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Website Developmemt Technologies: A Review

Abstract: Service Science is that the basis of knowledge system and net services that judge to the provider/client model. This paper developments a technique which will be utilized in the event of net services like websites, net applications and eCommerce. The goal is to development a technique that may add structure to a extremely unstructured drawback to help within the development and success of net services. The new methodology projected are going to be referred to as {the net|the online|the net} Development Life Cycle (WDLC) and tailored from existing methodologies and applied to the context of web development. This paper can define well the projected phases of the WDLC. Keywords: Web Development, Application Development, Technologies, eCommerce.

Analysis of Russian Segment of the Web Development Market Operating Online on Upwork

The Russian segment of the web services market in the online environment, on the platform of the Upwork freelance exchange, is considered, its key characteristics, the composition of participants, development trends are highlighted, and the market structure is identified. It is found that despite the low barriers to entry, the web development market is very stable, since the composition of entrenched firms that have been operating for more than six years remains. The pricing policy of most Russian companies indicates that they work in the middle price segment and have low budgets, which is due to the specifics of the foreign market and high competition.

Farming Assistant Web Services: Agricultor

Abstract: Our farming assistant web services provides assistance to new as well as establish farmers to get the solutions to dayto-day problems faced in the field. A farmer gets to connect with other farmers throughout India to get more information about a particular crop which is popular in other states. Keywords: Farmers, Assistance, Web Development

Tradução de ementas e histórico escolar para o inglês: contribuição para participação de discentes do curso técnico em informática para internet integrado ao ensino médio em programas de mobilidade acadêmica / Translation of summary and school records into english: contribution to the participation of high school with associate technical degree on web development students in academic mobility programs

Coded websites vs wordpress websites.

This document gives multiple instructions related to web developers using older as well as newer technology. Websites are being created using newer technologies like wordpress whereas on the other hand many people prefer making websites using the traditional way. This document will clear the doubt whether an individual should use wordpress websites or coded websites according to the users convenience. The Responsiveness of the websites, the use of CMS nowadays, more and more up gradation of technologies with SEO, themes, templates, etc. make things like web development much much easier. The aesthetics, the culture, the expressions, the features all together add up in order make the designing and development a lot more efficient and effective. Digital Marketing has a tremendous growth over the last two years and yet shows no signs of stopping, is closely related with the web development environment. Nowadays all businesses are going online due to which the impact of web development has become such that it has become an integral part of any online business.

Cognitive disabilities and web accessibility: a survey into the Brazilian web development community

Cognitive disabilities include a diversity of conditions related to cognitive functions, such as reading, understanding, learning, solving problems, memorization and speaking. They differ largely from each other, making them a heterogeneous complex set of disabilities. Although the awareness about cognitive disabilities has been increasing in the last few years, it is still less than necessary compared to other disabilities. The need for an investigation about this issue is part of the agenda of the Challenge 2 (Accessibility and Digital Inclusion) from GranDIHC-Br. This paper describes the results of an online exploratory survey conducted with 105 web development professionals from different sectors to understand their knowledge and barriers regarding accessibility for people with cognitive disabilities. The results evidenced three biases that potentially prevent those professionals from approaching cogni-tive disabilities: strong organizational barriers; difficulty to understand user needs related to cognitive disabilities; a knowledge gap about web accessibility principles and guidelines. Our results confirmed that web development professionals are unaware about cognitive disabilities mostly by a lack of knowledge about them, even if they understand web accessibility in a technical level. Therefore, we suggest that applied research studies focus on how to fill this knowledge gap before providing tools, artifacts or frameworks.

PERANCANGAN WEB RESPONSIVE UNTUK SISTEM INFORMASI OBAT-OBATAN

A good information system must not only be neat, effective, and resilient, but also must be user friendly and up to date. In a sense, it is able to be applied to various types of electronic devices, easily accessible at any whereand time (real time), and can be modified according to user needs in a relatively easy and simple way. Information systems are now needed by various parties, especially in the field of administration and sale of medicines for Cut Nyak Dhien Hospital. During this time, recording in books has been very ineffective and caused many problems, such as difficulty in accessing old data, asa well as the information obtained was not real time. To solve it, this research raises the theme of the appropriate information system design for the hospital concerned, by utilizing CSS Bootstrap framework and research methodology for web development, namely Web Development Life Cycle. This research resulted in a responsive system by providing easy access through desktop computers, tablets, and smartphones so that it would help the hospital in the data processing process in real time.

Web Development and performance comparison of Web Development Technologies in Node.js and Python

“tom had us all doing front-end web development”: a nostalgic (re)imagining of myspace, assessment of site classifications according to layout type in web development, export citation format, share document.

Advanced web methodology for flexible web development

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A Literature Review: Website Design and User Engagement

Renee garett.

1 ElevateU, Los Angeles, CA, USA

Sean D. Young

2 University of California Institute for Prediction Technology, Department of Family Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA

3 UCLA Center for Digital Behavior, Department of Family Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA

Proper design has become a critical element needed to engage website and mobile application users. However, little research has been conducted to define the specific elements used in effective website and mobile application design. We attempt to review and consolidate research on effective design and to define a short list of elements frequently used in research. The design elements mentioned most frequently in the reviewed literature were navigation, graphical representation, organization, content utility, purpose, simplicity, and readability. We discuss how previous studies define and evaluate these seven elements. This review and the resulting short list of design elements may be used to help designers and researchers to operationalize best practices for facilitating and predicting user engagement.

1. INTRODUCTION

Internet usage has increased tremendously and rapidly in the past decade ( “Internet Use Over Time,” 2014 ). Websites have become the most important public communication portal for most, if not all, businesses and organizations. As of 2014, 87% of American adults aged 18 or older are Internet users ( “Internet User Demographics,” 2013 ). Because business-to-consumer interactions mainly occur online, website design is critical in engaging users ( Flavián, Guinalíu, & Gurrea, 2006 ; Lee & Kozar, 2012 ; Petre, Minocha, & Roberts, 2006 ). Poorly designed websites may frustrate users and result in a high “bounce rate”, or people visiting the entrance page without exploring other pages within the site ( Google.com, 2015 ). On the other hand, a well-designed website with high usability has been found to positively influence visitor retention (revisit rates) and purchasing behavior ( Avouris, Tselios, Fidas, & Papachristos, 2003 ; Flavián et al., 2006 ; Lee & Kozar, 2012 ).

