dissertation word usage

• University of Michigan Library
• Research Guides

Microsoft Word for Dissertations

• Introduction, Template, & Resources
• Formatting for All Readers
• Applying a Style
• Modifying a Style
• Setting up a Heading 1 Example
• Images, Charts, Other Objects
• Footnotes, Endnotes, & Citations
• Cross-References
• Appendix Figures & Tables
• Table of Contents
• List of Figures/Tables
• Chapter and Section Numbering
• Page Numbers
• Landscape Pages
• Combining Chapter Files
• Commenting and Reviewing
• The Two-inch Top Margin
• Troubleshooting
• Finalizing Without Styles
• Preparing Your Final Document

Help with Microsoft Word

Members of the University of Michigan community can get dissertation & thesis formatting assistance from the experts at ScholarSpace:

Please  visit this link to make an appointment , or send an email to [email protected].

We're here to solve any formatting problems you've run into, and can give you guidance about captioning figures, solving numbering issues, creating a List of Tables/Figures/Appendices, and more.

Contact Information

Introduction to Word for Dissertations

Formatting your dissertation (or thesis) will likely take more time than you expect. But using the special features described in this Guide will save you a great deal of work , particularly if you use our template (available in the box below). The earlier you begin to use these tools, the more time you'll save and the less stress you'll have as your submission deadline approaches. Students at the University of Michigan are also encouraged to contact the experts at the Library's ScholarSpace anytime you run into a problem or have a question.

To meet  Rackham’s Dissertation Formatting Guidelines  you will need to modify the standard settings that Microsoft Word uses. This guide will show you how to use the tools to make the necessary modifications.  While we do follow the requirements from Rackham’s formatting guidelines to demonstrate the tools, in the end, you are responsible for verifying that your document meets the requirements that Rackham sets.

To save yourself time and effort , please consider using our Dissertation Template (link available in the box below). Many of the settings discussed in this Guide are already included in that document.

Please note that, as a University of Michigan student, you have free access to the Microsoft Office suite of tools -- including Microsoft Word. Visit this link to learn more and to download Office to your own computer.

Dissertation Template and other Resources

• ScholarSpace Template for Dissertations This Microsoft Word document comes with many of the Rackham formatting guidelines built in, and can be used for dissertations and theses. Please note that this template doesn't follow the formatting direction of any particular Style Guide. It is your responsibility to make sure you are following the Style Guide predominant in your field, and to make any relevant formatting changes to heading styles, numbering, captions, etc... How to make many of those changes is described throughout this Guide.
• Rackham Dissertation Handbook Rackham's Dissertation Guidelines and Handbook
• Dissertation Formatting Checklist Rackham's list of formatting issues to watch out for in your dissertation.
• Using Microsoft Word for Large Documents (non-dissertation specific) Handout (This document was written for an older -- much older -- version of Word, but nearly all of the information is still accurate and useful)
• Guide to Copyright for Dissertations

A word about LaTeX

LaTeX is a markup language (sometimes accessed through the Overleaf editor) that is often used in science and engineering documents because it allows for great control in creating complex equations and formulas. ScholarSpace does not maintain a template for dissertations created with LaTeX, and we can only provide very limited support for it. That said, there is a community of U-M folks who actively maintain  this LaTeX template to keep it in line with Rackham's guidelines .

Here are some other very useful resources:

• Video recording of a  UM Library Workshop on Dissertation Formatting with LaTeX
• Documentation for LaTeX and Overleaf
• Bibiliography Management with LaTeX
• How to Write a Thesis in LaTeX
• A huge collection of LaTeX resources

Can I use Google Docs for my dissertation?

No. Google Docs can get you pretty far down the road to something that looks like what Rackham requires, however, it's going to take a lot more work to get that far, and as you approach the finish line you will collide with obstacles that Google Docs just won't be able to get around. The issue is that Google Docs was not designed for complicated documents like a thesis or dissertation. To get it to do many of the special things that Rackham requires, you'll have to do a great deal of work that Word will just do for you . A few examples:

• Rackham requires 1" margin on all pages, but a 2" margin at the top of each new section. You'll have to manually adjust every relevant page yourself in Docs to get this, but Word will just do it automatically.
• Docs gives you three choices for how your Table of Contents will look, none of which are suitable by Rackham's standards. While you can adjust the format, many aspects of it (such as spacing) will revert to the original every time you update it.  With Word, you're in charge of what your ToC looks like.
• In Docs, you'll have to manually type in your figure numbers ("Figure 3.6") and change them every time you add or move them. But Word will manage numbering and caption placement for you, it will renumber figures or tables as you add or move them, and it will create your List of Figures/Tables automatically – correct page numbers and all. 
• With Word's figure/table numbering, you can also insert cross-references, so when you refer to "(see Figure 4.2)" but then you add some new figures before that, not only will Figure 4.2 renumber itself automatically, but anywhere you've referred to it will be updated, too. No more anxiety about whether you've updated everything accurately.
• Page numbers: Rackham wants the first two pages to have no page numbers, the rest of the frontmatter to have small roman numerals, and the body of the document to have arabic numerals.  Docs just plain can't do that.

If you're concerned about the learning curve of using Word, please know that this Guide goes over how to do everything, AND the Word template found here has nearly everything already set up for you. We also regularly offer a workshop that serves as an introduction to the most useful features, and you can set up a meeting with a ScholarSpace expert anytime you run into something that you can't figure out. 

Writing Assistance

This Guide is all about how to properly format your dissertation -- how to make it look the way Rackham wants it to look. But what if you need help with the actual composition  of your content? Our friends at the Sweetland Writing Center offer such assistance, through their Writing Workshop program. From their website:

These are just a few quick but especially important tips to help you get started. See our more expansive Tips & Troubleshooting section for suggestions that are a little more complex.

• Save early , save often, and create backup versions as you go along. Consider setting up Microsoft OneDrive (you have free access with your umich login credentials). With this, you can turn on "Autosave" in Word to automatically save your document at regular intervals, and have access to previous versions.

• Use our template (available above), it will save you lots of time. Nearly all of the difficult formatting stuff we discuss in this Guide is already built into the template. Consider doing all of your writing in it -- even if you're working in separate files for each chapter, you can use a copy of the template for each one of those chapters.
• Set the margins including the two-inch margin for chapters titles  ( Setting Margins ) .
• Define styles for Headings 1-3, Normal, Captions, and Quotes – these are most common; you may need others ( Working with Styles ).
• If headings need to be numbered (for example, 1.1, 1.2, 2.1, etc.), define a multi-level list ( Automatic Numbering ).
• If captions need to include the chapter number, define a multi-level list ( Automatic Numbering ).
• Share your file(s) with your advisors using Track Changes ( Commenting and Reviewing ) .
• If you use EndNote to manage your citations and create your bibliography, use only one EndNote library for your entire dissertation (see our EndNote Basics guide).
• Did we mention that you really ought to try out our template (available above)?

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• Knowledge Base
• Dissertation

What Is a Dissertation? | 5 Essential Questions to Get Started

Published on 26 March 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on 5 May 2022.

A dissertation is a large research project undertaken at the end of a degree. It involves in-depth consideration of a problem or question chosen by the student. It is usually the largest (and final) piece of written work produced during a degree.

The length and structure of a dissertation vary widely depending on the level and field of study. However, there are some key questions that can help you understand the requirements and get started on your dissertation project.

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Table of contents

When and why do you have to write a dissertation, who will supervise your dissertation, what type of research will you do, how should your dissertation be structured, what formatting and referencing rules do you have to follow, frequently asked questions about dissertations.

A dissertation, sometimes called a thesis, comes at the end of an undergraduate or postgraduate degree. It is a larger project than the other essays you’ve written, requiring a higher word count and a greater depth of research.

You’ll generally work on your dissertation during the final year of your degree, over a longer period than you would take for a standard essay . For example, the dissertation might be your main focus for the last six months of your degree.

Why is the dissertation important?

The dissertation is a test of your capacity for independent research. You are given a lot of autonomy in writing your dissertation: you come up with your own ideas, conduct your own research, and write and structure the text by yourself.

This means that it is an important preparation for your future, whether you continue in academia or not: it teaches you to manage your own time, generate original ideas, and work independently.

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During the planning and writing of your dissertation, you’ll work with a supervisor from your department. The supervisor’s job is to give you feedback and advice throughout the process.

The dissertation supervisor is often assigned by the department, but you might be allowed to indicate preferences or approach potential supervisors. If so, try to pick someone who is familiar with your chosen topic, whom you get along with on a personal level, and whose feedback you’ve found useful in the past.

How will your supervisor help you?

Your supervisor is there to guide you through the dissertation project, but you’re still working independently. They can give feedback on your ideas, but not come up with ideas for you.

You may need to take the initiative to request an initial meeting with your supervisor. Then you can plan out your future meetings and set reasonable deadlines for things like completion of data collection, a structure outline, a first chapter, a first draft, and so on.

Make sure to prepare in advance for your meetings. Formulate your ideas as fully as you can, and determine where exactly you’re having difficulties so you can ask your supervisor for specific advice.

Your approach to your dissertation will vary depending on your field of study. The first thing to consider is whether you will do empirical research , which involves collecting original data, or non-empirical research , which involves analysing sources.

Empirical dissertations (sciences)

An empirical dissertation focuses on collecting and analysing original data. You’ll usually write this type of dissertation if you are studying a subject in the sciences or social sciences.

