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Charles Darwin: Biography, Theories, Contributions

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital.

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Biography of Charles Darwin

• Best Known For

Natural Selection and Evolution

• Controversies
• Research on Emotions
• Views on Women
• Contributions

Charles Darwin was a renowned British naturalist and biologist best known for his theory of evolution through natural selection. His theory that all life evolved from a common ancestor is now a cornerstone of modern science, making Darwin one of the most influential individuals in history. It is difficult to overstate the monumental influence his work has had on our scientific understanding of the world.

This article discusses Charles Darwin's life and work, including his famous theory of natural selection as well as some of his lesser-known research on human emotion.

Charles Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, England, on February 12, 1809. His father was a wealthy doctor, and his grandfather on his mother's side was the noted potter Josiah Wedgwood. After his mother’s death when he was eight, Darwin began attending boarding school with his older brother. 

Darwin originally began his studies at the University of Edinburgh Medical School, but later developed an interest in ministry and botany, eventually receiving his degree from Cambridge in 1831.

His famed voyage to the Galapagos Islands led to the observations that served as the basis for Darwin's groundbreaking theory of natural selection.

In 1839, Darwin married his cousin Emma Wedgwood. They had 10 children together, with seven surviving to adulthood. In 1859, he published his observations and ideas in his book "On the Origin of Species By Means of Natural Selection."

Darwin's ideas were heavily debated in his own time and continue to spark controversy today. In contrast to this, Darwin himself lived a secluded life at his home in England, where he continued to work as a highly regarded scientist.

Darwin died on April 19, 1882, and is buried at Westminster Abbey in London, England.

Darwin's Illness

For much of his adult life, Darwin had an undiagnosed chronic illness that limited his activities. Symptoms included physical complaints such as stomach pain and dizziness, as well as signs of panic attacks such as shortness of breath and heart palpitations.

One theory suggests that he may have had panic disorder with agoraphobia . This diagnosis would also explain his secluded lifestyle, difficulty with public speaking, and struggles when meeting with colleagues.

Other proposed diagnoses include mercury poisoning, allergies, Crohn's disease, and irritable bowel syndrome. However, many researchers now believe that he had an adult-onset mitochondrial disorder.

What Was Charles Darwin Most Famous For?

Charles Darwin is most famous for his theory of evolution through the process of natural selection. Since introducing his ideas in “On the Origin of the Species,” his work has revolutionized the scientific understanding of how species evolve over time. This helped lay the foundation for modern biological sciences .

His Studies on the Galapagos Islands

During a voyage on a ship called the HMS Beagle, Darwin traveled to the Galapagos Islands, a journey that had a profound influence on his thinking and ideas. During this trip, he noticed interesting variations in the different species of finches that lived on the islands.

The beaks of these birds appeared to vary depending on the native food sources where the birds lived. Darwin hypothesized that the variations he observed resulted from natural selection that favored birds with beaks suited to the local food sources.  

There are 14 species of finches found on the Galapagos Islands, which are now collectively referred to as "Darwin's finches."

In “On the Origin of the Species,” Darwin suggested that all species on Earth, including humans, evolved from common ancestors. The diversity found in all species, he explained, results from changes that occur gradually over very long periods of time, a process he referred to as “descent with modification.” This happens through natural selection, where certain traits that benefit an organism's survival are more likely to be passed down. 

Because these organisms are more likely to survive and reproduce, those beneficial traits are more likely to be handed down. This leads to the adaptation and evolution of species.

Charles Darwin's concept of evolution through natural selection suggested that species change slowly over time as a response to their environment. This theory changed our scientific understanding of the diversity of life on Earth and laid the groundwork for the development of modern biology.

How Does Natural Selection Work?

According to Darwin, the individuals within a population possess variations, some of which are better suited to the environment in which they live. As a result, those with these adaptations are more likely to survive, reproduce, and thus pass these advantageous characteristics down to their offspring.

Over time, this process gradually leads the adaptive traits to become more prominent and can eventually lead to the emergence of new species.

The Five Principles of Natural Selection

The five principles of natural selection described by Charles Darwin can be remembered using the acronym VISTA, standing for variation, inheritance, selection, time, and adaptation.

• Variation : In all populations of any species, there are individual variations in different traits. The species' members can vary in appearance, size, abilities, immunity, and numerous other characteristics. Many of these variations result from genetic inheritance but can also occur due to random mutations.
• Inheritance : The various traits organisms possess can be inherited through genetic inheritance. In other words, when members of a species reproduce, their offspring are more likely to also possess those same traits.
• Selection : Environmental resources are limited, so organisms with advantageous characteristics that make it easier for them to survive are more likely to thrive in their environment and reproduce. This increased chance of reproduction means that their children are more likely to have the same traits that helped their ancestors survive.
• Time : As time passes, each generation continues to produce more offspring with advantageous characteristics. With the passage of time, the beneficial traits continue to accumulate, resulting in significant changes in the characteristics of the entire population.
• Adaptation : Such traits eventually become more common in the population, making the entire species better suited to survive in their environment.

What Does ‘Survival of the Fittest’ Mean?

An important part of natural selection is the idea of ‘survival of the fittest.’ The phrase was first introduced in 1854 by Herbert Spencer in his book "The Principles of Biology."

The idea suggests that when it comes to each organism's struggle to survive and reproduce, those with traits that make them the best suited to their environment are the most likely to survive and pass down their genes to the next generation.

In this context, "fitness" refers to an organism's ability to survive in its environment and reproduce. It is the traits that help the individual survive that are considered most advantageous. 

Fitness does not refer to physical strength. Instead, it means the individual has traits that make them better suited for life in a specific environment. For example, an organism with coloring that camouflages it from predators would be considered a better fit, from an evolutionary perspective, than coloring that makes it more susceptible to becoming prey.

Fitness can refer to a wide variety of characteristics. This might include physical attributes such as camouflage, speed, strength, or agility. It might also refer to behavioral adaptations that confer a greater chance of survival. Migration, hibernation, and courtship behaviors are a few examples of behavioral adaptations influenced by evolution.

Controversies Surrounding Darwin’s Theory of Evolution

Darwin's theory was considered shocking and controversial after its introduction. While the theory is accepted by nearly all scientists today, Darwin's ideas are still disputed or rejected by some people.

Darwin and his work have remained controversial in the more than 140 years since his death. One survey found that a third of U.S. adults reject the idea that humans evolved through natural selection, views that correspond with rates of religious belief.

One critic during Darwin's time was the English comparative anatomist and paleontologist Richard Owen. While Owen agreed that evolution occurred, he was a vocal critic of Darwin's idea of natural selection. Instead, he proposed the existence of predetermined "archetypes" that guide the evolutionary changes that species experience. 

During Darwin's time, some critics suggested that the lack of transitional fossils (demonstrating the gradual progression of a species over time) was evidence that Darwin’s evolutionary theory was wrong. In the subsequent years, however, many of these so-called "missing links" have been added to the fossil record, providing paleontological support for these evolutionary transitions.

Other critics focus on their belief that all life results from divine creation. However, it is important to note that Darwin's theory of evolution does not focus on how life originated. Instead, Darwin's theory of natural selection explains how life evolved over time and how this explains the diversity of life on Earth.

While there have been debates and criticisms from various sources, it is important to note that Darwin was highly regarded in his own time. Support from the scientific community continued to build over the years, and more evidence supporting Darwin's theory accumulated from various fields.

Charles Darwin’s Research on Human Emotions

While Darwin is best known for his theory of evolution, he also studied and wrote about a wide range of topics, from plants to sea life. Beyond his work as a naturalist, he also conducted one lesser-known experiment on the study of human emotions , making him one of the earliest experimental psychology researchers. 

In archival research looking at Darwin's letters and other writings, researchers found references to a small experiment that Darwin had conducted at home. Darwin had corresponded with the French physician Guillaume Duchenne de Boulogne, who had used electrical impulses to stimulate facial muscles into specific expressions, which were then recorded on photographic plates. Using this method, Duchenne suggested that the human face is capable of expressing at least 60 distinct emotions.

Darwin disagreed. Using Duchenne's plates, Darwin devised his own experiment, a single-blind study in which he randomized the order of the plates and then presented them to over 20 participants (i.e., Darwin's guests). He then asked his guests to identify the emotions represented in the photographic slides. 

In studying Darwin's notes, researchers discovered that the participants agreed when it came to the basic emotions , such as happiness , surprise, and fear. For more ambiguous photographs, responses were much more mixed.

In Darwin's view, only those emotions that were readily identifiable and agreed upon by observers represented universal emotions.

Darwin's observations and conclusions in this and other studies he conducted helped inform his 1872 book "The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals." In this book, Darwin emphasized the importance of emotional expression in both humans and animals, suggesting that:

• Some emotional expressions are universal
• Some emotions have a biological, evolutionary basis
• These universal expressions evolved through natural selection because they aid in survival, reproduction, and communication
• Humans and animals display similar emotions, suggesting they have a common evolutionary origin

Darwin's work offered insights into the importance of emotions, their evolutionary roots, and their universality across cultures and species . His observations also helped lay the groundwork for future research on the psychology of human emotions.

