essay on importance of heroes

• Heroism: Why Heroes are Important
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Why Heroes are Important

The impact of role models on the ideals to which we aspire.

When I was 16 years old, I read Henry David Thoreau's book Walden for the first time, and it changed my life. I read about living deliberately, about sucking the marrow out of life, about not, when I had come to die, discovering that I had not lived, and I was electrified. Somehow he convinced me that living deliberately meant becoming a philosopher, and I have not looked back since. And I try as often as I can to remind myself of Thoreau's warning to all philosophy professors: "There are nowadays professors of philosophy, but not philosophers. Yet it is admirable to profess because it was once admirable to live. To be a philosopher is not merely to have subtle thoughts, nor even to found a school, but so to love wisdom as to live according to its dictates, a life of simplicity, independence, magnanimity, and trust. It is to solve some of the problems of life, not only theoretically, but practically." If - horrible thought - I should fail to earn tenure here, I would largely blame that damned quotation. But even if that disaster should strike, I know I would find solace by asking how Henry would respond to such a setback, and I know I would be a better man by following his example. Thoreau is one of my dearest heroes, and I do not know who I would be without him.

The term "hero" comes from the ancient Greeks. For them, a hero was a mortal who had done something so far beyond the normal scope of human experience that he left an immortal memory behind him when he died, and thus received worship like that due the gods. Many of these first heroes were great benefactors of humankind: Hercules, the monster killer; Asclepius, the first doctor; Dionysus, the creator of Greek fraternities. But people who had committed unthinkable crimes were also called heroes; Oedipus and Medea, for example, received divine worship after their deaths as well. Originally, heroes were not necessarily good, but they were always extraordinary; to be a hero was to expand people's sense of what was possible for a human being.

Today, it is much harder to detach the concept of heroism from morality; we only call heroes those whom we admire and wish to emulate. But still the concept retains that original link to possibility. We need heroes first and foremost because our heroes help define the limits of our aspirations. We largely define our ideals by the heroes we choose, and our ideals -- things like courage, honor, and justice -- largely define us. Our heroes are symbols for us of all the qualities we would like to possess and all the ambitions we would like to satisfy. A person who chooses Martin Luther King or Susan B. Anthony as a hero is going to have a very different sense of what human excellence involves than someone who chooses, say, Paris Hilton, or the rapper 50 Cent. And because the ideals to which we aspire do so much to determine the ways in which we behave, we all have a vested interest in each person having heroes, and in the choice of heroes each of us makes.

That is why it is so important for us as a society, globally and locally, to try to shape these choices. Of course, this is a perennial moral issue, but there are warning signs that we need to refocus our attention on the issue now. Consider just a few of these signs:

o A couple years ago the administrators of the Barron Prize for Young Heroes polled American teenagers and found only half could name a personal hero. Superman and Spiderman were named twice as often as Gandhi, Martin Luther King, or Lincoln. It is clear that our media make it all too easy for us to confuse celebrity with excellence; of the students who gave an answer, more than half named an athlete, a movie star, or a musician. One in ten named winners on American Idol as heroes.

o Gangsta rap is a disaster for heroism. Just this week, director Spike Lee lamented the fact that, while his generation grew up idolizing great civil rights leaders, today young people in his community aspire to become pimps and strippers. Surely no one wants their children to get their role models from Gangsta rap and a hyper materialistic, misogynistic hiphop culture, but our communities are finding it difficult to make alternative role models take hold.

o And sometimes, the problem we face is that devotion to heroes is very strong, but directed toward the wrong heroes. In the Muslim world, Osama bin Laden and his like still have a widespread heroic appeal. We can tell how we are doing in the struggle for Muslim hearts and minds by the degree to which this continues to be true.

So what must we do? How should we address the problem? Part of the answer is personal. It never hurts us to remind ourselves who our own heroes are and what they represent for us, and to ask ourselves whether we are doing all we can to live up to these ideals. Not long ago there was a movement afoot to ask always, "What would Jesus do?" I'd like to see people asking questions like that, about Jesus or others, all the time. I confess I get a little thrill every time I see a protest poster asking, "Who would Jesus bomb?" That's heroism doing its work, right there. Moreover, those of us who are teachers - and all of us are teachers of our own children at least - have a special opportunity to introduce heroes to those we teach. And teaching about heroes really isn't hard; heroic lives have their appeal built in, all we need to do is make an effort to tell the stories. I assure you, the reason those students didn't choose Lincoln and King and Gandhi as heroes was not that they had heard their stories and dismissed them. It is our job to tell the stories. Tell your students what a difference people of courage and nobility and genius have made to the world. Just tell the stories! We should recommit to that purpose. Start by going home tonight and listing your five most important heroes.

But part of the answer to our problem is broader. It is clear that the greatest obstacle to the appreciation and adoption of heroes in our society is pervasive and corrosive cynicism and skepticism. It was widely claimed not long ago that 9/11 signalled the end of irony, but it is clear now that the reports of irony's death were greatly exaggerated. This obstacle of cynicism has been seriously increased by scandals like the steroids mess in Major League Baseball, by our leaders' opportunistic use of heroic imagery for short term political gain, and by the Pentagon's stories of glorious soldiers like Jessica Lynch and Pat Tillman that - by no fault of the soldiers involved - turned out to be convenient fabrications.

The best antidote to this cynicism is realism about the limits of human nature. We are cynical because so often our ideals have been betrayed. Washington and Jefferson held slaves, Martin Luther King is accused of philandering and plagiarizing, just about everybody had sex with someone they shouldn't, and so on. We need to separate out the things that make our heroes noteworthy, and forgive the shortcomings that blemish their heroic perfection. My own hero Thoreau had his share of blemishes. For instance, although he was supposed to be living totally independently out by Walden Pond, he went home to Mother on the weekends. But such carping and debunking misses the point. True, the false steps and frailties of heroic people make them more like us, and since most of us are not particularly heroic, that may seem to reduce the heroes' stature. But this dynamic pulls in the other direction as well: these magnificent spirits, these noble souls, amazingly, they are like us, they are human too. And perhaps, then, what was possible for them is possible for us. They stumbled, they wavered, they made fools of themselves - but nonetheless they rose and accomplished deeds of triumphant beauty. Perhaps we might do so too. Cynicism is too often merely an excuse for sparing ourselves the effort.

Again, the critical moral contribution of heroes is the expansion of our sense of possibility. If we most of us, as Thoreau said, live lives of quiet desperation, it is because our horizons of possibility are too cramped. Heroes can help us lift our eyes a little higher. Immanuel Kant said that "from the crooked timber of humanity, no straight thing was ever made." That may well be true. But some have used that warped, knotted timber to build more boldly and beautifully than others, and we may all benefit by their examples. Heaven knows we need those examples now.

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Greater Good Science Center • Magazine • In Action • In Education

What Makes a Hero?

This month, Greater Good features videos of a presentation by Philip Zimbardo, the world-renowned psychologist perhaps best known for his infamous Stanford Prison Experiment. In his talk, Zimbardo discusses the psychology of evil and of heroism, exploring why good people sometimes turn bad and how we can encourage more people to perform heroic acts. In this excerpt from his talk, he zeroes in on his research and educational program designed to foster the “heroic imagination.”

More on Heroism

Watch the video of Philip Zimbardo's Greater Good talk on heroism.

Read his essay on " The Banality of Heroism ," which further explores the conditions that can promote heroism vs. evil.

Read this Greater Good essay on the "psychology of the bystander."

Learn more about Zimbardo's Heroic Imagination Project.

What makes us good? What makes us evil?

Research has uncovered many answers to the second question: Evil can be fostered by dehumanization, diffusion of responsibility, obedience to authority, unjust systems, group pressure, moral disengagement, and anonymity, to name a few.

But when we ask why people become heroic, research doesn’t yet have an answer. It could be that heroes have more compassion or empathy; maybe there’s a hero gene; maybe it’s because of their levels of oxytocin—research by neuroeconomist Paul Zak has shown that this “love hormone” in the brain increases the likelihood you’ll demonstrate altruism. We don’t know for sure.

I believe that heroism is different than altruism and compassion. For the last five years, my colleagues and I have been exploring the nature and roots of heroism, studying exemplary cases of heroism and surveying thousands of people about their choices to act (or not act) heroically. In that time, we’ve come to define heroism as an activity with several parts.

First, it’s performed in service to others in need—whether that’s a person, group, or community—or in defense of certain ideals. Second, it’s engaged in voluntarily, even in military contexts, as heroism remains an act that goes beyond something required by military duty. Third, a heroic act is one performed with recognition of possible risks and costs, be they to one’s physical health or personal reputation, in which the actor is willing to accept anticipated sacrifice. Finally, it is performed without external gain anticipated at the time of the act.

Simply put, then, the key to heroism is a concern for other people in need—a concern to defend a moral cause, knowing there is a personal risk, done without expectation of reward.

By that definition, then, altruism is heroism light—it doesn’t always involve a serious risk. Compassion is a virtue that may lead to heroism, but we don’t know that it does. We’re just now starting to scientifically distinguish heroism from these other concepts and zero in on what makes a hero.

My work on heroism follows 35 years of research in which I studied the psychology of evil, including my work on the infamous Stanford Prison Experiment . The two lines of research aren’t as different as they might seem; they’re actually two sides of the same coin.

A key insight from research on heroism so far is that the very same situations that inflame the hostile imagination in some people, making them villains, can also instill the heroic imagination in other people, prompting them to perform heroic deeds.

Take the Holocaust. Christians who helped Jews were in the same situation as other civilians who helped imprison or kill Jews, or ignored their suffering. The situation provided the impetus to act heroically or malevolently. Why did some people choose one path or the other?

Another key insight from my research has been that there’s no clear line between good and evil. Instead, the line is permeable; people can cross back and forth between it.

This is an idea wonderfully represented in an illusion by M. C. Escher, at left. When you squint and focus on the white as the figures and the black as the background, you see a world full of angels and tutus dancing around happily. But now focus on the black as the figures and the white as the background: Now it’s a world full of demons.

What Escher’s telling us is that the world is filled with angels and devils, goodness and badness, and these dark and light aspects of human nature are our basic yin and yang. That is, we all are born with the capacity to be anything. Because of our incredible brains, anything that is imaginable becomes possible, anything that becomes possible can get transformed into action, for better or for worse. 

Some people argue humans are born good or born bad; I think that’s nonsense. We are all born with this tremendous capacity to be anything, and we get shaped by our circumstances—by the family or the culture or the time period in which we happen to grow up, which are accidents of birth; whether we grow up in a war zone versus peace; if we grow up in poverty rather than prosperity.

George Bernard Shaw captured this point in the preface to his great play “Major Barbara”: “Every reasonable man and woman is a potential scoundrel and a potential good citizen. What a man is depends upon his character what’s inside. What he does and what we think of what he does depends on upon his circumstances.”

So each of us may possess the capacity to do terrible things. But we also posses an inner hero; if stirred to action, that inner hero is capable of performing tremendous goodness for others.

Another conclusion from my research is that few people do evil and fewer act heroically. Between these extremes in the bell curve of humanity are the masses—the general population who do nothing, who I call the “reluctant heroes”—those who refuse the call to action and, by doing nothing, often implicitly support the perpetrators of evil.

So on this bell curve of humanity, villains and heroes are the outliers. The reluctant heroes are the rest. What we need to discover is how to give a call to service to this general population. How do we make them aware of the evil that exists? How do we prevent them from getting seduced to the dark side?

We don’t yet have a recipe for creating heroes, but we have some clues, based on the stories of some inspiring heroes.

I love the story of a wonderful nine-year-old Chinese boy, who I call a dutiful hero. In 2008, there was a massive earthquake in China’s Szechuan province. The ceiling fell down on a school, killing almost all the kids in it. This kid escaped, and as he was running away he noticed two other kids struggling to get out. He ran back and saved them. He was later asked, “Why did you do that?” He replied, “I was the hall monitor! It was my duty, it was my job to look after my classmates!”

This perfectly illustrates what I call the “heroic imagination,” a focus on one’s duty to help and protect others. For him, it was cultivated by being assigned this role of hall monitor.

Another story: Irena Sendler was a Polish hero, a Catholic woman who saved at least 2,500 Jewish kids who were holed up in the Warsaw ghetto that the Nazis had erected. She was able to convince the parents of these kids to allow her to smuggle them out of the ghetto to safety. To do this, she organized a network.

That is a key principle of heroism: Heroes are most effective not alone but in a network. It’s through forming a network that people have the resources to bring their heroic impulses to life.

What these stories suggest is that every one of us can be a hero. Through my work on heroism, I’ve become even more convinced that acts of heroism don’t just arrive from truly exceptional people but from people placed in the right circumstance, given the necessary tools to transform compassion into heroic action.

Building on these insights, I have helped to start a program designed to learn more of heroism and to create the heroes of tomorrow.

The Heroic Imagination Project (HIP) is amplifying the voice of the world’s quiet heroes, using research and education networks to promote a heroic imagination in everyone, and then empower ordinary people of all ages and nations to engage in extraordinary acts of heroism. We want to democratize the notion of heroism, to emphasize that most heroes are ordinary people; it’s the act that’s extraordinary.

There are already a lot of great heroes projects out there, such as the Giraffe Heroes Project . The HIP is unique in that it’s the only one encouraging research into heroism, because there’s very little.

Here are a few key insights from research we’ve done surveying 4,000 Americans from across the country. Each of these statements is valid after controlling for all demographic variables, such as education and socioeconomic status.

Heroes surround us. One in five—20 percent—qualify as heroes, based on the definition of heroism I provide above. Seventy-two percent report helping another person in a dangerous emergency. Sixteen percent report whistle blowing on an injustice. Six percent report sacrificing for a non-relative or stranger. Fifteen percent report defying an unjust authority. And not one of these people has been formally recognized as a hero.