• What are airline workers’ attitudes towards the challenges posed for their industry by climate change?
• How effective is cognitive behavioural therapy in treating depression in young adults?
• What are the short-term health effects of switching from smoking cigarettes to e-cigarettes?

There are many different empirical research methods you can use to answer these questions – for example, experiments , observations, surveys , and interviews.

When doing empirical research, you need to consider things like the variables you will investigate, the reliability and validity of your measurements, and your sampling method . The aim is to produce robust, reproducible scientific knowledge.

Non-empirical dissertations (arts and humanities)

A non-empirical dissertation works with existing research or other texts, presenting original analysis, critique and argumentation, but no original data. This approach is typical of arts and humanities subjects.

• What attitudes did commentators in the British press take towards the French Revolution in 1789–1792?
• How do the themes of gender and inheritance intersect in Shakespeare’s Macbeth ?
• How did Plato’s Republic and Thomas More’s Utopia influence nineteenth century utopian socialist thought?

The first steps in this type of dissertation are to decide on your topic and begin collecting your primary and secondary sources .

Primary sources are the direct objects of your research. They give you first-hand evidence about your subject. Examples of primary sources include novels, artworks and historical documents.

Secondary sources provide information that informs your analysis. They describe, interpret, or evaluate information from primary sources. For example, you might consider previous analyses of the novel or author you are working on, or theoretical texts that you plan to apply to your primary sources.

Dissertations are divided into chapters and sections. Empirical dissertations usually follow a standard structure, while non-empirical dissertations are more flexible.

Structure of an empirical dissertation

Empirical dissertations generally include these chapters:

• Introduction : An explanation of your topic and the research question(s) you want to answer.
• Literature review : A survey and evaluation of previous research on your topic.
• Methodology : An explanation of how you collected and analysed your data.
• Results : A brief description of what you found.
• Discussion : Interpretation of what these results reveal.
• Conclusion : Answers to your research question(s) and summary of what your findings contribute to knowledge in your field.

Sometimes the order or naming of chapters might be slightly different, but all of the above information must be included in order to produce thorough, valid scientific research.

Other dissertation structures

If your dissertation doesn’t involve data collection, your structure is more flexible. You can think of it like an extended essay – the text should be logically organised in a way that serves your argument:

• Introduction: An explanation of your topic and the question(s) you want to answer.
• Main body: The development of your analysis, usually divided into 2–4 chapters.
• Conclusion: Answers to your research question(s) and summary of what your analysis contributes to knowledge in your field.

The chapters of the main body can be organised around different themes, time periods, or texts. Below you can see some example structures for dissertations in different subjects.

• Political philosophy

This example, on the topic of the British press’s coverage of the French Revolution, shows how you might structure each chapter around a specific theme.

This example, on the topic of Plato’s and More’s influences on utopian socialist thought, shows a different approach to dividing the chapters by theme.

This example, a master’s dissertation on the topic of how writers respond to persecution, shows how you can also use section headings within each chapter. Each of the three chapters deals with a specific text, while the sections are organised thematically.

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Like other academic texts, it’s important that your dissertation follows the formatting guidelines set out by your university. You can lose marks unnecessarily over mistakes, so it’s worth taking the time to get all these elements right.

Formatting guidelines concern things like:

• line spacing
• page numbers
• punctuation
• title pages
• presentation of tables and figures

If you’re unsure about the formatting requirements, check with your supervisor or department. You can lose marks unnecessarily over mistakes, so it’s worth taking the time to get all these elements right.

How will you reference your sources?

Referencing means properly listing the sources you cite and refer to in your dissertation, so that the reader can find them. This avoids plagiarism by acknowledging where you’ve used the work of others.

Keep track of everything you read as you prepare your dissertation. The key information to note down for a reference is:

• The publication date
• Page numbers for the parts you refer to (especially when using direct quotes)

Different referencing styles each have their own specific rules for how to reference. The most commonly used styles in UK universities are listed below.

You can use the free APA Reference Generator to automatically create and store your references.

APA Reference Generator

The words ‘ dissertation ’ and ‘thesis’ both refer to a large written research project undertaken to complete a degree, but they are used differently depending on the country:

• In the UK, you write a dissertation at the end of a bachelor’s or master’s degree, and you write a thesis to complete a PhD.
• In the US, it’s the other way around: you may write a thesis at the end of a bachelor’s or master’s degree, and you write a dissertation to complete a PhD.

The main difference is in terms of scale – a dissertation is usually much longer than the other essays you complete during your degree.

Another key difference is that you are given much more independence when working on a dissertation. You choose your own dissertation topic , and you have to conduct the research and write the dissertation yourself (with some assistance from your supervisor).

Dissertation word counts vary widely across different fields, institutions, and levels of education:

• An undergraduate dissertation is typically 8,000–15,000 words
• A master’s dissertation is typically 12,000–50,000 words
• A PhD thesis is typically book-length: 70,000–100,000 words

However, none of these are strict guidelines – your word count may be lower or higher than the numbers stated here. Always check the guidelines provided by your university to determine how long your own dissertation should be.

At the bachelor’s and master’s levels, the dissertation is usually the main focus of your final year. You might work on it (alongside other classes) for the entirety of the final year, or for the last six months. This includes formulating an idea, doing the research, and writing up.

A PhD thesis takes a longer time, as the thesis is the main focus of the degree. A PhD thesis might be being formulated and worked on for the whole four years of the degree program. The writing process alone can take around 18 months.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

Caulfield, J. (2022, May 05). What Is a Dissertation? | 5 Essential Questions to Get Started. Scribbr. Retrieved 27 May 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/thesis-dissertation/what-is-a-dissertation/

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dissertation

Definition of dissertation

Examples of dissertation in a sentence.

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'dissertation.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

1651, in the meaning defined above

Dictionary Entries Near dissertation

dissertative

Cite this Entry

“Dissertation.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/dissertation. Accessed 29 May. 2024.

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Formatting your dissertation in Word

About this guide.

Learn how to use Word features effectively and efficiently:

• basic templates
• images, captions, and page numbers
• front matter
• work with styles and much more!

Before you start:

• Participants should have basic experience using Microsoft Word. This workshop specifically uses Word 2016.

Note: See dissertation/thesis formatting and submission guidelines (PDF) from University of Minnesota Graduate Student Services and Progress (also see Thesis/dissertation submission and formatting  page).

Tutorials for formatting your dissertation in Word

Setting margins, formatting page numbers, changing fonts and spacing with styles, defining headings and heading styles, automatic page numbers, creating and applying word templates, inserting images, inserting captions and cross-references, keeping captions with their figures, copying charts from excel, adding a landscape page, adding front matter, adding a table of contents, adding a list of figures, sample documents.

The following documents and materials are used in the tutorials. You are welcome to use your own documents, or download ours.

• Sample Chapter 1 Sample document to be used throughout the tutorials. It's currently unformatted text - you will be applying tutorials to the content.
• Sample Chapter 2 Sample document to be used throughout the tutorials. It's currently unformatted text - you will be applying tutorials to the content.
• Image 1 Sample image to be used in some of the tutorials.
• Image 2 Sample image to be used in some of the tutorials.
• Sample Chart Excel chart to be used in the tutorial Copying Charts from Excel.
• Sample Front Matter Sample front matter layout with proper breaks and page numbering. Includes the following: - Title page - Copyright page - Acknowledgements (not required) - Dedication (not required) - Abstract (not required) - Table of contents - List of tables - List of figures - Other items - Placeholder for Chapter 1 content

Supplementary handouts and slides

The following materials can help supplement the tutorials, though they are not required.

Helpful tools and services from the Libraries

The Libraries offer many tools and services that you may find useful as you write your thesis or dissertation.

• Citation Managers
• Dissertation Calculator
• Study Carrels
• Thesis/Dissertation Submission and Formatting Guidelines
• Full List of Researcher Support Services

University of Sunderland Library Blog

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Academic writing – phrases you can use in your dissertations

by Leanne · Published June 30, 2020 · Updated September 23, 2022

If you’re working on your dissertation and you’re looking for some academic phrases that you can use when writing up your research you will find the University of Manchester Academic Phrasebank very useful.

About the Academic Phrasebank

The Academic Phrasebank is a general resource for academic writers. It aims to provide you with examples of some of the phraseological ‘nuts and bolts’ of writing organised according to the main sections of a research paper or dissertation.

Whether you want to introduce your work, describe methods, discuss findings, report results or write a conclusion there are generic and neutral phrases that you can adapt.

Other resources to develop your academic writing

• Improve your academic writing (study skills guides)
• Ebooks on improving your academic writing

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Thesis / dissertation formatting manual (2024).

• Filing Fees and Student Status
• Submission Process Overview
• Electronic Thesis Submission
• Paper Thesis Submission
• Formatting Overview
• Fonts/Typeface
• Pagination, Margins, Spacing
• Paper Thesis Formatting
• Preliminary Pages Overview
• Copyright Page
• Dedication Page
• Table of Contents
• List of Figures (etc.)
• Acknowledgements
• Text and References Overview
• Figures and Illustrations
• Using Your Own Previously Published Materials
• Using Copyrighted Materials by Another Author
• Open Access and Embargoes
• Copyright and Creative Commons
• Ordering Print (Bound) Copies
• Tutorials and Assistance
• FAQ This link opens in a new window

UCI Libraries maintains the following  templates to assist in formatting your graduate manuscript. If you are formatting your manuscript in Microsoft Word, feel free to download and use the template. If you would like to see what your manuscript should look like, PDFs have been provided. If you are formatting your manuscript using LaTex, UCI maintains a template on OverLeaf.

