeeded in forcing the other to retreat back to the bachelor band. For all 12 transitions, uncontested control of the harem line area was established by a single stallion within less than 5 min for 4 stallions, within 30 min for 1 stallion, 1 h for 5 stallions, 12 h for 1 stallion, and 24 h for 1 stallion.

Transition from bachelor-type behavior to harem-type behavior was remarkably rapid in all cases. Immediately, affiliative contact with former bachelor herd mates ceased for the duration of harem status. In several instances, within minutes of quietly grazing, mutually grooming, and resting together with a bachelor companion, an emerging harem stallion viciously attacked and chased his former herd mate away from his newly attained harem area.

Order of emergence was identical for replicates one and two. In replicate three, the 3rd and 4th stallions emerged in reversed order. Therefore, the order of emergence was highly repeatable (Spearman rho = 0.96; p < 0.05).

Results are summarized in Table 2 . For all variables, Spearman rank order correlation coefficients for association with order of emergence to harem status were not significant (Spearman rho < ± 0.30, NS). It is noteworthy that none of the three 2-yr-old stallions assumed harem status in this experiment, even when they were the only stallions remaining in the pasture. (We had collected semen from each of them and all three showed normal sexual response to an estrous mare and ejaculated normal numbers of viable sperm.)

Figure 4 summarizes mean monthly testosterone concentrations for bachelor and harem stallions. Testosterone concentrations of harem stallions were significantly higher than those of bachelors for all months of the year.

Figure 5 illustrates mean testosterone concentrations associated with 30 transitions from bachelor to harem status of 18 different stallions. Testosterone concentrations were consistently higher with harem than with bachelor status. Mean testosterone concentrations for the last weekly sample before emergence to harem status (during Weeks 2–12 of bachelor status) and the first weekly sample during harem status were significantly different (dependent t -tests, 29 df, p < 0.001). The increase in testosterone concentration ranged from 29% to 1931% (mean of 281%). Testosterone concentrations remained high for the duration measured (1–15 wk). These effects occurred throughout all months of the year. The mean percentage increase in testosterone concentration tended to be greater (independent t -tests, p < 0.10) during nonbreeding season months (September-February, 537%) than during breeding season months (March-August, 152%), with 3 increases exceeding 1000% associated with winter low bachelor concentrations. Testosterone concentrations of horse and pony stallions stabled in barns with other stallions at the same facility closely followed those of bachelors in this model.

Behavior associated with displacement. In all 15 cases, the returning stallion displaced the incumbent harem stallion back to the bachelor band, usually without serious or prolonged fighting. Latency from entry into the pasture until re-establishment of harem status ranged from 0 to 7 h, with a mean of 53.4 (SEM 28.08) min. In three instances, the incumbent harem stallion retreated back to the bachelor band when the returning former harem stallion simply vocalized as he was being brought toward the pasture, twice even before the former harem stallion was within sight of the incumbent harem stallion. For the remaining twelve instances, the returning and incumbent harem stallions engaged in varying degrees of aggressive interaction. This included mostly posturing, elimination-marking sequences, and serious fighting along the entire length of the harem fence line. Some prolonged aggressive chases occurred, extending well away from the harem fence line into the bachelor band areas of the pasture. In eight instances, the displaced stallion exhibited submissive gestures toward the former harem stallion before retreating from the area of the harem fence line. These included female posture, rump presentation, solicitation, and tolerance of mounting, occasionally with anal insertion and ejaculation.

Spearman rank order correlation with order ol emergence from bachelor to harem status (25 pony stallions).

The aggressive encounters clearly evoked alert attention of the bachelors in the pasture. During 7 of the 12 displacements involving aggressive engagements along the harem fence line, several bachelors (4–9) approached the vicinity of the skirmish, standing alert in groups of 2–5, facing the combatants (see Fig. 6 ). These onlooking bachelors stood alert, but relatively relaxed and uninvolved even when intense chases passed close to their position. In 4 instances, one or more bachelors became involved in the agonistic interactions of the returning and incumbent harem stallions, either by approaching them near the harem fence line area, or during chases extending into the bachelor band area.