Opportunity matters. Most acts of heroism occur in urban areas, where there are more people and more people in need. You’re not going to be a hero if you live in the suburbs. No shit happens in the suburbs!

Education matters. The more educated you are, the more likely you are to be a hero, I think because you are more aware of situations.

Volunteering matters. One third of all the sample who were heroes also had volunteered significantly, up to 59 hours a week.

Gender matters. Males reported performing acts of heroism more than females. I think this is because women tend not to regard a lot of their heroic actions as heroic. It’s just what they think they’re supposed to do for their family or a friend.

Race matters. Blacks were eight times more likely than whites to qualify as heroes. We think that’s in part due to the rate of opportunity. (In our next survey, we’re going to track responses by area code to see if in fact these heroes are coming from inner cities.

Personal history matters. Having survived a disaster or personal trauma makes you three times more likely to be a hero and a volunteer.

Based on these insights into heroism, we’ve put together a toolkit for potential heroes, especially young heroes in training, who already have opportunities to act heroically when they’re kids, such as by opposing bullying.

A first step is to take the “hero pledge,” a public declaration on our website that says you’re willing to be a hero in waiting. It’s a pledge “to act when confronted with a situation where I feel something is wrong,” “to develop my heroic abilities,” and “to believe in the heroic capacities within myself and others, so I can build and refine them.”

You can also take our four-week “Hero Challenge” mini-course online to help you develop your heroic muscles. The challenge may not require you to do anything heroic, but it’s training you to be heroic. And we offer more rigorous, research-based education and training programs for middle and high schools, corporations, and the millitary that make people aware of the social factors that produce passivity, inspire them to take positive civic action, and encourage the skills needed to consistently translate heroic impulses into action.

We’re also in the process of creating an Encyclopedia of Heroes, a collection of hero stories from all over the world. Not just all the classic ones and fictional ones, but ones that people from around the world are going to send in, so they can nominate ordinary heroes with a picture and a story. It will be searchable, so you can find heroes by age, gender, city and country. These are the unsung, quiet heroes—they do their own thing, put themselves in danger, defend a moral cause, help someone in need. And we want to highlight them. We want them to be inspirational to other people just like them.

Essentially, we’re trying to build the social habits of heroes, to build a focus on the other, shifting away from the “me” and toward the “we.” As the poet John Donne wrote: “No man [or woman] is an island entire of itself; every man is a piece of the continent, a part of the main; … any man’s death diminishes me, because I am involved in mankind. And therefore never send to know for whom the bell tolls; it tolls for thee.”

So every person is part of humanity. Each person’s pulse is part of humanity’s heartbeat. Heroes circulate the life force of goodness in our veins. And what the world needs now is more heroes—you. It’s time to take action against evil.

About the Author

Philip Zimbardo

Philip Zimbardo, Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of psychology at Stanford University, a professor at Palo Alto University, a two-time past president of the Western Psychological Association, and a past president of the American Psychological Association. He is also the author of the best-selling book The Lucifer Effect and the president of the Heroic Imagination Project .

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Very nice information. In this world this is the very difficult question that what makes people good or evil. This post has helped a lot to understand the difference. Actually in my point of it depends upon the individual that what he/she thinks. If he/she thinks negative all the time them they became evil and thinking vice versa makes them good.

Andrew | 2:31 am, January 19, 2011 | Link

I really like reading this article because there are many individuals in the world that are heroes but are not recognized.  Heroes that have help humanity progress and prosper have fought with the greatest weapons which are love, respect, sincerity, and peace.  The governments that have had the greatest fear of seeing people free have always use war for colonization, genocide, and false treaties.  However, love is much stronger than war, and thanks to the modern forms of communication and exchange of information, more people are united for peace and do not support or participate in colonization or human genocide.  Since the start of humanity most people have use peace to progress, few have participated in war and few are participating. May peace prevail on earth!

Victor | 7:48 pm, January 29, 2011 | Link

A son raising up against an evil father. A brother standing up to a bully attacking his sibling. A stranger rallying to the side of a woman being assaulted in the street.

My sons are my strength. My reason to help others, that they may find the help they need in their lives.

pops | 9:39 am, February 3, 2011 | Link

Of course religion and eduction has a big impact on a child. But once a child is trying to live a good life (earning good karma or call it whatever you want) good things will happen to that child and he or she will recognize this.

So I think you can definitely change from evil to good.. maybe you _can be changed_ from good to evil.

Massud Hosseini | 7:28 am, September 17, 2011 | Link

Actually in my point of it depends upon the individual that what he/she thinks

asalah | 9:41 pm, September 24, 2011 | Link

“Research has uncovered many answers to the second question: Evil can be fostered by dehumanization, diffusion of responsibility, obedience to authority, unjust systems, group pressure, moral disengagement, and anonymity, to name a few.”  <—What I find amazing about this statement is that anything is being branded “evil” at all.  Well, maybe not.  Relativism seems to be something that’s employed when convenient, disregarded when it’s not.

Kukri | 6:58 pm, November 6, 2011 | Link

This is a very comprehensive discussion on heroism. Victor makes a great point in his comment about how most heroes go unnoticed by the vast majority of people. I think that lack of notoriety is part of what it means to be a hero: doing that which is unexpected without the need for a pat on the back. quotes for facebook status

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When a sniper’s bullet hits one soldier and misses the person next to him, that alone does not make the wounded soldier more heroic.

brokesteves | 6:10 am, April 24, 2012 | Link

Home — Essay Samples — Life — Heroes — Definition Essay: What Makes A Hero

Definition Essay: What Makes a Hero

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Published: Mar 5, 2024

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12 Reasons Why We Have Heroes

Some heroes help us survive, others help us thrive..

Posted April 17, 2022 | Reviewed by Jessica Schrader

• Heroes provide benefits that span many dimensions of human well-being.
• Heroes help us physically, emotionally, socially, and spiritually.
• Just thinking about our heroes helps us become our best selves.

Over the past decade, social scientists who study heroism have identified at least 12 functions of heroes. Here they are:

• Heroes give us hope.
• Heroes energize us.
• Heroes develop us.
• Heroes heal us.
• Heroes impart wisdom .
• Heroes are role models for morality .
• Heroes offer safety and protection.
• Heroes give us positive emotions.
• Heroes give us meaning and purpose.
• Heroes provide social connection and reduce loneliness .
• Heroes help individuals achieve personal goals .
• Heroes help society achieve societal goals.

From this list, several things are clear. First, heroism offers benefits that span many dimensions of human well-being. There are basic survival benefits (e.g., safety and healing). There are cognitive benefits (e.g., wisdom). There are motivational benefits (e.g., energy). There are emotional benefits (e.g., hope and positivity). There are social benefits (e.g., less loneliness). There are growth benefits (e.g., development). There are spiritual benefits (e.g., morality). There are existential benefits (e.g., meaning and purpose). And there are creativity benefits (e.g., personal and societal goals).

So there’s little wonder why we have heroes. We need them to get us through this challenging experience called life. Heroes help us survive, and they help us thrive. They help us through our worst times, and they prepare us for our best times. Heroes nurture us, save us, and help us become our best selves. Heroes truly do help us meet all the human needs that correspond to Abraham Maslow’s iconic hierarchy of needs.

Perhaps the most extraordinary thing about heroes is that they don’t have to be physically present to help us survive and thrive. Research shows that just remembering our heroes can do the job for us. Nostalgia for past heroes , both living and dead, can produce these 12 benefits of heroism. Research on the impact of losing a parent at a young age has shown that people carry the departed parent with them forever, holding them in their minds, imagining their emotional support and mentoring. We all benefit from the memory of our heroes, often in ways we’re unaware of.

Allison, S. T., & Goethals, G. R. (2014). “Now he belongs to the ages”: The heroic leadership dynamic and deep narratives of greatness. In Goethals, G. R., et al. (Eds.), Conceptions of leadership: Enduring ideas and emerging insights. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Allison, S. T. & Green, J. D. (2020) Nostalgia and heroism: Theoretical convergence of memory, motivation, and function, Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1-13.

Chater, A. M., Howlett, N., Shorter, G. W., Zakrewski-Fruer, J. K., Williams, J. (2022). Reflections experiencing parental bereavement as a young person: A retrospective qualitative study. International Journal of Environments Research and Public Health, 19, 2083.

Kinsella, E.L., Ritchie, T.D., & Igou, E.R. (2015). Lay perspectives on the social and psychological functions of heroes. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 130.

Kneuer, M. A., Green, J. D., & Allison, S. T. (2022). In pursuit of important goals: Nostalgia fosters heroic perceptions via social connectedness. Heroism Science, 7(1), 1-29.

Allison, S. T. (Ed.) (2022). The 12 functions of heroes and heroism. Richmond: Palsgrove.

Scott T. Allison is Professor of Psychology at the University of Richmond and is author of Heroes and Heroic Leadership .

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What Makes a Person Heroic?

Characteristics of a hero.

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Shereen Lehman, MS, is a healthcare journalist and fact checker. She has co-authored two books for the popular Dummies Series (as Shereen Jegtvig).

• Definitions
• Characteristics

What makes a person heroic? Is there a hero gene, naturally giving someone the characteristics of a hero? According to one study, the answer might rest in the type of heroism we are addressing.

In a paper published in 2010, researchers reported that people who engaged in one-time acts of bravery (like rushing into a burning building or rescuing someone from the path of an oncoming train) are not necessarily that much different from control groups of non-heroes.

By contrast, people who engage in lifelong heroism (such as professional nurses who regularly comfort the sick and dying) do share a number of important personality traits such as empathy , nurturance, and a need to live by a moral code.

Definitions of Heroism

The scientific study of heroism is a relatively recent topic of interest within the field of psychology.

Researchers have offered different definitions of exactly what makes a hero, but most suggest that heroism involves prosocial, altruistic actions that involve an element of personal risk or sacrifice. 

Researchers Franco, Blau, and Zimbardo define heroism as someone who:

• Acts voluntarily for the service of others who are in need, whether it is for an individual, a group, or a community
• Performs actions without any expectation of reward or external gain
• Recognizes and accepts the potential risk or sacrifice made by taking heroic actions

Researchers do not necessarily agree about the central characteristics that make up heroism. One study published in 2015 in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology suggested that heroes have 12 central traits, which are:

• Determination
• Inspirational
• Moral integrity
• Self-sacrifice
• Selflessness

The psychology of heroism might not be well understood, but many experts do believe that it is possible for people to learn to be heroes . The following are just a few of the major characteristics that researchers have ascribed to heroes.

Concern for the Well-Being of Others

According to researchers, empathy, and compassion for others are key variables that contribute to heroic behavior. People who rush in to help others in the face of danger and adversity do so because they genuinely care about the safety and well-being of other people. They cannot bear to see someone suffering and are compelled to take action.

One study published in 2009 found that people who have heroic tendencies also have a much higher degree of empathy.  

People who engage in acts of heroism have concern and care for the people around them and they are able to feel what those in need of help are feeling.

Understanding Other Perspectives

Researchers suggest that heroes aren't just compassionate and caring; they have a knack for being able to see things from the perspective of others. They can "walk a mile in another man's shoes," so to speak.

When they encounter a situation where an individual is in need, they are immediately able to see themselves in that same situation and see what needs to be done to help.

Heroes Have Useful Skills and Strengths

Clearly, having the training or physical ability to deal with a crisis can also play a major role in whether or not people become heroes.

In situations where would-be rescuers lack the know-how or sheer physical strength to make a difference, people are less likely to help or are more likely to find less direct ways to take action. And in many cases, this approach is probably best; after all, people senselessly rushing into a dangerous situation can pose even more difficulties for rescue workers.

People who are trained and capable, such as those with first aid training and experience, are more ready and able to step up when their skills are needed.

Heroes Have a Strong Moral Compass

According to heroism researchers Philip Zimbardo and Zeno Franco, heroes have two essential qualities that set them apart from non-heroes: they live by their values and they are willing to endure personal risk to protect those values.

Moral reasoning at the highest levels incorporates principles of justice, equality, and honor. The heroic mindset upholds the sanctity of human life above material desires and personal needs. All heroic decisions must consider the potential outcomes and choose the pathway that will serve the greater good of humanity.

Their values and personal beliefs give them the courage and resolve to endure risk and even danger in order to adhere to those principles.

Heroes Are Competent and Confident

It takes both skill and self-confidence to rush into places others fear to tread. Researchers suggest that people who perform heroic acts tend to feel confident in themselves and their abilities.

When faced with a crisis , they have an intrinsic belief that they are capable of handling the challenge and achieving success no matter what the odds are. Part of this confidence might stem from above-average coping skills and abilities to manage stress.

Heroes Are More Optimistic

A person who rushes into a burning building to save another person is not just extraordinarily brave; he or she also possesses an ability to overcome fear. Researchers suggest that heroic individuals are positive thinkers by nature, which contributes to their ability to look past the immediate danger of a situation and see a more optimistic outcome.

In one 2010 study, researchers found that people identified as heroes were more likely to put a positive spin on negative events.  

When faced with a potentially life-threatening illness, people with heroic tendencies might focus on the good that might come from the situation such as a renewed appreciation for life or an increased closeness with loved ones.

Heroes Have a Higher Tolerance for Risk

In many cases, these individuals may also have a lower experience of fear and a higher tolerance for risk. Plenty of caring and kind people might shrink back in the face of danger. Those who do leap into action are typically more likely to take greater risks in multiple aspects of their lives.

Persistence is another quality commonly shared by heroes. They are often more patient and will keep working on their goals, even after multiple setbacks.

The decision to act heroically is a choice that many of us will be called upon to make at some point in time. By conceiving of heroism as a universal attribute of human nature, not as a rare feature of the few 'heroic elect,' heroism becomes something that seems in the range of possibilities for every person, perhaps inspiring more of us to answer that call.

A Word From Verywell

Researchers have found that in a lot of ways, heroes are not all that different from most people. However, there are a number of skills you can build that can boost your hero characteristics.