Little research, however, has been conducted to define the specific elements that constitute effective website design. One of the key design measures is usability ( International Standardization Organization, 1998 ). The International Standardized Organization (ISO) defines usability as the extent to which users can achieve desired tasks (e.g., access desired information or place a purchase) with effectiveness (completeness and accuracy of the task), efficiency (time spent on the task), and satisfaction (user experience) within a system. However, there is currently no consensus on how to properly operationalize and assess website usability ( Lee & Kozar, 2012 ). For example, Nielson associates usability with learnability, efficiency, memorability, errors, and satisfaction ( Nielsen, 2012 ). Yet, Palmer (2002) postulates that usability is determined by download time, navigation, content, interactivity, and responsiveness. Similar to usability, many other key design elements, such as scannability, readability, and visual aesthetics, have not yet been clearly defined ( Bevan, 1997 ; Brady & Phillips, 2003 ; Kim, Lee, Han, & Lee, 2002 ), and there are no clear guidelines that individuals can follow when designing websites to increase engagement.

This review sought to address that question by identifying and consolidating the key website design elements that influence user engagement according to prior research studies. This review aimed to determine the website design elements that are most commonly shown or suggested to increase user engagement. Based on these findings, we listed and defined a short list of website design elements that best facilitate and predict user engagement. The work is thus an exploratory research providing definitions for these elements of website design and a starting point for future research to reference.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1. selection criteria and data extraction.

We searched for articles relating to website design on Google Scholar (scholar.google.com) because Google Scholar consolidates papers across research databases (e.g., Pubmed) and research on design is listed in multiple databases. We used the following combination of keywords: design, usability, and websites. Google Scholar yielded 115,000 total hits. However, due to the large list of studies generated, we decided to only review the top 100 listed research studies for this exploratory study. Our inclusion criteria for the studies was: (1) publication in a peer-reviewed academic journal, (2) publication in English, and (3) publication in or after 2000. Year of publication was chosen as a limiting factor so that we would have enough years of research to identify relevant studies but also have results that relate to similar styles of websites after the year 2000. We included studies that were experimental or theoretical (review papers and commentaries) in nature. Resulting studies represented a diverse range of disciplines, including human-computer interaction, marketing, e-commerce, interface design, cognitive science, and library science. Based on these selection criteria, thirty-five unique studies remained and were included in this review.

2.2. Final Search Term

(design) and (usability) and (websites).

The search terms were kept simple to capture the higher level design/usability papers and allow Google scholar’s ranking method to filter out the most popular studies. This method also allowed studies from a large range of fields to be searched.

2.3. Analysis

The literature review uncovered 20 distinct design elements commonly discussed in research that affect user engagement. They were (1) organization – is the website logically organized, (2) content utility – is the information provided useful or interesting, (3) navigation – is the website easy to navigate, (4) graphical representation – does the website utilize icons, contrasting colors, and multimedia content, (5) purpose – does the website clearly state its purpose (i.e. personal, commercial, or educational), (6) memorable elements – does the website facilitate returning users to navigate the site effectively (e.g., through layout or graphics), (7) valid links – does the website provide valid links, (8) simplicity – is the design of the website simple, (9) impartiality – is the information provided fair and objective, (10) credibility – is the information provided credible, (11) consistency/reliability – is the website consistently designed (i.e., no changes in page layout throughout the site), (12) accuracy – is the information accurate, (13) loading speed – does the website take a long time to load, (14) security/privacy – does the website securely transmit, store, and display personal information/data, (15) interactive – can the user interact with the website (e.g., post comments or receive recommendations for similar purchases), (16) strong user control capabilities– does the website allow individuals to customize their experiences (such as the order of information they access and speed at which they browse the website), (17) readability – is the website easy to read and understand (e.g., no grammatical/spelling errors), (18) efficiency – is the information presented in a way that users can find the information they need quickly, (19) scannability – can users pick out relevant information quickly, and (20) learnability – how steep is the learning curve for using the website. For each of the above, we calculated the proportion of studies mentioning the element. In this review, we provide a threshold value of 30%. We identified elements that were used in at least 30% of the studies and include these elements that are above the threshold on a short list of elements used in research on proper website design. The 30% value was an arbitrary threshold picked that would provide researchers and designers with a guideline list of elements described in research on effective web design. To provide further information on how to apply this list, we present specific details on how each of these elements was discussed in research so that it can be defined and operationalized.

3.1. Popular website design elements ( Table 1 )

Frequency of website design elements used in research (2000–2014)

Seven of the website design elements met our threshold requirement for review. Navigation was the most frequently discussed element, mentioned in 22 articles (62.86%). Twenty-one studies (60%) highlighted the importance of graphics. Fifteen studies (42.86%) emphasized good organization. Four other elements also exceeded the threshold level, and they were content utility (n=13, 37.14%), purpose (n=11, 31.43%), simplicity (n=11, 31.43%), and readability (n=11, 31.43%).

Elements below our minimum requirement for review include memorable features (n=5, 14.29%), links (n=10, 28.57%), impartiality (n=1, 2.86%), credibility (n=7, 20%), consistency/reliability (n=8. 22.86%), accuracy (n=5, 14.29%), loading speed (n=10, 28.57%), security/privacy (n=2, 5.71%), interactive features (n=9, 25.71%), strong user control capabilities (n=8, 22.86%), efficiency (n=6, 17.14%), scannability (n=1, 2.86%), and learnability (n=2, 5.71%).