• Annotated Template (Dissertation) 2024 PDF of a template with annotations of what to look out for
• Word: Thesis Template 2024 Editable template of the Master's thesis formatting.
• PDF Thesis Template 2024
• Word: Dissertation Template 2024 Editable template of the PhD Dissertation formatting.
• PDF: Dissertation Template 2024
• Overleaf (LaTex) Template
• << Previous: Tutorials and Assistance
• Next: FAQ >>
• Last Updated: Feb 20, 2024 2:09 PM
• URL: https://guides.lib.uci.edu/gradmanual

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• Formatting Your Dissertation
• Introduction

Harvard Griffin GSAS strives to provide students with timely, accurate, and clear information. If you need help understanding a specific policy, please contact the office that administers that policy.

• Application for Degree
• Credit for Completed Graduate Work
• Ad Hoc Degree Programs
• Acknowledging the Work of Others
• Advanced Planning
• Dissertation Advisory Committee
• Dissertation Submission Checklist
• Publishing Options
• Submitting Your Dissertation
• English Language Proficiency
• PhD Program Requirements
• Secondary Fields
• Year of Graduate Study (G-Year)
• Master's Degrees
• Grade and Examination Requirements
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On this page:

Language of the Dissertation

Page and text requirements, body of text, tables, figures, and captions, dissertation acceptance certificate, copyright statement.

• Table of Contents

Front and Back Matter

Supplemental material, dissertations comprising previously published works, top ten formatting errors, further questions.

• Related Contacts and Forms

When preparing the dissertation for submission, students must follow strict formatting requirements. Any deviation from these requirements may lead to rejection of the dissertation and delay in the conferral of the degree.

The language of the dissertation is ordinarily English, although some departments whose subject matter involves foreign languages may accept a dissertation written in a language other than English.

Most dissertations are 100 to 300 pages in length. All dissertations should be divided into appropriate sections, and long dissertations may need chapters, main divisions, and subdivisions.

• 8½ x 11 inches, unless a musical score is included
• At least 1 inch for all margins
• Body of text: double spacing
• Block quotations, footnotes, and bibliographies: single spacing within each entry but double spacing between each entry
• Table of contents, list of tables, list of figures or illustrations, and lengthy tables: single spacing may be used

Fonts and Point Size

Use 10-12 point size. Fonts must be embedded in the PDF file to ensure all characters display correctly. 

Recommended Fonts

If you are unsure whether your chosen font will display correctly, use one of the following fonts: 

If fonts are not embedded, non-English characters may not appear as intended. Fonts embedded improperly will be published to DASH as-is. It is the student’s responsibility to make sure that fonts are embedded properly prior to submission. 

Instructions for Embedding Fonts

To embed your fonts in recent versions of Word, follow these instructions from Microsoft:

• Click the File tab and then click Options .
• In the left column, select the Save tab.
• Clear the Do not embed common system fonts check box.

For reference, below are some instructions from ProQuest UMI for embedding fonts in older file formats:

To embed your fonts in Microsoft Word 2010:

• In the File pull-down menu click on Options .
• Choose Save on the left sidebar.
• Check the box next to Embed fonts in the file.
• Click the OK button.
• Save the document.

Note that when saving as a PDF, make sure to go to “more options” and save as “PDF/A compliant”

To embed your fonts in Microsoft Word 2007:

• Click the circular Office button in the upper left corner of Microsoft Word.
• A new window will display. In the bottom right corner select Word Options . 
• Choose Save from the left sidebar.

Using Microsoft Word on a Mac:

Microsoft Word 2008 on a Mac OS X computer will automatically embed your fonts while converting your document to a PDF file.

If you are converting to PDF using Acrobat Professional (instructions courtesy of the Graduate Thesis Office at Iowa State University):  

• Open your document in Microsoft Word. 
• Click on the Adobe PDF tab at the top. Select "Change Conversion Settings." 
• Click on Advanced Settings. 
• Click on the Fonts folder on the left side of the new window. In the lower box on the right, delete any fonts that appear in the "Never Embed" box. Then click "OK." 
• If prompted to save these new settings, save them as "Embed all fonts." 
• Now the Change Conversion Settings window should show "embed all fonts" in the Conversion Settings drop-down list and it should be selected. Click "OK" again. 
• Click on the Adobe PDF link at the top again. This time select Convert to Adobe PDF. Depending on the size of your document and the speed of your computer, this process can take 1-15 minutes. 
• After your document is converted, select the "File" tab at the top of the page. Then select "Document Properties." 
• Click on the "Fonts" tab. Carefully check all of your fonts. They should all show "(Embedded Subset)" after the font name. 
•  If you see "(Embedded Subset)" after all fonts, you have succeeded.

The font used in the body of the text must also be used in headers, page numbers, and footnotes. Exceptions are made only for tables and figures created with different software and inserted into the document.

Tables and figures must be placed as close as possible to their first mention in the text. They may be placed on a page with no text above or below, or they may be placed directly into the text. If a table or a figure is alone on a page (with no narrative), it should be centered within the margins on the page. Tables may take up more than one page as long as they obey all rules about margins. Tables and figures referred to in the text may not be placed at the end of the chapter or at the end of the dissertation.

• Given the standards of the discipline, dissertations in the Department of History of Art and Architecture and the Department of Architecture, Landscape Architecture, and Urban Planning often place illustrations at the end of the dissertation.

Figure and table numbering must be continuous throughout the dissertation or by chapter (e.g., 1.1, 1.2, 2.1, 2.2, etc.). Two figures or tables cannot be designated with the same number. If you have repeating images that you need to cite more than once, label them with their number and A, B, etc. 

Headings should be placed at the top of tables. While no specific rules for the format of table headings and figure captions are required, a consistent format must be used throughout the dissertation (contact your department for style manuals appropriate to the field).

Captions should appear at the bottom of any figures. If the figure takes up the entire page, the caption should be placed alone on the preceding page, centered vertically and horizontally within the margins.

Each page receives a separate page number. When a figure or table title is on a preceding page, the second and subsequent pages of the figure or table should say, for example, “Figure 5 (Continued).” In such an instance, the list of figures or tables will list the page number containing the title. The word “figure” should be written in full (not abbreviated), and the “F” should be capitalized (e.g., Figure 5). In instances where the caption continues on a second page, the “(Continued)” notation should appear on the second and any subsequent page. The figure/table and the caption are viewed as one entity and the numbering should show correlation between all pages. Each page must include a header.

Landscape orientation figures and tables must be positioned correctly and bound at the top so that the top of the figure or table will be at the left margin. Figure and table headings/captions are placed with the same orientation as the figure or table when on the same page. When on a separate page, headings/captions are always placed in portrait orientation, regardless of the orientation of the figure or table. Page numbers are always placed as if the figure were vertical on the page.

If a graphic artist does the figures, Harvard Griffin GSAS will accept lettering done by the artist only within the figure. Figures done with software are acceptable if the figures are clear and legible. Legends and titles done by the same process as the figures will be accepted if they too are clear, legible, and run at least 10 or 12 characters per inch. Otherwise, legends and captions should be printed with the same font used in the text.

Original illustrations, photographs, and fine arts prints may be scanned and included, centered between the margins on a page with no text above or below.

Use of Third-Party Content

In addition to the student's own writing, dissertations often contain third-party content or in-copyright content owned by parties other than you, the student who authored the dissertation. The Office for Scholarly Communication recommends consulting the information below about fair use, which allows individuals to use in-copyright content, on a limited basis and for specific purposes, without seeking permission from copyright holders.

Because your dissertation will be made available for online distribution through DASH , Harvard's open-access repository, it is important that any third-party content in it may be made available in this way.

Fair Use and Copyright 

What is fair use?

Fair use is a provision in copyright law that allows the use of a certain amount of copyrighted material without seeking permission. Fair use is format- and media-agnostic. This means fair use may apply to images (including photographs, illustrations, and paintings), quoting at length from literature, videos, and music regardless of the format. 

How do I determine whether my use of an image or other third-party content in my dissertation is fair use?  

There are four factors you will need to consider when making a fair use claim.

1) For what purpose is your work going to be used?

• Nonprofit, educational, scholarly, or research use favors fair use. Commercial, non-educational uses, often do not favor fair use.
• A transformative use (repurposing or recontextualizing the in-copyright material) favors fair use. Examining, analyzing, and explicating the material in a meaningful way, so as to enhance a reader's understanding, strengthens your fair use argument. In other words, can you make the point in the thesis without using, for instance, an in-copyright image? Is that image necessary to your dissertation? If not, perhaps, for copyright reasons, you should not include the image.  

2) What is the nature of the work to be used?

• Published, fact-based content favors fair use and includes scholarly analysis in published academic venues. 
• Creative works, including artistic images, are afforded more protection under copyright, and depending on your use in light of the other factors, may be less likely to favor fair use; however, this does not preclude considerations of fair use for creative content altogether.

3) How much of the work is going to be used?  

• Small, or less significant, amounts favor fair use. A good rule of thumb is to use only as much of the in-copyright content as necessary to serve your purpose. Can you use a thumbnail rather than a full-resolution image? Can you use a black-and-white photo instead of color? Can you quote select passages instead of including several pages of the content? These simple changes bolster your fair use of the material.