Most displaced harem stallions did not immediately rejoin the bachelor band. For 1–3 days after displacement from the harem position, they typically moved about alone in the area of the pasture furthest from the harem fence line, at a distance from the bachelors. Reentry into the bachelor band was gradual and usually included interactions with the bachelors, during which the returning displaced harem stallion appeared extraordinarily submissive. This included tolerance of one or more bachelors sniffing his head, neck, genitals, and perineum. Remarkably, the displaced former harem stallions assumed mare-typical estrous postures during these teasing-like interactions, including, in several instances, presentation of the hindquarters and toleration of mounting. In some cases, several bachelors sequentially mounted the displaced harem stallion.

Mean monthly testosterone concentrations of harem and bachelor stallions. Asterisks indicate significant differences between harem and bachelor groups: * denotes p < 0.05; ** denotes p < 0.01; *** denotes p < 0.001.

Testosterone concentrations. Testosterone concentrations of the 15 displaced stallions dropped 36-94% within the first week ( Fig. 7 ; mean 62%; SEM 5.0%). Within the first week after displacement, testosterone concentrations were significantly lower than the last sample during harem status of 2-12-wk duration (dependent t- test, 14 df, p < 0.001).

Two "natural" displacements of the incumbent harem stallion by a challenging stallion from the bachelor band within the pasture occurred over the 2-yr course of all the experiments reported here. In each case, displacement occurred after prolonged periods (8 days and 23 days) of intermittent aggressive interaction of the harem stallion and the challenger. In each case, the retreating harem stallion’s testosterone dropped to an extremely low concentration (similar to those of mares or castrated males) during the first week after displacement and then increased to within the range of long-term bachelors by the second week after displacement. The two displaced stallions appeared extremely dejected for several days following defeat. Each displayed extreme submissiveness at the fringe of the bachelor band for prolonged periods before rejoining the group.

Mean (± SEM) testosterone concentrations associated with emergence from bachelor to harem status.

Testosterone concentrations of harem stallions removed from the main pasture to a barn or smaller holding pasture dropped in almost all cases, but variably with the diverse conditions under which they were held. Testosterone concentrations dropped precipitously for harem stallions taken to a barn in which other stallions were stabled. Testosterone concentrations dropped less for stallions taken to a barn with no other horses (p < 0.05), and even less when taken to a barn with breeding access to mares (p < 0.05). The drop in testosterone concentrations was not significant (p > 0.10) for stallions taken from harem status to individual holding paddocks adjacent to or facing pastures with mares.

Four bachelor stallions that have approached vicinity of skirmish, and are calmly observing contest for harem line status.

Mean (± SEM) testosterone concentrations associated with displacement from harem status back to bachelor band.

Behavior and testosterone concentrations were markedly different with harem and bachelor status in this model, consistently and rapidly changing with change in status. Harem stallion behavior generally focused on guarding the harem fence line area, aggressively evicting intruders, and periodically harassing bachelor stallions. Time budgets of harem stallions included more moving, and less grazing and resting than for bachelors. Bachelor behavior included quiet affiliative grazing and resting with other bachelors, periodic sparring-type aggression among bachelors, and avoidance of the harem stallion. These general patterns of behavior in this model are similar to those described for free-running equid bachelor and harem stallions. Masturbation frequencies were similar for bachelor and harem stallions and were consistent with previously reported values for pastured and stabled stalhons [ McDonnell, 1989 ]. Behaviors not previously reported to occur among stallions but observed among stallions in this model included mutual grooming, mounting with anal insertion, pairs or groups masturbating simultaneously, and mare-typical estrous posturing and presentation.