Building empathy, becoming competent and skilled, and being persistent in the face of obstacles are all abilities you can work on over time. By doing so, you can improve your ability to help others and come through in times of need.

Walker LJ, Frimer JA, Dunlop WL. Varieties of moral personality: Beyond the banality of heroism .  J Pers . 2010;78(3):907‐942. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00637.x

Franco ZE, Blau K, Zimbardo PG. Heroism: A conceptual analysis and differentiation between heroic action and altruism .  Review of General Psychology . 2011;15(2):99-113. doi:10.1037/a0022672.

Kinsella EL, Ritchie TD, Igou ER. Zeroing in on heroes: A prototype analysis of hero features . J Pers Soc Psychol. 2015;108(1):114-127. doi:10.1037/a0038463

Staats S, Wallace H, Anderson T, Gresley J, Hupp JM, Weiss E. The hero concept: Self, family, and friends who are brave, honest, and hopeful . Psychol Rep. 2009;104(3):820-832. doi:10.2466/PR0.104.3.820-832

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Lay perspectives on the social and psychological functions of heroes

Elaine l. kinsella.

1 Department of Psychology and Centre for Social Issues Research, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland

Timothy D. Ritchie

2 Department of Psychology, Saint Xavier University, Chicago, IL, USA

Eric R. Igou

3 Department of Psychology, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland

Declaring and thinking about heroes are common human preoccupations but surprisingly aspects of heroism that reinforce these behaviors are not well-understood. In four thematically consistent studies, we attempt to identify lay perspectives about the psychological functions served by heroes. In Study 1, participants ( n = 189) freely generated open-ended descriptions of hero functions, which were then sorted by independent coders into 14 categories (e.g., instill hope, guide others). In Study 2, in an attempt to identify the most important functions associated with heroes, participants ( n = 249) rated how each function corresponded with their personal views about heroes. Results from a confirmatory factor analysis suggested that a three-factor model of hero functions fit the data well: participants thought that heroes enhanced the lives of others, promoted morals, and protected individuals from threats. In Study 3 ( n = 242), participants rated heroes as more likely to fulfill a protecting function than either leaders or role models. In Studies 4A ( n = 38) and 4B ( n = 102), participants indicated that thinking about a hero (relative to a leader or an acquaintance) during psychological threat fulfilled personal enhancement, moral modeling, and protection needs. In all, these findings provide an empirical basis to spur additional research about the social and psychological functions that heroes offer.

INTRODUCTION

Heroes have played an important role in society for centuries ( Campbell, 1949 ) and their influence remains evident and prevalent in modern life ( Zimbardo, 2007 ; Sullivan and Venter, 2010 ; Allison and Goethals, 2011 , 2013a ; Franco et al., 2011 ; Kinsella et al., 2015 ). Survey data from one recent sample revealed that 66% of the participants reported having a personal hero ( Kinsella et al., 2010 ). This underscores the fact that heroism is a pervasive and everyday phenomenon. Unsurprisingly, it has been posited that heroes exert psychological influence on others ( Sullivan and Venter, 2005 ). The variety of heroes that exist—whistle-blowers, martyrs, civil heroes, political heroes, and humanitarians ( Zimbardo, 2007 )—suggests the far-reaching utility of heroes. Yet, heroism has received relatively little attention in psychology ( Becker and Eagly, 2004 ; Sullivan and Venter, 2005 ). Related topics such as generativity (e.g., Mansfield and McAdams, 1996 ), prosocial behavior (e.g., Hart and Fegley, 1995 ), whistleblowing (e.g., Lewis et al., 2014 ), and moral exemplars (e.g., Matsuba and Walker, 2005 ; Walker and Frimer, 2007 ; Frimer et al., 2011 , 2012 , 2013 ) are present in the literature and offer insights into persons who display some prototypical hero features. Few researchers, however, have considered why individuals have or want heroes ( Goethals and Allison, 2012 ).

Empirical endeavors to understand heroes are gaining momentum (e.g., Allison and Goethals, 2011 , 2013a ; Franco et al., 2011 ; Goethals and Allison, 2012 ; Kinsella et al., 2015 ; Allison et al., unpublished). So far, many of these endeavors have progressed our understanding of what constitutes a hero in modern times; however, researchers have not yet explicitly theorized and empirically substantiated the array of social and psychological functions heroes might fulfill for individuals. A person who shows the prototypical hero features of bravery, sacrifice, conviction, risk-taking, and moral integrity for an honorable purpose (see Kinsella et al., 2015 ) is likely to provide psychological and social functions for individuals who encounter (or cogitate about) them. The focus of the present article is to systematically examine lay perspectives about the psychological and social functions provided by heroes. We believe that studying the psychological influence of heroes on individuals is a fascinating and worthy topic of study, especially given that heroes are often spatio-temporally distant (e.g., sometimes dead or remote). Focusing on understanding hero functions is likely to offer insights into the processes by which heroes influence individuals and help to discern ways to effectively harness the positive influence of heroes in education, healthcare, communities, or organizations. Examining possible functions fulfilled by heroes may provide another source of evidence about prototypical hero features (e.g., a hero described as providing an inspiring or uplifting function is likely to be characterized as inspirational), thus informing our understanding of the concept.

Understanding how people comprehend the social world can be enlightened by the ways people think about and infer meaning from what occurs around them ( Heider, 1958 ). Increasingly, in health care settings, the lay conceptions explanatory model ( Kleinman et al., 1976 ), is increasingly applied by medical professionals to gain critical insights into what is most important to the individual, what they believe about their health, and what they think will influence them psychologically. As research on attitudes, attitude and behavior, person perception (e.g., stereotyping), self-regulation, and metacognition has shown, people’s beliefs shape their reality and behavior ( Heider, 1958 ; Kruglanski, 1975 ; Snyder, 1984 ; Dweck and Leggett, 1988 ; Igou, 2004 ; Fiske and Taylor, 2008 ). We adopt this perspective for investigating the topic of heroism. In order to understand how heroes are used in everyday life, it is important to examine how heroes are perceived, what qualifies as a hero, and how people think they can use them. Systematically identifying lay perspectives about a topic can be useful in helping to formulate common views that dominate thinking about a given psychological construct. Importantly, examining lay conceptions can be helpful for contributing to a conceptual framework for the development of explicit theories ( Sternberg, 1985 ). In essence, our research makes an important first step toward understanding the social and psychological functions that heroes provide.

Existing literature typically focuses on one aspect of heroic influence, such as social control ( Klapp, 1954 ), rescue from physical harm ( Becker and Eagly, 2004 ), or symbolic immortality ( Becker, 1973 ). In all, the result is a fragmented and diverse interpretation of the many possible functions that heroes may serve for groups and for individuals. This makes it difficult to develop a psychological theory of heroic influence. Before detailing four new empirical studies, we offer a synthesis of existing literary accounts of functions provided by heroes into three broad themes: enhancing, moral modeling, and protecting, which are briefly summarized below.

First, heroes are described in the literature as uplifting and enhancing the lives of others. Heroes may arouse positive emotions such as awe, gratitude, or admiration ( Algoe and Haidt, 2009 ). People may experience positivity as result of being associated with their hero’s exceptional accomplishments ( Allison and Goethals, 2011 ); this process is termed basking in reflected glory ( Cialdini, 2007 ). Heroes may motivate individuals toward being a better person by raising awareness of ought or ideal selves ( Klapp, 1969 ). Also, heroes have been described as directing our own ambitions away from “narrow, self-centered concerns” ( Singer, 1991 , p. 249). These type of encounters may trigger a period of world-focused savoring and social connectedness ( world focus ; Bryant and Veroff, 2007 ), evoking a sense of positive communion with nature and with others. Applying these ideas, The Heroic Imagination Project 1 was set up to offer information about heroism that individuals may use to transform negative situations. Also, the Hero Construction Company 2 uses inspiring narratives about heroes to promote heroic (rather than condemning bullying behavior) in schools. These projects use accounts of heroes such as Nelson Mandela, Rosa Parks, Daniel Ellsberg, and Irena Sendler to educate and inspire others toward create positive change.

Second, heroes are described as modeling morals and values. Heroes uphold the values of society ( Carlyle, 1840 ), act as comparison targets for the masses ( Pretzinger, 1976 ), and model virtues ( Cohen, 1993 ). Also, heroes may help people to understand the norms and values within society ( Erikson, 1977 ; Cohen, 1993 ). Heroes have been described as displaying moral integrity ( Kinsella et al., 2015 ), doing the right thing ( Schwartz and Schwartz, 2010 ), and showing a noble purpose without selfishness ( Singer, 1991 ). Heroes prompt people to do what they can for those who need help, endorsing other-regard ( Flescher, 2003 ). In fact, most heroes meet Colby and Damon’s (1992) criteria for serving as moral exemplars. It may not be realistic to emulate heroes that show moral fortitude, but the encounter may evoke a period of introspection which helps individuals to avoid moral complacency ( Flescher, 2003 ).

Third, the etymology of the word heroes (from Greek heros ) suggests that heroes protect others ( Harper, 2010 ). Some philosophers and psychologists have alluded to the idea that heroes protect against threats to perceptions about one’s own meaning or purpose in life. For example, Hobbs (2010) suggested that heroes offer resources to adults who feel disillusioned. Heroes who uphold cultural values and norms may also serve as a resource for dealing with threats to uncertainty, meaning, or other existential dilemmas ( Becker, 1973 ). Similarly, individuals often strive to create a meaningful life ( Duckworth et al., 2005 ) based on society’s values, often modeled by heroes. Through such means, people create a lasting impact and achieve symbolic immortality ( Goethals and Allison, 2012 ).

Based on our literature review, three broad categories of hero functions are accounted for: enhancing, moral modeling, and protecting. To reach consensus about the types of social and psychological functions that heroes provide, we suggest that examining lay conceptions about hero functions is a useful precursor to developing a theory of hero functions. As such, we first attempted to distill the range of functions that people associate with heroes, and then synthesized this information into meaningful categories (Studies 1 and 2). Second, we illustrated the extent to which individuals perceived that heroes influenced others in a similar or distinct ways to other persons of influence (Study 3). Third, we examined the extent to which people perceived benefits from thinking about heroes, leaders (Study 4A), or acquaintances (Study 4B) during times of threat or unfulfilled needs (e.g., low self-esteem, social isolation, uncertainty) as predicted by Klapp (1969) and Becker (1973) . Thus, the present article responds to the call for further research on heroes ( Zimbardo, 2007 ; Franco et al., 2011 ) and particularly to the call for further research on what good that heroes might do for people ( Allison and Goethals, 2011 ).

The study of the impact of persons’ lay theories on their social understanding has a long history in personality and social psychology (e.g., Hong et al., 2001 ). Following in that tradition, Study 1 aimed to systematically analyze lay persons’ responses to the question: “In your view, what functions do heroes serve?” The term functions was adopted in order to facilitate participants’ inclusion of both positive and negative assessments of heroic actors. The resulting exemplars were analyzed systematically, in accordance with prototype methods ( Hassebrauck, 1997 ). We expected that the most representative functions provided by heroes would be those that our participants expressed most frequently.

Participants

One-hundred and eighty-nine participants (116 women, 73 men, M age 29.98 years, SD age = 11.88, age range: 18–73 years) were recruited via Facebook TM and snowball sampling via email ( n = 164), and in the local city center ( n = 25). Participants originated from North America ( n = 90), Europe ( n = 89), and Australasia or Africa ( n = 10). Gender frequencies by geographical location were as follows American (59% female), European (65% female), and Australasian or African (56% female). The mean ages of participants in each geographical location was as follows: American ( M = 28, SD = 11.10), European ( M = 32, SD = 12.89), and Australasian or African ( M = 32, SD = 8.80).

Materials and procedure

Ethical approval was obtained from the University of Limerick’s Research Ethics Committee (Studies 1–4). Informed consent was obtained from all participants (Studies 1–4). Participants completed standardized materials either on paper or online. Those who completed the questionnaire online did not receive any compensation for their participation. Those who filled out the questionnaire in the city center received a coffee as a token of appreciation. Participants were asked: “In your view, what functions do heroes serve?” Participants were informed that “There are no correct or incorrect answers, and this is not a psychological test.” Responses were not timed. Participants were then thanked and debriefed (Studies 1–4).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A verbatim list of exemplars ( n = 344) was compiled. An exemplar is defined as one item from a list, or one unit of meaning ( Joffe and Yardley, 2004 ) from responses that contained multiple connected descriptions of hero functions.

During Phase 1 of coding, two research assistants sorted the original exemplars into superordinate thematic categories without prior knowledge about our predictions. This was achieved by grouping (a) identical exemplars, (b) semantically related exemplars (e.g., “give people hope” and “instill hope”), and (c) meaning-related exemplars into categories (e.g., “keep people safe” and “protect people from evil”) in accordance with the approach taken by previous research ( Hepper et al., 2011 ). In the first round, the first coder identified 13 categories and the second coder identified 14 categories. To reach full agreement it was necessary to create a new category. The first coder’s category, to inspire and motivate , was split into two categories (i.e., to inspire , to motivate) , resulting in 14 function categories.

During Phase 2 of coding, the third and fourth coders independently matched each original exemplar (e.g., “helping somebody to pave the way toward a personal goal”) with the 14 categories (e.g., to help) identified by the first and second coders. There was 76% consistency between the third coder’s ratings and the original coding. There was 67% consistency between the fourth coder’s ratings and the original coding. Most of the inconsistencies arose where coders placed exemplars such as “builders of self-esteem,” “punish the bad,” and “they epitomize what we should be” in multiple categories. If we take semantic units that were multiply classifiable as confirmation of reliability, the figures rise to 83 and 87% which are comparable with other published articles (e.g., Gregg et al., 2008 ).