3.2. Defining key design elements for user engagement ( Table 2 )

Definitions of Key Design Elements

In defining and operationalizing each of these elements, the research studies suggested that effective navigation is the presence of salient and consistent menu/navigation bars, aids for navigation (e.g., visible links), search features, and easy access to pages (multiple pathways and limited clicks/backtracking). Engaging graphical presentation entails 1) inclusion of images, 2) proper size and resolution of images, 3) multimedia content, 4) proper color, font, and size of text, 5) use of logos and icons, 6) attractive visual layout, 7) color schemes, and 8) effective use of white space. Optimal organization includes 1) cognitive architecture, 2) logical, understandable, and hierarchical structure, 3) information arrangement and categorization, 4) meaningful labels/headings/titles, and 5) use of keywords. Content utility is determined by 1) sufficient amount of information to attract repeat visitors, 2) arousal/motivation (keeps visitors interested and motivates users to continue exploring the site), 3) content quality, 4) information relevant to the purpose of the site, and 5) perceived utility based on user needs/requirements. The purpose of a website is clear when it 1) establishes a unique and visible brand/identity, 2) addresses visitors’ intended purpose and expectations for visiting the site, and 3) provides information about the organization and/or services. Simplicity is achieved by using 1) simple subject headings, 2) transparency of information (reduce search time), 3) website design optimized for computer screens, 4) uncluttered layout, 5) consistency in design throughout website, 6) ease of using (including first-time users), 7) minimize redundant features, and 8) easily understandable functions. Readability is optimized by content that is 1) easy to read, 2) well-written, 3) grammatically correct, 4) understandable, 5) presented in readable blocks, and 6) reading level appropriate.

4. DISCUSSION

The seven website design elements most often discussed in relation to user engagement in the reviewed studies were navigation (62.86%), graphical representation (60%), organization (42.86%), content utility (37.14%), purpose (31.43%), simplicity (31.43%), and readability (31.43%). These seven elements exceeded our threshold level of 30% representation in the literature and were included into a short list of website design elements to operationalize effective website design. For further analysis, we reviewed how studies defined and evaluated these seven elements. This may allow designers and researchers to determine and follow best practices for facilitating or predicting user engagement.

A remaining challenge is that the definitions of website design elements often overlap. For example, several studies evaluated organization by how well a website incorporates cognitive architecture, logical and hierarchical structure, systematic information arrangement and categorization, meaningful headings and labels, and keywords. However, these features are also crucial in navigation design. Also, the implications of using distinct logos and icons go beyond graphical representation. Logos and icons also establish unique brand/identity for the organization (purpose) and can serve as visual aids for navigation. Future studies are needed to develop distinct and objective measures to assess these elements and how they affect user engagement ( Lee & Kozar, 2012 ).

Given the rapid increase in both mobile technology and social media use, it is surprising that no studies mentioned cross-platform compatibility and social media integration. In 2013, 34% of cellphone owners primarily use their cellphones to access the Internet, and this number continues to grow ( “Mobile Technology Factsheet,” 2013 ). With the rise of different mobile devices, users are also diversifying their web browser use. Internet Explorer (IE) was once the leading web browser. However, in recent years, FireFox, Safari, and Chrome have gained significant traction ( W3schools.com, 2015 ). Website designers and researchers must be mindful of different platforms and browsers to minimize the risk of losing users due to compatibility issues. In addition, roughly 74% of American Internet users use some form of social media ( Duggan, Ellison, Lampe, Lenhart, & Smith, 2015 ), and social media has emerged as an effective platform for organizations to target and interact with users. Integrating social media into website design may increase user engagement by facilitating participation and interactivity.

There are several limitations to the current review. First, due to the large number of studies published in this area and due to this study being exploratory, we selected from the first 100 research publications on Google Scholar search results. Future studies may benefit from defining design to a specific topic, set of years, or other area to limit the number of search results. Second, we did not quantitatively evaluate the effectiveness of these website design elements. Additional research can help to better quantify these elements.

It should also be noted that different disciplines and industries have different objectives in designing websites and should thus prioritize different website design elements. For example, online businesses and marketers seek to design websites that optimize brand loyalty, purchase, and profit ( Petre et al., 2006 ). Others, such as academic researchers or healthcare providers, are more likely to prioritize privacy/confidentiality, and content accuracy in building websites ( Horvath, Ecklund, Hunt, Nelson, & Toomey, 2015 ). Ultimately, we advise website designers and researchers to consider the design elements delineated in this review, along with their unique needs, when developing user engagement strategies.

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Ten simple rules for researchers who want to develop web apps

* E-mail: [email protected] (SMS); [email protected] (NGN)

Affiliations State Climate Office of North Carolina, Raleigh, North Carolina, United States of America, Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, United States of America

Affiliations Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, United States of America, Center for Geospatial Analytics, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, United States of America

Affiliation Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, United States of America

Affiliation North Carolina State University Libraries, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, United States of America

• Sheila M. Saia, 
• Natalie G. Nelson, 
• Sierra N. Young, 
• Stanton Parham, 
• Micah Vandegrift

Published: January 6, 2022

• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1009663
• Reader Comments

Citation: Saia SM, Nelson NG, Young SN, Parham S, Vandegrift M (2022) Ten simple rules for researchers who want to develop web apps. PLoS Comput Biol 18(1): e1009663. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1009663

Editor: Scott Markel, Dassault Systemes BIOVIA, UNITED STATES

Copyright: © 2022 Saia et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Funding: This work was supported in part by the North Carolina Sea Grant R/20-SFA-4 (NGN, SMS, SP), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Food and Agriculture Cyberinformatics Tools (FACT) project 2019-67021-29936 (NGN, SMS), and USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture (NIFA) Hatch projects 1021499 (SNY) and 1016068 (NGN). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

Web applications, also known as web apps, are increasingly common in the research communication portfolios of those working in the life sciences (e.g., [ 1 ]) and physical sciences (e.g., [ 2 – 4 ]). Web apps help disseminate research findings and present research outputs in ways that are accessible and meaningful to the general public—from individuals, to governments, to companies. Specifically, web apps enable exploration of scenario testing and policy analysis (i.e., to answer “what if?”) as well as coevolution of scientific and public knowledge [ 5 , 6 ]. However, the majority of researchers developing web apps receive little formal training or technical guidance on how to develop and evaluate the effectiveness of their web-based decision support tools. Take some of us for example. We (Saia and Nelson) are agricultural and environmental engineers with little experience in web app development, but we are interested in creating web apps to support sustainable aquaculture production in the Southeast. We had user (i.e., shellfish growers) interest, a goal in mind (i.e., develop a new forecast product and decision support tool for shellfish aquaculturalists), and received funding to support this work. Yet, we experienced several unexpected hurdles from the start of our project that ended up being fairly common hiccups to the seasoned web app developers among us (Parham). As a result, we share the following 10 simple rules, which highlight take-home messages, including lessons learned and practical tips, of our experience as burgeoning web app developers. We hope researchers interested in developing web apps draw insights from our (in)experience as they set out on their decision support tool development journey.