However, Darwin's ideas about emotion were eclipsed by his more famous theory of natural selection. It wasn't until the 1960s that psychologist Paul Ekman returned to Darwin's findings and, using methods similar to those originally pioneered by Darwin, found additional evidence for the existence of basic, universal human emotions.

Try the emotion experiment yourself!

The Darwin Correspondence Project allows viewers to see the original photographic plates Duchenne and Darwin used this in their experiments. You can also give your own response and see how your interpretation compares to those of Darwin's guests.

What Were Charles Darwin’s Views on Women?

While Darwin revolutionized the field of science, his views on women were far from progressive. His attitudes reflected the prevailing sexist, misogynistic ideas of his time. In his published writings, he echoed the societal and cultural beliefs that women were inferior to men, viewing them as less intelligent.

In his book "The Descent of Man," Darwin wrote, "Woman seems to differ from man in her mental disposition, chiefly in her greater tenderness and less selfishness."

Darwin suggested that the purported superiority of men stemmed from sexual selection, a mode of natural selection in which men compete for mates, leading to the evolution of characteristics that improve their reproductive fitness, including intelligence, physical strength, and competitiveness.

He believed that women's roles were primarily as domestic caretakers and nurturers, which, in his view, did not require strong intellectual capabilities.

There is evidence that Darwin's ideas changed somewhat over time, often influenced by the women in his life, including his wife, daughters, and women intellectuals. While he could not be regarded as a feminist thinker, research on his private correspondence suggests that his views on women were more complex than what appears in his published writing.

Who Did Charles Darwin Influence?

In addition to his profound influence on the biological sciences, Darwin inspired a number of other scientists and researchers in their own work.

Some of these thinkers included:

• Alfred Russel Wallace : A contemporary of Darwin, Wallace was an English naturalist and explorer who independently introduced the idea of evolution through natural selection. His own ideas were published in 1858 along with some of Darwin's earlier writings, prompting Darwin to publish "On the Origin of the Species" the next year.
• William James : The founder of the functionalist school of thought in psychology was heavily influenced by the work of Charles Darwin. This school of thought suggests that the functions of the mind exist because they serve a purpose in survival and adaptation. This idea has its roots in Darwin's theory of natural selection. James was also heavily influenced by Darwin's writings on the topic of emotions. According to the James-Lange theory of emotions , emotions stems from the physiological reactions people experience in response to environmental stimuli.
• Ronald A. Fisher : A British mathematician and biologist, Fisher is considered a founder of modern statistical science. He also played an important role in what is known as modern synthesis, which involved integrating Darwin's natural selection with Mendelian genetics in order to explain how genetic variations within a group can be affected by natural selection.

How Does Charles Darwin’s Work Affect Modern Science Today?

It is difficult to overstate the enormous impact of Darwin's work on modern science. Some of the ways that science continues to be impacted by Darwin's theory of evolution include:

• Evolutionary sciences : The theory of evolution plays an essential role in biology as well as other fields that explain how life has adapted and changed over time, including genetics and evolutionary psychology .
• Medicine : Researchers continue to use their understanding of evolutionary science to study how diseases originate, spread, and mutate.
• Scientific education : While Darwin's ideas remain controversial for some, his work has helped advance scientific literacy and understanding among the general public.

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By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

ENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRY

Charles darwin.

Charles Darwin and his observations while aboard the HMS Beagle , changed the understanding of evolution on Earth.

Biology, Earth Science, Geography, Physical Geography

Historic photograph of Charles Darwin in profile.

Photograph by Chronical/Alamy Stock Photo

Charles Darwin was born in 1809 in Shrewsbury, England. His father, a doctor, had high hopes that his son would earn a medical degree at Edinburgh University in Scotland, where he enrolled at the age of sixteen. It turned out that Darwin was more interested in natural history than medicine—it was said that the sight of blood made him sick to his stomach. While he continued his studies in theology at Cambridge, it was his focus on natural history that became his passion.

In 1831, Darwin embarked on a voyage aboard a ship of the British Royal Navy, the HMS Beagle, employed as a naturalist . The main purpose of the trip was to survey the coastline of South America and chart its harbors to make better maps of the region. The work that Darwin did was just an added bonus.

Darwin spent much of the trip on land collecting samples of plants, animals, rocks, and fossils . He explored regions in Brazil, Argentina, Chile, and remote islands such as the Galápagos. He packed all of his specimens into crates and sent them back to England aboard other vessels.

Upon his return to England in 1836, Darwin’s work continued. Studies of his samples and notes from the trip led to groundbreaking scientific discoveries. Fossils he collected were shared with paleontologists and geologists, leading to advances in the understanding of the processes that shape the Earth’s surface. Darwin’s analysis of the plants and animals he gathered led him to question how species form and change over time. This work convinced him of the insight that he is most famous for— natural selection . The theory of natural selection says that individuals of a species are more likely to survive in their environment and pass on their genes to the next generation when they inherit traits from their parents that are best suited for that specific environment. In this way, such traits become more widespread in the species and can lead eventually to the development of a new species .

In 1859, Darwin published his thoughts about evolution and natural selection in On the Origin of Species . It was as popular as it was controversial. The book convinced many people that species change over time—a lot of time—suggesting that the planet was much older than what was commonly believed at the time: six thousand years.

Charles Darwin died in 1882 at the age of seventy-three. He is buried in Westminster Abbey in London, England.

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Charles Darwin (February 12, 1809–April 19, 1882) was a naturalist who originated the theory of evolution through the process of natural selection. Darwin holds a unique place in history as the foremost proponent of this theory. While he lived a relatively quiet and studious life, his writings were controversial in their day and still routinely spark controversy.

As an educated young man, he embarked on an astounding voyage of discovery aboard a Royal Navy ship. Strange animals and plants he saw in remote places inspired his deep thinking about how life might have developed. And when he published his masterpiece, " On the Origin of Species ," he profoundly shook up the scientific world. Darwin's influence on modern science is impossible to overstate.

Fast Facts: Charles Darwin

• Known For : Originating the theory of evolution through natural selection
• Born : February 12, 1809 in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England
• Parents : Robert Waring Darwin and Susannah Wedgwood
• Died : April 19, 1882 in Downe, Kent, England
• Education : Edinburgh University, Scotland, Cambridge University, England
• Published Works : On the Origin of Species By Means of Natural Selection
• Awards and Honors : Royal Medal, Wallaston Medal, Copley Medal (all for outstanding achievements in the sciences)
• Spouse : Emma Wedgwood
• Children : William Erasmus Darwin, Anne Elizabeth Darwin, Mary Eleanor Darwin, Henrietta Emma Darwin, George Howard Darwin, Elizabeth Darwin, Francis Darwin, Leonard Darwin, Horace Darwin, Charles Waring Darwin
• Notable Quote : “In the struggle for survival, the fittest win out at the expense of their rivals because they succeed in adapting themselves best to their environment.”

Charles Darwin was born on February 12, 1809, in Shrewsbury, England. His father was a medical doctor, and his mother was the daughter of the famous potter Josiah Wedgwood. Darwin’s mother died when he was 8, and he was essentially raised by his older sisters. He was not a brilliant student as a child, but he went on to study at the University of Edinburgh Medical School in Scotland , at first intending to become a doctor.

Darwin took a strong dislike to medical education and eventually studied at Cambridge . He planned to become an Anglican minister before becoming intensely interested in botany. He received a degree in 1831.

Voyage of the Beagle

On the recommendation of a college professor, Darwin was accepted to travel on the second voyage of the H.M.S. Beagle . The ship was embarking on a scientific expedition to South America and islands of the South Pacific, leaving in late December 1831. The Beagle returned to England nearly five years later, in October 1836.

Darwin's position on the ship was peculiar. A former captain of the vessel had become despondent during a long scientific voyage because, it was assumed, he had no intelligent person to converse with while at sea. The British Admiralty thought sending an intelligent young gentleman along on a voyage would serve a combined purpose: he could study and make records of discoveries while also providing intelligent companionship for the captain. Darwin was chosen to go aboard.

Darwin spent more than 500 days at sea and about 1,200 days on land during the trip. He studied plants, animals, fossils, and geological formations and wrote his observations in a series of notebooks. During long periods at sea, he organized his notes.

In the Galapagos

The Beagle spent about five weeks in the Galapagos Islands . During that time, Darwin made a series of observations that had a significant impact on his new theories about natural selection. He was particularly intrigued by his discovery of major differences between species on different islands. He wrote:

The distribution of tenants of this archipelago would not be nearly so wonderful if, for instance, one island has a mocking-thrush and a second island some other quite distinct species... But it is the circumstance that several of the islands possess their own species of tortoise, mocking-thrush, finches, and numerous plants, these species having the same general habits, occupying analogous situations, and obviously filling the same place in the natural economy of this archipelago, that strikes me with wonder.

