Constructivist Learning Theory and Creating Effective Learning Environments

  • First Online: 30 October 2021

Cite this chapter

concept in research pdf

  • Joseph Zajda 36  

Part of the book series: Globalisation, Comparative Education and Policy Research ((GCEP,volume 25))

3722 Accesses

9 Citations

This chapter analyses constructivism and the use of constructivist learning theory in schools, in order to create effective learning environments for all students. It discusses various conceptual approaches to constructivist pedagogy. The key idea of constructivism is that meaningful knowledge and critical thinking are actively constructed, in a cognitive, cultural, emotional, and social sense, and that individual learning is an active process, involving engagement and participation in the classroom. This idea is most relevant to the process of creating effective learning environments in schools globally. It is argued that the effectiveness of constructivist learning and teaching is dependent on students’ characteristics, cognitive, social and emotional development, individual differences, cultural diversity, motivational atmosphere and teachers’ classroom strategies, school’s location, and the quality of teachers. The chapter offers some insights as to why and how constructivist learning theory and constructivist pedagogy could be useful in supporting other popular and effective approaches to improve learning, performance, standards and teaching. Suggestions are made on how to apply constructivist learning theory and how to develop constructivist pedagogy, with a range of effective strategies for enhancing meaningful learning and critical thinking in the classroom, and improving academic standards.

The unexamined life is not worth living (Socrates, 399 BCE).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
  • Durable hardcover edition

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Abdullah Alwaqassi, S. (2017). The use of multisensory in schools . Indiana University. https://scholarworks.iu.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/2022/21663/Master%20Thesis%20in%

Acton, G., & Schroeder, D. (2001). Sensory discrimination as related to general intelligence. Intelligence, 29 , 263–271.

Google Scholar  

Adak, S. (2017). Effectiveness of constructivist approach on academic achievement in science at secondary level. Educational Research Review, 12 (22), 1074–1079.

Adler, E. (1997). Seizing the middle ground: Constructivism in world politics. European Journal of International Relations, 3 , 319–363.

Akpan, J., & Beard, B. (2016). Using constructivist teaching strategies to enhance academic outcomes of students with special needs. Journal of Educational Research , 4 (2), 392–398. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1089692.pdf

Al Sayyed Obaid, M. (2013). The impact of using multi-sensory approach for teaching students with learning disabilities. Journal of International Education Research , 9 (1), 75–82. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1010855

Alt, D. (2017).Constructivist learning and openness to diversity and challenge in higher education environments. Learning Environments Research, 20 , 99–119. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s10984-016-9223-8

Arends, R. (1998). Learning to teach . Boston: McGraw Hill.

Ayaz, M. F., & Şekerci, H. (2015). The effects of the constructivist learning approach on student’s academic achievement: A meta-analysis study . Retrieved from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.1072.4600&rep=rep1&type=pdf

Barlett, F. (1932), Remembering: A study in experimental and social psychology. Cambridge: CUP.

Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory . New York: General Learning Press.

Beck, C., & Kosnik, C. (2006). Innovations in teacher education: A social constructivist approach . New York, NY: SUNY Press.

Black, A., & Ammon, P. (1992). A developmental-constructivist approach to teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, 43 (5), 323–335.

Bowles, S., & Gintis, H. (1976). Schooling in capitalist America . London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Brooks, J., & Brooks, M. (1993). In search of understanding: The case for constructivist classrooms . Alexandria, VA: Association of Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Bruner, J. (1963). The process of education . New York: Vintage Books.

Bynum, W. F., & Porter, R. (Eds.). (2005). Oxford dictionary of scientific quotations . Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Carnoy, M. (1999). Globalization and education reforms: What planners need to know . Paris: UNESCO, International Institute for Educational Planning.

Crogman, H., & Trebeau Crogman, M. (2016). Generated questions learning model (GQLM): Beyond learning styles . Retrieved from https://www.cogentoa.com/article/10.1080/2331186X.2016.1202460

Dangel, J. R. (2011). An analysis of research on constructivist teacher education . Retreived from https://ineducation.ca/ineducation/article/view/85/361

Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education . New York: Collier Books.