We focus on web apps, rather than mobile phone applications, because advances in web app coding frameworks make it possible to seamlessly scale web apps across multiple devices (e.g., phones, computers, and tablets). Web apps provide interactive services that can be accessed by web browsers [ 7 ]. Here, we further define web apps as dynamic tools that allow users to perform a task, although we acknowledge that others may define web apps differently. Web developers often separate web apps into two main components: the front end and the back end ( Fig 1 ). There are some exceptions to this design. For example, some web apps are front end only and require no dedicated back end (e.g., single-page applications like https://github.com/igvteam/igv.js ) [ 8 ]. These can usually be hosted on free third-party services such as GitHub Pages. The front end represents everything the user sees on their device screen ( Fig 1B, 1F ), while the back end represents parts of the web app that only the web developers see ( Fig 1C, 1D ). The back end typically includes (1) scripts (i.e., computer code) written in a back end language (e.g., Java and Python) to support the front end appearance and back end functionality of the web app (i.e., how periodic updates are made to the front end); (2) databases (e.g., MySQL) to store data for the web app and its users; and (3) web services (e.g., Google Cloud Platform, https://cloud.google.com ) to present the updated web app to users and connect the user’s front end experience with the back end tasks via the web app ( Fig 1C–1E ). Most commonly, a trained or experienced web developer will specialize in one particular component; however, some web developers may specialize in the full stack, which refers to the front end and back end of the web app combined.

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In this line drawing, the (a) user is shown interacting with the (b) front end of the web app. The front end is updated based on changes that occur in the back end (c and d). Updates that occur in the back end can also trigger other actions, such as (f) text or email notifications via (e) third-party integrations. Image credit : Sheila M . Saia (CC BY 4 . 0) .

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Web apps are powerful tools for increasing the accessibility and approachability of research data and findings because they leverage recent advancements in interactive web browsers to support browser-based user interfaces without the need for download and installation. Examples of web apps range from interactive maps depicting disease transmission (e.g., [ 9 ]), marine health (e.g., [ 10 , 11 ]), natural hazards (e.g., [ 12 , 13 ]), and pest infestations (e.g., [ 14 , 15 ]) to bioinformatics resource collections (e.g., [ 16 ]), to omics data analysis platforms (e.g., [ 17 ]), and to citation visualization tools (e.g., [ 18 ]), among others. Throughout this ten simple rules paper, we focus on web apps that help stakeholders make decisions by improving their access to information. However, web apps can be beneficial beyond their use by stakeholders. As an example, web apps can support research by improving the sharing of results and facilitating communications between scientists (e.g., [ 12 , 13 , 19 ]). In this ten simple rules paper, we reflect on our experiences developing the aforementioned decision support tool and web app, called “ShellCast” ( https://go.ncsu.edu/shellcast ), as well as how our experience applies more broadly to researchers venturing into web development. ShellCast is a noncommercial, open-source product (i.e., ShellCast source code is freely accessible and editable by anyone), but researchers interested in commercializing their web apps can look to other articles in the ten simple rules collection [ 20 , 21 ].

We were motivated to develop ShellCast after speaking with shellfish growers, state aquaculture management program staff, regional weather forecast staff, and university Extension agents, who all told us that there were no specialized weather apps to (1) help shellfish growers interpret daily rainfall forecasts; and (2) prepare their operations for temporary shellfish harvest area closures. These temporary closures, which prohibit shellfish harvesting in a particular area for approximately 1 to 2 weeks, are issued by the state of North Carolina to protect consumers from ingesting contaminated seafood after large rainfall events that flush harmful bacteria into estuarine waters [ 22 – 24 ]. Briefly, ShellCast users can sign up to create an account and receive a text message and/or email notification ( Fig 1F ) at the start of each day that will alert them of imminent rainfall events over the next 1 to 3 days, the occurrence of which can result in restrictions to their shellfish harvesting operations. By creating an account with the web app, users select a geographic location or locations that they would like to receive notifications for and their preferred notification type (i.e., text message, email, or both). Users can also view their notifications and notification locations on the web app main page ( Fig 1B ). There are many back end aspects to ShellCast that users do not see ( Fig 1C–1E ). These include but are not limited to: (1) timed running of web app back end tasks and code, also known as cron jobs, which update the web app database(s) each day at 7 AM; and (2) timed interactions between the web app database(s) and third-party notification providers (i.e., email and text message notification services).

We used Google Cloud Platform to develop ShellCast because of certain requirements (e.g., text and email message notifications) that would have been more difficult and/or costly, but not impossible, to implement with other web app frameworks. Alternative frameworks include Shiny ( https://www.shinyapps.io ), Dash ( https://plotly.com/dash ), ESRI StoryMaps ( https://storymaps.arcgis.com ), Tableau ( https://www.tableau.com ), HiCharts ( https://www.highcharts.com ), and PowerBI ( https://powerbi.microsoft.com ). As an example, web app email authentication is possible with Shiny, an open-source framework, but this service is only provided under higher web app hosting pricing plans. However, we encourage novice web developers to consider their project goals and check out these user-friendly platforms for developing interactive, engaging, and research-driven web apps.

Furthermore, in our case, there was a clear need for a web app that reduced the uncertainty of managing shellfish growing operations in coastal North Carolina. Prior to web app development, we recommend researchers ask: Is there demand for the proposed web app? Does a similar web app already exist that you could contribute to instead? Do we have the resources to maintain the app for years to come? Thinking about the utility and sustainability of the web app in the long term needs to be considered from the start and is key to developing an impact web app.

Rule 1: Start with user-centered design

An idea for a web app, no matter how useful and wonderful it may seem, will not be of much use if you cannot articulate who is going to use your web app and what they will do with it. In the case of a decision support tool, it is especially important to know how your users will go about making decisions using your web app [ 25 ]. This process of designing a web app around what the user wants is broadly known as user-centered design (UCD). UCD is an iterative approach to design that focuses on understanding the user at all stages of the design and development phase [ 26 , 27 ]. The specific methods and processes implemented with UCD may vary by the project type and application, but, in general, UCD encompasses four iterative phases (see Fig 2 ): (1) understanding the context of use; (2) specifying user requirements; (3) designing solutions; and (4) evaluating the solution against user requirements [ 28 ].