Darwin visited four of the Galapagos Islands, including Chatham Island (now San Cristobal), Charles (now Floreana), Albemarle, and James (now Santiago). He spent much of his time sketching, collecting specimens, and observing animals and their behavior. His discoveries would change the scientific world and rock the foundations of Western religion.

Early Writings and Influences

Darwin married his cousin Emma Wedgwood in 1839, and they eventually had ten children, seven of whom survived to adulthood. Illness prompted him to move from London to the country in 1842. His scientific studies continued, and he spent years studying various lifeforms to better understand their evolutionary processes.

Three years after returning to England, Darwin published the "Journal of Researches," an account of his observations during the expedition aboard the Beagle. The book was an entertaining account of Darwin's scientific travels and was popular enough to be published in successive editions.

Darwin also edited five volumes titled "Zoology of the Voyage of the Beagle," which contained contributions by other scientists. Darwin himself wrote sections dealing with the distribution of animal species and geological notes on fossils he had seen.

Development of Darwin's Thinking

The voyage on the Beagle was, of course, a highly significant event in Darwin’s life, but his observations on the expedition were hardly the only influence on the development of his theory of natural selection. He was also greatly influenced by what he was reading.

In 1838 Darwin read an "Essay on the Principle of Population," which the British philosopher Thomas Malthus had written 40 years earlier. The ideas of Malthus helped Darwin refine his own notion of “survival of the fittest.”

Malthus had been writing about overpopulation and discussed how some members of society were able to survive difficult living conditions. After reading Malthus, Darwin kept collecting scientific samples and data, eventually spending 20 years refining his own thoughts on natural selection.

Publication of His Masterpiece

Darwin’s reputation as a naturalist and geologist had grown throughout the 1840s and 1850s, yet he had not revealed his ideas about natural selection widely. Friends urged him to publish them in the late 1850s; it was the publication of an essay by Alfred Russell Wallace expressing similar thoughts that encouraged Darwin to write a book setting out his own ideas.

In July 1858, Darwin and Wallace appeared together at the Linnean Society of London. And in November 1859, Darwin published the book that secured his place in history: "On the Origin of Species By Means of Natural Selection." He later published another volume, "The Descent of Man," which went even further into his then-controversial ideas about how humans, specifically, had evolved.

Later Life and Death

"On the Origin of Species" was published in several editions, with Darwin periodically editing and updating material in the book. And while society debated Darwin's work, he lived a quiet life in the English countryside, content to conduct botanical experiments. He was highly respected, regarded as a grand old man of science. He died on April 19, 1882, and was honored by being buried at Westminster Abbey in London .

Charles Darwin was not the first person to propose that plants and animals adapt to circumstances and evolve over eons of time. But Darwin's book put forth his hypothesis in an accessible format and led to controversy. Darwin's theories had an almost immediate impact on religion, science, and society at large.

• “ Charles Darwin: Gentleman Naturalist .” Darwin Online.
• Desmond, Adrian J. “ Charles Darwin .” Encyclopedia Britannica , 8 Feb. 2019.
• Liu, Joseph, and Joseph Liu. “ Darwin and His Theory of Evolution .” Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project, 19 Mar. 2014.
• Charles Darwin's Finches
• Charles Darwin and His Voyage Aboard H.M.S. Beagle
• Evidence Darwin Had for Evolution
• Interesting Facts About Charles Darwin
• 8 People Who Influenced and Inspired Charles Darwin
• Charles Darwin WebQuest
• The Legacy of Darwin's "On the Origin of Species"
• Biography of Charles Lyell
• What Is Evolution?
• 5 Misconceptions About Natural Selection and Evolution
• 6 Things Charles Darwin Did Not Know
• An Overview of the Galapagos Islands
• What Is Darwinism?
• Survival of the Fittest vs. Natural Selection
• Modern Evolutionary Synthesis

Biography Online

Charles Darwin Biography

Charles Darwin was born on 12 February 1809 in Shrewsbury, Shropshire. He was born into a wealthy and influential family. His grandfathers included – China manufacturer Josiah Wedgwood, and Erasmus Darwin, one of the leading intellectuals of 18th century England.

Darwin planned to study medicine at Edinburgh University, but later, at the instigation of his father, changed to studying Divinity at Christ’s College, Cambridge University. Darwin was not a great student, preferring to spend time in outdoor pursuits; he spent a lot of time examining natural science and beetle collecting. After gaining a passionate interest in natural science, Darwin was offered a place on the HMS Beagle to act as a natural scientist on a voyage to the coast of South America.

At the time, religion was a powerful force in society, and most people took the Bible as the infallible, literal word of God. This included the belief that God created the world in seven days, and the world was only a few thousand years old. However, on the voyage, Darwin increasingly began to see evidence of life being much older. In particular Lyell’s ‘Principles of Geology’ suggested that fossils were evidence of animals living hundreds of thousands of years ago.

On the voyage, Darwin made copious notes about specimens he found on his voyages. In particular, at the Galapagos Islands 500 miles west of South America, Darwin was struck by how the Finch was different on each individual island. He noticed that the Finch had somehow adapted to the various aspects of the particular island.

Over the next 20 years, Darwin worked on the dilemma of how species evolve and can end up being quite different on different islands. Influenced by the work of Thomas Malthus, Darwin came up with a theory of natural selection and gradual evolution over time.

“In the struggle for survival, the fittest win out at the expense of their rivals because they succeed in adapting themselves best to their environment.”

– Charles Darwin

Darwin continued to refine his theory, and would intensively breed plants to work on his theories. However, realising how controversial his ideas were, Darwin delayed publishing them. It was not until learning that another naturalist, Alfred Russel Wallace had developed similar ideas, that Darwin was galvanised into publishing his own book.

In 1859, the ground-breaking ‘ On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection ‘ was published. It immediately gained widespread interest and attention, leading to intense debate about the contention that man – by implication was descended from animals like the ape.

“Owing to this struggle for life, any variation, however slight and from whatever cause proceeding, if it be in any degree profitable to an individual of any species, in its infinitely complex relationship to other organic beings and to external nature, will tend to the preservation of that individual, and will generally be inherited by its offspring.”

– Charles Darwin, Origin of Species (1859)

However, by the time he died on 19 April 1882, his ideas had increasingly become accepted – at least by the scientific and non-religious society. He was given a state burial at Westminster Abbey.

Darwin’s Religious Beliefs

Darwin was brought up in the Church of England, and at one point was being trained to be an Anglican priest. Like many of his generation, he took the Bible as the literal word of God and often quoted it as a source of moral authority. However, after his epic voyage to South America, he became doubtful of the Bible as a source of history; he also felt no reason why all religions couldn’t be true.

From 1849, he stopped going to church, though he never considered himself to be an atheist. He felt that ‘agnostic’ suited his beliefs more closely. He wrote in his autobiography that he eventually gave up Christianity as he disagreed with the conclusion that all non-believers spend eternity in hell.

“I can indeed hardly see how anyone ought to wish Christianity to be true; for if so the plain language of the text seems to show that the men who do not believe, and this would include my Father, Brother and almost all my best friends, will be everlastingly punished.”

He was politically liberal, being an opponent of slavery. He experienced the brutality of how people treated their slaves in a Spanish colony.

“I have watched how steadily the general feeling, as shown at elections, has been rising against Slavery. What a proud thing for England if she is the first European nation which utterly abolishes it!”

Letter to J. S. Henslow (March 1834)

Citation: Pettinger, Tejvan. “ Biography of Charles Darwin ”, Oxford, UK.  www.biographyonline.net – 4th Sept. 2012. Updated 21st February 2018.

The Origin of Species: Charles Darwin

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Facts about Charles Darwin

• He was the grandson of Josiah Wedgwood the famous furniture manufacturer.
• He studied medicine at the University of Edinburgh but found lectures dull.
• He learned taxidermy from John Edmonstone, a freed black slave.
• Darwin became an enthusiastic Beetle collector – which was a craze at the time.
• His father sent him to Christ’s College, Cambridge with the intention of training him as an Anglican parson. He later gave up Christianity.
• His five-year voyage on HMS Beagle established him as an eminent geologist and popular writer. His observations would be used to develop his theory of evolution.
• He sometimes questioned his own scientific discoveries. ‘I feel most deeply that this whole question of creation is too profound for human intellect.’
• In modified form, Darwin’s theory of evolution is now seen as the unifying theory of the life sciences.
• On the new Galápagos Islands Darwin saw many samples of animals which showed relations to animals in other parts of the world, e.g. Mockingbirds in Chile.
• During the Beagle expedition, Darwin shipped home a total of 1,529 species preserved in spirit and 3,907 labelled dried specimens.
• Darwin and Wallace’s theories on evolution were both presented on the same day in 1858 to the Linnean Society of London.
• Darwin took 22 years from the end of the voyage to publish his findings – he was worried about the reaction of people. It is said the thought of Wallace publishing first, galvanised him into action
• The full title of Origin of Species is On the Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life .
• Darwin did not coin the phrase ‘survival of the fittest’. It was added to the fifth edition of Origin of Species. The phrase came from economist Herbert Spencer.
• Darwin has appeared on more UK stamps than anyone outside the Royal Family.
• Seven months after the publication of ‘Origin of Species’ the famous 1860 Oxford evolution debate occurred between Thomas Henry Huxley and Bishop Samuel Wilberforce. The debate is considered to be a great moment in natural history – and a key moment in the acceptance of evolution.