4) What potential effect on the market for that work may your use have?

• If there is a market for licensing this exact use or type of educational material, then this weighs against fair use. If however, there would likely be no effect on the potential commercial market, or if it is not possible to obtain permission to use the work, then this favors fair use. 

For further assistance with fair use, consult the Office for Scholarly Communication's guide, Fair Use: Made for the Harvard Community and the Office of the General Counsel's Copyright and Fair Use: A Guide for the Harvard Community .

What are my options if I don’t have a strong fair use claim? 

Consider the following options if you find you cannot reasonably make a fair use claim for the content you wish to incorporate:

• Seek permission from the copyright holder. 
• Use openly licensed content as an alternative to the original third-party content you intended to use. Openly-licensed content grants permission up-front for reuse of in-copyright content, provided your use meets the terms of the open license.
• Use content in the public domain, as this content is not in-copyright and is therefore free of all copyright restrictions. Whereas third-party content is owned by parties other than you, no one owns content in the public domain; everyone, therefore, has the right to use it.

For use of images in your dissertation, please consult this guide to Finding Public Domain & Creative Commons Media , which is a great resource for finding images without copyright restrictions. 

Who can help me with questions about copyright and fair use?

Contact your Copyright First Responder . Please note, Copyright First Responders assist with questions concerning copyright and fair use, but do not assist with the process of obtaining permission from copyright holders.

Pages should be assigned a number except for the Dissertation Acceptance Certificate . Preliminary pages (abstract, table of contents, list of tables, graphs, illustrations, and preface) should use small Roman numerals (i, ii, iii, iv, v, etc.). All pages must contain text or images.  

Count the title page as page i and the copyright page as page ii, but do not print page numbers on either page .

For the body of text, use Arabic numbers (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc.) starting with page 1 on the first page of text. Page numbers must be centered throughout the manuscript at the top or bottom. Every numbered page must be consecutively ordered, including tables, graphs, illustrations, and bibliography/index (if included); letter suffixes (such as 10a, 10b, etc.) are not allowed. It is customary not to have a page number on the page containing a chapter heading.

• Check pagination carefully. Account for all pages.

A copy of the Dissertation Acceptance Certificate (DAC) should appear as the first page. This page should not be counted or numbered. The DAC will appear in the online version of the published dissertation. The author name and date on the DAC and title page should be the same. 

The dissertation begins with the title page; the title should be as concise as possible and should provide an accurate description of the dissertation. The author name and date on the DAC and title page should be the same. 

• Do not print a page number on the title page. It is understood to be page  i  for counting purposes only.

A copyright notice should appear on a separate page immediately following the title page and include the copyright symbol ©, the year of first publication of the work, and the name of the author:

© [ year ] [ Author’s Name ] All rights reserved.

Alternatively, students may choose to license their work openly under a  Creative Commons  license. The author remains the copyright holder while at the same time granting up-front permission to others to read, share, and (depending on the license) adapt the work, so long as proper attribution is given. (By default, under copyright law, the author reserves all rights; under a Creative Commons license, the author reserves some rights.)

• Do  not  print a page number on the copyright page. It is understood to be page  ii  for counting purposes only.

An abstract, numbered as page  iii , should immediately follow the copyright page and should state the problem, describe the methods and procedures used, and give the main results or conclusions of the research. The abstract will appear in the online and bound versions of the dissertation and will be published by ProQuest. There is no maximum word count for the abstract. 

• double-spaced
• left-justified
• indented on the first line of each paragraph
• The author’s name, right justified
• The words “Dissertation Advisor:” followed by the advisor’s name, left-justified (a maximum of two advisors is allowed)
• Title of the dissertation, centered, several lines below author and advisor

Dissertations divided into sections must contain a table of contents that lists, at minimum, the major headings in the following order:

• Front Matter
• Body of Text
• Back Matter

Front matter includes (if applicable):

• acknowledgements of help or encouragement from individuals or institutions
• a dedication
• a list of illustrations or tables
• a glossary of terms
• one or more epigraphs.

Back matter includes (if applicable):

• bibliography
• supplemental materials, including figures and tables
• an index (in rare instances).

Supplemental figures and tables must be placed at the end of the dissertation in an appendix, not within or at the end of a chapter. If additional digital information (including audio, video, image, or datasets) will accompany the main body of the dissertation, it should be uploaded as a supplemental file through ProQuest ETD . Supplemental material will be available in DASH and ProQuest and preserved digitally in the Harvard University Archives.

As a matter of copyright, dissertations comprising the student's previously published works must be authorized for distribution from DASH. The guidelines in this section pertain to any previously published material that requires permission from publishers or other rightsholders before it may be distributed from DASH. Please note:

• Authors whose publishing agreements grant the publisher exclusive rights to display, distribute, and create derivative works will need to seek the publisher's permission for nonexclusive use of the underlying works before the dissertation may be distributed from DASH.
• Authors whose publishing agreements indicate the authors have retained the relevant nonexclusive rights to the original materials for display, distribution, and the creation of derivative works may distribute the dissertation as a whole from DASH without need for further permissions.

It is recommended that authors consult their publishing agreements directly to determine whether and to what extent they may have transferred exclusive rights under copyright. The Office for Scholarly Communication (OSC) is available to help the author determine whether she has retained the necessary rights or requires permission. Please note, however, the Office of Scholarly Communication is not able to assist with the permissions process itself.

• Missing Dissertation Acceptance Certificate.  The first page of the PDF dissertation file should be a scanned copy of the Dissertation Acceptance Certificate (DAC). This page should not be counted or numbered as a part of the dissertation pagination.
• Conflicts Between the DAC and the Title Page.  The DAC and the dissertation title page must match exactly, meaning that the author name and the title on the title page must match that on the DAC. If you use your full middle name or just an initial on one document, it must be the same on the other document.  
• Abstract Formatting Errors. The advisor name should be left-justified, and the author's name should be right-justified. Up to two advisor names are allowed. The Abstract should be double spaced and include the page title “Abstract,” as well as the page number “iii.” There is no maximum word count for the abstract. 
•  The front matter should be numbered using Roman numerals (iii, iv, v, …). The title page and the copyright page should be counted but not numbered. The first printed page number should appear on the Abstract page (iii). 
• The body of the dissertation should be numbered using Arabic numbers (1, 2, 3, …). The first page of the body of the text should begin with page 1. Pagination may not continue from the front matter. 
• All page numbers should be centered either at the top or the bottom of the page.
• Figures and tables Figures and tables must be placed within the text, as close to their first mention as possible. Figures and tables that span more than one page must be labeled on each page. Any second and subsequent page of the figure/table must include the “(Continued)” notation. This applies to figure captions as well as images. Each page of a figure/table must be accounted for and appropriately labeled. All figures/tables must have a unique number. They may not repeat within the dissertation.
• Any figures/tables placed in a horizontal orientation must be placed with the top of the figure/ table on the left-hand side. The top of the figure/table should be aligned with the spine of the dissertation when it is bound. 
• Page numbers must be placed in the same location on all pages of the dissertation, centered, at the bottom or top of the page. Page numbers may not appear under the table/ figure.
• Supplemental Figures and Tables. Supplemental figures and tables must be placed at the back of the dissertation in an appendix. They should not be placed at the back of the chapter. 
• Permission Letters Copyright. permission letters must be uploaded as a supplemental file, titled ‘do_not_publish_permission_letters,” within the dissertation submission tool.
•  DAC Attachment. The signed Dissertation Acceptance Certificate must additionally be uploaded as a document in the "Administrative Documents" section when submitting in Proquest ETD . Dissertation submission is not complete until all documents have been received and accepted.
• Overall Formatting. The entire document should be checked after all revisions, and before submitting online, to spot any inconsistencies or PDF conversion glitches.
• You can view dissertations successfully published from your department in DASH . This is a great place to check for specific formatting and area-specific conventions.
• Contact the  Office of Student Affairs  with further questions.

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Should I Use LaTex Or Word For My Dissertation?

Published by Alvin Nicolas at April 9th, 2024 , Revised On April 9, 2024

The decision of which software to use for writing your dissertation can feel overwhelming. Two popular options are Microsoft Word, the familiar and widely used word processor, and LaTex, a typesetting system known for its technical prowess and professional output. Each has its own strengths and weaknesses, and the ideal choice depends on your individual needs and preferences. 

This guide will discuss the key factors to consider when deciding between LaTex and Word for your dissertation. Let’s discuss further. 

LaTeX is a typesetting system used for high-quality document preparation, especially in academia and scientific publishing. It provides precise control over formatting and layout, particularly for complex documents like research papers , theses, and technical reports . LaTeX uses markup language to structure documents and is known for its professionalism and consistency.

Strengths Of LaTex

The advantages of using LaTex for your dissertation include the following:

Professional & Consistent Formatting

LaTex excels in producing high-quality, professional-looking documents. Its focus on typesetting ensures consistent formatting throughout your dissertation, from equations and figures to citations and references . This consistency is crucial for academic writing, where a polished presentation matters.

Superior Handling Of Equations & Math

If your dissertation involves extensive mathematical elements, LaTex is the clear winner. It offers a wide range of mathematical symbols and packages like Tikz that allow for the effortless creation of complex diagrams and figures. Word, while capable, can struggle with complex mathematical notation and formatting.