Doll, W. (1993). A post-modem perspective on curriculum . New York: Teachers College Press.

Doolittle, P. E., & Hicks, D. E. (2003). Constructivism as a theoretical foundation for the use of technology in social studies. Theory and Research in Social Education, 31 (1), 71–103.

Dunn, R., & Smith, J. B. (1990). Chapter four: Learning styles and library media programs. In J. B. Smith (Ed.), School library media annual (pp. 32–49). Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited.

Dunn, R., et al. (2009). Impact of learning-style instructional strategies on students’ achievement and attitudes: Perceptions of educators in diverse institutions. The Clearing House, 82 (3), 135–140. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/30181095

Fontana, D. (1995). Psychology for teachers . London: Palgrave Macmillan.

Fosnot, C. T. (Ed.). (1989). Constructivism: Theory, perspectives, and practice . New York: Teacher's College Press.

Fosnot, C. T., & Perry, R. S. (2005). Constructivism: A psychological theory of learning. In C. T. Fosnot (Ed.), Constructivism: Theory, perspectives, and practice . New York: Teacher’s College Press.

Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences . New York: Basic Books.

Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century . New York: Basic Books.

Gredler, M. E. (1997). Learning and instruction: Theory into practice (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Gupta, N., & Tyagi, H. K. (2017). Constructivist based pedagogy for academic improvement at elementary level . Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321018062_constructivist_based_pedagogy_for_academic_improvement_at_elementary_level

Guzzini, S. (2000). A reconstruction of constructivism in international relations. European Journal of International Relations, 6 , 147–182.

Hirtle, J. (1996). Social constructivism . English Journal, 85 (1), 91. Retrieved from. https://search.proquest.com/docview/237276544?accountid=8194

Howe, K., & Berv, J. (2000). Constructing constructivism, epistemological and pedagogical. In D. C. Phillips (Ed.), Constructivism in education (pp. 19–40). Illinois: The National Society for the Study of Education.

Hunter, W. (2015). Teaching for engagement: part 1: Constructivist principles, case-based teaching, and active learning . Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301950392_Teaching_for_Engagement_Part_1_Co

Jonassen, D. H. (1994). Thinking technology. Educational Technology, 34 (4), 34–37.

Jonassen, D. H. (2000). Revisiting activity theory as a framework for designing student-centered learning environments. In D. H. Jonassen & S. M. Land (Eds.), Theoretical foundations of learning environments (pp. 89–121). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Kelly, G. A. (1955/1991). The psychology of personal constructs . Norton (Reprinted by Routledge, London, 1991).

Kharb, P. et al. (2013). The learning styles and the preferred teaching—Learning strategies of first year medical students . Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3708205/

Kim, B. (2001). Social constructivism. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology . http://www.coe.uga.edu/epltt/SocialConstructivism.htm

Kim, J. S. (2005). The effects of a constructivist teaching approach on student academic achievement, self-concept, and learning strategies. Asia Pacific Education Review, 6 (1), 7–19.

Kolb, D. A., & Fry, R. (1975). Toward an applied theory of experiential learning. In C. Cooper (Ed.), Theories of group process . London: John Wiley.

Kukla, A. (2000). Social constructivism and the philosophy of science . London: Routledge.

Mahn, H., & John-Steiner, V. (2012). Vygotsky and sociocultural approaches to teaching and learning . https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118133880.hop207006

Martin, J., & Sugarman, J. (1999). The psychology of human possibility and constraint . Albany: SUNY.

Matthews, M. (2000). Constructivism in science and mathematics education. In C. Phillips (Ed.), Constructivism in education, ninety-ninth yearbook of the national society for the study of education, Part 1 (pp. 159–192). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Maypole, J., & Davies, T. (2001). Students’ perceptions of constructivist learning in a Community College American History 11 Survey Course . Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/009155210102900205

McInerney, D. M., & McInerney, V. (2018). Educational psychology: Constructing learning (5th ed.). Sydney: Pearson.