Testosterone concentrations were consistently higher with harem than with bachelor status. Remarkable, sudden changes in testosterone concentrations were observed among mature stallions. The changes clearly followed emergence from bachelor to harem status or displacement from harem status back to the bachelor band. Bachelor and harem status for stallions was easily manipulated with changes in the social groupings. These changes in testosterone concentration and behavior suggest a hypothesis of a mechanism for enhancement of reproductive function as a harem stallion and/or suppression as a bachelor. Both the increases in testosterone concentrations associated with emergence from bachelor to harem status and the decrease following displacement from harem status were observed in all seasons of the year, suggesting readiness to respond to social modulation throughout the year. In this experiment, there were numerous instances of wintertime harem testosterone concentrations reaching or exceeding published normal levels for domestic stallions during summer breeding season months [ Douglas & Umphenour, 1992 ]. Further work is under way to evaluate the time course of these changes in testosterone concentrations, as well as to characterize GnRH, gonadotropin, and other neuroendocrine changes associated with bachelor and harem status in this model.

Such extremely wide variation in testosterone concentrations due to sociosexual conditions raises important questions about basic neuroendocrinology of stallions, including methodological concerns. For example, there is a broad range of testosterone concentrations considered normal for mature domestic stallions [ Berndtson et al., 1974 ]. Sociosexual conditions of domestic existence, simulating more or less bachelor or harem conditions, may be a factor in this wide variation. Equally significant are questions of the relevance of these observations to management of domestic breeding stallions. Our findings suggest that group-housed domestic stallions may have testosterone concentrations similar to those of bachelor stallions in this model. For most months of the year, testosterone concentrations with harem status were higher than published norms for stabled breeding stallions (same assay [ Douglas & Umphenour, 1992 ]). It is possible, therefore, that inter-male effects may be involved in behavior-related subfertility seen in some domestic breeding stallions or in the generally lower behavioral vigor and apparent fertility of stabled stallions compared to pasture-bred stallions. Pasture-bred horses, for example, typically exhibit very high levels of fertility and greater sexual behavior endurance than stabled, hand-bred stallions [Bristol, 1982,1987]. Increased testosterone concentrations with harem status and/or suppression due to stabling stallions together may play a role in this phenomenon.

Throughout this work, emergence of a stallion from an established bachelor band to the harem position was relatively orderly, with little fighting among bachelors. Harem status was clearly established within minutes to a few hours of a vacancy. Serious or prolonged fighting was limited mostly to initial placement of stallions in the pastures and to two occurrences of spontaneous displacement of an incumbent harem stallion by a bachelor. Within a given group of stallions, order of emergence to harem status was highly repeatable. However, no individual characteristic studied was predictive of order of emergence as harem stallion. Certainly, the 25 stallions studied so far limit us to a simple correlational approach to these few factors. Further work with larger numbers of stallions would enable a multivariate approach that might reveal a set of predictive factors. Among feral horses of the Pryor Mountains, Feist & McCullough [1975] observed three instances of a bachelor gaining a mare from a harem. In each instance, the bachelor obtaining the mare had been the dominant stallion within a bachelor band. In that work, it was found that most bachelor bands had one clearly dominant stallion that controlled the movement of the group, was vigilant with regard to intruders, and was the most likely to engage in aggressive interactions with other bachelors or harem stallions. In our model, we have not been able to identify clearly dominant stallions within bachelor bands. Bachelors that have led or directed movement of the bachelor band have not consistently had the higher aggressiveness ranks. These differences warrant further study.

None of the three 2-yr-old stallions assumed harem status or experienced a rise in testosterone concentrations, even when no other stallions remained in the pasture. After this series of experiments, two of these stallions were each pastured with a group of cycling pony mares. Although they readily bred mares, they initially showed little concern with regard to herding and guarding the mares. In each case, testosterone concentrations rose dramatically within the first few days. Within two weeks, harem-like herding and guarding behavior reached levels typical of older stallions.

Sociosexual components differing between bachelor and harem status.