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What on Earth?

Unveiling a statue of Charles Darwin at the Museum, 1885.

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Charles Darwin: History’s most famous biologist

Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882) transformed the way we understand the natural world with ideas that, in his day, were nothing short of revolutionary.

He and his fellow pioneers in the field of biology gave us insight into the fantastic diversity of life on Earth and its origins, including our own as a species.

Photograph of Charles Robert Darwin taken at his home, Down House, in 1881.

Charles Darwin is celebrated as one of the greatest British scientists who ever lived, but in his time his radical theories brought him into conflict with members of the Church of England.

Young Charles Darwin

Born in 1809 in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, Darwin was fascinated by the natural world from a young age. Growing up he was an avid reader of nature books and devoted his spare time to exploring the fields and woodlands around his home, collecting plants and insects.

In 1825 Darwin enrolled in medical school at the University of Edinburgh, where he witnessed surgery on a child. Surgeries at the time would have been carried out without the use of anaesthetic or antiseptics, and fatalities were common.

Watching this procedure left Darwin so traumatised that he gave up his studies without completing the course.

During his time in Edinburgh, Darwin also paid for lessons in taxidermy from John Edmonstone , a former enslaved man from Guyana. The skills Edmonstone taught Darwin became crucial just a few years further into his career.

After his time in Scotland, Darwin went to Cambridge University to study theology.

The voyage of HMS Beagle

In no rush to take holy orders, in 1831 Darwin accepted an offer to embark on a five-year voyage aboard HMS Beagle. 

Drawing of H.M.S. Beagle from A Naturalist’s Voyage Round the World by Charles Darwin.

He was recommended by one of his Cambridge professors for the role as naturalist and companion to the ship’s captain, Robert FitzRoy.

The journey would change both his life and the trajectory of Western scientific thinking.

Darwin explored remote regions and marvelled at a world so different from the one he knew. He encountered birds with bright blue feet, sharks with T-shaped heads and giant tortoises.

On his travels Darwin collected plants, animals and fossils, and took copious field notes. These collections and records provided the evidence he needed to develop his remarkable theory.

The shells in this specimen drawer were collected by Charles Darwin during the voyage of the HMS Beagle.

Darwin returned to England in 1836. A highly methodical scholar, constantly collecting and observing, he spent many years comparing and analysing specimens before finally declaring that evolution occurs by a process of natural selection.

What is the theory of natural selection?

To this day the theory of evolution by natural selection is accepted by the scientific community as the best evidence-based explanation for the diversity and complexity of life on Earth.

The theory proposes that the ‘fittest’ individual organisms - those with the characteristics best suited to their environment - are more likely to survive and reproduce. They pass on these desirable characteristics to their offspring.

Gradually these features may become more common in a population, so species change over time. If the changes are great enough, they could produce a new species altogether.

On his travels Darwin had collected finches from many of the Galápagos Islands - off the coast of Ecuador - which helped him to formulate his idea.

Cactus finch Geospiza scandens from Charles Darwin’s Zoology of the Voyage of the H.M.S. Beagle.

Some of these finches had stout beaks for eating seeds, others were insect specialists. But Darwin realised that they were all descendants of a single ancestor. As they dispersed to different islands, the birds had adapted to eat the various foods available. Natural selection had produced 13 different species of finch.

Darwin’s pigeons

From his travels on HMS Beagle, Darwin suspected that the environment might naturally manipulate species, causing them to change over time - but he couldn’t find a means to explore this effectively in the wild. 

Experimenting with artificial selection in pigeons gave him a way to study how far a species could change.

By artificially selecting features - crossing birds with particular characteristics to generate different offspring - he gathered valuable evidence for evolution by natural selection.

To illustrate his theory, Darwin bred the birds to have exaggerated features.

Original line drawing of an English Pouter pigeon from the book Variation in Animals and Plants under Domestication by Charles Darwin.

The similarity between artificial selection and natural selection is at the heart of his explanation of evolution in his revolutionary book On the Origin of Species. 

After completing his experiments, he gave all 120 of his pigeon specimens to the Museum. They are currently part of our bird collections  kept at Tring , Hertfordshire. 

Fancy breeds of rock dove  Columbia livia  donated to our collections by Charles Darwin in 1867.

A shared discovery

Darwin knew his radical ideas would be met with stiff opposition. Even after 20 years of research, he worried about how his theory of evolution would be received as it challenged widely held religious beliefs of the time. 

He delayed publishing on the topic for a great number of years while he assembled a mountain of evidence. When he learned that the young naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace had developed similar ideas, Darwin volunteered to send Wallace's ideas to a journal for immediate publication.

Letter sent to Charles Darwin by Alfred Russel Wallace.

On advice from friends, the two scientists organised a joint announcement. Their theory of evolution by natural selection was presented at the Linnean Society in London.

Both had studied the natural world extensively and made a number of observations that were critical to the development of the theory.

The following year, Darwin published the contentious but now-celebrated book, ‘On the Origin of Species’.

On the Origin of Species

Published in 1859, On the Origin of Species provoked outrage from some members of the Church of England as it implicitly contradicted the belief in divine creation.

Despite accusations of blasphemy, the book quickly became a bestseller.

Foreign language first editions of some works by Charles Darwin.

The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex - which Darwin published in 1871 - fuelled even greater debate as it suggested that humans descended from apes.

The Bishop of Oxford famously asked Thomas Huxley, one of Darwin’s most enthusiastic supporters, whether it was through his grandfather or grandmother that he claimed descent from a monkey.

Despite the attacks, Darwin’s conviction in the scientific explanation that best fit the available evidence remained unshaken.

He was keen for his ideas to reach as many people as possible and for his books to be read in many different languages. Part of his success has been attributed to his conversational and approachable writing style.

On the Origin of Species was so influential that within a year it had been published in German. In Darwin's lifetime, his book was translated into German, Danish, Dutch, French, Hungarian, Italian, Polish, Russian, Serbian, Spanish and Swedish. 

Our Library has 478 editions of On the Origin of Species in 38 languages and in Braille.

Japanese translation of On the Origin of Species, Shu No Kigen, published in 1914 as a five-volume, pocket-sized edition.

Darwin and the tree of life

Charles Darwin used the concept of a tree of life in the context of the theory of evolution to illustrate that all species on Earth are related and evolved from a common ancestor.

Darwin’s first sketch of the tree of life, found in one of his notebooks from 1837. Image reproduced with kind permission of the Syndics of Cambridge University Library . 

The tips of the branches show the species that are still alive today. The tree also shows those that are now extinct. Darwin explained:

‘From the first growth of the tree, many a limb and branch has decayed and dropped off; and these fallen branches of various sizes may represent those whole orders, families, and genera which have now no living representatives, and which are known to us only in a fossil state.’

Orders, families and genera are all groups that can be used to classify organisms.

The lines on the tree show evolutionary relationships between species. For example, a recent version of the tree of life would show a line between some types of dinosaurs and the earliest birds, as scientists reason that birds evolved from a particular lineage of dinosaurs.

This means that species that are closely related are found close together stemming from the same branch.

For example, humans, chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans are all great apes, so they all belong to the same branch of the tree of life.

Darwin’s legacy

Although Darwin’s theory of evolution has been modified over time, it remains fundamental to the study of the natural world. Darwin changed not only the way we see all organisms, but also the way we see ourselves.

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The Museum Library contains the worlds largest collection of works by and about Charles Darwin. 

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From giant fossil mammals to mysterious moths, uncover the colourful stories behind some of our most fascinating specimens.

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Natural selection is one of the core processes of evolution - but how does it work and will it ever end? 

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Charles Darwin summary

Learn about charles darwin’s theories of evolution and his famous work on the origin of species.