McLeod, S. (2019). Constructivism as a theory for teaching and learning . Retrieved from https://www.simplypsychology.org/constructivism.html

OECD. (2007). Equity and quality in education . Paris: OECD.

OECD. (2009a). Key factors in developing effective learning environments: Classroom disciplinary climate and teachers’ self-efficacy. In Creating effective teaching and learning environments . Paris: OECD.

OECD. (2009b). Education at a glance . Paris: OECD.

OECD. (2009c). The schooling for tomorrow . Paris: OECD, Centre for Educational Research and Innovation.

OECD. (2013). Synergies for better learning: An international perspective on evaluation & assessment . Retrieved from // www.oecd.org/edu/school/Evaluation_and_Assessment_Synthesis_Report.pdf

OECD. (2019a). PISA 2018 results (volume III): What school life means for students’ lives . Paris: OECD.

Oldfather, P., West, J., White, J., & Wilmarth, J. (1999). Learning through children’s eyes: Social constructivism and the desire to learn . Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

O’Loughin, M. (1992). Rethinking science education: Beyond Piagetian constructivism toward a sociocultural model of teaching and learning. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 2 (8), 791–820.

Onuf, N. (2003). Parsing personal identity: Self, other, agent. In F. Debrix (Ed.), Language, agency and politics in a constructed world (pp. 26–49). Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe.

Onuf, N. G. (2013). World of our making . Abingdon, UK: Routledge.

Packer, M., & Goicoechea, J. (2000). Sociocultural and constructivist theories of learning: Ontology, not just epistemology. Educational Psychologist, 35 (4), 227–241.

Phillips, D. (2000). An opinionated account of the constructivist landscape. In D. C. Phillips (Ed.), Constructivism in education, Ninety-ninth yearbook of the national society for the study of education, Part 1 (pp. 1–16). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Piaget, J. (1936). Origins of intelligence in the child . London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Piaget, J. (1967). Biologie et connaissance (Biology and knowledge). Gallimard.

Piaget, J. (1972). The principles of genetic epistemology (W. Mays, Trans.). Basic Books.

Piaget, J. (1977). The development of thought: Equilibration of cognitive structures . (A. Rosin, Trans.). The Viking Press.

Postman, N., & Weingartner, C. S. (1971). Teaching as a subversive activity . Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.

Puacharearn, P. (2004). The effectiveness of constructivist teaching on improving learning environments in thai secondary school science classrooms . Doctor of Science Education thesis. Curtin University of Technology. Retrieved from https://espace.curtin.edu.au/bitstream/handle/20.500.11937/2329/14877_

Richardson, V. (2003). Constructivist pedagogy. Teachers College Record, 105 (9), 1623–1640.

Sadler-Smith, E. (2001). The relationship between learning style and cognitive style. Personality and Individual Differences, 30 (4), 609–616.

Searle, J. R. (1995). The construction of social reality . New York, NY: Penguin Books.

Shah, R. K. (2019). Effective constructivist teaching learning in the classroom . Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED598340.pdf

Sharma, H. L., & Sharma, L. (2012). Effect of constructivist approach on academic achievement of seventh grade learners in Mathematics. International Journal of Scientific Research, 2 (10), 1–2.

Shively, J. (2015). Constructivism in music education. Arts Education Policy Review: Constructivism, Policy, and Arts Education, 116 (3), 128–136.

Shor, I. (1992). Empowering education: Critical teaching for social change . Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Slavin, R. (1984). Effective classrooms, effective schools: A research base for reform in Latin American education . Retrieved from http://www.educoas.org/Portal/bdigital/contenido/interamer/BkIACD/Interamer/

Slavin, R. E. (2020). Education psychology: theory and practice (12th ed.). Pearson.