Several mechanisms may be involved in these extraordinary changes in behavior and circulating testosterone concentrations associated with bachelor and harem status. Other work, principally in rodents [ Huhman et al., 1991 ; Miczek et al., 1991 ; van de Poll et al., 1982 ] and nonhuman primates [ Eberhart et al., 1980 ], both in laboratory and field studies, indicates measurable effects of social status and physical or psychological defeat on male reproductive behavior and endocrinology. Some obviously different sociosexual components of bachelor and harem status are listed in Table 3 . Further work should address the features of bachelor and harem status contributing to differences in associated testosterone concentrations. An important aspect of this model is that stallions do not actually contact the harem. Mares are in nearby pastures, with no common border. This precludes tactile contact, and provides only visual and auditory contact, and the possibility of distant olfactory contact, with mares. Studies are presently under way in which the harem stallion has varying levels of access to mares with and without the presence of a bachelor band. One intriguing aspect of bachelor social interaction that may contribute to lowered testosterone concentrations and subdued aggressive behavior among bachelors is the constant olfactory exposure to excrement of other males during elimination-marking behavior. Urine-mediated inter-male suppressive reproductive effects have been demonstrated in other species [ Lawton & Whitsett, 1979 ].

It is interesting to consider the nature of the message among stallions as to their social position within the group and, for example, their order of access to harem status. Certainly, pheromonal signals, simple behavioral postures, or complex behavior including learning may be involved. In this model system, learning and memory for individual stallions appeared evident. Stallions appeared to remember their relative rank among herd mates, even after considerable separation. In experiment 5, for example, incumbent harem stallions apparently recognized individual former harem stallions from a distance by their voice or audible hoof steps. Incumbent stallions typically appeared anxious or alarmed and submissively retreated from the harem fence line area, sometimes even before the returning former harem stallion was within sight. In instances in which bachelor stallions were removed and returned to the pasture, the incumbent stallion apparently recognized them and remained aggressive toward them, rather than retreating from the harem position.

In summary, mature pony stallions in this model exhibited distinctly different harem and bachelor type behavior and correspondingly high testosterone concentrations with harem status and low testosterone concentrations with bachelor status. These socially mediated changes in behavior and testosterone concentrations occurred throughout the year.

Karen Shuler, Linda Shelton, Katie Reilly, Alison Ginsberg, and Drs. Malgorzata Pozor and Eric Twitchell assisted with behavior observations or blood sampling.

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Here, Moog, a delver in clinical psychology-cum-market research, presents a primer on how TV and print advertising interacts...

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ARE THEY SELLING HER LIPS?"" Advertising and Identity

by Carol Moog ‧ RELEASE DATE: March 19, 1990

Here, Moog, a delver in clinical psychology-cum-market research, presents a primer on how TV and print advertising interacts with reality. The bulk of Moog's text consists of ""critiquing ads"" at length for the edification of those who never learned from the likes of Vance Packard, on the one hand, or David Ogilvy, on the other. Whether it's the classic Maidenform dream ads or the musky Calvin Klein perfume promotions, Moog's not-so-startling synthesis is that image, not product, is being sold. Working her way through such matters as stereotypes (she doesn't cotton to displays of fat people, but ""an attractive heavy woman"" passes muster) or salacious hustles (featuring such come-ons as ""the submissive female-rump presentation"" to sell jeans), the author illustrates with some ten-dozen photos--enough to equal several slick magazines or a couple of hours before the tube. The gimmick here is the combination of advertising imagery with simplistic case studies supposedly drawn from Moog's private practice. There's ""Marlene"" with her sexual hang-ups, ""Kevin"" with his midlife crisis, chubby ""Lynn"" and an army of others. But drawing a significant connection between patently fictional characters and advertising proves fruitless and diminishes an otherwise mildly entertaining text. The use of actors rather than ""real"" people, as Moog notes, has blighted many campaigns. It can do the same for a book. An offhand study of what Madison Avenue is really selling; not a bad one, but subject, perhaps, to overselling.

Pub Date: March 19, 1990

Page Count: -

Publisher: Morrow

Review Posted Online: N/A

Kirkus Reviews Issue: Feb. 15, 1990

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Trump berates female Fox News host for ‘grating voice’ and ‘jittery’ presentation

Unflattering review came after jessica tarlov criticised him on air for handling of classified documents, article bookmarked.