Efficient Bibliography Management

LaTex integrates seamlessly with bibliographic management software like BibTeX. This allows for effortless citation management and automatic generation of reference lists in various referencing styles like Harvard , saving you countless hours of manual formatting.

Version Control & Collaboration

Online LaTex platforms like Overleaf offer version control and collaboration features, enabling you to track changes, revert to previous versions, and collaborate with supervisors or peers easily.

Weaknesses Of LaTex

While LaTex does offer several benefits, here are some of the disadvantages of using it for your dissertation. 

Steeper Learning Curve

LaTex requires learning its syntax and commands, which can be challenging for users unfamiliar with coding or markup languages. The initial learning curve can feel daunting, especially for those accustomed to the user-friendly interface of Word.

Limited WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) Editing

Unlike Word, LaTex doesn’t offer a direct WYSIWYG editing experience. You write the code, and the final formatted document is generated separately. This can make real-time editing and visualisation of formatting changes less intuitive.

Fewer Built-in Templates

While LaTex offers a variety of templates, the selection pales in comparison to the vast array of pre-designed templates available in Word. This can be a disadvantage if you prefer working with a pre-formatted structure and customising it as needed.

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Microsoft Word is a widely used word-processing software that allows users to create, edit, and format documents with ease. It offers a range of features such as spell check, grammar correction, and various formatting options. Word is part of the Microsoft Office suite and is popular for its user-friendly interface.

Strengths Of Word

Here are some of the advantages of using Microsoft Word for your dissertation. 

User-Friendly Interface

Word boasts a user-friendly interface that is familiar to most users. Its point-and-click features and visual editing make it easy to learn and navigate, even for those without experience.

This can be a significant advantage, especially for individuals tight on time or unfamiliar with coding concepts.

Extensive Built-in Features

Word comes packed with features like built-in citation management tools, track changes, and collaboration tools. While not as robust as LaTex’s integration with BibTeX, it offers a sufficient level of functionality for most dissertation projects.

Wide Template Availability

Word offers a vast selection of pre-designed templates specifically crafted for academic writing, including dissertation formats. This can save you significant time and effort in setting up the initial document structure and formatting.

Weaknesses Of Word

Following are the disadvantages of using Microsoft Word for your dissertation. 

Inconsistent Formatting

While Word offers formatting options, achieving perfect consistency across a complex document like a dissertation can be challenging. Manual adjustments are often necessary, which can be time-consuming and error-prone.

Challenges With Complex Equations

While Word can handle basic equations, it can become cumbersome and visually unappealing when dealing with complex mathematical expressions and symbols. LaTex offers superior handling and presentation in this regard.

Less Efficient Bibliography Management

Word’s built-in citation management tool can be adequate for simple projects. However, for complex dissertations, LaTex’s integration with specialised software offers greater efficiency and accuracy.

Additional Considerations

Consider these elements before choosing a tool. 

Departmental Requirements

Some departments may have specific formatting requirements or software preferences. It’s crucial to check with your department advisor or consult any available guidelines to ensure your chosen software meets any established standards.

Existing Skills & Preferences

Consider your technical comfort level and personal preferences. If you’re comfortable learning a new system and prioritising consistent formatting and efficient tools for mathematical expressions and citations, LaTex might be the better choice.

However, if you prefer a user-friendly interface and prioritise ease of use, Word could be a more suitable option.

Ultimately, the decision between LaTex and Word for your dissertation is a personal one. Weighing the strengths and weaknesses of each option in light of your specific needs, technical comfort level, and departmental requirements will ensure you make the best choice for successfully completing your dissertation.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the advantage of latex over word.

LaTeX offers precise control over document formatting and layout, particularly for complex documents like research papers and theses. It excels in handling mathematical equations, references, and bibliographies seamlessly. Additionally, LaTeX produces high-quality output and promotes consistency, making it favoured in academia and scientific publishing over the more flexible but less precise Microsoft Word.

Should I use latex or Word?

Choose LaTeX for complex documents requiring precise formatting, such as academic papers or technical reports. It offers better control over layout and is preferred in academic and scientific circles. Use Word for simpler documents or collaborative work, benefiting from its user-friendly interface and compatibility with common office environments.

Should I write my thesis in Word or LaTeX?

Consider LaTeX for thesis writing due to its superior control over formatting, especially for complex structures like equations and bibliographies. LaTeX ensures consistency and professional presentation, which is crucial for academic work. However, if unfamiliar with LaTeX or collaborating with others using Word, choose based on personal preference and practical considerations.

You May Also Like

Not familiar with how to proofread and edit your dissertation? Find out the best tips and do’s and don’ts of proofreading and editing a dissertation here.

The dissertation is typically due in the final year of a PhD program, with specific deadlines varying based on requirements and progress.

A Gantt chart is important for your dissertation. Here’s everything you need to know about the Gantt chart for a dissertation to do your dissertation.

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100+ Research Vocabulary Words & Phrases

The academic community can be conservative when it comes to enforcing academic writing style , but your writing shouldn’t be so boring that people lose interest midway through the first paragraph! Given that competition is at an all-time high for academics looking to publish their papers, we know you must be anxious about what you can do to improve your publishing odds.

To be sure, your research must be sound, your paper must be structured logically, and the different manuscript sections must contain the appropriate information. But your research must also be clearly explained. Clarity obviously depends on the correct use of English, and there are many common mistakes that you should watch out for, for example when it comes to articles , prepositions , word choice , and even punctuation . But even if you are on top of your grammar and sentence structure, you can still make your writing more compelling (or more boring) by using powerful verbs and phrases (vs the same weaker ones over and over). So, how do you go about achieving the latter?

Below are a few ways to breathe life into your writing.

1. Analyze Vocabulary Using Word Clouds

Have you heard of “Wordles”? A Wordle is a visual representation of words, with the size of each word being proportional to the number of times it appears in the text it is based on. The original company website seems to have gone out of business, but there are a number of free word cloud generation sites that allow you to copy and paste your draft manuscript into a text box to quickly discover how repetitive your writing is and which verbs you might want to replace to improve your manuscript.

Seeing a visual word cloud of your work might also help you assess the key themes and points readers will glean from your paper. If the Wordle result displays words you hadn’t intended to emphasize, then that’s a sign you should revise your paper to make sure readers will focus on the right information.

As an example, below is a Wordle of our article entitled, “ How to Choose the Best title for Your Journal Manuscript .” You can see how frequently certain terms appear in that post, based on the font size of the text. The keywords, “titles,” “journal,” “research,” and “papers,” were all the intended focus of our blog post.

2. Study Language Patterns of Similarly Published Works

Study the language pattern found in the most downloaded and cited articles published by your target journal. Understanding the journal’s editorial preferences will help you write in a style that appeals to the publication’s readership.

Another way to analyze the language of a target journal’s papers is to use Wordle (see above). If you copy and paste the text of an article related to your research topic into the applet, you can discover the common phrases and terms the paper’s authors used.

For example, if you were writing a paper on  links between smoking and cancer , you might look for a recent review on the topic, preferably published by your target journal. Copy and paste the text into Wordle and examine the key phrases to see if you’ve included similar wording in your own draft. The Wordle result might look like the following, based on the example linked above.

If you are not sure yet where to publish and just want some generally good examples of descriptive verbs, analytical verbs, and reporting verbs that are commonly used in academic writing, then have a look at this list of useful phrases for research papers .

3. Use More Active and Precise Verbs

Have you heard of synonyms? Of course you have. But have you looked beyond single-word replacements and rephrased entire clauses with stronger, more vivid ones? You’ll find this task is easier to do if you use the active voice more often than the passive voice . Even if you keep your original sentence structure, you can eliminate weak verbs like “be” from your draft and choose more vivid and precise action verbs. As always, however, be careful about using only a thesaurus to identify synonyms. Make sure the substitutes fit the context in which you need a more interesting or “perfect” word. Online dictionaries such as the Merriam-Webster and the Cambridge Dictionary are good sources to check entire phrases in context in case you are unsure whether a synonym is a good match for a word you want to replace. 

To help you build a strong arsenal of commonly used phrases in academic papers, we’ve compiled a list of synonyms you might want to consider when drafting or editing your research paper . While we do not suggest that the phrases in the “Original Word/Phrase” column should be completely avoided, we do recommend interspersing these with the more dynamic terms found under “Recommended Substitutes.”

A. Describing the scope of a current project or prior research

B. outlining a topic’s background, c. describing the analytical elements of a paper, d. discussing results, e. discussing methods, f. explaining the impact of new research, wordvice writing resources.

For additional information on how to tighten your sentences (e.g., eliminate wordiness and use active voice to greater effect), you can try Wordvice’s FREE APA Citation Generator and learn more about how to proofread and edit your paper to ensure your work is free of errors.

Before submitting your manuscript to academic journals, be sure to use our free AI proofreader to catch errors in grammar, spelling, and mechanics. And use our English editing services from Wordvice, including academic editing services , cover letter editing , manuscript editing , and research paper editing services to make sure your work is up to a high academic level.

We also have a collection of other useful articles for you, for example on how to strengthen your writing style , how to avoid fillers to write more powerful sentences , and how to eliminate prepositions and avoid nominalizations . Additionally, get advice on all the other important aspects of writing a research paper on our academic resources pages .