Dashed lines represent feedback in the iterative process. UCD, user-centered design . Figure adapted by Sierra N. Young and Sheila M. Saia from [ 27 ].

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The first two phases of UCD require conducting research that will help you understand the target users and tasks for your app, emphasizing that it is critical to consider users and their tasks early on in the design process, before jumping directly into web app development. The first phase focuses on understanding who, why, and under which circumstances users will actually use your web app, while the second phase focuses on the specific user goals, needs, tasks, and challenges that will shape the requirements of the web app. There are multiple methods that can be implemented during these phases, such as contextual inquiries, user interviews, task modeling, developing personas, and user and task analysis [ 29 – 31 ]. Many of these methods require interaction with potential users of your app. As an example, task-centered design, which is widely used for web app development [ 31 , 32 ], can be implemented to identify which specific steps must be taken by the user to meet their needs. If you have trouble finding potential users, this is a good indication that you may need to rethink your web app concept. Additionally, these research-focused phases offer an opportunity to determine whether or not a web app is the most appropriate method for implementing your proposed solution.

The third phase of UCD focuses on designing and implementing solutions. Depending on how far along in the design process your team is, this solution may take the form of a simple mock-up or wireframe or a fully functioning app prototype. It is unlikely you will get the web app design right the first time; therefore, getting feedback on low-stakes mock-ups early in the design process will save you time, money, and resources (see Rule 2). Admittedly, we (Saia and Nelson) did not include mock-ups in the first version of the ShellCast contract draft ( S1 Text ; see Rule 5) and were later advised by (very patient) Office of Information Technologies staff at our institution that it was imperative for users and web developers to see mock-ups prior to the creation of the web app. To illustrate how contracts and mock-ups are drafted in practice, we offer the final version of the ShellCast contract complete with mock-ups ( S2 Text , S1 Fig ). Finally, in the fourth phase of UCD, all designs developed during the development process must be tested and evaluated against user requirements (see user testing and evaluation in Rule 2).

Rule 2: Test early, test often

Continuous testing is critical throughout the development process because it ensures that your web app is working as intended and is usable. Web apps must be checked for a variety of factors, including functionality, compatibility, security, and usability. During the software development phase, researchers should conduct functionality tests to ensure that software requirements are met. Functionality tests include evaluating individual units (e.g., forms, links, client page, and server page), unit integration (e.g., redirects and client/server couplings) as well as full system or end-to-end functionality, the latter testing all layers of an application in a single workflow [ 33 ]. These types of tests can often be automated with tools such as Cypress ( www.cypress.io ) or Selenium ( www.selenium.dev ) and are critical for finding bugs or other software-related issues. Automated functionality testing cannot always fully replicate the user experience, so be sure to supplement this type of software functionality testing with evaluation and testing by real users.

User testing and evaluation should be conducted throughout the web app development process and include a diverse range of potential users. User testing is important because it allows the web development team (including researchers, like us) to iterate on the web app design and ensure that it meets user expectations. There are commercially available services and companies dedicated to conducting comprehensive user tests; however, these services have the potential to slow down development. If budget or time constraints prevent you from using these services, you can conduct your own user testing with a little guidance (e.g., [ 31 ]). In general, there are three main types of user testing: (1) formative evaluations, which are performed during iterative design to find web app usability issues to be fixed during the next iteration; (2) field studies, which find problems in web app use contexts and collect qualitative observations; and (3) controlled experiments, which test hypotheses and collect quantitative observations about web app use [ 31 , 34 ]. In general, user testing requires finding actual users, selecting tasks for evaluation, providing users with a prototype web app for use, deciding what data to collect, choosing an evaluation method, and collecting data. There are many types of evaluation methods, each with their own purpose, pros, and cons. Common methods include surveys (chapter 5 of [ 34 ]), case studies (chapter 7 of [ 34 ]), focus groups (chapter 8 of [ 34 ]), interaction evaluation and measurement tools such as UXtweak ( uxtweak.com ) (see also chapter 23 of [ 35 ]), and online testing apps and services, such as User Testing ( www.usertesting.com ) or UsabilityHub ( usabilityhub.com ). A comprehensive survey of evaluation methods is outside the scope of this paper, but the resources provided in this section should provide enough guidance to get started on your user testing journey. In addition, if you find yourself evaluating a web application that provides new functionality, findings from formal user testing studies [ 34 ] may be publishable in an appropriate journal if the necessary steps are taken to design the experiments and protect participant privacy (see Rule 4).

We (Saia and Nelson) knew very little about user testing when developing ShellCast. Despite our limited knowledge, we understood that feedback was important and implemented two user testing periods using surveys administered via Google Forms. The goal of these surveys was to learn about potential issues that users might encounter when interacting with an initial version (user test #1, S3 Text ) and improved version (user test #2, S4 Text ) of ShellCast. While participants in these tests were not actual users of the web application (i.e., shellfish growers), they were colleagues in our field who have connections with actual users. The 2 ShellCast user testing surveys that we distributed early in the web app development process proved helpful in uncovering issues associated with signing up for an account, getting text notifications, and deciding which and how much information to convey to web app users. We are in the process of rolling out ShellCast to shellfish growers and conducting additional user testing through surveys and focus group discussions led by a professional facilitator.

Rule 3: Make it accessible

To ensure that web apps can be used by all, it is important that researchers adhere to accessibility guidelines. Here, we consider accessibility not as a measure of openness as described by Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, and Reusable (FAIR) [ 36 , 37 ] research output guidelines, but rather as a measure of a web app’s utility to people of diverse abilities. Website accessibility is important because it helps ensure that a broad group of people will be able to use your app and also because there are laws mandating that your app and websites are accessible. Being based in the United States (US), we focus on US laws and standards in this ten simple rules paper. US-specific accessibility laws that impact researchers developing web apps include Title 2 [ 38 ] and Title 3 [ 39 ] of the Americans with Disabilities Act, associated web accessibility standards such as Section 504 through the US Department of Education Office of Civil Rights [ 40 ], and Revised Section 508 and 255 Guidelines of the Rehabilitation Act [ 41 ]. For researchers in the US, these legal standards are enforced by the US Department of Education’s Office of Civil Rights. These standards incorporate Web Content Accessibility Guidelines [ 42 ] developed by the international World Wide Web Consortium Web Accessibility Initiative; therefore, researchers outside of the US can look to these web accessibility guidelines too. If these laws and standards are not met, accessibility conformance can be enforced by informal complaints made directly to the web developer or formal complaints made through the Office of Civil Rights or through lawsuit to the university.