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Donald Trump gave an unsolicited review of Fox News show The Five in which he branded co-host Jessica Tarlov “absolutely terrible” and called her voice “grating and unendurable.”

Tarlov, a former Democratic pollster, is one of the liberal voices on the show and was named a co-host in 2021.

“I really like The Five on Fox News, especially the hosts, with the exception of wacky Jessica Tarlov, who is absolutely terrible,” the one-term president wrote on his Truth Social platform .

“Her facts are knowingly wrong, her jittery presentation is horrendous and, forgive me, her VOICE is grating and unendurable.”

Mr Trump went on to say that former host Juan Williams was “terrible, but better” than Tarlov.

“I find her impossible to take in large doses, & put out this ‘REVIEW’ because it is important to expose Fake News, & Fake People!” Mr Trump added.

The former president’s attack on Tarlov came after she criticised him on the show for keeping classified documents at his Mar-a-Lago home in Florida and blamed him for being “personally responsible for 30 per cent” of the national debt.

Mr Trump also used Truth Social to take a shot at the right-wing news network for not being supportive enough towards him.

“FoxFakeNews is terrible! Anything bad for ‘Trump’ they go with, even if not true. They refuse to show the major polls that have me leading all Republicans in a landslide, and beating Hopeless Joe Biden by a lot,” he wrote.

“Nobody else has numbers like this, and it’s driving them, together with their friends at Club For No Growth, Paul Ryan, Karl Rove, and the RINO Class, CRAZY. It’s 2016 all over again, even though I did better in 2020, by a LOT. FoxFakeNews is not with me, and I’m not with them!’TRUTH.’”

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Science News

Baboon rumps signal quality of motherhood, share this:.

By Susan Milius

March 8, 2001 at 4:19 pm

By comparing female baboons’ rumps, a male can spot those potential mates best suited for motherhood, say researchers in England.

In females of about 10 percent of primate species, bare areas of their rears swell as they near ovulation. In olive baboons, Papio cynocephalus anubis , water retention in posterior tissues can add 12 percent to a female’s weight.

For indicating motherhood potential, bigger means better, report Leah G. Domb, now in Bristol, and Mark Pagel of the University of Reading. They found that wild females with the biggest bulges give birth at earlier ages and see more of their young survive than do females with smaller attributes.

Males seem to get the idea. In Tanzania’s Gombe National Park, they threaten each other and get into fights more often over big-bulge females than over small-bulge ones, the researchers say in the March 8 Nature .

“It’s a little like a peacock’s tail, except in a female,” Domb says. Scientists have linked paternal suitability to various flamboyant signals of males. Except for a study of feather spots on female owls (SN: 5/13/00, p. 310), Domb knows of no other evidence for such signals in females.

To explore the role of female baboons’ rumps in reproduction, Domb pieced together the reproductive histories of the Gombe females. She drew on more than 30 years of detailed records from other biologists and spent a year in Tanzania observing wild males scrapping over females with various allurements.

Domb used videotape of wild baboons to measure rump bulges. For calibration, she filmed a field assistant rushing with a meter stick to the spot where the baboon had been.

The irregularly shaped rump swellings ranged from 14.7 to 24.0 centimeters long. Length–but not depth or width–correlates with reproductive success, the researchers report. Females typically bear a baby about every 2 years, but within a range of 0.15 to 0.83 births per year, females with larger rump swelling averaged higher than the smaller-rump group did.

In a commentary accompanying the report, Robin Dunbar of the University of Liverpool listed at least five notions that theorists have proposed to explain the swellings. The new data “are the first set of very conclusive evidence,” he says. Still unknown is whether the reproductive payoffs of such splendid displays come with biological costs, such as increased vulnerability to predators.

Charles L. Nunn, a biologist at the University of Virginia in Charlottesville who has studied primate swellings, deems the new findings “an exciting result.” But he says he remains puzzled that only the length of the swellings correlates with females’ reproductive success.

Another biologist, Alan Dixson of the San Diego Zoo, also admits to being “foxed” by the importance of length, although he says the reported reproductive role of the swellings “does make sense.”