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Definition of dissertation noun from the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary

• dissertation
• He wrote his Master's dissertation on rats.
• Students can either do a dissertation or take part in a practical project.
• hall of residence
• Candidates are required to present a dissertation of between 8 000 and 12 000 words.
• She is writing her dissertation on the history of the Knights Templar.
• dissertation on

Take your English to the next level

The Oxford Learner’s Thesaurus explains the difference between groups of similar words. Try it for free as part of the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary app

In August, he also said that the Catholic Church is open to everyone , including the gay community, and that it has a duty to accompany them on a personal path of spirituality but within the framework of its rules.

Francis set the tone at the beginning of his papacy in 2013 when he made an off-the-cuff remark to reporters that won over many critics who had dismissed the church as close-minded. “If a person is gay and seeks God and has good will, who am I to judge him?” he said.

An instruction issued by the Vatican under Francis’ predecessor, Pope Benedict, in 2005 ruled that those who “practice homosexuality, present deep-seated homosexual tendencies or support the so-called gay culture” cannot be admitted into the seminary or holy orders. 

Yuliya Talmazan is a reporter for NBC News Digital, based in London.

Matteo Moschella is a London-based reporter for NBC News' Social Newsgathering team.

Pope Francis apologizes over use of homophobic slur, Vatican says

Incident alleged to have happened may 20 in private meeting with bishops.

Pope apologizes for using homophobic slur

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WARNING: This story contains derogatory language.

Pope Francis, widely quoted as having used a highly derogatory word to describe the 2SLGBTQ+ community, did not intend to use homophobic language and apologizes to anyone offended by it, the Vatican said on Tuesday.

It is extremely rare for a pope to issue a public apology.

"The Pope never intended to offend or express himself in homophobic terms, and he apologizes to those who felt offended by the use of a term reported by others," Vatican spokesperson Matteo Bruni said in an emailed statement.

Italian media had reported on Monday that Francis used the Italian term frociaggine , roughly translating as "faggotness" or "faggotry," as he told Italian bishops he remained opposed to admitting gay people into the priesthood.

Italian political gossip website Dagospia was the first to report the alleged incident, said to have happened on May 20, when the pontiff met Italian bishops behind closed doors.

• Advocates blast Vatican's new position on gender-affirming surgery as 'dangerously ignorant'
• Pope Francis says priests can bless same-sex couples, under certain conditions

Bruni said Francis was "aware" of the reports. The Vatican spokesperson reiterated that the Pope remained committed to a welcoming church for all, where "nobody is useless, nobody is superfluous, [where] there is room for everyone."

His reported comments caused shock and consternation, even among his supporters.

Vito Mancuso, an Italian theologian and former priest, told the daily La Stampa that Francis's language was "despicable and surprising because it blatantly jars" with his previous messages on LGBTQ issues.

Dialogue between groups 'must go on,' says LGBTQ+ association spokesperson

Francis, 87, has been credited with making substantial overtures toward the 2SLGBTQ+ community during his 11-year papacy.

In 2013, at the start of his papacy, he famously said: "If a person is gay and seeks God and has goodwill, who am I to judge?" Last year, he allowed priests to bless members of same-sex couples, triggering substantial conservative backlash.

Back in 2018, Francis admitted making "grave mistakes" in the handling of a sexual abuse crisis in Chile, where he initially dismissed as slander accusations against a bishop suspected of protecting a predator priest.

"I apologize to all those I have offended and I hope to be able to do it personally in the coming weeks, in the meetings I will have [with victims]," he wrote in a letter to Chilean bishops.

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Use One Of These 25 Special Words To Describe Someone You Love

• Other Ways To Say: Talented
• Other Ways To Say: Kind
• Other Ways To Say: Attractive
• Other Ways To Say: Funny
• Other Ways To Say: Smart
• Take The Quiz

By Ashley Austrew

There are so many reasons why we love and value the people in our lives, but sometimes it can be hard to find the right words to describe just what it is that makes those people so special. If you’re working on the ultimate love letter, preparing a special birthday toast, or even just talking someone up to a friend, you don’t want to fall back on broad terms like funny , kind , or cute . That’s the time to say what you really mean.

Talking about the people you love might mean talking about a significant other, but it can also mean describing a friend, parent, sibling, or other special person, too. No matter who you’re trying to describe or shower with praise, here are some handy alternatives to the most overused words to use when talking about someone you love.

💕Test your skills on these wonderful words by heading over to our quiz!

Other ways to say: talented

Celebrating someone’s talent is usually a welcome compliment, but talent describes a pretty broad pool of qualities, abilities, and skills. What does that special person really excel at that makes them so, well, special? Here are a few other options to try.

accomplished

Accomplished is the word to use when someone is “highly skilled” or even “expert” at something. It demonstrates appreciation not only for their skills, but also for the time, energy, and hard work they put into acquiring those skills.

You can call someone artistic as a way of complimenting their skill and execution in art or their excellent taste and style. Someone who’s artistic likely has a unique, creative approach to many things, and this word calls that out.

Have you ever been around someone who just seems to be good at everything? Those people are highly capable , which means “having power and ability; efficient; competent.”

inspirational

Sometimes a person’s gift is inspiring others around them to shine as well. Calling someone inspirational says they don’t just do great things, but they also motivate the people around them just by being who they are.

Find more inspiration with these inspirational words.

Brilliant is the right word for someone you see as “shining brightly; sparkling; glittery; lustrous.” It might describe their distinguished abilities in one particular area or their bold and awe-inspiring approach to everything.

Other ways to say: kind

Kindness is an important quality, and a great way to acknowledge someone’s kindness is by pointing out all of the specific and meaningful ways they express it. Here are some words to do that.

affectionate

Affectionate means “showing, indicating, or characterized by affection or love; fondly tender.” Some people are more affectionate than others, so if someone’s outward displays of affection mean a lot to you, use this word to let them know it.

considerate

Considerate is the word to use for someone who is always looking out for other people’s feelings, performing small acts of kindness, or putting thoughtfulness on display on a regular basis.

big-hearted

Someone who is big-hearted is generous and kind. You might love a big-hearted person if you see that your special someone is always thinking about what they can do to show care and concern for others.

Sometimes being kind means treating everyone like a friend. Friendly people are “favorably disposed; inclined to approve, help, support.” It’s a way of explaining that your loved one isn’t just kind, but they also never hesitate to lend a hand or a shoulder to lean on.

Gentle is another way of saying “kindly” or “amiable.” Someone who could be described as gentle isn’t just nice, but is also likely a calm, compassionate, and steady figure in your life.

Find more kind synonyms here.

Other ways to say: attractive

Looks aren’t everything, but there’s nothing wrong with finding a few fresh ways to let people know they’re looking great. Rather than pulling out a bland word like attractive , here are some other options that get to the heart of what really draws you to someone.

Alluring doesn’t just mean someone is nice looking. It also means they have a charisma or charm that draws you towards them. Someone who is alluring is “very attractive or tempting; enticing; seductive.”

Whether it’s a special occasion or you admire someone’s style and grace every day, elegant is a word to use when describing someone who is “tastefully fine or luxurious in dress, style, design, etc.”

Does someone in your life just have that special “it” factor that makes people want to be around them? They could be described as bewitching . This magical sounding word means “enchanting, charming, fascinating.”

When someone is delightful or pleasing to be around, it’s usually because they’re charming . Someone might have charming good looks, but charming also extends to their sparkling personality and the way they make people feel in their presence.

Isn’t he or she lovely ? This adjective means “charmingly or exquisitely beautiful.” It’s the perfect word to describe someone who is lovely in looks but also wonderful to spend time with.

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Other ways to say: funny

A sense of humor is a great quality, but there are so many ways to be funny. Is the person more of a George Carlin, an Ali Wong, or a Jim Gaffigan? Here are some words to talk about the funny people in your life.

If someone’s specialty is keeping things light and always finding humor in people and situations, you might describe them as playful . It literally means “full of play or fun.”

A childlike or even off-the-wall sense of humor might be called whimsical . This word means “given to whimsy or fanciful notions; capricious.” Think: Robin Williams.

Some people always know the right thing to say. You might describe them as being clever . These quick thinkers always find a way to get laughs by being both charming and bright.

Hilarious means “arousing great merriment; extremely funny,” and it’s reserved for the people who are truly laugh-out-loud funny. These folks might be the life of the party or they might reserve their best jokes just for you. Either way, the fun never stops.

These words for a beloved pet dog will bring a smile to your face.

Someone who is witty sees the world a little differently, and their sharp observations and clever comebacks can be very entertaining. They also might be funny in several mediums. Witty means “possessing wit in speech or writing; amusingly clever in perception and expression.”

Other ways to say: smart

If you value intelligence, then you’ll probably also value having more than one way to talk about it. Pull out one of these bonus words when describing the brainiacs in your life.

If someone wows you with their keen perceptions and spot-on observations, you could say they’re astute . This word describes people who are shrewd, intelligent, and always the first to connect the dots.

While crafty can mean that someone is great with a sewing machine, it also means “cunning; deceitful; sly.” This doesn’t mean a crafty loved one is up to no good. It just means you want them on your team on game night.

Wise describes the person you go to for advice, support, and to talk about the deep stuff. Wise means “having the power of discerning and judging properly as to what is true or right.” These people are like the lighthouses in the storms of life.

If that special person in your life always knows how to get the best deals or how to convince people to be on their side, they might be shrewd . Shrewd means “cunning or tricky; artful,” and it’s a word for people who know how to use their deep intelligence to their advantage.

No, we don’t mean the person you love is shining like a light bulb. Bright means “quick-witted or intelligent.” It’s a word that describes people who have many skills, catch on quickly, and are always capable of learning something new.