Charles Darwin , (born Feb. 12, 1809, Shrewsbury, Shropshire, Eng.—died April 19, 1882, Downe, Kent), British naturalist. The grandson of Erasmus Darwin and Josiah Wedgwood , he studied medicine at the University of Edinburgh and biology at Cambridge. He was recommended as a naturalist on HMS Beagle , which was bound on a long scientific survey expedition to South America and the South Seas (1831–36). His zoological and geological discoveries on the voyage resulted in numerous important publications and formed the basis of his theories of evolution. Seeing competition between individuals of a single species, he recognized that within a local population the individual bird, for example, with the sharper beak might have a better chance to survive and reproduce and that if such traits were passed on to new generations, they would be predominant in future populations. He saw this natural selection as the mechanism by which advantageous variations were passed on to later generations and less advantageous traits gradually disappeared. He worked on his theory for more than 20 years before publishing it in his famous On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (1859). The book was immediately in great demand, and Darwin’s intensely controversial theory was accepted quickly in most scientific circles; most opposition came from religious leaders. Though Darwin’s ideas were modified by later developments in genetics and molecular biology, his work remains central to modern evolutionary theory. His many other important works included Variation in Animals and Plants Under Domestication (1868) and The Descent of Man… (1871). He was buried in Westminster Abbey. See also Darwinism.

Charles Darwin

By kristen richard | dec 16, 2019.

SCIENTISTS (1809–1882); SHREWSBURY

When Charles Darwin's book, On the Origin of Species , came out in 1859, it completely changed the way people view life itself. For some, it was enlightening; for others, it was blasphemous. And now, more than 160 years later, his theory of evolution through natural selection is still a hotly debated subject. Read on for facts, quotes, and more on Charles Darwin.

1. Charles Darwin was a scientist and naturalist who was pretty bad at math.

Charles Darwin, born in Shrewsbury, England in 1809, was a biologist and naturalist best known for his theory of evolution through natural selection, which is the idea that organisms change over time through heritable traits that better allow them to adapt to environmental challenges. Those that don't, die off, which is why it has subsequently been dubbed "survival of the fittest."

Unfortunately, Darwin's connection to the world of science didn't lend itself to a love of math. After struggling with the subject in college, Darwin was forced to hire a tutor in 1828. But when he continued to lag behind, he fired the tutor after just a few weeks. To Darwin, algebra was a "repugnant" subject, but as he got older, he regretted his impatience with math.

2. Charles Darwin’s Theory of Evolution through Natural Selection (or Darwinism) came about at the same time as Alfred Russel Wallace's.

Charles Darwin began studying what would become known as natural selection  in the 1830s , but, concerned about the public reaction, he sat on his new theory for decades. By the mid-1850s, British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace had begun independently working on his own ideas of natural selection and knew Darwin had been involved in similar research. Wallace even sent Darwin a paper he had written on the subject to peer review it, and the two later collaborated on a new paper on the subject in 1858.

Then, in 1859, Darwin finally went public with his theory with On The Origin of Species . No longer shackled to the niche scientific community, Darwin's book presented these world-shaking ideas to the masses, forever linking the scientist to this famed theory. Wallace, on the other hand, often goes overlooked.

3. Charles Darwin's Voyage on the H.M.S. Beagle led to many of his breakthroughs.

On December 27, 1831, Darwin set sail aboard the H.M.S. Beagle on a five-year voyage to the Pacific Islands, the Galápagos Islands, and South America. It was on this journey that a 22-year-old Darwin would visit several continents, ship more than 1500 species back home to study, and fill notebook after notebook with his discoveries. While on the Galápagos , finches were particularly vital to Darwin as he was forming his theory of natural selection. He observed the variations in the shape of their beaks ( some had longer, pointier beaks, while others were short and stout) from island to island, further confirming that the unique challenges in each environment led finches with specific traits to become dominant.

4. Charles Darwin’s Book On The Origin of Species took 25 years to write.

Darwin devoted his life to science and had a few published works, but On The Origin of Species is his most well-known book. It illustrates his theory of evolution and process of natural selection and was published on November 24, 1859. But a work of such significance isn't easy: On the Origin of Species took Charles Darwin 25 years to write.

5. Charles Darwin had 10 Children with his first cousin.

Charles Darwin married his first cousin, Emma Wedgwood, on January 29, 1839. The two shared the same grandfather, Josiah Wedgwood. Together, the couple had 10 children:

• Elizabeth Darwin: 1847–1929
• George Darwin: 1845–1912
• Henrietta Darwin: 1843­–1927
• Mary Darwin: 1842
• Anne Darwin: 1841­­–1851
• William Darwin: 1839–1949
• Francis Darwin: 1848–1925
• Leonard Darwin: 1850–1943
• Horace Darwin: 1851–1928
• Charles Darwin: 1856–1858

Charles Darwin was a botanist and experimented with breeding plants in his greenhouse. He found that cross-fertilization produced much healthier plants than self-fertilization, and it’s said he worried whether his children would have health issues due to their parents being so closely related.

Two of his other children didn’t make it into adulthood. And three that did survive and marry were never able to have any children of their own.

6. Charles Darwin was a foodie before that was a thing.

While studying at Cambridge, Darwin became a member of the Glutton Club . This was basically a group of friends who would meet up once a week to eat "birds and beasts, which were before unknown to human palate." This led to a wide variety of peculiar meals, such as iguanas, armadillos, and plenty of rodents. The club apparently disbanded after a particularly hideous taste of a brown owl, which Darwin said was "indescribable."

Books written by Charles Darwin.

Other than On the Origin of Species , Charles Darwin's other books include:

• The Effects of Cross and Self Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom
• The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals
• The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex
• The Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species
• The Formation of Vegetable Mould, Through the Action of Worms
• The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication
• On the Various Contrivances by Which British and Foreign Orchids Are Fertilised by Insects.

Famous quotes from Charles Darwin.

• “A man who dares to waste one hour of time has not discovered the value of life.”
• “If I had my life to live over again , I would have made a rule to read some poetry and listen to some music at least once every week.”
• "Man selects only for his own good ; Nature only for that of the being which she tends."
• “Ignorance more frequently begets confidence than does knowledge: it is those who know little, not those who know much, who so positively assert that this or that problem will never be solved by science.”

Famous Scientists

Charles Darwin

Charles Darwin is often cited as the greatest biologist in history. His most famous work, On the Origin of Species , explains the theory of evolution by natural selection, providing numerous supporting examples. Darwin believed that all of life on earth had descended from a common ancestor, whose offspring could vary slightly from the previous generation. Successive generations of life took part in a struggle for existence in which the best adapted variations survived to seed new generations. Less well adapted variations became extinct.

Charles Robert Darwin was born into a wealthy family on February 12, 1809 in the town of Shrewsbury, England, UK. He was the fifth child of six.

Charles Darwin, aged 7

His father, Robert Darwin, was a physician. Robert Darwin had grown rich by shrewdly investing money earned from his medical practice.

Charles’s mother was Susannah Wedgewood, from the famous pottery family. She died when Charles was eight years old. He then started attending an elementary school

School At the age of nine, Charles was sent to Shrewsbury School, about a mile from his family home. He boarded there, often briefly returning home to keep up with family goings-on.

His boarding school followed a traditional classical curriculum revolving around Ancient Greek and Latin, which Charles loathed. He was not considered to be particularly smart. His foreign language skills were poor.

His schoolwork usually involved learning by heart for the next day lines of Roman or Greek literature. Although he disliked doing this, he was happy to work hard. He learned his lines thoroughly, then promptly forgot them all again as soon as class was over.

He enjoyed hunting and going for long walks, observing and collecting things from the natural world. At one point he became so obsessive about hunting that his father declared:

Despite his father’s uncharacteristic outburst, the young Charles Darwin was very enthusiastic about science. He was taught geometry by a private tutor, which he enjoyed, and he also enjoyed learning how complex things worked. He was captivated by a book Wonders of the World , which planted a seed in him to travel. The seed would later bloom into his famous voyage on HMS Beagle.

His brother built a chemistry laboratory in the garden tool-house, and Charles helped with experiments, often late into the night. Chemistry became his favorite subject. Unfortunately, it was not part of his school’s curriculum. In fact he was reprimanded his headmaster for ‘wasting his time’ on chemistry!

Edinburgh and Medical School In 1825, aged 16, Charles became a medical student at the University of Edinburgh, as his father had done 42 years earlier. His father had pleasant memories of Edinburgh, where he was taught by the great chemist Joseph Black, who discovered magnesium, carbon dioxide, and latent heat.

Unlike his father, however, Charles did not enjoy medical school.

He found that dissecting human bodies disgusted him, being present during surgical operations horrified him, and visiting hospital wards distressed him. Moreover, attending lectures bored him:

Confident his father would give him enough money to live in comfort, he decided not to worry about passing his exams.

In his second year at Edinburgh, Charles became interested in zoology, and he collected and dissected marine creatures. He also attended geology lectures, but found them incredibly boring.

His exasperated father decided to halt Charles’s medical studies. He withdrew his son from Edinburgh and sent him to the University of Cambridge with the idea that his idle son would eventually become a Church of England clergyman.

Cambridge and an Easy Degree Early in 1828, just before his twentieth birthday, Charles Darwin enrolled at the University of Cambridge to study for a Bachelor of Arts degree.