He’s considered primate swellings in other species and muses that other characteristics of them might also tip off suitors. For example, high-ranking female mandrills cycle through the swollen-rump stage in perhaps 10 days, but subordinate females take several weeks. Could speed of swelling rather than size indicate maternal potential in mandrills? “I think it would be great if we could now have people go out and measure other primates,” he says.

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Variation in fetal presentation

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There can be many variations in the fetal presentation which is determined by which part of the fetus is projecting towards the internal cervical os . This includes:

cephalic presentation : fetal head presenting towards the internal cervical os, considered normal and occurs in the vast majority of births (~97%); this can have many variations which include

left occipito-anterior (LOA)

left occipito-posterior (LOP)

left occipito-transverse (LOT)

right occipito-anterior (ROA)

right occipito-posterior (ROP)

right occipito-transverse (ROT)

straight occipito-anterior

straight occipito-posterior

breech presentation : fetal rump presenting towards the internal cervical os, this has three main types

frank breech presentation  (50-70% of all breech presentation): hips flexed, knees extended (pike position)

complete breech presentation  (5-10%): hips flexed, knees flexed (cannonball position)

footling presentation  or incomplete (10-30%): one or both hips extended, foot presenting

other, e.g one leg flexed and one leg extended

shoulder presentation

cord presentation : umbilical cord presenting towards the internal cervical os

• 1. Fox AJ, Chapman MG. Longitudinal ultrasound assessment of fetal presentation: a review of 1010 consecutive cases. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol. 2006;46 (4): 341-4. doi:10.1111/j.1479-828X.2006.00603.x - Pubmed citation
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Unusual behaviour of captive-raised gibbons: implications for welfare

• Original Article
• Published: 02 June 2006
• Volume 47 , pages 322–326, ( 2006 )

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A Publisher's Erratum to this article was published on 16 August 2007

Unusual behaviours not normally seen in the wild were studied in 52 captive agile ( Hylobates agilis albibarbis ) and 23 Müllers gibbons ( H. muelleri spp) at three locations within the Kalaweit Gibbon Rehabilitation Project. Unusual behaviours included stereotypic behaviour (SB), human-directed masturbation and posterior presenting. These data were collected over 18 months as part of an ongoing study into behavioural adaptation of gibbons in a rehabilitation programme. Data were also collected on the unusual behaviours observed, for example, SB, human-directed masturbation and posterior presenting. I suggest causes of the abnormal behaviours and propose solutions to reduce their incidence in order to improve the gibbon’s progress in rehabilitation. From this study I conclude that most gibbons can be rehabilitated from the point of view of acquiring and maintaining a normal behavioural repertoire once in suitable housing. Encouraging the gibbons to reduce and/or stop these unusual behaviours is key to the welfare of the gibbons while in the rehabilitation programme and to successful release into a forest habitat.

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Acknowledgements

S.C. would like to thank Orwellian Brail (Chance), the director of the Kalaweit Project, and all staff who helped with data collection. Also to LIPS, the Indonesian Institute of Science for permission to work in Kalimantan. Funding was provided by The Gibbon Foundation, the C.K. Marr Educational Trust and Downing College, Cambridge. Thanks to Dr. David J. Chivers for comments on a draft of this manuscript.

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An erratum to this article can be found at http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10329-007-0058-x

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Cheyne, S.M. Unusual behaviour of captive-raised gibbons: implications for welfare. Primates 47 , 322–326 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10329-006-0190-z