Categories of hero functions

The independent coders identified 14 categories of functions provided by heroes from the original 344 exemplars (see Table ​ Table1 1 ). The categories of functions that were identified are as follows: to help, to inspire, to motivate, to save, to be a role model, to protect, to instill hope, to improve morale and camaraderie, to make the world a better place, to do what no one else will, to remind people about the good in the world, to guide, to show morals and values, and to act against evil or danger. On average, participants described two exemplars ( M = 2.05, SD = 1.30) 3 .

Fourteen hero functions and relatedness ratings in Study 2.

Linguistic analysis of hero functions

To provide additional information about the exemplars, all responses were subjected to analysis using the textual analysis software, Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count Version 2007 for Windows (LIWC; Pennebaker et al., 2007 ). LIWC compares each word from every participant’s response against an internal dictionary that contains English words, and then, reports a percentage of words that represent a psychological theme. For example, one participant wrote that heroes “remind us of the human potential,” and LIWC flagged the word human as belonging to the social theme. On average, participants’ descriptions consisted of 26% social (e.g., people, others), 20% affect (e.g., happy, positive), 19% positive emotion (e.g., love), 17% cognitive mechanism (e.g., ought, know), and 8% achievement (e.g., earn, win) themes. This is consistent with the view that heroic benefits are described in positive ways, in particular, relating to social topics, emotions, attitude formation, and taking action to pursue goals.

Some heroes were described as enhancing positive feelings about the self and others (to inspire, to motivate, increase morale) and modeling morals (to provide morals and values, to remind people of the good in the world). Other heroes were described as protecting people, either physically (e.g., “saving lives”) or emotionally (e.g., “to help people in a situation where they are in distress or despair and they are almost ready to give up”). These findings present empirical support to some ideas about why people need heroes presented by Allison and Goethals (2013b) . For instance, those authors suggested that heroes give people hope and offer nurturance (enhancing); educate people about right and wrong, and validate our moral worldviews (moral modeling); and, save us when we are in trouble, pick us up when we are down, and deliver justice (protecting). Each are consistent with the three themes that we identified in the literature.

Participants were invited to rate the relatedness of each heroic function (identified in Study 1) to their own view of heroes. Researchers have used similar methods to identify exemplar representativeness of a prototype (e.g., Hepper et al., 2011 ). Based on the themes that emerged from the literature and from an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) 4 , we expected that the ratings of some functions would cluster together into three categories, with each factor a latent construct representing hero functions: enhancing , moral modeling, and protecting . We tested the extent to which a three-factor model fit the data via a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA).

Factor loadings from factor analysis based on ratings in Study 2.

Two-hundred and forty-nine participants were recruited for this study in a local city center, on the University of Limerick campus, and via the psychological research website, http://psych.hanover.edu/ (120 women, 129 men, M age = 32.64 years, SD age = 12.48, age range: 18–67 years).

We offered the participants who we recruited on campus or in the local city center chocolate for their participation in the study. Participants recruited online were not compensated. Participants rated how closely each of the 14 functions of heroes related to their personal view of heroes. After each function category, some common exemplars were provided in brackets: “Inspiration (make you dream, show people what is possible, remind us of the human potential)” and “Shows morals and values (give us a set of values, conserve morals, and values).” All ratings were indicated on a Likert scale that ranged from 1 (not at all related) to 8 (extremely related). Readability statistics for the functions of heroes and associated exemplars include the Flesch Reading Ease = 67.6% and Flesch–Kincaid Grade Level 8.

Descriptive statistics

The ratings for hero functions ranged from 5.65 (to remind people about the good in the world) to 6.48 (to make the world better), on an 8-point Likert scale (see Table ​ Table1 1 ). These results support the idea that these 14 functions represent some of the most important functions provided by heroes.

Confirmatory factor analysis

A CFA tested the three-factor structure that was predicted from our analysis of the literature and from our preliminary results that emerged from an EFA. The analyses were conducted with LISREL 8.8.

In the CFA model, to save, to protect, to help, to do what no one else will, and to act against evil or danger were each specified as the latent factor protecting . To motivate, to role model, to inspire, to instill hope, to provide morale, and to guide were specified as the latent factor enhancing . Finally, to remind people about the good in the world, to show morals and values, and to make the world better were specified as the latent variable moral modeling . Results confirm that this three-factor model fit acceptably with the data, χ 2 (74, n = 248) = 232.82, p < 0.05, goodness of fit index (GFI) = 0.89, the non-normed fit index (NNFI) = 0.92, comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.94, root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.08, and standardized root mean residual (SRMR) = 0.08. Bentler and Bonett (1980) recommended that measurement models have GFI, NNFI, and CFI of at least 0.90. According to Browne and Cudeck (1993) , RMSEA between 0.05 and 0.08 represents a reasonably close fit, and, RMSEA > 0.10 represents an unacceptable model. Also, Hu and Bentler (1998) suggested that SRMR larger than 0.08 represents an unacceptable model fit.

In accordance with the variety of our participants’ responses, the data suggest that heroes provide more than a single, overarching psychosocial function. Indeed, a one-factor model fit the data inadequately, χ 2 (77, n = 248) = 584.73, p < 0.05, GFI = 0.70, NNFI = 0.81, CFI = 0.19, RMSEA = 0.19, and SRMR = 0.11. None of the fit statistics for the one-factor model reached 0.90 and the RMSEA was well above 0.10. We predicted three categories of heroic influence based on a review of the literature and our EFA results; indeed, the data suggest that this model fit the data well.

Leaders are typically described as persons who are responsible for organizing a group of people to achieve a common goal. More specifically, transformational leaders have been described as those who inspire others and create a future vision ( Bass, 1990 ). Previous research suggests that transformational leaders may provide psychological functions to their followers ( Ilies et al., 2005 ). Leaders are sometimes considered heroic. Allison and Goethals (2011 , 2013a ) draw attention to the number of leaders who are represented on their lists of popular heroes. Some hero functions could also describe the influence of leaders. We wondered if lay theories about hero functions would be measurably distinct from those of leaders.

Next, role models have been described as influential people who are often geographically close, similar in age, and share comparable experiences to their supporter ( Brownhill, 2010 ). In 1991, Singer explained that role models who are closer to their follower are observed carefully and mimicked. Role models have previously been found to engage followers in prosocial behavior ( Bryan and Test, 1967 ) and inspire others ( Lockwood and Kunda, 1997 ). The words hero and role model are often used interchangeably. Thus, we wondered if lay theories about hero functions are measurably distinct from those of role models.

Given the etymology of the word hero (meaning ‘protector’), we expect that heroes would be the best protectors of psychological and physical well-being. Hence, Study 3 examines whether participants would rate the 14 functions (generated in Studies 1–2) equally for heroes, leaders, and role models.

Two-hundred and forty-two post-graduate students (136 females, 106 males, M age = 30.60 years, SD age = 10.64, age range: 18–66 years) were recruited for this online study via the University of Limerick intranet.

The study employed a between-groups design. Participants completed an online questionnaire that prompted them to bring to mind either a leader ( n = 73), a role model ( n = 95), or a heroic individual ( n = 74). Persons were randomly distributed across conditions. Participants rated how closely each of the 14 functions of heroes (described in Studies 1 and 2) related to their personal view of heroes. After each function category, some common exemplars were provided in brackets: “Inspiration (make you dream, show people what is possible, remind us of the human potential)” and “Shows morals and values (give us a set of values, conserve morals and values).” All ratings were indicated on a Likert scale that ranged from 1 (not at all related) to 8 (extremely related).

Rating heroes, leaders, and role models on 14 hero functions

A multivariate General Linear Model evidenced a significant association between type of influential person and associated functions, Wilk’s Lambda F (28,452) = 2.48, p < 0.001, η p 2 = 0.13. Univariate tests shows significant relationships between type of individual and ratings for the following (see Table ​ Table3 3 ): to help, to save, to motivate, to make the world better, to guide, and to do what no one else will do. Participants rated heroes as more likely to help, to save, to protect, to make the world better, and to do what no one else will. They rated leaders as more likely to motivate and to guide.

Mean (SD) and inferential statistics tests that evidenced significant differences between type of influential person and the participants’ ratings of each in Study 3.

Rating heroes, leaders, and role models on categories of hero functions

Each heroic function was coded as belonging to one of the three categories from Study 2: protecting, enhancing, and moral modeling. A multivariate General Linear Model revealed an association between the type of influential person and the categories of hero functions, Wilk’s Lambda F (6,494) = 3.07, p < 0.01, η p 2 = 0.04. Univariate tests indicated that there were significant relationships between type of individual and ratings for protecting. For instance, heroes were rated as more likely to save, to help, and to do what no one else will do.

There was a significant difference between ratings of protecting for heroes, leaders, and role models, F (2,249) = 4.07, p = 0.02, η p 2 = 0.32. The pairwise comparison revealed mean differences between heroes ( M = 6.09, SD = 1.46) and role models ( M = 5.60, SD = 1.56), t (175) = 2.17, p = 0.03, d = 0.68. Further, the mean differences between heroes ( M = 6.09, SD = 1.46) and leaders ( M = 5.40. SD = 1.50) was significant, t (151) = 2.77, p = 0.01, d = 0.33.

The data highlight some important conceptual distinctions between persons of influence. Heroes, role models, and leaders have potential to serve both enhancing and moral modeling functions. Heroes may provide a protecting function beyond that of role models or leaders. Overall, heroes are more likely to help, save, protect, make the world better, and do what no-one else will than leaders or role models.

The findings illustrate that leaders were rated as more likely to guide and motivate than heroes or role models. This is probably not surprising given that political leaders such as Mandela and Mahatma Gandhi are considered heroic by millions of people and are famous for their ability to guide and motivate others. Leaders who display prototypical features of heroism may influence people in different ways than other leaders. For example, transformational leaders are defined as leaders who raise followers to higher levels of effort by appealing to their morals and values ( Chmiel, 2000 ). Also, Allison and Goethals (2013a) helpfully point out that the distinction between indirect and direct leaders (e.g., Gardner, 1995 ) may help us to further understand the overlap between the concepts of hero and leader.

Participants in Study 3 most likely brought to mind direct leaders (e.g., Barack Obama, Angela Merkel), rather than indirect leaders (e.g., Helen Keller, Wesley Autrey). Thus, this study is most likely comparing heroes with direct leaders. Conceptual clarification is needed in order to tease apart the possible functions of direct and indirect leaders, and the overlap with heroic actors.

Role models, due to their accessibility to their follower, are often scrutinized in detail and mimicked ( Singer, 1991 ). Whereas, heroes tend to be distant figures who have endured tremendous suffering and sacrifice for purposes of great nobility, whom we would not wish to emulate ( Singer, 1991 ). These ideas are reflected in recent research that suggests that role models are generally physically close, from the same generation, and have comparable experiences to the follower ( Brownhill, 2010 ).

Previous research has found that lay persons tend to think of role models as more talented, honest, personable, exceptional , and humble than heroes or leaders ( Kinsella et al., 2015 ). Researchers have found that altruistic role models increase the likelihood that those around them engage in prosocial behavior ( Bryan and Test, 1967 ). This is consistent with the findings here that role models provide a moral modeling function. Also, Lockwood and Kunda (1997) described the enhancing function of role models which is consistent with the present research. Of course, negative or ‘bad’ role models are unlikely to be a positive influence on others.

STUDIES 4A AND 4B

In Studies 4A and 4B we examined the extent to which participants indicate that heroes, leaders and acquaintances fulfill enhancing, moral modeling, and protecting functions when experiencing social or psychological threats. We hypothesized that participants would consistently indicate that heroes fulfill the enhancing, moral modeling, and protecting functions to a greater extent than a leader or an acquaintance.

In a pilot study conducted on the University of Limerick campus, we asked participants ( n = 42) to state whether they believed Nelson Mandela (former President of South Africa), Enda Kenny (Taoiseach, Leader of Fine Gael in Ireland) and Michael O’Leary (Chief Executive of RyanAir airlines) to be either a hero or a leader. Sixty-seven percent of our participants believed that Mandela is a hero rather than a leader or neither (i.e., non-hero/non-leader), in comparison with 64% who believed that Enda Kenny is a leader, and 67% who indicated that Michael O’Leary is a leader. In a study that we conducted in Kinsella et al. (2010) , we found that Mandela was one of the most frequent heroes mentioned. Therefore, in Study 4A we used these target persons to examine perceived functions fulfilled by heroes and leaders in an Irish sample.

Participants and design

In Study 4A (within-subjects design), 38 participants (18 men, 20 women, M age = 22.53, SD age = 2.02) were asked to rate three persons of influence in three different scenarios (enhancing, moral modeling and protecting conditions). In Study 4B (mixed design), 102 participants (55 men, 47 women, M age = 26.34, SD age = 11.58) were randomly assigned to the enhancing, moral modeling, protecting, or control conditions, and then asked to rate both target persons (hero, acquaintance). Participants were recruited in the local city center and did not receive any compensation.

Procedure and materials

In Study 4A, participants were asked to read three statements representing the enhancing, moral modeling and protecting functions of heroes. For enhancing, participants read “If I felt negative about myself and others, thinking about (see person below) would increase my positive feelings about myself and other people, and motivate me to further develop my potential.” For moral modeling, participants read “If I felt disconnected from others and unmotivated to act for the good of the group, thinking about (see person below) would remind me of morals, values and ethics, and encourage me to behave in ways that benefit others.” For protecting, participants read “If I felt threatened in some way or worried about the future, thinking about (see person below) would increase my feeling of protection and safety, and help me to cope with uncertainty.” Participants were then requested to indicate how much they agreed with these three statements, in relation to three named targets (i.e., Nelson Mandela, Enda Kenny, and Michael O’Leary) on the rating scale provided (1 = strongly disagree , 7 = strongly agree ).