You should plan for accessibility as early as possible in the web app development process. This includes taking time early on to ensure that your web app is designed so it can be accessed by assistive technologies such as dictation software, screen readers, refreshable braille displays, and many others. For example, information provided in a map can also be made available in a table format ( Fig 1B zoomed inset), the latter of which is more accessible to screen readers. You can also practice accessibility when developing surveys and feedback forms [ 43 ], captioning web app–related videos, and including alt text along with all images. Alt text is text that describes an image (nontextual) and is assigned as an image attribute in the front end HTML tag for the image (e.g., <img src = "picture.png" alt = "A picture">; in the web app back end language [ 44 ]). Assistive technologies like screen readers rely on the image attribute to communicate meaning to their users. Some of the most common web accessibility issues (e.g., low color contrast, unlabeled form fields, and no alt text or video captions) are fairly easy for web developers to fix [ 45 ].

Digital accessibility standards are fairly new and can be confusing, especially if you have little or no experience navigating them. Second to planning ahead, researchers can refer to Web Content Accessibility Guidelines [ 42 ]. Third, researchers can ask web accessibility coordinators for help reviewing and addressing potential web app accessibility issues (see Rule 7). The organizational structure of web accessibility coordinators at each institution is unique; however, these staff are often based in a researcher’s office of information technology, office of diversity and inclusion, office of disability resources, office of communications, or office of digital accessibility. Last but not least, web app developers can use web accessibility evaluation tools to scan their web app for accessibility issues and implement solutions to these issues via updates to front end design and back end scripts. Two example web accessibility evaluation tools include the pope.tech platform ( https://pope.th ) and the ANDI bookmarklet ( https://github.com/SSAgov/ANDI ). Programs like Color Oracle ( https://colororacle.org ) can help you check that web app graphics are color blind friendly. During the development of ShellCast, we scanned the application with pope.tech and discovered the contrast of our colors needed to be increased, which we likely would have never realized had we not used the pope.tech tool.

Rule 4: Protect your users

Researchers developing web apps have a responsibility to meet modern web standards for user security, which include (1) protecting information that users share; and (2) being transparent about how data collected through the web app will be used. If based in the European Union, you must adhere to strict data privacy laws laid out in the EU’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR [ 46 , 47 ]). However, we recommend non-European–based researchers (like us) do their best to meet GDPR requirements because they protect the user and ensure that the web app is globally inclusive. Depending on the scope of your web app, researchers in the US may look to notable privacy protection laws including Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act, Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act, Children Online Privacy Protection Act, and California Consumer Privacy Act. Web app security and privacy is especially important if users sign up, log in, and receive a service because information collected during this process may include personal identifiers like email addresses, phone numbers, mailing addresses, and other personal information. In our case, users can log into ShellCast, set up a profile, add map pins, and select text message and/or email notification preferences.

There are several ways researchers can put security and privacy protections into practice. First, you can leverage third-party integrations including sign up/sign in using Gmail, Facebook, Microsoft, Twitter, etc., because these services will manage passwords for you. You can also use cloud-based web services to offload typical security maintenance, thereby ensuring that your web app is deployed with the latest web security updates. In our case, our institution has access to Gmail and Google Cloud Platform, so ShellCast is built with these services. It is also important to have Transport Layer Security (TLS) to encrypt user inputs and keep them safe from hackers. From the user’s point of view, this looks like a “https://” web app hyperlink rather than the less secure “http://” hyperlink. Let’s Encrypt provides a basic level of TLS encryption at no cost that is appropriate for most needs. Second, you can include a privacy policy on your website that includes details on how information will be protected and used by the researchers. Privacy statement starter templates can be found online (e.g., [ 48 ]). As an example, you can view the ShellCast privacy policy ( S5 Text ). While it may take some planning ahead, you may also consider giving users the ability to delete their account and download their data; this is included in the GDPR discussed above. Third, you can create a data management plan, include details on what data will be made public and who will be responsible for data stewardship, and share that data management plan along with your web app documentation. Researchers can look to existing data management plan resources (DMPTool, https://dmptool.org ; [ 49 ]) and web app management plan references mentioned in Rule 10. Fourth, if you expect to publish user feedback in peer-reviewed publications, you must get ethical approval, for example, from an institutional review board, before doing so. Last but not least, we endorse proactive, transparent, and ethical data management, as described by several others [ 50 – 53 ]. Ethical data management puts data privacy and data governance needs of the users and broader community first.

Rule 5: Hire a web developer or become one

Researchers interested in creating web apps can contract out for web development. Doing so will improve web app functionality and professional appearance since the development firm will put together a team of specialists to work on your web app. Typically, this team will include a project manager, back end developer, front end developer, and possibly a graphic designer and documentation writer. If you are interested in contracting a web development firm, your first step will be to develop a request for proposals (RFPs) that will then be posted and advertised by your institution. Web development firms will then submit any follow up or clarifying questions, which you will need to answer so your institution can post your responses along with the public RFP. After reading your responses, web development firms will then submit proposals and budgets to your institution for your consideration. You will then choose which firm to contract with based on these proposals. Importantly, take time to think through web app tasks before writing and publishing the RFP. The RFP must be extremely precise and specific; it should outline all expectations for the web app, including its appearance and functionality (see Rule 1). If functions or features of the web app need to be adjusted at a later point, a contract renegotiation may be necessary. From our experience, if you are inexperienced in web app development, you may struggle to prepare an accurate and fully specified RFP, which can create a risky situation since you may go into contract for work that is not reflective of what you seek to accomplish. In addition to the challenges that come with preparing a precise RFP, budgets associated with web development firm projects can be large, as you are paying the salaries of a team of expert specialists. See the Supporting information for the early ( S1 Text ) and final ( S2 Text ) versions of our RFP; the final version includes edits that were made in response to questions from prospective web development firms.