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Received : 09 November 2004

Accepted : 01 November 2005

Published : 02 June 2006

Issue Date : October 2006

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10329-006-0190-z

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• Very strong drive and can take precedence over other activities
• Promote copulation
• Assure sperm and oocyte meet
• Goal is to achieve pregnancy and parturition
• precopulatory
• post copulatory
• Search for sexual partner
• in female, generally limited to estrus
• increased physical activity
• In primates can occur at any time
• in male can occur at any time
• involves all of the senses
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• sniffing of the vulva by male
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• chin resting on female rump
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• Sexual arousal
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• Dismounting
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• period of time during which copulation will not take place
• for semen collection try to minimize
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• Prenatal steroid exposure
• feminization
• Masculinization (defeminization)
• Postnatal Behavior
• castrated female
• no steroids - no estrous behavior
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• plus progesterone and estradiol - maximum estrous behavior
• plus testosterone - male-like behavior
• castrated male
• no steroids - decreased sexual behavior
• plus testosterone - sex behavior restored
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• plus estradiol - sex behavior restored
• both male and female sexual behavior is dependent on estradiol receptors in brain
• Hypothalamus
• Spinal Chord
• specific importance varies with species
• volatile substance which elicit specific behavior in the recipient
• males produce
• females produce during estrus
• dogs and rats can sense cow pheromones
• flehmen response
• cows bellow
• good for long-range signaling
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• valuable for close encounters
• biting on neck or whithers of mare
• chin resting on cow
• boar nudging of sow flank
• final stimulus before copulation
• leads to erection
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• restricted venous outflow
• elevated intrapenile pressure
• relaxation of the retractor penis muscle
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• may occur in a sequence
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• stimulation of the glans penis
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• all males have this
• dependent on
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Visualizing the data: Women’s representation in society

Date: 25 February 2020

Women’s full and equal participation in all facets of society is a fundamental human right. Yet, around the world, from politics to entertainment to the workplace, women and girls are largely underrepresented.

The visualizations below take a closer look at this gender-imbalanced picture over time, revealing just how slow progress is. Rooted in patriarchal norms and traditions, the consequences are far-reaching with detrimental, negative consequences on the personal, economic and future well-being of women and girls, their families and the community at large.

Building a sustainable future for all, means leaving no one behind. Women and girls are critical to finding solutions to the biggest challenges we face today and must be heard, valued and celebrated throughout society to reflect their perspectives and choices for their future and that of the advancement of humanity.

How many more generations are needed for women and girls to realize their rights? Join Generation Equality to demand equal rights and opportunities or all. Share this piece today using #GenerationEquality, #IWD2020 and #CSW64.

Politics 

Women’s political representation globally has doubled in the last 25 years. But, this only amounts to around 1 in 4 parliamentary seats held by women today. 

Women continue to be significantly underrepresented in the highest political positions. In October 2019, there were only 10 women Head of State and 13 women Head of Government across 22 countries, compared with four Head of State and eight Prime Ministers across 12 countries in 1995.

Source:  Inter-Parliamentary Union (Data as of 1 January 2020); Report of the UN Secretary-General E/CN.6/2020/3

In June 2019, the Fortune 500 hit a milestone with the most women CEOs on record. While every gain is a win, the sum as a whole is a bleak picture: Out of the 500 chief executives leading the highest-grossing firms, just under 7 per cent are women.

When looking at the workforce as a whole, the gender gap in labour force participation among prime working age adults (25 to 54) has stagnated over the past 20 years. Improved education among women has done little to shift deeply entrenched occupational segregation in developed and developing countries. Women continue to carry out a disproportionate share of unpaid care and domestic work. In developing countries, that includes arduous tasks such as water collection, for which women and girls are responsible in 80 per cent of households that do not have access to water on the premises.

Source:  Fortune 500 (Data as of 1 June 2019); Catalyst ;  Report of the UN Secretary-General E/CN.6/2020/3

Culture and sciences

Bestowed annually to recognize intellectual achievement and academic, cultural and scientific advances, the Nobel Prize has been awarded to more than 900 individuals in the course of its history from 1901 to 2019. Only 53 of the winners have been women, 19 in the categories of physics, chemistry, and physiology or medicine. Marie Curie became the first female laureate in 1903, when she and her husband won a joint Prize for physics. Eight years later she was solely awarded the Chemistry Prize, making her the only woman in history to win the Nobel Prize twice. Although women have been behind a number of scientific discoveries throughout history, just 30 per cent of researchers worldwide and 35 per cent of all students enrolled in STEM-related fields of study are women.