In Study 4B, participants were assigned to one of four conditions: enhancing, moral modeling, protecting, and control. To rule out the possibility of a valence effect, we included a control condition that refers to more mundane social interactions (i.e., talking about the weather). This condition was included to control for the potential effect that heroes, positively represented targets, are generally rated more positively than others (i.e., valence effect), or whether heroes are rated more positively only on hero functions. Participants rated self-generated heroes and acquaintances. Specifically, participants were asked to write the name or initials of either a person in their life who they know slightly, but who is not a friend (i.e., an acquaintance), read a statement relating to one of the four conditions, and rate their responses on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree , 7 = strongly agree ). On a separate page, participants were asked to write the names or initials of their personal hero, read a statement and rate their responses on the 7-point Likert scale. In Study 4B, the acquaintance (i.e., non-hero) is the main reference point. Crucially, we predicted that heroes would be viewed more positively than acquaintances at providing enhancing, moral modeling, and protecting functions; further, we expected no differences between targets in the control condition.

Participants in both studies rated specific targets, rather than abstract ideas, of heroes, leaders, and acquaintances. The enhancing, moral modeling, and protecting statements used in Study 4B were identical to those used in Study 4A. A control condition was included in Study 4B to reduce the possibility that heroes received higher ratings across all dependent social measures. As such, the control condition stated “If you think about the weather and how strongly you feel about it, can you see yourself having the wish to talk about it with __.” Discussing the weather in social settings is a prevalent norm in Ireland which forms the basis of relatively mundane social interactions. We use this control condition to examine whether heroes receive inflated ratings across all positive conditions.

Enhancing condition

In Study 4A, for enhancing, there were statistically significant differences between the mean ratings for Mandela ( M = 5.51, SD = 1.21), O’Leary ( M = 3.24, SD = 1.53) and Kenny ( M = 2.89, SD = 1.58), Wilk’s Lambda = 0.478, F (2,35) = 25.59, p < 0.001, η p 2 = 0.59. Paired samples t-tests were used to compare ratings for each of the target persons. There was a significant difference between mean ratings for Mandela and O’Leary, t (36) = 6.02, p < 0.001, d = 2.01 and for Mandela and Kenny, t (36) = 7.00, p < 0.001, d = 2.33 but not for the leaders, O’Leary and Kenny, t (36) = 1.17, p = 0.09, d = 0.39. Finally, in Study 4B, in the enhancing condition ( n = 25), there was a statistically significant difference on ratings for acquaintance ( M = 3.84, SD = 1.78) and for hero ( M = 4.92, SD = 1.63), t (24) = –2.52, p = 0.02, d = 1.03.

Moral modeling condition

In Study 4A, for moral modeling, there were statistically significant differences between ratings for Mandela ( M = 5.6, SD = 1.36), O’Leary ( M = 2.68, SD = 1.75) and Kenny ( M = 2.51, SD = 1.43), Wilk’s Lambda = 0.221, F (2,35) = 61.78, p < 0.001, η p 2 = 0.78. There was a significant difference between mean ratings for Mandela and O’Leary, t (36) = 8.50, p < 0.001, d = 2.83, and for Mandela and Kenny, t (36) = 11.25, p < 0.001, d = 3.75. However, there was no significant difference for ratings between the leaders, O’Leary and Kenny, t (36) = –0.67, p = 0.51, d = 0.22. Finally, in Study 4B, in the moral modeling condition ( n = 27), there was a statistically significant difference between acquaintance ( M = 3.59, SD = 1.87) and for hero ( M = 5.74, SD = 1.70), t (26) = –4.45, p < 0.001, d = 1.75.

Protecting condition

In Study 4A, for protecting, there were statistically significant differences between ratings for Mandela ( M = 4.70, SD = 1.83), O’Leary ( M = 2.62, SD = 1.53) and Kenny ( M = 2.65, SD = 1.57), Wilk’s Lambda = 4.78, F (2,35) = 19.12, p < 0.001, η p 2 = 0.52. There were significant differences between mean ratings for Mandela and O’Leary, t (36) = 6.27, p < 0.001, d = 2.09, and for Mandela and Kenny, t (36) = 5.19, p < 0.001, d = 1.73. However, there was no statistically significant difference on ratings for the leaders, O’Leary and Kenny, t (36) = –0.13, p = 0.90, d = 0.04. Next, in Study 4B, in the Protect condition ( n = 26), there was a significance difference between acquaintance ( M = 3.08, SD = 1.50) and hero ( M = 5.38, SD = 1.86), t (25) = –5.34, p < 0.001.

Control condition

In Study 4B, as predicted, there were no reliable differences between heroes ( M = 4.67, SD = 2.12) and acquaintances ( M = 4.21, SD = 1.87) in the control condition, t (23) = 1.14, p = 0.27.

Interaction analyses for Study 4B

The findings from Studies 4A and 4B supported the hypotheses that participants reported that heroes (to a greater extent than leaders or non-hero targets) provide enhancing, moral modeling and protecting functions if a particular need is threatened or unfulfilled. To further examine this data, we created a heroic function variable comprising of an aggregate of the enhancing, moral modeling and protecting conditions. The non-heroic function variable represents the control condition.

Overall, heroes ( M = 5.36, SD = 1.74) were rated by participants as more likely to provide a heroic function than acquaintances ( M = 3.50, SD = 1.73). A mixed ANOVA was conducted for target person (hero and acquaintance) and functions (hero functions or non-heroic function), with repeated measures on the target person variable. There was a significant interaction between type of function provided and the target person associated with that function, F (1,100) = 7.10, p < 0.001, η p 2 = 0.07. Participants who thought about a personal hero while imagining social psychological stress expressed greater fulfillment for hero functions than thinking of an acquaintance. Participants who thought about a personal hero while imagining a need to talk socially about the weather (control condition), showed no significant effect. There was a significant main effect for target person, Wilk’s Lambda = 0.84, F (1,100) = 19.42, p < 0.001, η p 2 = 0.16. There was no significant main effect for functions, F (1,100) = 0.98, p = 0.98, η p 2 = 0.

In Study 4, two studies elucidated lay beliefs about the functions of heroes and in particular, how individuals may use heroes as a resource if a given need is threatened or unfulfilled. Participants rated heroes as more likely to fulfill enhancing, moral modeling, and protecting functions than other targets, offering support to our hypotheses. Study 4B illustrated that participants did not rate heroes higher across all positive social functions. Study 4B replicates and extends the findings from Study 4A. We think that participants were discerning in their beliefs that heroes serve enhancing, moral modeling, and protecting needs, but not necessarily other social or emotional needs (e.g., daily social pleasantries). In sum, we demonstrated that participants view heroes as a resource for coping when psychological or social needs are threatened or unfulfilled.

GENERAL DISCUSSION

A primary goal of this research was to clarify lay perspectives about hero functions and to ascertain the extent to which such functions are similar to or different from each other, and to the themes that we identified in the exiting literature. This review led us to the assertion that the subjective functions provided by heroes can be represented in three categories: enhancing, moral modeling, and protecting.

Independent coder analyses of lay conceptions (Study 1) revealed 14 perceived functions provided by heroes, for example, to inspire, to protect, to guide, to instill hope, and to motivate. Another sample rated each of the 14 function categories in terms of importance (Study 2). CFA established that our predicted three-factor model, including the factors protecting, enhancing, and moral modeling, fit the data well in comparison to a poorly fitting one-factor model. In Study 3 we asked participants to rate heroes, role models, or leaders across all 14 hero functions. The results illustrated that heroes were perceived as more likely to help, to save, to protect, to make the world better, and to do what no one else will. Heroes were perceived by participants as protecting others more than both leaders and role models. In Studies 4A and 4B the results evidenced that participants viewed heroes as a resource for experiencing enhancement, moral modeling, and protection when psychological or social needs were threatened or unfulfilled. The present studies suggest that lay theories can provide a useful assessment in the study of heroism. We use the information from the literature and lay conceptions of heroes to form a conceptual framework, the Hero Functions Framework, which is integrative and can serve as a basis for future research. We describe this framework below.

THE HERO FUNCTIONS FRAMEWORK

Enhancing function.

According to lay conceptions, heroes motivate, act as a role model, inspire, instill hope, improve morale and camaraderie, and guide others. Participants described feeling positive affect when thinking of heroes, “making them feel happy” and “helping people to live a happy life.” Heroes were frequently described by participants as making people “feel better about the world,” “more positive about humanity,” and reminding people of “the good in the world.” To us, this makes sense, because when a person feels good about the self they are more positive and less misanthropic toward other people too (e.g., Ybarra, 1999 ). One person described heroes as “builders of self-esteem.” Heroes were portrayed as elevating and motivating people, for example, “[they] elevate the rest of us to a place of courage” or “elevate the consciousness of others.” The enhancing function is linked to previous writings about heroes who instigate periods of transcendence ( Klapp, 1969 ), induce a perspective shift ( Allison and Goethals, 2011 ), increase the positive emotions experienced by others ( Algoe and Haidt, 2009 ), and increase social connectedness ( Smith, 1976 ). Future research will help to clarify the apparent role of heroes in helping individuals to cope with or transcend difficult situations.

Upward social comparisons with role models ( Lockwood and Kunda, 1997 ) and do-gooders ( Minson and Monin, 2012 ) can sometimes result in perceived self-threats and self-deflation. Individuals do, however, sometimes actively seek out upward social comparisons in order to gain an accurate self-assessment and to self-enhance ( Collins, 1996 ). In fact, a person can consciously prevent upward comparisons from influencing their self-evaluations and choose to use that information to inspire, motivate, and promote positive affect instead ( Taylor and Lobel, 1989 ).

When experiencing the threat of uncertainty (e.g., during major life transitions), superior others and role models can be perceived as inspiring if the more established person has successfully overcome similar adjustment difficulties and their behaviors are perceived as attainable ( Lockwood et al., 2012 ). The mystery behind heroes is that, although their exceptional behavior is normally out of reach of regular people and even though they are single exemplars which are particularly likely to induce judgmental contract effects, heroes still appear to produce motivational assimilation effects. We suspect this is because heroes, though individuals, embody abstract values. We believe that people typically process information about heroes at an abstract level and use the information as a source of motivation for their goals. Future research on heroes could draw from construal level theory ( Trope and Liberman, 2010 ) to investigate the role of psychological distance on the social comparison interpretations of heroic influence.

Alternatively, the positive (and non-threatening) influence of heroes could be interpreted from a recent theory of inspiration. For instance, Thrash et al. (2010) note that people first appreciate the exceptional efforts of the inspirational target (resulting in feelings of transcendence and meaning) which in turn is translated into a personal desire to perform at a higher level in one’s own life (evoking feelings of self-responsibility and volitional control). In all, theories of social comparison and inspiration both help to generate specific hypotheses about heroes. Taken together, these ideas pave the foundation for future research into the psychological processes associated with the enhancing influence of heroes.

Moral modeling function

Some hero functions are abstract and symbolic, for example, reminding people about the good in the world, showing morals and values, and making the world a better place. Research about moral exemplars may elucidate the moral modeling function of heroes ( Colby and Damon, 1992 ; Matsuba and Walker, 2005 ; Walker and Frimer, 2007 ; Frimer et al., 2011 , 2012 ). In our studies, lay persons described heroes as “increasing positive feelings about humanity” and promoting “confidence that there is good in the world.” When a person feels good about their own self they are more receptive to negative information about themselves ( Trope and Neter, 1994 ). Given this, it is no coincidence that heroes boost our feelings of happiness and simultaneously reveal our missing qualities.

Fascinatingly, participants described heroes as “moral symbols to protect everyday innocent people,” “providing moral goals for society,” and that they “personify the things we cannot articulate.” In our studies it was clear that some heroes were perceived by participants to act as agents of social justice, striving to improve the situations of the disadvantaged. This is consistent with Sorel (1912) who argued that social movements require a narrative with sufficient moral and emotional force to give clarity and inspiration to an account of events. Indeed, heroic individuals can give meaning to collective action and promote group solidarity. Narrative psychology offers a useful lens through which researchers and individuals can seek to understand the role of heroes in moral narratives.

Lay conceptions refer to heroes that make them “aware of the rest of humanity,” perhaps shifting their focus away from individual concerns and redirecting toward a world-focus perspective ( Bryant and Veroff, 2007 ). This is consistent with previous research that suggests that moral exemplars typically integrate both agentic and communal motives ( Frimer et al., 2011 , 2012 ). In our research, one participant described how heroes teach us that it is possible to be altruistic in an egocentric world [similar to scholarly points made by Flescher (2003) ], regulating the self toward more noble purposes ( Singer, 1991 ), even when those decisions may require courage, conviction, and integrity. The extent that heroes influence moral willpower and moral decision-making, perhaps via a process of self-regulation, has not yet been investigated.

Protecting function

Lay conceptions suggest that heroes provide a protecting function: they save, help, guide, protect, act against evil or danger, and do what no one else will do. Heroes may help people to restore positive feeling about others and buffer negative feelings about themselves. For instance, one participant described a hero who helped her in a car crash. Another participant wrote about a hero who assisted her “to get through the tough times,” offering additional coping resources (suggested by Hobbs, 2010 ).

Heroes were frequently depicted as representing the “fight for good against evil” or “stopping the bad in humanity.” Those who believe that heroes are proactively taking action to combat evil or danger may feel safeguarded (e.g., “a hero’s job is making citizens feel safe”) and more certain about the future (e.g., “tomorrow we will be safe”). Other scholarly work indicates that persons use metaphors, myths, or symbols to give coherence to their lives ( Campbell, 1988 ; Lakoff and Johnson, 2003 ). Perhaps heroes, similar to powerful myths and metaphors, are used as tools for dealing with uncertainty ( Van den Bos, 2009 ). Both leaders and heroes were described as offering guidance and leadership through the complexity of daily life. This is interesting given that many heroes do not occupy formal leadership positions. Formal and informal leadership theory ( Gardner, 1995 ) may help to elucidate the influence of heroes who occupy direct or indirect leadership positions ( Allison and Goethals, 2013a ). Traditionally, direct leaders pull a group toward a tangible goal, whereas indirect leaders (and heroes) guide a new way of thinking, being, or doing within a particular group, sometimes without tangible outcomes. This point underscores the value of current efforts to unveil the complexity of lay perspectives about the psychosocial functions fulfilled by heroes.