Steffe, L., & Gale, J. (Eds.). (1995). Constructivism in education . Hillsdale, NJ.: Erlbaum.

Stoffers, M. (2011). Using a multi-sensory teaching approach to impact learning and community in a second-grade classroom . Retrieved from https://rdw.rowan.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1109&context=etd

Thomas, A., Menon, A., Boruff, J., et al. (2014). Applications of social constructivist learning theories in knowledge translation for healthcare professionals: A scoping review. Implementation Science, 9 , 54. https://doi.org/10.1186/1748-5908-9-54 .

Article   Google Scholar  

Thompson, P. (2000). Radical constructivism: Reflections and directions. In L. P. Steffe & P. W. Thompson (Eds.), Radical constructivism in action: Building on the pioneering work of Ernst von Glasersfeld (pp. 412–448). London: Falmer Press.

von Glaserfeld, E. (1995). Radical constructivism: A way of knowing and learning . London: The Falmer Press.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1934a). Myshlenie i rech (Thought and language). State Socio-Economic Publishing House (translated in 1986 by Alex Kozulin, MIT).

Vygotsky. (1934b). Thought and language . Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press.

Vygotsky, L. (1968). The psychology of art . Moscow: Art.

Vygotsky, L. (1973). Thought and language (A. Kozulin, Trans. and Ed.). The MIT Press. (Originally published in Russian in 1934.)

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). In M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman (Eds.), Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Watson, J. (2003). Social constructivism in the classroom . Retrieved from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1467-9604.00206

Wertsch, J. V. (1991). Voices of the mind: A sociocultural approach to mediated action . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Zajda, J. (Ed.). (2008a). Learning and teaching (2nd ed.). Melbourne: James Nicholas Publishers.

Zajda, J. (2008b). Aptitude. In G. McCulloch & D. Crook (Eds.), The international encyclopedia of education . London: Routledge.

Zajda, J. (2008c). Globalisation, education and social stratification. In J. Zajda, B. Biraimah, & W. Gaudelli (Eds.), Education and social inequality in the global culture (pp. 1–15). Dordrecht: Springer.

Zajda, J. (2018a). Motivation in the classroom: Creating effective learning environments. Educational Practice & Theory, 40 (2), 85–103.

Zajda, J. (2018b). Effective constructivist pedagogy for quality learning in schools. Educational Practice & Theory, 40 (1), 67–80.

Zajda, J. (Ed.). (2020a). Globalisation, ideology and education reforms: Emerging paradigms . Dordrecht: Springer.

Zajda, J. (Ed.). (2021). 3rd international handbook of globalisation, education and policy research . Dordrecht: Springer.

Zajda, J., & Majhanovich, S. (Eds.). (2021). Globalisation, cultural identity and nation-building: The changing paradigms . Dordrecht: Springer.

Zaphir, L. (2019). Can schools implement constructivism as an education philosophy? Retrieved from https://www.studyinternational.com/news/constructivism-education/

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Faculty of Education & Arts, School of Education, Australian Catholic University, East Melbourne, VIC, Australia

Joseph Zajda

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2021 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Zajda, J. (2021). Constructivist Learning Theory and Creating Effective Learning Environments. In: Globalisation and Education Reforms. Globalisation, Comparative Education and Policy Research, vol 25. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-71575-5_3

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-71575-5_3

Published : 30 October 2021

Publisher Name : Springer, Cham

Print ISBN : 978-3-030-71574-8

Online ISBN : 978-3-030-71575-5

eBook Packages : Education Education (R0)