Source:  The Nobel Foundation  (Data as of 2019);  Progress on the Sustainable Development Goals: The gender snapshot 2019 , UN Women

When it comes to equality of men and women in news media, progress has virtually ground to a halt. According to the largest study on the portrayal, participation and representation of women in the news media spanning 20 years and 114 countries, only 24 per cent of the persons heard, read about or seen in newspaper, television and radio news are women. A glass ceiling also exists for women news reporters in newspaper bylines and newscast reports, with 37 per cent of stories reported by women as of 2015, showing no change over the course of a decade. Despite the democratizing promise of digital media, women’s poor representation in traditional news media is also reflected in digital news, with women making up only 26 per cent of the people in Internet news stories and media news tweets. Only 4 per cent of traditional news and digital news stories clearly challenge gender stereotypes. Among other factors, stereotypes and the significant underrepresentation of women in the media play a significant role in shaping harmful attitudes of disrespect and violence towards women.

Source:  The Global Media Monitoring Project (Data as of 2015); Report of the UN Secretary-General E/CN.6/2020/3

Entertainment

Like other forms of media, film and television have a powerful influence in shaping cultural perceptions and attitudes towards gender and are key to shifting the narrative for the gender equality agenda. Yet, an analysis of popular films across 11 countries found, for example, that 31 per cent of all speaking characters were women and that only 23 per cent featured a female protagonist—a number that closely mirrored the percentage of women filmmakers (21 per cent). 

The gross underrepresentation of women in the film industry is also glaringly evident in critically acclaimed film awards: In the 92-year history of the Oscars, only five women have ever been nominated for the Best Director Award category; and one woman—Kathryn Bigelow—has ever won. And, Jane Campion remains the only woman director to have won the Cannes Film Festival’s top, most prestigious prize, the Palme d’Or, in its 72-year history. The only other women to have received the prize—but jointly—were actresses Adèle Exarchopoulos and Léa Seydoux with the movie's male director Abdellatif Kechiche. If a picture is worth a thousand words, the message is worth a million: If we are to shift stereotypical notions of gender and reflect women’s realities, we need more women in film, on-screen and off-screen. 

Source:  The Official Academy Awards® Database (Data as of 2020); A Brief History of the Palme d’Or, Cannes Film Festival (Data as of 2019)

Sports has the power to inspire change and break gender stereotypes—and women have been doing just that decade after decade, showing that they are just as capable, resilient and strong as men physically, but also strategically, as leaders and game changers (Generation Equality pro tip: Watch Billie Jean King’s history-altering tennis match Battle of the Sexes).

Today, women are far more visible in sports than ever before: The Tokyo 2020 Olympics is projected to have close to equal representation of women and men competing for the first time in its history. For comparison, only 22 women (2.2 per cent) out of a total of 997 athletes competed in the modern Olympics for the first time in 1900. Women and men will compete in almost all sports categories with an exception: Rhythmic gymnastics and artistic swimming are women’s-only events and Greco-Roman wrestling is a men's-only event—although women can compete in freestyle wrestling.

Despite progress, women still continue to be excluded in certain sports in parts of the world and are paid far less than men in wages and prize money globally. UN Women is working to level the playing field for women and girls, including through partnerships with the International Olympic Committee, and UN Women Goodwill Ambassador and all-time top scorer of the FIFA Women’s World Cup Marta Vieira da Silva. 

Source:  The International Olympic Committee (Data as of 2020); FIFA (Data as of 2019)

Culinary arts

Despite women being prescribed stereotypical roles in the kitchen at home, the upper echelons of the restaurant industry have remained relatively closed to female chefs. As detailed in the documentary A Fine Line , women must often overcome active discrimination and navigate a culture that both glorifies masculinity and tacitly condones harassment. Paired with long, unpredictable and inflexible working hours, unfriendly family and childcare policies and lower salaries, women face enormous challenges when entering the restaurant business. The numbers match the story: Today, just under 4 per cent of chefs with three Michelin stars (the highest rating you can get) from the prominent restaurant guide are women. 

Source:  Michelin (Data as of 2019)

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