CONTRIBUTION AND LIMITATIONS

Writers have alluded to the psychological benefits derived from heroic encounters, yet this fragmented information has not been synthesized or empirically studied. Until this point, the functions of heroes have been dealt with in a relatively superficial and piecemeal manner. Thus, the present research aimed to narrow the gaps in our understanding of heroes by presenting four studies that elucidate lay perspectives about the social and psychological functions of heroes. Similarly, we synthesize ideas about heroes in the extant literature, in an attempt to offer a novel conceptual framework, the Hero Functions Framework. With this framework in place, researchers can systematically assess the influence of heroes while simultaneously taking into account the type of hero, individual differences, and situational influences. Our research is a starting point, an important step in understanding how heroes are used psychologically and socially.

Klapp (1969) suggested that the media capitalize on the desire for heroes and present heroes (and more often pseudo-heroes) in order to fulfill this need and “vainly do we make scores of artificial celebrities grow where nature planted only a single hero” ( Boorstin, 1992 , p. 76). Other authors similarly noted that “the need for heroes is so strong that the media will manufacture pseudo-heroes to meet it” ( Schwartz and Schwartz, 2010 , p. 32). The impact of pseudo-heroism, celebrity culture, and negative role models is of serious concern for parents, educators, governments, researchers, and many others. For instance, a great deal of debate exists about the over-sexualization of children and teenagers as a result of exposure to negative role models and the absence of real heroes who help others to move toward more noble purposes ( Singer, 1991 ). If people need external reference points for goals, standards, and ways to behave ( Schlenker et al., 2008 ), it is important to make salient heroes, role models, and leaders who serve as models for desirable conduct in a particular group. We study heroes empirically with the hope that this information will be used in responsible ways that benefit others, albeit not heroically but with good intensions. Unfortunately the great tyrants of history have been held up as heroes by the unsuspecting masses, skillfully manipulated through propaganda. Part of the value of this research may be in deterring inappropriate hero worship as much as encouraging appropriate hero worship.

So far, we have examined lay conceptions of heroes—perceivable and conceivable functions expressed by hundreds of mostly young adults—rather than actual or measurable functions that heroes fulfill. It is possible that lay persons overstate the psychosocial functions that heroes provide in their everyday lives, or that heroes provide functions which are outside of their conscious awareness. In view of the introspective illusion (e.g., Pronin, 2009 ), one might question whether and to what extent people, if they are not experts on their own mental processes, can provide valid reports about how heroes function psychologically. Although, lay theories about mental processes can be accurate (see Nisbett and Wilson, 1977 ), we acknowledge that the present research offers suggestive evidence only; it is part of a relatively new empirical story and impetus for further research.

FUTURE RESEARCH

Future research needs to examine how lay perspectives relate to actual changes in the self and self-regulatory processes. The next phase of this research will be to demonstrate the effects of information about heroes on participants in lab settings. Specifically, there is a need to examine the protecting, enhancing, and moral modeling functions of heroes as dependent variables affected by exposure to heroes of heroic acts. This is a broader research question than we intended to study in the present article.

So far, the functions listed for ‘known’ versus ‘unknown’ heroes have not been independently assessed. People’s relationship with their heroes varies widely and as a result they may derive different benefits from encounters. For instance, it is likely that people who have a personal relationship with their heroic grandmother will derive different benefits than a person who has developed a parasocial relationship ( Horton and Wohl, 1956 ) with Nelson Mandela. The types of parasocial relationships people have with influential people, such as heroes, celebrities, or sports stars, are underexplored.

Heroes have been described as shaping and representing culture ( Hegel, 1975 ) and providing a source of social control ( Klapp, 1954 ). The heroes worshipped in a given group may reveal that a group’s most cherished values. In some cases, heroes represent minority values, speaking out against dominant cultural values, and as agents of change. In the present article, a full analysis of cultural differences in lay perceptions about heroes was not possible. The few participants from Africa, Australia, and Asia preclude us to make generalizations across countries or continents. Nonetheless, we think that studying the variety of cultural representations of heroes is a fruitful avenue for future research. For instance, research suggests that Japanese individuals tend to cherish the suffering of their heroes ( Benedict, 1946 ); whereas, in Western cultures, there is a tendency to savor heroic efforts that result in a happy outcome ( Heine et al., 1999 ). Such research looms on the horizon in our labs.

The present research studies potential social and psychological functions served by heroes using deductive and inductive methods. Our research offers a conceptual framework that facilitates the development of a psychological theory of heroism, as well as helping to pave the way for additional research on hero functions and the consideration of how gender and culture might each influence and be influenced by heroes. Given the assortment of physical, psychological, and social reward people associate with heroes, it is unsurprising that many individuals offer “homage, commemoration, celebration, and veneration” to their heroes in return ( Klapp, 1954 , p. 57).

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

We thank A. Gregg, P. Ryan, and reviewers for comments on previous versions of this manuscript. We thank F. van Dongen, G. O’Malley, K. O’ Malley, and W. A. P. van Tilburg for their help with data collection.

1 http://heroicimagination.org/

2 http://www.theherocc.com/

3 There was no significant sex differences between the number of exemplars reported, t (187) = –1.01, p = 0.31. There was no relationship between age and number of exemplars reported ( r = 0.07, p = 0.36). There were no significant differences between USA and European participants regarding the number of exemplars provided, t < 1. There were no significant differences between community and online participants regarding the number of exemplars provided, t < 1.

The results of the EFA (see Table ​ Table2 2 ) suggested three factors that represent our respondents’ ratings of hero functions. The ratings that loaded onto Factor 1 included to save, to protect, to help, to do what no one else will, and to act against evil or danger. We termed this factor protecting . The items that loaded strongly onto Factor 2 were to motivate, to role model, to inspire, to instill hope, to provide morale, and to guide. We call this factor enhancing . The items that loaded onto Factor 3 were to remind people about the good in the world, to show morals and values, and to make the world better. We named this factor moral modeling .

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Why Heroes Are Important

A hero is someone who understands the responsibility that comes with his freedom. I’m writing this essay to talk to you about what heroes do. Because I believe that our heroes are important and that they deserve the recognition that they do deserve. Some of our heroes are the army, firefighters, police officers, ambulance, and much more. I’m going to list 3 reasons why heroes are important. The following points are: Heroes risk their lives, they don’t care about the fame, and they never give up. One of the reasons why heroes are so important is that they risk their lives for us. Heros do this because they care about the people that need help. They do it because they care about us. Some heroes try to help us get through things like drugs and

Examples Of Heroism In Night By Elie Wiesel

Heroes come in different shapes, sizes, and looks. Maybe someone you saw on the street one day was heroic for saving someone’s life in a car accident. A hero to me is someone who can be brave in situations that aren’t so safe, and take a risk to make sure everyone is okay, no matter who

Compare And Contrast Martin Luther King Jr And Rosa Parks

“It’s not easy to be a hero. You do it because of what you believe, not because of what other people deserve.” Anyone can face a challenge or a hardship. But what makes a true hero is how the person takes on the challenge. Often, heroes show feats of ingenuity and acts of bravery. Two heroes that acted during the American Civil Rights Movement, were Martin Luther King Jr, and Rosa Parks. A hero is a person who has demonstrated behaviors to ethically receive our appreciation and respect. A hero is an ordinary person who finds the strength within themselves to persevere and undergo hardships and calamity.

Why Heroes Are Important By Scott Lafollage Analysis

As time goes on and new generations come about, many of the ideals of former generations seem to become irrelevant. Scott LaBarge, a professor of philosophy, elaborates on this idea and others in his essay. “Why Heroes Are Important” is LaBarge’s pursuit to persuade others of his idea of heroes in today’s society. He claims that many of our youth do not know what a proper hero is and that former generations should be educating them. LaBarge begins his persuasion by describing his personal experience and credibility; then, he briefly describes the history of heroes to tie in his opinion on the definition; finally, he uses Aristotle’s idea of Kairos to explain how his opinion proves true according to current events.

The Means Of Heroism In The Boatlift By Vincent Ardillo

Heroes are selfless and put others before themselves in dangerous situations. Such as on 9/11, when a call was given out for boats to come rescue people off the island of Manhattan, where the terror attacks happened, as pictured in “Boatlift” Vincent Ardillo after hearing the news told his wife, “I gotta do something.” This represents heroism because Ardillo is not thinking of how he will be impacted, but rather of the people who need help, as many other people with access to a boat did as well. Also, Ardillo could have stayed home and been safe, but chose to sacrifice his well being and comfort for others. Another hero would be Clara Barton, the founder of the Red Cross, as Barton declared in a Civil War speech “I may be compelled to face danger, but never fear it, and while our soldiers can stand and fight, I can stand and feed and nurse them.” Barton distinguishes she could be hurt while helping the soldiers, however she does not dwell on the fact, deciding instead to carry on and make a difference despite the threat to health. This is heroic because Barton is putting others who cannot care for themselves and acknowledges she could be hurt, but does not let that get in the way of her reaching her goals. To sum up, heroes are everyday people who go out of their way to help others in need without the thought of payment.

Fredrick Definition Of A Hero

“A hero is no braver than an ordinary man,but he is brave five minutes longer”.(Ralph waldo Emerson)Some people might think being a hero is all about flying,super strength,and just having special abilities,when it really isn't. Being a hero is all about helping people when being bullied or standing up for your rights and having bravery in your mind and courage. Hero’s take risk, they aren't cowards,and they show lots of bravery. Heros put other people's feelings into to their shoes and show their empathy towards they.They don't let the go through things alone.

The Importance Of A Hero And Frederick Douglass

“A hero is no braver than an ordinary man, but he is brave five minutes longer,” (Ralph Waldo Emerson). A hero is just like an ordinary person, but they make a choice to rescue someone, and put their life on the line. For instance, a hero is valiant when they need to be, sacrifices themself for another, and they don't put another in harm’s way.

Abraham Lincoln And Frederick Douglass: Definition Of A Hero

Ricky Martin once said, “Heroes represent the best of ourselves, respecting that we are human beings. A hero can be anyone from Ghandi to your classroom teacher, anyone who can show courage when faced with a problem. A hero is someone who is willing to help others in his or her best capacity.” Almost anyone can be a hero, as long as they have the courage and the maturity to understand and respect those who they attempt to help. Despite the fact that a hero cannot save everyone, being heroic is about placing others before oneself and strive to help those who need it the most.

Why Are Heroes Bad

The tendency for us to want of need heroes and villains impacts us dramatically in a number of ways. Firstly, the heroes that we have, especially as children, do affect us dramatically in our behaviour towards others and views on ourselves. One of the major problems with this is that we don't choose the right people to idolised a lot of the time, which in turn reflects on our societal values needing to be deeply questioned. Take a sports star, for example. A huge number of children will grow up having a sports star or stars affecting their attitudes and values. These athletes can no doubt have some very positive impacts, as many of them come from poverty or tough circumstances. It's these athletes that give children in similar situations hope.

Andrew Carnegie Hero Essay

To Start off, what is a hero? Well a hero to me is someone who is admired or idealized for courage and outstanding achievements. To be a hero you have to have concern for others. intelligence is the most important reason of being a hero.

What Makes A Hero?

“I want to be Batman.” That is a typical response from a preschooler if they are asked what they want to be when they grow up. However, heroes are not always wearing capes. They can simply be an Indian man that changed his mindset into something more inspirational. There is one thing that Superman and a policeman have in common. They are both heroes. No matter how different the fields are, they are brave, helpful, and hardworking. A hero can be someone known for courageous achievements. They are normally men, but can be women too. Heroes come in many different ways. Some characteristics of a hero are someone who has enormous courage, strength, and knowledge. They usually have a big effect on people’s life and are pretty well known. A hero is also known for helping people and not doing it out of revenge. They must have a good heart because they are putting themselves at risk for others. The people need to have trust in him because he is putting their life on the line, so they cannot be evil. A true hero isn’t perfect. They have disagreements and bad days, but the motivation to get back up and help day after day is definitely a true hero. Being a hero is tiring, because being a hero is not a one-time thing, so one cannot just do something good for a day and call themself heroes. Being a hero means loving what you do. It means getting up in the morning, ready to help people in any way possible, everyday. Mohandas Gandhi is a hero because he was helpful, had leadership and

Heroism In Clara Barton's Influence Of Heros

As Novalis a famous German poet and philosopher once stated, “A hero is one who knows how to hang on one minute longer.” A hero shows worry as all people do, but can push through and be courageous. A hero works for others, not thinking of themselves. Because heroes are people who put others before themselves, going above and beyond without the worry of their own safety.

What is a Hero? Essay

There are many types of heroes (such as the ones in comic books, myths, movies, or even just everyday life heroes) but all of them have perseverance when they’re going through a conflict. Heroes are role models and they’re people that we look up too. They all have unique and special qualities that make one another different from each other. For example policemen battle crime everyday and when they’re overcoming a conflict they have determination, courage and other traits that people admire them for and that make them as a hero. Typically a hero is admired for their achievement/actions and qualities.

Essay about Importance of Heroes to Society

     Some wonder if or why it is important to be a hero. Others don’t think that heroes are important at all. Why would it be important to be a hero? A hero, in today’s society, is someone that simply saves another person’s life. The “hero” doesn’t have to have an enormous amount of strength or ability. When a situation occurs where a life needs to be saved, there isn’t always an enormous amount of danger involved. Heroes show the rest of the world how to help others. Heroes also display what can be done in an emergency situation. Heroes are important because they provide everyone with good examples of morals that are lacked in present day society. Each minute of everyday, the morality of our country is reduced. Heroes show us all that there are still good people

Heroes In The Real World

If you was hero what would you do that makes people happy? If you was a hero you should help someone if they're feeling down or sad or maybe upset. Remember heroism is not just all about being brave like on tv when you see heros just saving people from falling off cliffs. What is a hero background? A hero background is all the things that makes up a hero.