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

  • Publish with us

Policies and ethics

  • Find a journal
  • Track your research

IMAGES

  1. concept of research methodology pdf

    concept in research pdf

  2. Format Research Concept Paper Example : Free 10 Concept Proposal

    concept in research pdf

  3. Example Of Concept Paper For Academic Research Pdf

    concept in research pdf

  4. Basic Concepts of Research Methodology

    concept in research pdf

  5. (PDF) Defining a Conceptual Framework in Educational Research

    concept in research pdf

  6. Methodology Sample In Research

    concept in research pdf

VIDEO

  1. Research Frameworks

  2. Conceptual Review

  3. RB Research Methods S5

  4. Conceptual Framework in Research

  5. Simplification // MATHEMATICS/ Important for RAILWAY EXAM 2024 // UP POLICE RE-EXAM 2024 //

  6. RMG Past Present & Future-2nd Season-episode 05

COMMENTS

  1. (PDF) What is research? A conceptual understanding

    Naidoo (2011), stated that research is a systematic investigation of nature and the society to validate and refine existing information and generate new knowledge. Research refers to the ...

  2. PDF Distinguishing between Theory, Theoretical Framework, and ...

    knowledge on the meaning of each of these concepts, and more importantly to distinguish between them in a study of Research Methods, and in particular as they relate to designing a research proposal and a thesis for a higher degree. The primary aim is to help the reader develop a firm grasp of the meaning of these concepts and how they should be

  3. PDF INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

    lowed by a core assertion that educational research requires an understanding of the sociocultural context. Furthermore, Chapter 1 explores why educational research is important, illustrated through two topical issues. Chapter 2 discusses why philosophy is integral to educational research, while specifically exploring the concept of 'truth'.

  4. PDF CHAPTER CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS IN RESEARCH distribute

    concept maps, are used somewhat interchangeably and often in unclear ways. Reason and Rigor, by Ravitch and Riggan (2012, 2016), emerged as a response to this conceptual and definitional murkiness; it focuses on articulating what comprises a conceptual frame-work and how conceptual frameworks guide research from its inception to its comple-tion.

  5. PDF Understanding and Applying Research Paradigms in Educational Contexts

    In educational research the term paradigm is used to describe a researcher's 'worldview' (Mackenzie & Knipe, 2006). This worldview is the perspective, or thinking, or school of thought, or set of shared beliefs, that informs the meaning or interpretation of research data. Or, as Lather (1986) explains, a research paradigm inherently ...

  6. PDF What is research?

    Vol.:(0123456789) "Research is defined as the creation of new knowledge and/or the use of exist-ing knowledge in a new and creative way so as to generate new concepts, methodologies and understandings. This could include synthesis and analysis of previous research to the extent that it leads to new and creative outcomes.".

  7. PDF An Introduction to Research

    action. There are methods for designing research that make it more likely to be useful to educators, psychologists, administrators, policymakers, parents, and students. Such applied social research is the focus of this text. There are also research studies (termed basic research) that do not attempt to have immediate application in a social ...

  8. PDF Chapter 1 Introduction to Research Methodology

    1.2 Defining Research Methodology. It is an essential process of any scientific study, which serves as a framework for processing and achieving the predicted outcomes of the study. It is commonly defined as a systematic and organized process of collecting, analyzing, interpreting, and presenting information to answer specific questions or solve ...

  9. PDF An Introduction to the Research Process Overview

    to the Research Process 1 Overview In this chapter we will introduce you to concepts that are important for understanding the research process, including: † Research hypotheses † Hypothesis testing † Evidence-based practice † Typical research designs We do not assume any prior knowledge of statistics or of conducting research.

  10. PDF Conceptual Framework

    For this reason, the conceptual framework of your study—the system of concepts, assumptions, expectations, beliefs, and theories that supports and informs your research—is a key part of your design (Miles & Huberman, 1994; Robson, 2011). Miles and Huberman (1994) defined a conceptual framework as a visual or written product,

  11. PDF CHAPTER 1 The Selection of a Research Approach

    research approaches, research designs, and research methods are four key terms representing a perspective about research flow from broad constructions of research to the narrow procedures of methods. Table 1.1 explains these key terms in more detail. Table 1.1 Key Terms and Their Definitions as Used in This Chapter Key Terms

  12. PDF UNIT 1 RESEARCH: MEANING, CONCEPT, NEED

    Research: Meaning, Concept, Need Cook outlines research as an honest, exhaustive, intelligent searching for facts and their meanings or implications, with reference to a problem. He sees the word 'Research' as an acronym, each letter of the word, standing for a particular aspect as given below: R = Rational way of thinking

  13. PDF UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH: Purpose, Nature and Scope ...

    1.5.1 Exploratory or Formulative Research. Studies with a purpose of gaining familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it, often in order to formulate a more precise research problem or to develop hypotheses are known as Exploratory or Formulative research studies.