Take our quiz

Amplify your love language by revisiting these words and their definitions in our Words That Describe Someone You Love word list , where you’ll find flashcard and quiz functions to practice before penning your sweet odes. You can also go a step further by taking our short quiz based on these words.

Ashley Austrew is a freelance journalist and writer from Omaha, Nebraska. Her work has been published at  Cosmopolitan ,  Scary Mommy ,  Scholastic , and other outlets.  For more by Ashley, read: 10 New Dating Slang Words To Know In 2021 | 22 Motivational Words To Propel You Into 2022 |  Make The “Write” Plans For The Year With 10 New Year’s Resolutions For Writers  | Show Your Appreciation With 25 Other Ways To Say “Thank You”

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How To Reduce Word Count In Your Dissertation, Thesis Or Academics Assignments

(without losing those precious marks).

If you follow some of the advice on this blog, chances are one of your biggest challenges is keeping your academic writing projects within the specified word count limits. It’s a good problem to have (at least compared to having not enough to say), and in this post, I’ll discuss 4 steps to reduce word count without risking losing marks.

First things first – write to think.

Before I get started, it’s worth making an important point regarding writing in general. There are essentially two ways to think about the process of writing :

• Writing as the outcome of thinking – in other words, you think deeply first, construct your argument, and then simply transfer it to paper by way of writing. You do little revising.
• Writing as a form of thinking – in other words, writing helps you flesh out your thinking and develop your arguments. Writing is an iterative process, wherein you might revise numerous times and even rewrite altogether, but this all contributes to a better quality of thinking.

Which side of the fence do you sit on? I’m an avid advocate of the latter perspective and approach – and I’m not alone. Numerous books and journal articles have covered the topic of “writing as thinking”. If the idea interests you, have a look at Henning’s “Finding your way in academic writing.”

In short, putting pen to paper as early as possible (i.e. before you feel “ready”) and then revising as your thoughts develop (as a result of writing) is an excellent way to improve the overall quality of your arguments and academic work. To do this, you cannot constantly fret over word count (at least not while you’re writing). Instead, you need to let the words flow onto paper, and then sort the wheat from the chaff at a later stage. Sure, you need some constraints, but forcing yourself to apply X model within 350 words is going to stifle your flow and limit your depth. Rather let your thoughts flow onto paper, and then trim them down once your thinking is fully fleshed out.

What does this have to do with reducing your word count? It means that word count reduction (particularly, the techniques I’ll cover below) is something you do once you’ve wrapped up your writing, not while you write . Accordingly, all the steps I’ll propose here are to be applied after the fact.

Right, let’s get into it. Follow these 4 steps (in this order) to strategically reduce your word count without losing the “meat” of your assignment/dissertation.

Step 1: Audit for purely descriptive content.

Broadly speaking, content can fall into one of two categories – descriptive or analytical.  Simply put, descriptive content eludes to the “what”, whereas analytical content describes the impact and consequence of the event/factor/situation – in other words, the “so what”. The table below highlights some of the differences between the two:

Ideally, you should try to keep your discussion analytical, rather than descriptive ( read more about this here ). There’s always be a need for some descriptive content, but ideally, this should be limited to only that content which forms the foundation for analytical content. Therefore, the first step of word count reduction is to audit for descriptive content which does not lead to analytical content . In other words, content which is purely descriptive, and is not required to get to the “so what?” content.

Read through your dissertation/thesis/assignment and trim out all content that doesn’t make the analytical cut , or doesn’t form a foundation for analysis. This is your first target – be aggressive with your trimming. Descriptive writing is pure fat and will not earn you marks – kill it!

Step 2: Audit for content which does not contribute towards answering your research question(s).

One of the reasons that it’s so important to set unambiguous research questions in your introduction is that this practice allows you to ringfence the focus of your work. In other words, it helps you to narrow the discussion to only that which is most relevant.

That said, as you write, you will invariably produce a fair deal of content that does not contribute towards your research questions . You’ll naturally digress into an interesting but irrelevant discussion about A, B and C – this might be very intellectually satisfying, but it doesn’t contribute to answering your research question. Therefore, this sort of content is your next target. Re-read your document from start to finish through the lens of your research questions or objectives. That which does not in some way contribute to answering the research question(s) or achieving the objective(s) must go .

Step 3: Audit for overly-detailed section summaries.

A good piece of academic writing should always feature summary paragraphs that link the end of one section/chapter to the beginning of the next. They should do this by summarising the key points of the former to the direction and purpose of the latter. For example:

“In this section, the analysis revealed that the key contributors to the issue included A, B and C. Accordingly, these factors will be analysed in the next chapter.”

By stating this link very clearly, you help the reader (marker) to understand your argument (which is, after all, completely new to them), which in turn helps you earn marks. Therefore, these summary sections are important. However, they can become wordy and repetitive, and you should, therefore, audit them.

Make sure that they are summarising only the absolute highlights of your argument and providing a clear, well-justified link to the next section. Don’t restate your entire chapter. The example above is what you should aim for, namely:

• Key observations/insights/highlights – followed by
• Logical link to next section

If you are extremely over word count, you may even consider removing these sections altogether. After all, it is better to remove summary content than core content. This should, however, be an absolute last resort as doing so can seriously reduce the overall flow of your document and blur the “golden thread” of your argument(s).

Step 4: Audit for wordy, bloated discussion.

This is the easiest of the four steps, and typically what most students look for when trying to reduce word count – but it usually has a comparatively minor impact. Therefore, I’m positioning it as the last step.

Naturally, your dissertation, thesis or assignment document will contain sections which are just plain wordy. This is a result of “writing as thinking” (whether you agree with the approach or not!). Therefore, the last step is to audit for sentences and paragraphs which are just plain wordy and rewrite them more concisely.

Some common trimming opportunities:

• Adjectives and adverbs – although these are sometimes necessary when developing your arguments, they are often just bloat contributors. Additionally, they can create an emotive, subjective tone, which is typically not encouraged in academic writing (where objectivity is essential).
• The word “that” – oftentimes, a sentence can communicate the same point without the inclusion of the word “that”. Use Word’s find function (Ctrl+F) to search for “that” and check where it can be omitted.
• Spaces around mathematical operators – if you’re copying numbers from Excel, chances are there are spaces between mathematical operators which can be removed. For example, p < 0.05 (3 words) can be reduced to p<0.05 (1 word).
• Abbreviate/acronymise repetitive phrases/names – if you’re repeatedly referring to a person(s) or organisation(s) that have multi-word names, create acronyms for them and replace all instances with the acronymised version. For example, “Blue Basket Enterprises” (3 words) can be replaced with “BBE” (1 word). Make sure you introduce the acronym early in the document and consider presenting a list of abbreviations. A word of warning – don’t overuse this tactic, as too many acronyms can make it difficult for the reader to understand what’s going on!

Wrapping up.

There you have it – four steps to reduce your word count without losing your core arguments. To recap, you need to:

• Audit for descriptive (rather than analytical) content.
• Audit for content which doesn’t link to the research question(s)/aim(s).
• Audit for overly detailed section summaries.
• Audit for general wordiness and bloat.

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PCHR’s Youth Ambassadors learn to use words instead of weapons

For 4 weeks, 15 youth began undertaking the task of learning about conflict resolution, bias training, and their civil rights. The closing ceremony was held in the Mayor's Reception Room in City Hall.

The children are our future. This is the sentiment that Whitney Houston belted in her hit single The Greatest Love of All when she sang, “I believe the children are our future, teach them well and let them lead the way.”

Unfortunately, gun violence is prevalent in Philadelphia. The effects have impacted nearly every person in some way and it’s hard to escape the harsh realities when it leads nightly on news stations. The trauma of gun violence can ripple through the community, far beyond those who were shot or injured. The mental health effects in adults and young people can include anxiety, PTSD, and sleep problems. For children, teens, and young adults, this includes absenteeism in school, a decrease in school performance, and difficulty concentrating.

Gun violence does not affect all populations and communities in Philadelphia equally. Just over three-quarters of fatal shooting victims were Black, and about half were between the ages of 18 and 30.  For these reasons, most experts agree that there needs to be a focus on teaching young people how to better resolve conflict. For these reasons, the Philadelphia Commission on Human Relations (PCHR) sought to expand its conflict resolution programming to further its outreach efforts to young people to help them identify positive responses to conflict in school and in their communities.

PCHR created a program that works with high-risk youth to develop skills to mediate conflicts that might otherwise turn violent. The program was a youth-focused prevention initiative that taught participants the skills needed to recognize and resist the pressures that lead to violent activities through a multi-pronged approach that allowed students to share ideas, interests, and concerns. It also prepared students to be ambassadors in school-wide activities, including social events, and their communities.

PCHR partnered with Temple University’s Youth Conflict Specialist program to ensure there was a strong foundational awareness of critical conflict resolution principles. It also partnered with PhillyCAM to create a comprehensive multi-media conflict resolution campaign specifically designed for youth engagement.  With these key partnerships in place, we began the Youth Ambassador Program. For 4 weeks, 15 youth began undertaking the task of learning about conflict resolution, bias training, and their civil rights.

In addition to intensive programming, during the program, Youth Ambassadors attended a gun violence summit where they engaged with the City’s top law enforcement, created an anti-violence media project, and met with key community leaders, federal law enforcement partners, and other city leaders.