After three easy years he received his B.A. degree with marks placing him near the top of the class. He had spent much of his time hunting, dining, drinking, and playing cards – all of which he enjoyed heartily.

Ironically, given Darwin’s later work, his favorite book at university was Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity . Its author, William Paley, used the example of a watch and a watchmaker in support of his argument that the natural world had been designed by God. Each species of life is much more complex than a watch, Paley said, therefore clearly these species must have been designed by someone – and that someone was God.

The Natural World During his time in Cambridge, Darwin continued to pursue his scientific interests, particularly in botany and zoology: his greatest interest by far was in collecting different species of beetle.

Reading Alexander von Humboldt’s book Personal Narrative of travels 1799-1804 and John Herschel’s Introduction to the Study of Natural Philosophy energized Darwin. He thirsted for overseas adventures and scientific discoveries.

After finishing at Cambridge, he began taking a serious interest in geology, studying rocks near his hometown of Shrewsbury and going on a two week expedition to Wales mapping rock strata.

Charles Darwin’s Contributions to Science

The voyage of the beagle 1831 – 1836.

Darwin spent nearly five years traveling around the world on the Beagle.

Near the end of summer 1831, after completing his degree, Darwin was offered a position as a naturalist on HMS Beagle, one of the British Royal Navy’s survey ships. The position had previously been offered to John Henslow, a geologist and naturalist at Cambridge, but he had turned it down and recommended Darwin.

The Beagle was scheduled to make a long expedition to the South Seas. Darwin would have to pay for his place on the ship, but would be at liberty to collect specimens and send them back to the United Kingdom for his own use or profit.

It was a wonderful opportunity to emulate his hero Alexander von Humboldt. Darwin was determined to grab it with both hands. His father, with some reluctance, agreed to pay for his son’s voyage.

The voyage, much like the fictitious Starship Enterprise’s, was a five year mission. It followed the route shown on the map above. The conditions on the small ship were much less comfortable than those enjoyed by the Starship Enterprise’s crew!

Plan of HMS Beagle

The Beagle – A cramped home for a five year voyage

The Voyage While sailing southward from the British Isles, the Beagle’s first stop was at the volcanic Cape Verde Islands, west of Africa. Darwin found seashells high up in cliffs there. The Beagle’s captain, who had a great interest in the natural world, helped Darwin explain the observation, giving him a copy of Charles Lyell’s Principles of Geology .

Principles of Geology explained uniformitarian ideas in geology – the theory of gradualism, first proposed late in the previous century by James Hutton . A few years later the book’s author, Charles Lyell, would become one of Darwin’s greatest friends and supporters.

The expedition continued, with Darwin writing about his experiences in each new place he visited, collecting samples of flora, fauna, and fossils, and observing rock formations.

He saw a variety of unusual, unique species on the Galapagos Islands. Each separate island seemed to have its own distinct varieties of wildlife. Observations like these provoked him to write late in the voyage:

Back Home Again Darwin arrived back in England in October 1836. He had kept in touch with John Henslow, sending him notes regularly about his geological work on the expedition. Henslow put these notes together into a 31 page pamphlet, which he distributed to Cambridge’s scientific community and beyond.

Henslow also showed paleontologists fossils Darwin sent him, which caused more excitement.

Although Darwin embarked on the voyage as an unknown recent graduate, he returned as a respected, well-known scientist. Also, he assembled a large, exciting collection of specimens that naturalists were queuing up to study and catalog.

His father was relieved his prediction that Charles would disgrace the family had been proven wrong. Charles Darwin was now admired in the world of natural science, and his father agreed to continue funding his work. In fact, other people also recognized the value of Darwin’s work, and he now received a large grant from the British government to write up his observations from the Beagle’s expedition.

Scientific Results from Darwin’s Voyage

Darwin established that the South American continent is gradually rising from the ocean. Charles Lyell, whose geology book influenced Darwin on the voyage, arranged for Darwin to present this work to the Geological Society of London at the beginning of 1837.

At the same meeting Darwin presented specimens of birds he had collected from the Galapagos Islands. Within a week, the ornithologist John Gould examined the specimens and declared the birds belonged to an entirely new group of finches. Darwin had discovered 12 new finch species and a new group of finches.

Evolution by Natural Selection

On his long voyage, at times mesmerized by nature’s abundance, Darwin’s thoughts had increasingly turned to the question of how different species had formed.

Earlier Ideas about Evolution

The concept of evolution had been hatched thousands of years before Darwin’s time .

His grandfather, Erasmus Darwin, had made some striking contributions to evolutionary theory, including the idea that all life has a common origin .

Darwin’s Theory

In July 1837 Darwin began keeping a notebook of his thoughts and theories about the variation of plants and animals.

By this time, he had completely accepted that species could evolve (or, to use Darwin’s language, transmute ).

He decided he would make his investigation according to the principles of Francis Bacon – he would assemble facts before producing a theory.

In October 1838 he read Thomas Malthus’s work on population, showing that populations increase until food runs out, then crash. There is a struggle for existence. Darwin said that having read Malthus:

By December 1838 Darwin was mulling over how breeders improve domestic animals by selecting the animals with the best qualities. In the natural world the selection is carried out by the environment. The lifeforms best adapted to the environment survive and breed. This is natural selection.

In 1842 he wrote his first paper on what came to be known as evolution by natural selection, but only for his own use.

In 1845 he published thoughts, formed much earlier, about the new species of finches he discovered in the Galapagos Islands, saying he could imagine that one original species had been modified into all the different species.

Darwin decided that the different species of finches on the Galapagos Islands were all descended from a single finch ancestor.

If Darwin had been an ambitious scientist, he could have published a theory of evolution by natural selection in 1839, but he didn’t. He continued:

• gathering and weighing evidence and assessing specimens from his voyage
• breeding animals and plants to determine how species could be modified by artificial selection
• writing books and papers about a variety of topics including geology

Darwin’s Hand is Forced

On 18 June 1858, aged 49, Darwin opened his mail and got a terrible shock. He had been corresponding with Alfred Russel Wallace , a young, self-trained naturalist who was on an expedition in the East Indies.

Wallace now asked for Darwin’s opinion of a paper he had written. The paper described the theory of evolution by natural selection – the theory Darwin had spent decades gathering evidence for, but had never published. Darwin wrote back, offering his opinion that Wallace’s paper could be published in any journal of Wallace’s choosing.

Darwin also showed Wallace’s paper to his scientific friends Charles Lyell (Wallace had requested this) and Joseph Dalton Hooker.

Darwin was in crisis at this time because his young son had been terribly sick, eventually dying of scarlet fever on June 28.

His friends were aware that Darwin actually arrived at the theory first. They decided the joint theories of Darwin and Wallace should be read to the Linnean Society on July 1. Darwin did not attend the reading. His place was at his son’s funeral.

In the event, the reading of the Darwin-Wallace paper provoked little interest.

The Origin of Species

Darwin’s game-changing book On the Origin of Species – often called the most important book in the history of biology – became available to the public on November 24, 1859; booksellers immediately sold all 1250 copies.

Trying to avoid controversy, Darwin avoided making any claims for the origin a particular species, such as Homo sapiens . He did however, in agreement with his grandfather’s much earlier theory, write:

Over the following years Darwin updated the book regularly. He eventually authored six significantly different editions.

Some of the most familiar ideas of ‘Darwinism’ did not appear until the later editions: the famous phrase “survival of the fittest” appeared for the first time in the 1869 fifth edition. Remarkably, the word evolution made its first appearance in the sixth edition in 1872.

In support of his theory of common ancestry, Darwin was particularly taken by the similarity of the embryos of different species.

Further Work

In 1868 Darwin wrote The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication . Feeling the need to offer a mechanism for heredity, and unaware that Gregor Mendel had already provided it, Darwin incorrectly proposed heredity resulted from a process called pangenesis .

Many people believed that Darwin’s proposed descent of humans from apes was an attack on society’s moral foundations.

During Darwin’s lifetime, there was fierce opposition to his theory.

The great German pathologist Rudolf Virchow , for example, opposed Darwin from the beginning and never relented in his opposition.

In fact, in 1877, Virchow said the idea that man had descended from apes was an attack on society’s moral foundations. He voiced his opinion that teaching the theory of evolution should not be permitted in Germany’s public schools.

In 1872 Darwin looked at the evolution of human psychology in his book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals , showing there are similarities in human and animal psychology.

The idea that species evolve had become accepted by most mainstream scientists by about the time the sixth edition of The Origin of Species came out in 1872.

The concept of natural selection, however, was less accepted. In considering the rate at which natural selection pushed evolutionary change, Darwin was heavily influenced by his friend Charles Lyell’s championing of gradualism.

It was only much later, after publication of the 1930 book The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection by Ronald Fisher , that evolution by natural selection became widely accepted by mainstream scientists. Fisher unified the theory of natural selection with the heredity laws of Gregor Mendel

Some Personal Details and the End

Darwin’s wife Emma two years after their marriage.