  14. PDF Unit: 01 Research: Meaning, Types, Scope and Significance

    1.9.3 Steps in Research Design 1.10 Concept of Hypotheses 1.11 Summary 1.12 Glossary 1.13 References/Bibliography 1.14 Suggested Readings 1.15 Terminal Questions 1.1 INTRODUCTION Research is an activity that leads us to finding new facts, information, assisting us in verifying the available knowledge and in making us question things that are ...

  15. PDF HOW TO WRITE A CONCEPT NOTE

    Defining a Concept Note •A concept note is a brief document that presents brief summary of the proposed research. •It is a pre-proposal document with no more than three pages (preferably two pages). •This documents presents key details about the research, such as: •the rationale •research question •aim and objections •methodology

  16. PDF Basic Concepts in Research and Data Analysis

    Chapter 1: Basic Concepts in Research and Data Analysis. Notice how this statement satisfies the definition for a hypothesis: it is a statement about the relationship between two variables. The first variable could be labeled Goal Difficulty, and the second, Amount of Insurance Sold.

  17. PDF Research Design and Research Methods

    research and what you study—acknowledging your own interpretive actions as a researcher as well as the importance of meanings in the lives of the people you study. In contrast, Quantitative Research pursues a set of purposes associated with objectivity. This emphasis on objectivity typically leads to a concern with

  18. (PDF) Writing the Conceptual Article: A Practical Guide

    1. Of course, the ability to think and write. conceptually matters regardless of format, but the conceptual essay rests more. squarely on this skill and requires a special kind of intellectual ...

  19. Constructivist Learning Theory and Creating Effective Learning

    Research informed teachers tend to use constructivist learning to improve meaningful and authentic learning. It is argued that the effectiveness of constructivist learning and teaching is dependent on students' self-concept, cultural identity, cognitive, social and emotional development, and students' academic achievement goals and their ...

  20. PDF Fifteenth Meeting of the UN Trade and Development (UNCTAD) Research

    The relevant economic dimensions of these transactions exceed price determination, including assessing and valuing quality, the form of payment, the length of the delay between transaction and delivery and payment, among other issues of relevance for competition and consumer protection policies. These diverse stakeholders interact in markets ...

  21. 3D Imaging Reveals Complex Microvascular Remodeling in the Right

    Pathogenic concepts of right ventricular (RV) failure in pulmonary arterial hypertension focus on a critical loss of microvasculature. However, the methods underpinning prior studies did not take into account the 3-dimensional (3D) aspects of cardiac tissue, making accurate quantification difficult.

  22. PDF BASIC RESEARCH CONCEPTS distribute

    variables for human research participants include sex, height, heart rate, and salary. Subjects. or . cases. are the entities or observational units studied. In psychological research, cases are usually individual persons or nonhuman animals. In other disciplines, cases can be different kinds of entities; for example, in sociology, a case can ...

  23. PDF Research on the Implementation Path of the Second Year Architectural

    concept in university teaching based on Internet of Things technology, providing new ideas for students' autonomous learning [10]. Although the above research has actively explored and practiced teaching reform under the OBE . concept, there are still some shortcomings. Firstly, there is relatively little research on the reform of

  24. (PDF) THE IMPACT OF GLOBALISATION ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

    Abstract. This research aims to elucidate the concept of the impact of globalisation on international relations, which has emerged as a transformative force forming the international relations ...