Despite only having budgeted $20,000 USD for all web app–related expenses, we received proposed project budgets ranging from $60,000 USD to $180,000 USD. The more specificity you provide in the RFP, the smaller the proposed project budget ranges will be. Confronted with these outsized proposed budgets relative to our available funds, we explored alternatives. After going through this process, we learned that we could ask our institution to post the RFP on our local small business association email list, small business and technology development center email list (e.g., https://sbtdc.org/offices/ncsu ), and on popular freelance job websites such as Fiverr ( https://www.fiverr.com/ ) or Upwork ( https://www.upwork.com/ ), among others.

Rather than having to work through the RFP process, we ideally would have identified a qualified web developer experienced in the type of web application we were interested in creating and then worked alongside the developer to outline expectations and needed features. From our experience, we came to appreciate the need for institutions and research sponsors to provide more resources that support expert software development. As the subdiscipline of research software engineering (RSE) grows and becomes more established [ 54 – 56 ], permanent RSE positions across multiple institutional levels (i.e., from general consultants at the university level to specialized positions embedded within research groups) will hopefully become commonplace. Had a research software engineer been available at our institution, we could have avoided the RFP process and hurdles associated with vetting outside developer groups.

The second alternative we identified was to hire a computer science student, which is the option we ultimately went with for ShellCast. Although still in training, many undergraduate and graduate computer science students have the skills needed to develop web apps—plus, they are eager to gain practical experience. We were able to hire the student (Parham) on an hourly basis, which provided flexibility as we ventured into new territory and identified additional features and functions during the development process that we had not originally considered (because we are novice web developers). Had we contracted with a web development firm, we likely would have been limited in our ability to incorporate these new ideas generated by the web app development process into ShellCast without contract renegotiation. By hiring a student, we also avoided many of the administrative tasks and overhead costs associated with hiring an external freelance web developer or web development firm. Most importantly, we found that student applicants to the ShellCast team were eager to try out new tools that would best serve the project (instead of using tools they felt most comfortable with) and work with us despite our lesser experience. However, hiring a student to develop your app can come with sustainability challenges (see Rule 10).

Of course, rather than hire a web developer, you can become one yourself! Platforms like Shiny and ESRI StoryMaps offer user-friendly templates and tutorials to help novice developers create web apps. In our case, because ShellCast users needed to create accounts and receive text/email notifications, we needed external web development support. However, for researchers with introductory programming experience, there are many tools available that allow for the creation of simple web apps to present results and interactive data visualizations. Of course, undertaking web app development on your own will require time and energy that you may expend at the expense of other important tasks. In the process of developing ShellCast, we needed to outsource key elements of web app development in the interest of time efficiency, especially given that we were operating within the constraints of grant deadlines and managing other responsibilities outside of ShellCast. If we had more flexibility, we would have been more willing to take on the challenge of creating ShellCast without outsourcing a web developer. Additionally, since training students is part of our institution’s mission, we valued hiring a student over an outside organization because the student would have an opportunity to gain skills and experience as a member of our team. Therefore, deciding whether to develop a web app on your own versus hiring an outside developer will depend on your own expertise, timeline, and project vision.

Rule 6: Expect expenses

To the unseasoned web application creator, the costs associated with maintaining an application can be surprising (e.g., see our web app budget underestimation story in Rule 5). At a minimum, plan to budget for a web developer, web hosting fees, Secure Sockets Layer certificate for web app encryption, domain name costs, and cloud computing services. Setting aside a “rainy day” or “emergency” fund is also wise, as unexpected issues can arise that may derail the development or use of your app.

Web hosting refers to a suite of services needed to make a web page available to users. When a web page is constructed, it is stored or “hosted” on an internet server ( Fig 1C ). Users accessing a web app enter the web address (i.e., URL) in their web browser ( Fig 1B ), and the web browser connects to the internet service (e.g., Google Cloud Platform) hosting the web app. You can think of web hosting fees as rent paid for the space your web app occupies on an internet server. Similar to rent, web hosting fees are paid over periods (i.e., annually or monthly) and depend on whether the web app is static or dynamic, how much storage space you need (e.g., 10 GB), the number of people you expect to use the web app at the same time (i.e., network traffic), and in the case of dynamic web apps, the additional computing resources required. Many web hosting providers also offer domain name purchasing (e.g., GoDaddy, Dream Host, and Google Domains). Domain names can be purchased from a domain registrar (e.g., GoDaddy, Dream Host, and Google Domains) on a recurring basis. Notably, many institutions, such as universities, provide internal web hosting and domain name services at low rates, so be sure to check with experts at your institution before spending your hard-earned grant money.

To create a static web page, only web hosting and domain name purchasing is needed. However, some web apps may require cloud computing ( Fig 1C ), which refers to the on-demand storage and processing of data over the internet without the need for direct, active management of those services by the web app developer. Common cloud computing providers include Google Cloud Platform, Amazon Web Services, and Microsoft Azure Cloud. Many of these services provide cloud computing cost estimators (e.g., Google Cloud Platform Pricing Calculator, https://cloud.google.com/products/calculator ) and let you set budget alerts for each project. Additionally, if you plan to send emails or text messages as one of the functions of your application, expect to pay for each and every message sent using third-party integrations for emails (e.g., Mailchimp, SendGrid, and Mailgun) and short message service (SMS) texts (e.g., Twilio and Nexmo). Although the rates per message can be very low, these costs grow quickly as you scale up your web app. Lastly, we recommend you consider including funds to support user testing (see Rule 2), such as for contracted services or reimbursement for the testers’ time.

Rule 7: Leverage institutional expertise

When starting on your web development journey, look to professionals at your institution for feedback and support; these staff may share helpful resources and be great sounding boards throughout web app development while also bringing diverse perspectives and skill sets to your project. These professionals include information technology staff, library staff, computer scientists, user-experience/user-design staff, graphic designers, web accessibility staff (see Rule 3), research software engineers (see Rule 5), and many more. If your institution does not offer RSE support, you may also benefit from including students from computer science or other related fields on your team (see Rule 5). These students are often looking for hands-on experience as they work toward the completion of their degree.