The couple had ten children; three died in childhood.

Three of their sons, George, Francis, and Horace, became notable scientists and were elected fellows of the Royal Society. George became an astronomer, Francis a botanist, and Horace an engineer.

Another son, Leonard, financially supported the publication of Ronald Fisher’s earliest work.

In 1837, as he began to work hard on a multi-volume book of observations from the Beagle expedition, and simultaneously began seriously researching the transmutation of species, Darwin fell ill. He would be plagued by ill-health for the rest of his life.

In 1842 he moved with his family to a country house outside London, away from the smoke and dirt. He lived a quiet life, not socializing much, concentrating on family life and writing books and scientific papers.

In 1864 Darwin was awarded the Copley Medal, then the greatest honor in science. The award was for:

“his important researches in geology, zoology, and botanical physiology.”

Previous winners included Benjamin Franklin , Alessandro Volta , Hans Christian Oersted , Michael Faraday , Alexander von Humboldt, Charles Lyell, and Robert Bunsen .

Charles Darwin died aged 73 on April 19, 1882, of heart failure at his country house. He was buried in Westminster Abbey, London, next to John Herschel whose work had inspired him at university, and near his best friend Charles Lyell, whose work had influenced him greatly. Other scientists buried in Darwin’s vicinity at Westminster Abbey include Isaac Newton, Ernest Rutherford, J. J. Thomson, and Lord Kelvin.

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Further Reading Charles Darwin Journal of researches into the natural history and geology of the countries visited during the voyage of H.M.S. Beagle round the world, 2nd Edition John Murray, 1845

Charles Darwin The Autobiography of Charles Darwin John Murray, 1887

Phillip Sloan The Concept of Evolution to 1872 The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2014 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)

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Charles Darwin

A gentle man, Darwin was once called “the dearest, sweetest, loveliest old grandpa that ever was.”

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Introduction

(1809–82). The theory of evolution by natural selection that was developed by Charles Darwin revolutionized the study of living things . In his Origin of Species (1859) he provided a scientific explanation of how the diverse species of plants and animals have descended over time from common ancestors. His theory remains central to the foundations of modern biology . Moreover, by demonstrating how natural laws govern the world of living things, Darwin helped usher in a new era in the cultural and intellectual history of humankind.

Charles Robert Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, England, on February 12, 1809. Darwin’s father was a successful and wealthy physician; his mother was a daughter of Josiah Wedgwood , the famous British potter. She died when Charles was eight years old, and the boy was reared by three older sisters, who constantly found fault with him.

Darwin was such an indifferent student that his father said, “You care for nothing but shooting, dogs, and rat-catching, and you will be a disgrace to yourself and all your family.” He had no interest in the classical languages and ancient history taught in school. Instead, he liked to collect shells, birds’ eggs, and coins. He also watched birds and insects and helped his brother make chemical experiments at home.

At the age of 16, Darwin began to study medicine at the University of Edinburgh. There too he found the courses dull, and watching operations made him ill. In 1828 he transferred to Cambridge, intending to become a clergyman. Instead, he devoted most of his time to studying plants and animals and later to geology. He received his bachelor’s degree in 1831.

Around the World in the Beagle

Then came the event that shaped his life—an appointment as unpaid naturalist on the exploring ship Beagle . It left England on December 27, 1831, to chart the southern coasts of South America and sail around the world. The voyage, with many side trips on land, lasted until October 1836. During those five years Darwin examined geologic formations, collected fossils , and studied plants and animals. In the jungles, mountains, and islands he visited, he saw evidence of the many geologic changes that have been occurring over the course of eons—for example, the land gradually rising in some places and falling in others. He also considered the great diversity of living things, even in the depths of the ocean where no humans could appreciate their beauty. He thought about how the fossils he collected suggested that some kinds of mammals had died out. And he returned home filled with questions.

Success and Seclusion

Back home, Darwin settled in London and quietly began work on what would become his great theory of evolution, developed largely in 1837–39. Meanwhile, he wrote up the Journal of his scientific work on the Beagle . He also consulted experts to help him identify the thousands of fossils and specimens he had brought back, and he published the results. In 1839 he was admitted to the prestigious Royal Society.

Darwin married his cousin Emma Wedgwood in 1839, and they eventually had 10 children. He began to avoid society, and in 1842 the couple moved to the isolated village of Downe. This was partly owing to physical illness: a few years earlier, Darwin had begun to experience the heart palpitations and nausea that would plague him for the rest of his life. But he also sought seclusion because he knew that his radical theory would shock and offend Victorian society. Believing in evolution, Darwin said, was “like confessing a murder.” And so he continued this work in secret.

Darwin Attacks the Great Problem

In Darwin’s time, the nearly universally accepted view was that God had created all species of living things in their current forms and that their attributes were the result of God’s design. Nevertheless, Darwin was not the first to suggest that living things might change over time. Since ancient times, people have proposed other ways that plants and animals could have developed. The first broad theory of evolution was proposed in the early 19th century by French naturalist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck . He maintained that plants and animals evolved because of an inborn tendency to progress from simple to complex forms. Environment, however, modified this progression and so did use or disuse of parts. He thought that giraffes, for example, developed long necks by straining to reach the leaves of trees, while snakes lost their legs by crawling.

Darwin knew about Lamarck’s theory of evolution. His grandfather, Erasmus Darwin, had published several books expounding similar ideas. He felt, however, that early writers on the subject had speculated too much and had not based their theories on a solid foundation of observable phenomena. In developing his theory of evolution, Darwin drew upon observations made in a wide array of scientific disciplines and conducted a great many experiments.

Darwin also happened to read An Essay on the Principle of Population , by British economist Thomas Malthus . Malthus had undertaken to prove that human populations tend to increase more rapidly than food and other necessities. The result is a struggle in which some people succeed and become wealthy while others fail or even starve.

Darwin applied this theory to the world of nature. Plants and animals, he knew, reproduce so rapidly that the Earth could not hold them if all their young survived. This meant that there was a constant struggle for space, food, and shelter, as well as against enemies and unfavorable conditions. Certain hawks, for example, struggle, or compete, with each other for the mice they eat, and the poorest hunters go hungry. Mice, in turn, struggle to keep from being caught by hawks. In frigid winters living things struggle against the cold. Some endure it, while others fail to keep themselves warm enough and die. Although Darwin did not coin the phrase “survival of the fittest,” his ideas about struggle expressed the same notion.

Struggling and living or dying could not lead to evolution if all members of each living kind or species were exactly alike. Darwin found that members of a single species vary greatly in shape, size, color, strength, and so on. He also believed that most of these variations could be inherited.

Under the constant struggle to exist, organisms with harmful variations are more likely to die before they can reproduce. And, on average, living things with useful variations are more likely to survive and bear young and thus to pass on their helpful variations. When their descendants vary still more, the process is repeated. In other words, the struggle for existence selects organisms with helpful variations but makes others die out. Darwin called this process natural selection.

Over the ages, Darwin believed, changes from natural selection produce a slow succession of new plants, animals, and other organisms. These changes have enabled living things to go into all sorts of environments and become fitted, or adapted , to many different types of life. Darwin called his theory descent by modification, because he proposed that all living things were descended from earlier forms.

Publication

Darwin wrote a short sketch of his theory in 1842 and a longer one in 1844. Instead of publishing the second statement, however, he continued his investigations. He also wrote books on coral reefs, volcanic islands, barnacles, and the geology of South America. Not until 1856 did he begin what would be a multivolume work on evolution.

In 1858 he received a manuscript from a young naturalist, Alfred Russel Wallace, who also had developed a theory of evolution by natural selection. With Wallace’s approval, short statements by both men were published late in 1858. Darwin went on to write his famous book On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection , which appeared in 1859.

The book caused a tremendous stir, and not just in scientific circles. The general public also read, discussed, and vigorously defended or denounced Darwin’s theory, which became a popular topic in society salons. Some religious leaders believed that evolution was incompatible with their teachings and so opposed it. Newspapers publicized with great scorn a conclusion that Darwin had been careful to avoid—that humans are descended from apes. Evolutionary imagery spread through many other fields, including literature, economics, and political and social science. During Darwin’s lifetime, the scientific community largely accepted his theory of descent, though it was slower to adopt his idea of natural selection.

After completing the Origin of Species , Darwin began The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication , which showed how rapidly some organisms had evolved under artificial selection, the selective breeding of plants and animals by humans. The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex , published in 1871, discussed human evolution . Later books dealt with earthworms, orchids, climbing plants, and plants that eat insects.

Darwin became very weak in 1881 and could no longer work. He died on April 19, 1882, in Downe, and was buried in Westminster Abbey among England’s greatest citizens.

Darwin himself never claimed to provide proof of evolution or of the origin of species. His claim was that if evolution had occurred, a number of otherwise mysterious facts about plants and animals could be easily explained. After his death, however, direct evidence of evolution was observed, and evolution is now supported by a wealth of evidence from a variety of scientific fields.