What a hero is

• 4 Works Cited

When the word "hero" is spoken, everyone has different thoughts. Some will think of super powers like flying and saving people from villains; while others have a certain person they know or have heard of that come to mind who have done something to make a difference in the lives of others but who is a hero to you? To answer this question you must first ask yourself what a hero is; what comes to your mind when someone says the word. When I am confronted with these questions I always have the same thoughts; smart, strong will power, and someone who stands up for what they believe is right.

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Essay On Importance Of Hero In Society

State the importance of a hero in the society. Why are they important? A hero actually plays a important role in our society. There are many importances of hero in the society. First, a hero is helpful and he or she will try to solve the problems of the people. A hero will not only help or assist the people who surround him, but he will also try his best to solve the problems of others and the problems in society. Besides, a hero is able to unite the people to fight for what they want. As an example, the national hero of India who is Mahatma Gandhi was able to unite the nations to fight for the independence of India. Other than that, a hero is able to lighten up the hopes of people. For an example, the first Prime Minister of our country, Tunku Abdul Rahman, he goes to England and finally …show more content…

As an example, Mother Teresa is willing to sacrifice her life and even her precious time to help the poor people who is suffered from hunger or sick. At last, a hero also requires a lot of moral values. They are brave, kind, helpful and intelligent. All of these moral values will be educated to the generation and the future generation will learn from them and might require those characteristics of heroism. However, are heroes important really important to our society? I think that they are really important to the society especially nowadays our society is becoming more dangerous and the people are now more ‘cold’ to each other. Yesterday, a friend told us a true story in presentation. It is about a girl who is called Kitty Genovese is killed by a murderer by stabbing on her body at a street near to her house. During that situation happened, they were a lot of people passing by and seeing the whole murder process happened. However, they is no one willing to take action to help the girl and finally she was dead. From this story, I can know that the people were scumbbled by the bystander effect. Let’s think.

Character Analysis: The Man In The Red Bandana

Heroes put others before themselves and will do anything to ensure that thing’s safety. Many people have either risked their lives or have loss their lives due to trying to save others. An example of this would be the man in the red bandana or Welles Crowther. Crowther was working in the twin towers as planes were crashing into them. Crowther could have ran away from the other people when the planes hit, but he chose not to spare himself, but to save others and sacrifice his own life.

Lane Frost Hero

Sure, I got time The Websters dictionary defines a hero as someone who is admired or idealized for courage, outstanding achievements, or noble qualities. Heroes are ordinary people who find the strength to persevere and endure in spite of overwhelming obstacles. They are the real heroes, and so are the families and friends who have stood by them. Maya Angelou stated, “I think a hero is any person really intent on making this world a better place for all people.”

A Wrinkle In Time Essay

No matter who someone's hero is one thing stays the same. A hero is someone that has strived to help out of their own will. Anyone could be a hero. However not everyone is a hero. Being a hero takes courage.

Odysseus Hero Quotes

When asked to describe a hero, Mickey Mantle, famous baseball player for the New York Yankees, Said “Heroes are people who are all good with no bad in them” This quote shows that a hero is someone who always does the right thing and has good intentions. What a hero should look like now is someone who is loyal and brave. In Homer’s epic poem, The Odyssey, Odysseus proves that he is a hero when he went to save his men on “Circe’s Island.” and defeated the cyclops in “The Cave of the Cyclops.”

Janice Kidd Hero

A hero makes people better. It doesn’t take a lot for a person to be considered a hero. If a person works hard, motivate people to do their best, and is involved in their community, they are considered a hero. Every hero should have an positive impact on a person

Beowulf Is A Hero's Place In Society

Hero’s are everywhere in this world sometimes they're around you other times they are far away, but everyone has a different hero. When we see a hero most people look up to that person because they know that they have done something good for someone. A hero’s place in society can be all over the world due to their different senses, but most of them will know when something bad is going to happen or when they know that you will need their help to fight mankind. A hero is someone that you look up too because you know that they do the right thing.

Martin Luther King Jr.: A Real Life Example Of A Hero

A hero is a man or woman that leaves their known world to go off into the unknown world, and go make a positive impact. Heroes aren’t just the big strong super heroes that can fly and shoot laser beams out of their eyes. There is more behind the superheroes than just killing the bad guy. For example, Batman was called to adventure when his parents were killed and he was sitting right there watching. Bruce left his home town to go out get training to become a crime fighter.

Essay On Hero Archetype

Every hero archetype has to experience the journey. James Campbell, a scholar who studied mythology across the world defines archetypes as people such as a mother figure, a father figure, a hero, a maiden,or a trickster. A hero is a person who has curiosity, humility, and is courageous. In addition, a hero goes out of their way to reach their goal, even if that means putting their life on the line for others or for a set accomplishment. Furthermore, the hero archetype must experience the three stages of the Hero’s Journey which includes The Departure, The Initiation, and The Return.

Robert Bentz Heroes

A hero is anyone who makes the right decision to sacrifice for a person in need. For example, without heroes like firemen, wildfires and house fires would spread across the nation, costing lives and loss of worldly possessions. Firemen stand strong, risk themselves, and protect all for the well-being, safety of others, and personal property. In addition,

Heroism And David From 'The Dangerous Days Of Daniel X'

A hero could be anyone. Heroes don’t have to shoot lasers or be able to fly. A hero could be someone who simply shows a great act or certain character trait like bravery or courage. Heroes go through a journey containing a call to adventure, a departure and a return to their homeland. A good example of heroism and heroic acts is David from the Chrysalids and Daniel from The Dangerous Days of Daniel X. David and Daniel experienced sacrifice, hardships and bravery through their journeys of becoming a hero.

Welles Crowther: A True Hero

A hero is someone who puts others before themselves. Heroic acts can range from small gestures or actions such as saving countless lives. Heroes are known for their outstanding achievements and selflessness. Welles Crowther was a hero because he put other people's lives ahead of his own and sacrificed his life for others.. As Welles was growing up, he had an interest in helping people.

Heroes: Why Heroes Are Important By M. Scott Labarge

Debi Mazar is an actress who stated, “A hero is somebody who is selfless, who is generous in spirit, who just tried to give back as much as possible and help people. A hero to me is someone who saves people and who really, deeply cares.” Heroes are relevant to everyone, because at some point, everyone has had a hero. Sadly, today’s society degrades the meaning of the word “hero”. Heroes are an important aspect of life, but famous people are not always heroes.

Is Hamlet A Hero

There are various approaches to describing a hero. There is also an infinite number of individuals who can be defined as heroes. A hero can be a person who demonstrates valor. A hero can be a champion. A hero can even save a life or even mankind.

Definition Essay: Defining A Hero

To me, a hero is someone who gives everything they have to assure the happiness of others and a hero is also someone who gives up his life or her life so someone else could live. ​In all honesty, a hero isn’t really what we think a “hero” is based on definitions and what the movies or even comic books have told us. Anyone can be

Qualities Of A Hero Essay

A hero exhibits many qualities. Responsibility, bravery, and loyalty are just a few on many qualities that can be found in heroes. But to me, some of the most important qualities a hero needs are recognizing one's flaws and weaknesses, listening to others, and selflessness. With recognizing one's flaws and weaknesses, a person, a hero, can learn what they need to do to better themselves. They know the limit of their abilities and can work to improve themselves.

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By definition, heroes are anyone, be they men or women, who have extraordinary human qualities that other human beings do not possess. Heroes are courageous, virtuous and superior. They can show extraordinary characteristics that inspire mankind and make ordinary people venerate and strive to achieve highest levels of personal greatness. Heroes have been there in all cultures and in all times since the beginning of time. They emerge in all sorts of activities such as sports, war, religion music, literature, dancing, drawing etc. All cultures in the world have heroes and they need heroes to defeat the villain. They exist because people sometimes need something to believe in and motivate them to stand up and do something. Not everyone is a leader and sometimes they need a little push if you will, to understand what is right and what they need to do.…

Pride In Beowulf

Heroes are ordinary people who make themselves extraordinary. No matter what culture or era, heroes are celebrated because of the paths they chose and the responsibilities they took. However, the virtues and the values that they reflect might be different depending on where they are from or what era they are in. Humility and fate are valued dissimilarly, whereas selflessness is admired constantly across the globe.…

C. S. Lewis: What Makes A Hero?

“Since it is so likely that (children) will meet cruel enemies, let them at least have heard of brave knights and heroic courage. Otherwise you are making their destiny not brighter but darker” (C.S. Lewis). We need heroes to stand out and help when needed or called to action. Heroes should be people that all cultures/people all over the world can look up to and have a good example no matter how bad their life is. A hero puts others before himself, loves to give back and not take, and one who stands out and sets a good example.…

Personal Narrative: My Hero

Despite immense differences in cultures,heroes around the world generally share a number of characteristics that instruct and inspire people. A hero does something worth talking about. A hero has a story of adventure to tell and a community who will listen. But a hero goes beyond mere fame. Heroes serve powers or principles larger than themselves.…

Heroism and heroes are two things that no matter what, will always be around, people will always admire heroes, and wish they could be them. While there is an endless supply of heroes from the beginning of time, there are only a few definitions, yet over time that definition has changed to an extent. Dictionary.reference.com defines hero as: “A man of distinguished courage of ability, admired for his brave deeds and noble qualities.” Campbell’s definition, “someone who has given his or her life to something bigger than oneself… The hero performs a courageous act in battle and saves lives,” varies quite a bit from the twenty first century definition. In both Joseph Campbell’s definition and dictionary.com’s definition, several characteristics of heroes are laid out before us: courageousness, dedication, and selflessness. These can be considered the three pillars of heroism; these characteristics add character and depth to a hero, other than somebody who performed a glorious act. Courage, the biggest pillar, are the building blocks of a hero, without courage, you simply cannot be an admired hero. Courage allows you…

Heroes: Definition Of An American Hero

The first thing I would like to say is the definition of a hero "Someone who behaves selflessly, usually at considerable personal risk and sacrifice, to comfort or empower others and to make the world a better place." The reason that I am writing about this is that it has been brought to my attention about military personnel, firefighters, and police officers being considered hero’s.…

Classical Heroes Analysis

The definition of a hero has evolved greatly from the classical times. Instead of being deemed as one who kills others for their own success and reward, it has now become one who focuses more on the benefit of other people than themselves. The definitions are more different than alike, but both types of heroes have greatly impacted literature and our world today.…

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Essay on Being A Hero

Students are often asked to write an essay on Being A Hero in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Being A Hero

Understanding a hero.

A hero is a person who is admired for their courage, outstanding achievements, or noble qualities. They are often seen in stories saving the day. But in real life, a hero can be anyone who does something good without expecting a reward.

Types of Heroes

There are many types of heroes. Some are superheroes with special powers like Superman. Others are everyday people who do extraordinary things. Firefighters, doctors, and teachers can be heroes because they help people and make the world a better place.

Being a Hero

Anyone can be a hero. It doesn’t mean you have to save the world. You can be a hero by helping someone in need, standing up for what’s right, or making a difference in your community. It’s about doing good deeds and caring for others.

The Importance of Heroes

Heroes are important because they inspire us. They show us that it’s possible to make a difference. They teach us about bravery, kindness, and responsibility. By looking up to heroes, we learn how to be better people ourselves.

In Conclusion

Being a hero is about more than being strong or brave. It’s about helping others, standing up for what’s right, and making a difference. Anyone can be a hero, and we can all learn from the heroes around us.

250 Words Essay on Being A Hero

What is a hero.

A hero is someone who helps others and does good things without thinking about getting something in return. They are brave, kind, and always ready to do what is right. Heroes can be anyone, from firefighters who save people from fires to children who stand up to bullies.

The Qualities of a Hero

Heroes are brave. They face danger and fear to help others. They are also kind. They care about people and want to make the world a better place. Heroes are also humble. They don’t brag or show off. They do good things because it’s the right thing to do, not because they want praise or rewards.

Heroes in Everyday Life

You don’t have to be famous or have superpowers to be a hero. Everyday heroes are all around us. They are the people who help others in need, stand up for what is right, and make the world a better place. They could be our parents, teachers, friends, or even strangers.

Being a hero means doing what is right, even when it’s hard. It means standing up for others, even when no one else will. It means being brave, kind, and humble. But most of all, being a hero means helping others without expecting anything in return. Because a true hero doesn’t do good things for praise or rewards, they do it because it’s the right thing to do.

In conclusion, anyone can be a hero. All it takes is bravery, kindness, and the willingness to do what is right. So, let’s all strive to be heroes in our own little ways.

500 Words Essay on Being A Hero

A hero is someone who is admired for their courage, outstanding achievements, or noble qualities. They are people who step up when others can’t or won’t. They are the ones who give without expecting anything in return. But being a hero is not about having superpowers or wearing a cape. It’s about the choices we make and the actions we take.

Heroes have certain qualities that make them stand out. They are brave and not afraid to face challenges. They are kind, always ready to help others. They are honest, telling the truth even when it’s hard. They are loyal, standing by their friends and family no matter what. They are determined, never giving up even when things get tough.

Heroes are not just characters in books or movies. They are all around us. They are the firefighters who rush into burning buildings to save lives. They are the doctors and nurses who work tirelessly to help the sick. They are the teachers who inspire us to learn and grow. They are the parents who work hard to provide for their families.

Being a hero means doing the right thing even when it’s hard. It means standing up for what you believe in, even if you’re standing alone. It means helping others, even when you have nothing to gain. It means being brave, even when you’re scared. It means being kind, even when others are not. It means being honest, even when the truth is hard to tell. It means being loyal, even when others are not. It means being determined, even when the odds are against you.