When asked about the impact of the program, Ambassador Tyvion Hamilton said, “I like that we’re heard. We [also] learn how to differentiate [between a] problem that isn’t going away [and a] problem you walk away from.” Tyvion added, “I’m able to help my friends de-escalate.”

With each session, the Youth Ambassadors’ curiosity and insightfulness grew. During our gun violence summit, Ambassador Dante Harrell asked what could be done to prevent the use of ghost guns. District Attorney Larry Krasner advocated that young people vote for elected officials who share their concerns and advocate for policy change.

This point was not lost on our Ambassadors who questioned why schools don’t do more to educate young people on the voting process. One of our Ambassadors lamented, “they put books in our hands, expect us to vote, but don’t teach us.” Well, PCHR is listening and will be incorporating suggestions like this into the curriculum of our future ambassador classes.

Our children will soon grow to be adults. They must have the tools to evoke change. With the completion of the Youth Ambassador Program, these young people are equipped to go into their schools and communities armed with knowledge to advocate for the change they want to see.

Visit here to view photos from the closing ceremony at City Hall.

View the PhillyCAM highlights video featuring the Ambassadors.

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Donald Trump's One-Word Response to Closing Arguments at Trial

Donald Trump reacted to the closing arguments at his hush money trial in New York with one simple word.

The former president posted "boring" in capital letters on his Truth social network as he listened to the defense and the prosecution summarize their points.

His defense team took more than two hours to deliver their summation, essentially trying to discredit Michael Cohen . Prosecutor Joshua Steinglass' closing arguments lasted for more than three hours, and he paused after 90 minutes to tell the court he was only around one-third of the way through.

Trump also posted the word "filibuster" before he went on to call the trial "rigged," as he has done many times before.

Trump complained about Judge Juan Merchan not allowing him to use "reliance on counsel" as his defense.

He wrote: "[Referring to Cohen] I didn't have a fixer, I had a lawyer who, at that time, was fully accredited and accepted within the legal community, but the judge is not allowing me to use the reliance on counsel defense.

"I may be the only person in the country not allowed to do so and, the only one who has a very unconstitutional and restrictive gag order. Not fair – Freedom!"

Trump has come under fire for his social media posts multiple times during the trial.

He was first placed under a gag order at the end of March, prohibiting him from making public statements about witnesses, jurors, prosecutors, court staff and their families – while still being free to defend himself and voice his opinions on the judge and the district attorney.

Prosecutors accused Trump of violating the order multiple times, including when he wrote on Truth Social about the jury pool.

"They are catching undercover Liberal Activists lying to the Judge to get on the Trump Jury," he said.

At the time, Trump said it would be his "great honor" to go to jail for violating the gag order, writing in April: "If this Partisan Hack wants to put me in the 'clink' for speaking the open and obvious TRUTH, I will gladly become a Modern Day Nelson Mandela."

Late on Tuesday night, after closing arguments had finished, Trump posted: "Can you imagine that I, as a defendant, am not allowed to rebut or correct the many lies told during the five-hour filibuster just put on by the Soros-backed D.A.'s Office in the Manhattan Court. What a disgraceful performance of misrepresentation it was."

Liberal billionaire and philanthropist George Soros has denied making any direct contributions to Manhattan District Attorney Alvin Bragg , but he has been linked to criminal justice reform programs that some see as essentially promoting more liberal candidates for district attorney positions.

For example, Soros donated money to Color of Change PAC, an advocacy organization, which then supported Bragg's campaign, according to the fact-checking website PolitiFact.

Trump, who is set to run for president against Joe Biden again this year, pleaded not guilty to 34 counts of falsifying business records and denies an encounter with Stephanie Clifford, known as Stormy Daniels .

Jury deliberations will begin on Wednesday, after instructions from Judge Merchan.

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Vatican apologizes after Pope Francis is accused of using homophobic slur

The pope’s choice of words in a closed-door meeting with bishops appeared to run counter to his efforts to thaw the relationship with the LGBTQ+ community.

ROME — Pope Francis on Tuesday issued a rare apology after he was accused of using a highly pejorative slur to refer to gay men in a closed-door session with bishops last week.

The pope’s choice of words, reported by major Italian news outlets and confirmed to The Washington Post by a senior Vatican official, appeared to run counter to his efforts to thaw the relationship between the Catholic Church and the LGBTQ+ community. Since he first declared “ Who am I to judge? ” shortly after becoming pope in 2013, Francis has gone further than any pontiff in building bridges to gay Catholics.

In the meeting with Italian bishops, however, the pope was quoted as using the word “frociaggine,” which in the Roman Italian dialect roughly translates as “faggotness.”

“The pope must explain himself,” said the Rev. Wolfgang Rothe, an openly gay German Catholic priest serving in the archdiocese of Munich, who said he was writing a protest letter to Francis and requesting a meeting with him in Vatican City. “I am not certain he understands [the term], but I think he does, and it makes me sad. A pope should not speak in such a manner.”

In a statement to journalists, Vatican spokesman Matteo Bruni offered verbal acrobatics. Without specifically confirming the pope’s use of the term, he said Francis was aware of the reports of his words at the closed-door session.

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“The Pope never intended to offend or express himself in homophobic terms, and he apologizes to those who felt offended by the use of a term reported by others,” Bruni said.

He emphasized that the pope believes “in the Church there is room for everyone, for everyone! Nobody is useless, nobody is superfluous, there is room for everyone. Just as we are, all of us.”

A senior Vatican official, who spoke on the condition of anonymity to discuss internal matters, confirmed the pontiff had uttered the pejorative during a May 20 meeting with the Italian Episcopal Conference.

More than 200 bishops were gathered in a Vatican City auditorium, and Francis was reiterating his opposition to gay men studying for the priesthood. In seminaries today, Francis reportedly said, there is already too much “frociaggine.”

It was possible, the official said, that Francis was not “aware” of the extent of the word’s negative connotation: “His ‘who am I to judge’ stance remains” the pope’s position, the official said.

A second Vatican official familiar with the pope’s private conversations, who also spoke on the condition of anonymity to discuss a sensitive issue, said the pontiff has used the word “frociaggine” on previous occasions — not as a catchall for homosexual men, but for anyone, gay or straight, who forms closed, gossipy cliques.

Some Vatican watchers portrayed the 87-year-old pope’s use of the term as the sort of verbal gaffe an elderly relative might make. The Italian outlet Corriere della Sera noted that Francis has sometimes unintentionally referenced mental illness by mixing up the Italian words for “psychiatric” and “psychological.”

But the pope — born into an Italian family in Argentina — has spoken Italian from an early age, and some argued that he must understand the word’s meaning, even if he did not mean to wield it maliciously.

“I think this constitutes a heavy blow to Francis’s prestige,” said Marco Politi, author of several books on Francis. “Because a pope is not to use those words, neither in private nor in public. Among both Catholics and non-Catholics who admire the pope, I have witnessed a devastating impact, whereas on the right, among those who never loved the pope, they’re quite happy with the pope using words interpreted as homophobic. This is quite a dramatic incident, although Francis has wisely backtracked.”

Francis has a history of being, at times, less than reverent.

“It’s widely known inside of the Vatican that, when angered, Pope Francis will resort to colorful language,” said Lucetta Scaraffia, a church historian and former editor of a Vatican magazine.

In 2020, he apologized for slapping the hand of a woman who had grabbed him during a New Year’s Eve event, and in 2016, he derided a crowd in Mexico as “selfish” after he was yanked by his robes into a man in a wheelchair.

His use of the loaded term for gay men was seen as more jarring — particularly among those in Catholic LGBTQ+ ministry who have hailed his outreach and landmark gestures.

Francis has endorsed blessings for same-sex couples and approved of transgender people serving as godparents . He has welcomed nearly 100 transgender women to the Vatican , publicly denounced anti-gay laws, backed secular civil unions for same-sex couples and pronounced that “ being homosexual is not a crime .”

Yet, he has also compared “gender theory” to nuclear weapons, and he signed off on a Vatican document in April that framed “ sex-change surgery ” as an affront to human dignity.

The substance of his latest comments did not break new ground. The pope has drawn a sharp line between pastoral acceptance of LGBTQ+ Catholics and the admission of gay men into ordained ministry. In 2018, he told prelates at the same Italian Episcopal Conference gathering that “even the slightest doubt” that a seminary candidate is gay should be enough to bar him from the seminary. He has supported a 2005 Vatican ruling that “homosexual candidates cannot become priests because their sexual orientation estranges them from the proper sense of paternity.”

Italian bishops have been studying softer language that might open the door to more openly gay, if celibate, priests. Francis seemed to frown on that prospect, which critics saw as a setback.

The papal apology “confirms our thought that use of the slur was a careless colloquialism,” said Francis DeBernardo, executive director of U.S.-based New Ways Ministry, which does Catholic LGBTQ+ outreach. “We are disappointed, however, that the pope did not clarify specifically what he meant by banning gay men from the priesthood. Without a clarification, his words will be interpreted as a blanket ban on accepting any gay man to a seminary.”

The Italian gossip site Dagospia first reported the pope’s use of the slur, which was later independently confirmed by major media outlets.

The Global Network of Rainbow Catholics, a pro-LGBTQ+ group, suggested the leak from a private meeting with Francis may have been an act of sabotage by conservative critics out to sully Francis and his outreach to gay Catholics.

“There is definitely mischief afoot to try and undermine Pope Francis,” the group said in a statement.