Evolution has been rejected by members of some religious groups who prefer their theory of creationism. This attempts to explain some features of plant and animal life through a literal interpretation of the Bible. In the scientific community, however, there is little doubt that the general outline of Darwin’s theory of evolution is correct.

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Charles Darwin Biography

Charles Darwin was the preeminent naturalist of the nineteenth century. His theories on evolution by natural selection created the basis for all modern studies on evolution. He was born Charles Robert Darwin on February 12, 1809, in Shrewsbury, Shropshire England. Charles Darwin was the second son of Susannah Wedgwood and Robert Waring Darwin. The couple also had three sisters older than Charles. Robert Darwin was a doctor and Susannah the daughter of Josiah Wedgwood, an early Unitarian and pottery industrialist. Robert Darwin's father, Charles' grandfather, Erasmus Darwin, was a doctor and poet who authored Zoonomia; or the Laws of Organic Life, in 1794. When Charles Darwin was eight his mother died and his three older sisters became his primary caregivers. He displayed a keen interest in medicine, science, and psychology and was inspired by his father's observation of medicine in everyday life. He did not enjoy his very traditional schooling however, where he was taught the Classics and discouraged from studying science and chemistry. Because of his interest in chemistry and sciences Darwin was ridiculed in school by students and the headmaster and given the nickname of "Gas." His distinguished father, possibly falsely convinced his son was not committed to his studies by accounts of the headmaster, enrolled Darwin at Edinburgh University to study medicine in 1825. At the time Edinburgh offered the most forward-thinking education in science of any university in Britain. Among his studies were extensive chemistry lessons and studies of natural science. Perhaps most impactful to Darwin's education at Edinburgh were the freethinking lecturers the university attracted. They were often banned from speaking at traditional universities like Oxford and Cambridge. While those universities refused to separate themselves from science grounded in Anglicanism, these dissenters challenged the religious stronghold over science in areas like anatomy and mental processes of both humans and animals. Charles was encouraged to understand primitive creatures like invertebrates which inspired him to contemplate the origin of all species. Darwin's father observed that though his son was studying medicine, he could not stomach surgery and was uninterested in human anatomy. Fearing that his son would become aimless without being able to dedicate himself to medicine, in 1828 he transferred Darwin to Christ's College in Cambridge. This education was in stark contrast to Edinburgh and Darwin was treated as a young Anglican gentleman. He engaged in common social activities like drinking and shooting. He studied botany under Reverend John Stevens Henslow and went on his first expedition to Wales with Reverend Adam Sedgwick in 1831. Inspired by accounts of expeditions in South America, Darwin found a place for himself as a naturalist on board the HMS Beagle. The ship was commanded by Robert Fitzroy, a young aristocrat who did not want to sail by himself but planned to do a coastal land survey of Patagonia and also return three "savages" from Tierra del Fuego to their homeland. Darwin brought his books, weapons, and a newly acquired skill set for preservation of animal carcasses. The journey was long and arduous, but Darwin as a self-financed naturalist was able to leave the ship for long periods of time to attend to his other interests. He was fascinated by the vastness of the ocean and its creatures and observed the geologic features of the coast line. Darwin's time onboard and off was very solitary and he was disgusted by the slavery and genocide by battle he observed during his time in South America. He often left heavily populated areas to explore the Rio de Janeiro rainforests and their insect inhabitants. Another labor of love Darwin pursued during this expedition was a large-scale excavation of multiple different extinct mammal bones, which began his contemplation of why these animals did in fact go extinct. His observations on geological features led to his assumption that the land had risen above the sea in many areas and prompted thought the vast time span the earth and its creatures had witnessed. When Fitzroy and Darwin returned he had completed a 770 page diary detailing his notes and sketches, but had more questions about evolution that he had left with. The diary had been published and led to a grant obtained from the Treasury that allowed him to enlist experts on zoology for a series of collaborative papers from 1838-1843 that described his animal specimens, published as Zoology of the Voyage of the H.M.S. Beagle. Darwin became well known and sought to reckon his religious beliefs with what he had observed from both animal and human societal norms like slavery. Darwin was influenced by Thomas Malmuth's Essay on the Principle of Population. The economic paper from 1838 led to a series of poor laws that sought to reduce overpopulation. Darwin applied some of these principles for humanity to what he had observed in the wild and created his own mechanism called "natural selection." He created a 35 page sketch of his theory but did not immediately try to publish it, partially because he had seen from his wife, Emma Wedgwood, a kind of horror when he had tried to convey his theories on evolution. Darwin moved himself and his family to the village of Downe which felt very isolated from society. He continued his study and published works on coral reefs, botany, insects and geology, but largely tried to stay out of the public eye and did not confess his theory of evolution to many, fearing it to be akin to confessing a sin. Considering the persecution of Atheists by Anglican laws, this was not a far-fetched fear, though Darwin still maintained a belief in God as the almighty creator. Darwin solidified his role as a prominent resource on biological principles after a groundbreaking study on barnacles that revealed hermaphroditic traits and further sparked his interest in the difference between female and male form. As time and society progressed the stage was set for more acceptance of Darwin's theories and Darwin lost much belief in God after his daughter's death. Series of further studies on artificial breeding and production were rounding out his theory and providing a strategy on how to present it. He felt greater haste to complete a publication when confronted with Alfred Russel Wallace's letter and sketches that seemed to indicate similar theories to his own. Darwin published On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection in 1859 with tremendous personal anxiety as to how it would be received. The reception was not as disastrous as he anticipated and Cambridge folk were beginning to accept scientific realities while dissenters greatly embraced his theories. Three reviews of his studies were published and in 1864, supported by Alfred Huxley, Darwin received the Copley Medal from the Royal Society. The 1860s found Darwin in ever-declining health and his wife Emma caring for him and their remaining children. He published six editions of On the Origin of Species during this time period and attempted to defend and move around criticisms by tying in his knowledge of botany and bees to prove natural selection. As natural selection became widely accepted, Darwin plowed forward into an analysis of morality and traits of the human race entitled The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex in 1871. His work on facial expression, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, from 1872, sought to disprove the Divine belief in facial structure. By the end of his life, Darwin was hailed for his scientific contributions and shielded from intense criticism by friends like Huxley. By the 1880s he was in very poor heath and he died on April 19th, 1882. His burial in the town of Downe was perceived as too low-brow, and with Huxley's persuasion Darwin's body was buried at Westminster Abbey.

Charles Darwin: 5 Facts About the Father of Evolution

Here are five little-known facts about one of the most influential thinkers of our time:

The father of evolution began life as a creationist

Raised as a Christian in Victorian England, Darwin enrolled at Cambridge University as a divinity student. “I did not then in the least doubt the strict and literal truth of every word in the Bible,” he wrote. While studying at Cambridge, a tutor recommended he take a biology research trip around the world on the HMS Beagle – a voyage that would prompt Darwin to question his Christian worldview.

He possessed a unique hunger for knowledge

During his five-year voyage around the world, Darwin famously collected and cataloged countless plants and animals. But sailors on the Beagle noted that Darwin was happy to eat many of the exotic animals he collected, including turtles, iguanas, pumas (which he said tasted like veal) and armadillos (which he said tasted like duck). An eccentric foodie, Darwin was a member of Cambridge University’s Glutton Club, a weekly group whose mission was to seek out and eat “strange flesh.”

He delayed the publication of his theory of natural selection for 20 years

Darwin began formulating his theory in the late 1830s but kept it under wraps for two decades. His grandfather Erasmus Darwin had published early work in evolution only to be criticized by the church. Darwin, therefore, wanted to build up a surplus of evidence before going public with his ideas.

Contrary to popular belief, Darwin didn’t have a Eureka moment in the Galapagos Islands. Rather, his ideas evolved over time and were based on rudimentary theories about evolution that had been around for decades. The word “evolution,” in fact, doesn’t appear in his book, The Origin of Species , until its sixth edition.

Darwin almost got scooped

During the 20 years developing his theories, Darwin worked closely with Alfred Russel Wallace. Inspired by Darwin, Wallace also explored wildlife in South America and supplied Darwin with wildlife for his own research. In 1858, Wallace asked Darwin to review a manuscript that included his own ideas about natural selection. Shocked that Wallace’s ideas were nearly identical to his own – and having written roughly a quarter of a million words on the subject – Darwin decided to go public, publishing The Origin of Species in 1859.

Darwin married his cousin

After methodically drawing up a list of pros and cons, Darwin decided to marry his cousin Emma Wedgwood. Although the two were happily married (and enjoyed nightly games of backgammon), a shadow of tragedy fell upon their offspring. Of their 10 children, three died in childhood – losses that haunted Darwin throughout his life. Recognizing that plants that self-fertilized tended to be less healthy, Darwin worried inbreeding may have brought on the tragedy.

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