How to Be a Hero

Anyone can be a hero. It doesn’t matter how old you are, where you come from, or what you look like. What matters is what’s inside your heart. If you are kind, brave, honest, loyal, and determined, you can be a hero.

To be a hero, start by helping others. Look for ways to make a difference in your community. Stand up against bullying. Volunteer at a local charity. Help a friend in need.

Next, be brave. Don’t be afraid to take risks or face challenges. Remember, it’s not about being fearless, but about doing the right thing even when you’re scared.

Also, be honest. Tell the truth, even when it’s hard. People will respect you for it.

Finally, be loyal and determined. Stand by your friends and family no matter what. And never give up, no matter how hard things get.

Being a hero is not about having superpowers or wearing a cape. It’s about the choices you make and the actions you take. It’s about being kind, brave, honest, loyal, and determined. And most importantly, it’s about helping others and making a difference in the world. So go out there and be the hero you were meant to be.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

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NeurIPS 2024 Datasets and Benchmarks Track

If you'd like to become a reviewer for the track, or recommend someone, please use this form .

The Datasets and Benchmarks track serves as a venue for high-quality publications, talks, and posters on highly valuable machine learning datasets and benchmarks, as well as a forum for discussions on how to improve dataset development. Datasets and benchmarks are crucial for the development of machine learning methods, but also require their own publishing and reviewing guidelines. For instance, datasets can often not be reviewed in a double-blind fashion, and hence full anonymization will not be required. On the other hand, they do require additional specific checks, such as a proper description of how the data was collected, whether they show intrinsic bias, and whether they will remain accessible. The Datasets and Benchmarks track is proud to support the open source movement by encouraging submissions of open-source libraries and tools that enable or accelerate ML research.

The previous editions of the Datasets and Benchmarks track were highly successful; you can view the accepted papers from 2021 , 2002 , and 2023 , and the winners of the best paper awards 2021 , 2022 and 2023

CRITERIA. W e are aiming for an equally stringent review as the main conference, yet better suited to datasets and benchmarks. Submissions to this track will be reviewed according to a set of criteria and best practices specifically designed for datasets and benchmarks , as described below. A key criterion is accessibility: datasets should be available and accessible , i.e. the data can be found and obtained without a personal request to the PI, and any required code should be open source. We encourage the authors to use Croissant format ( https://mlcommons.org/working-groups/data/croissant/ ) to document their datasets in machine readable way.   Next to a scientific paper, authors should also submit supplementary materials such as detail on how the data was collected and organised, what kind of information it contains, how it should be used ethically and responsibly, as well as how it will be made available and maintained.

RELATIONSHIP TO NeurIPS.  Submissions to the track will be part of the main NeurIPS conference , presented alongside the main conference papers. Accepted papers will be officially published in the NeurIPS proceedings .

SUBMISSIONS.  There will be one deadline this year. It is also still possible to submit datasets and benchmarks to the main conference (under the usual review process), but dual submission to both is not allowed (unless you retracted your paper from the main conference). We also cannot transfer papers from the main track to the D&B track. Authors can choose to submit either single-blind or double-blind . If it is possible to properly review the submission double-blind, i.e., reviewers do not need access to non-anonymous repositories to review the work, then authors can also choose to submit the work anonymously. Papers will not be publicly visible during the review process. Only accepted papers will become visible afterward. The reviews themselves are not visible during the review phase but will be published after decisions have been made. The datasets themselves should be accessible to reviewers but can be publicly released at a later date (see below). New authors cannot be added after the abstract deadline and they should have an OpenReview profile by the paper deadline. NeurIPS does not tolerate any collusion whereby authors secretly cooperate with reviewers, ACs or SACs to obtain favourable reviews.

SCOPE. This track welcomes all work on data-centric machine learning research (DMLR) and open-source libraries and tools that enable or accelerate ML research, covering ML datasets and benchmarks as well as algorithms, tools, methods, and analyses for working with ML data. This includes but is not limited to:

• New datasets, or carefully and thoughtfully designed (collections of) datasets based on previously available data.
• Data generators and reinforcement learning environments.
• Data-centric AI methods and tools, e.g. to measure and improve data quality or utility, or studies in data-centric AI that bring important new insight.
• Advanced practices in data collection and curation that are of general interest even if the data itself cannot be shared.
• Frameworks for responsible dataset development, audits of existing datasets, identifying significant problems with existing datasets and their use
• Benchmarks on new or existing datasets, as well as benchmarking tools.
• In-depth analyses of machine learning challenges and competitions (by organisers and/or participants) that yield important new insight.
• Systematic analyses of existing systems on novel datasets yielding important new insight.

Read our original blog post for more about why we started this track.

Important dates

• Abstract submission deadline: May 29, 2024
• Full paper submission and co-author registration deadline: Jun 5, 2024
• Supplementary materials submission deadline: Jun 12, 2024
• Review deadline - Jul 24, 2024
• Release of reviews and start of Author discussions on OpenReview: Aug 07, 2024
• End of author/reviewer discussions on OpenReview: Aug 31, 2024
• Author notification: Sep 26, 2024
• Camera-ready deadline: Oct 30, 2024 AOE

Note: The site will start accepting submissions on April 1 5 , 2024.

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS

Q: My work is in scope for this track but possibly also for the main conference. Where should I submit it?

A: This is ultimately your choice. Consider the main contribution of the submission and how it should be reviewed. If the main contribution is a new dataset, benchmark, or other work that falls into the scope of the track (see above), then it is ideally reviewed accordingly. As discussed in our blog post, the reviewing procedures of the main conference are focused on algorithmic advances, analysis, and applications, while the reviewing in this track is equally stringent but designed to properly assess datasets and benchmarks. Other, more practical considerations are that this track allows single-blind reviewing (since anonymization is often impossible for hosted datasets) and intended audience, i.e., make your work more visible for people looking for datasets and benchmarks.

Q: How will paper accepted to this track be cited?

A: Accepted papers will appear as part of the official NeurIPS proceedings.

Q: Do I need to submit an abstract beforehand?

A: Yes, please check the important dates section for more information.

Q: My dataset requires open credentialized access. Can I submit to this track?

A: This will be possible on the condition that a credentialization is necessary for the public good (e.g. because of ethically sensitive medical data), and that an established credentialization procedure is in place that is 1) open to a large section of the public, 2) provides rapid response and access to the data, and 3) is guaranteed to be maintained for many years. A good example here is PhysioNet Credentialing, where users must first understand how to handle data with human subjects, yet is open to anyone who has learned and agrees with the rules. This should be seen as an exceptional measure, and NOT as a way to limit access to data for other reasons (e.g. to shield data behind a Data Transfer Agreement). Misuse would be grounds for desk rejection. During submission, you can indicate that your dataset involves open credentialized access, in which case the necessity, openness, and efficiency of the credentialization process itself will also be checked.

SUBMISSION INSTRUCTIONS

A submission consists of:

• Please carefully follow the Latex template for this track when preparing proposals. We follow the NeurIPS format, but with the appropriate headings, and without hiding the names of the authors. Download the template as a bundle here .
• Papers should be submitted via OpenReview
• Reviewing is in principle single-blind, hence the paper should not be anonymized. In cases where the work can be reviewed equally well anonymously, anonymous submission is also allowed.
• During submission, you can add a public link to the dataset or benchmark data. If the dataset can only be released later, you must include instructions for reviewers on how to access the dataset. This can only be done after the first submission by sending an official note to the reviewers in OpenReview. We highly recommend making the dataset publicly available immediately or before the start of the NeurIPS conference. In select cases, requiring solid motivation, the release date can be stretched up to a year after the submission deadline.
• Dataset documentation and intended uses. Recommended documentation frameworks include datasheets for datasets , dataset nutrition labels , data statements for NLP , data cards , and accountability frameworks .
• URL to website/platform where the dataset/benchmark can be viewed and downloaded by the reviewers. 
• URL to Croissant metadata record documenting the dataset/benchmark available for viewing and downloading by the reviewers. You can create your Croissant metadata using e.g. the Python library available here: https://github.com/mlcommons/croissant
• Author statement that they bear all responsibility in case of violation of rights, etc., and confirmation of the data license.
• Hosting, licensing, and maintenance plan. The choice of hosting platform is yours, as long as you ensure access to the data (possibly through a curated interface) and will provide the necessary maintenance.
• Links to access the dataset and its metadata. This can be hidden upon submission if the dataset is not yet publicly available but must be added in the camera-ready version. In select cases, e.g when the data can only be released at a later date, this can be added afterward (up to a year after the submission deadline). Simulation environments should link to open source code repositories
• The dataset itself should ideally use an open and widely used data format. Provide a detailed explanation on how the dataset can be read. For simulation environments, use existing frameworks or explain how they can be used.
• Long-term preservation: It must be clear that the dataset will be available for a long time, either by uploading to a data repository or by explaining how the authors themselves will ensure this
• Explicit license: Authors must choose a license, ideally a CC license for datasets, or an open source license for code (e.g. RL environments). An overview of licenses can be found here: https://paperswithcode.com/datasets/license
• Add structured metadata to a dataset's meta-data page using Web standards (like schema.org and DCAT ): This allows it to be discovered and organized by anyone. A guide can be found here: https://developers.google.com/search/docs/data-types/dataset . If you use an existing data repository, this is often done automatically.
• Highly recommended: a persistent dereferenceable identifier (e.g. a DOI  minted by a data repository or a prefix on identifiers.org ) for datasets, or a code repository (e.g. GitHub, GitLab,...) for code. If this is not possible or useful, please explain why.
• For benchmarks, the supplementary materials must ensure that all results are easily reproducible. Where possible, use a reproducibility framework such as the ML reproducibility checklist , or otherwise guarantee that all results can be easily reproduced, i.e. all necessary datasets, code, and evaluation procedures must be accessible and documented.
• For papers introducing best practices in creating or curating datasets and benchmarks, the above supplementary materials are not required.
• For papers resubmitted after being retracted from another venue: a brief discussion on the main concerns raised by previous reviewers and how you addressed them. You do not need to share the original reviews.
• For the dual submission and archiving, the policy follows the NeurIPS main track paper guideline .

Use of Large Language Models (LLMs): We welcome authors to use any tool that is suitable for preparing high-quality papers and research. However, we ask authors to keep in mind two important criteria. First, we expect papers to fully describe their methodology, and any tool that is important to that methodology, including the use of LLMs, should be described also. For example, authors should mention tools (including LLMs) that were used for data processing or filtering, visualization, facilitating or running experiments, and proving theorems. It may also be advisable to describe the use of LLMs in implementing the method (if this corresponds to an important, original, or non-standard component of the approach). Second, authors are responsible for the entire content of the paper, including all text and figures, so while authors are welcome to use any tool they wish for writing the paper, they must ensure that all text is correct and original.

REVIEWING AND SELECTION PROCESS

Reviewing will be single-blind, although authors can also submit anonymously if the submission allows that. A datasets and benchmarks program committee will be formed, consisting of experts on machine learning, dataset curation, and ethics. We will ensure diversity in the program committee, both in terms of background as well as technical expertise (e.g., data, ML, data ethics, social science expertise). Each paper will be reviewed by the members of the committee. In select cases where ethical concerns are flagged by reviewers, an ethics review may be performed as well.

Papers will not be publicly visible during the review process. Only accepted papers will become visible afterward. The reviews themselves are also not visible during the review phase but will be published after decisions have been made. Authors can choose to keep the datasets themselves hidden until a later release date, as long as reviewers have access.

The factors that will be considered when evaluating papers include:

• Utility and quality of the submission: Impact, originality, novelty, relevance to the NeurIPS community will all be considered. 
• Reproducibility: All submissions should be accompanied by sufficient information to reproduce the results described i.e. all necessary datasets, code, and evaluation procedures must be accessible and documented. We encourage the use of a reproducibility framework such as the ML reproducibility checklist to guarantee that all results can be easily reproduced. Benchmark submissions in particular should take care to ensure sufficient details are provided to ensure reproducibility. If submissions include code, please refer to the NeurIPS code submission guidelines .  
• Was code provided (e.g. in the supplementary material)? If provided, did you look at the code? Did you consider it useful in guiding your review? If not provided, did you wish code had been available?
• Ethics: Any ethical implications of the work should be addressed. Authors should rely on NeurIPS ethics guidelines as guidance for understanding ethical concerns.  
• Completeness of the relevant documentation: Per NeurIPS ethics guidelines , datasets must be accompanied by documentation communicating the details of the dataset as part of their submissions via structured templates (e.g. TODO). Sufficient detail must be provided on how the data was collected and organized, what kind of information it contains,  ethically and responsibly, and how it will be made available and maintained. 
• Licensing and access: Per NeurIPS ethics guidelines , authors should provide licenses for any datasets released. These should consider the intended use and limitations of the dataset, and develop licenses and terms of use to prevent misuse or inappropriate use.  
• Consent and privacy: Per  NeurIPS ethics guidelines , datasets should minimize the exposure of any personally identifiable information, unless informed consent from those individuals is provided to do so. Any paper that chooses to create a dataset with real data of real people should ask for the explicit consent of participants, or explain why they were unable to do so.
• Ethics and responsible use: Any ethical implications of new datasets should be addressed and guidelines for responsible use should be provided where appropriate. Note that, if your submission includes publicly available datasets (e.g. as part of a larger benchmark), you should also check these datasets for ethical issues. You remain responsible for the ethical implications of including existing datasets or other data sources in your work.
• Legal compliance: For datasets, authors should ensure awareness and compliance with regional legal requirements.

ADVISORY COMMITTEE

The following committee will provide advice on the organization of the track over the coming years: Sergio Escalera, Isabelle Guyon, Neil Lawrence, Dina Machuve, Olga Russakovsky, Joaquin Vanschoren, Serena Yeung.

DATASETS AND BENCHMARKS CHAIRS

Lora Aroyo, Google Francesco Locatello, Institute of Science and Technology Austria Lingjuan Lyu, Sony AI

Contact: [email protected]