We found several professionals in the information technologies office, library, and communications office that supported our work on ShellCast. Specifically, our university has designated outreach technologies staff within the information technology office; these staff regularly meet with researchers and give them feedback on resources, tools, and services that are available to support university-related web app development. Keep in mind that getting feedback from institutional staff is complementary to, but does not replace, involving users in the web app development process (see Rules 1 and 2). In a series of meetings with our outreach technologies staff, we were introduced to mock-ups (see Rule 1), university supported web app structures (see the Introduction, Fig 1C–1E ), database structures, web accessibility standards (see Rule 3), user privacy protection (see Rule 4), skills needed by the web developer to bring our app to fruition, user testing (see Rule 2), and much more. In addition to getting feedback from outreach technologies staff, we also contacted library staff to review the ShellCast web app documentation (see Rule 10). This was especially helpful because the university has staff (Vandegrift) who specialize in documentation, licensing, and sustainability of open-source software. Our funders required ShellCast to be open source, although we intended to pursue open-source standards all along. Additionally, we leveraged the expertise of a graphic designer in the communications office to help us develop the ShellCast logo as well as an infographic. These graphics enhanced the appearance of ShellCast and helped us explain how ShellCast works to members of the general public. In the end, working with a computer science student and in-house graphic designer kept us well within our budget.

Rule 8: Track your progress with existing collaboration tools

There are a number of existing resources and collaboration tools to help researchers and web developers keep track of their work, plan out project milestones, and assign tasks. The specific collaboration tools you choose to use when developing web apps may depend on many factors including whether (1) the tool easily interfaces with other available tools and resources; (2) the tool has all (or most of) the functionality needed to manage the web app project; (3) collaborators have previous experience and recommend using the tool; and (4) your team has the resources (e.g., financial and computing) to use the collaboration tool. To keep track of changes to web app code, use version control [ 57 – 59 ]. You can also use Kanban project management tools (e.g., [ 60 ]) such as those provided through platforms like GitHub projects ( https://github.com/features/project-management ), Trello ( https://trello.com ), Teamwork ( https://www.teamwork.com ), Jira ( https://www.atlassian.com/software/jira ), and many others. Project management tools can help the web app team chart project milestones, create and assign tasks, and keep track of emerging issues.

While building the ShellCast web app, we used both Git and GitHub to collaborate on and keep track of code. We created a GitHub project within the ShellCast web app repository and used this to track each team member’s progress on different tasks (also referred to as “issues” in the GitHub platform) as they moved from the “To Do” pile, to the “In Progress” pile, to the “Done” pile. We could comment on tasks in GitHub, which was helpful when referring back to past conversations and justifications for decisions even after tasks were completed. We could also use the issues to take notes and save helpful resources that we did not want to lose or could be important for new team members joining in the future. Importantly, keep in mind that when using an institution’s enterprise GitHub account, you will have to mirror your enterprise GitHub repository to a public GitHub repository should you wish to share your web app code openly. This is because the “public” setting on your enterprise GitHub repository is only public to folks within your institution. If we were to start over, we would have exclusively used a public GitHub repository.

Some of these same collaboration tools may also help you pursue open science. Reproducible and open work is often highly recommended by professional societies (e.g., [ 61 ]) and a requirement of federal funding; therefore, it’s important that you are aware of the expectations of your sponsors (e.g., [ 62 ]). Open and reproducible work may also be required by publishers (e.g., American Geophysical Union journals [ 63 ] and Public Library of Science (PLOS) journals [ 64 ]), which is important to consider early on should you wish to eventually publish a paper on your web app. The Carpentries offer several beginner-friendly, self-paced tutorials on version control, reproducible research, and programming languages widely used in open science at https://software-carpentry.org/lessons .

Rule 9: Estimate task times, then double them (and then some)

We recommend generously estimating the time needed to develop a web application, especially if you are new to application development. Keep in mind that even small changes to a web app can lead to reconfigurations of database structures and back end web application logic, often resulting in seemingly minor changes requiring a considerable amount of time to complete. You should not be surprised if tasks will change or be carried out differently after user testing. Make sure you budget conservatively for time needed to revise the application after receiving feedback from user testing (see Rule 2) and to document the web app (see Rule 10). Furthermore, we acknowledge that estimating task times can be very difficult because they depend on a number of things including (1) the number of developers working on the web app; (2) the experience the developers have working with the technologies that your web app needs; (3) the size and complexity of the web app; (4) the specificity of the web app functionality (i.e., whether or not you know exactly what the web app will do, how it will look, and how it will behave); (5) project organization and efficiency and many other uncertainties that are tough to comprehensively list here. There are tools available to help with estimating time needed to complete a web development project (e.g., Konigi [ 65 ] and Astuteo Estimator [ 66 ]), although these tools still require the user to estimate time ranges for each task. Ivan and Despa offer useful estimates of task times, particularly related to maintaining web applications [ 67 ].

Our experiences were as follows. The initial development of ShellCast took our web developer (Parham) approximately 275 hours, with revisions following two rounds of user testing amounting to 75 hours. This time does not include time spent by our second web developer (Saia) to develop the ShellCast algorithm and get up to speed on connecting to and updating the ShellCast database. To provide some more context, ShellCast is a small web app with fairly simple functionality that had two initial developers. One developer (Parham) worked on the web app overall code infrastructure, database, notifications, hosting, and documentation, while the other developer (Saia) worked on developing the forecast calculations, database, and documentation. The majority of ShellCast development was completed by these two web developers, who each worked strictly on web development for approximately 20 hours per week during the 2020 summer semester (i.e., May 15 to August 15, 2020). Web development was Parham’s primary focus, while Saia worked on web development (20 hours per week), coordinated and administered user testing (5 hours per week), managed project milestones and tasks (2 hours per week), and carried out other non-ShellCast research duties (13 hours per week). In the 2020 fall semester (i.e., August 15 to December 15, 2020), both web developers each worked on ShellCast development for approximately 5 to 10 hours per week; Parham’s focus shifted back to coursework and Saia’s focus shifted back to other research duties. This timeline worked well for us because we clearly and specifically defined ShellCast requirements in the beginning of the project; however, we had to make some significant changes along the way after having more in-depth conversations with collaborators; these changes were separate from those we made based on user testing feedback.

To balance time and web app development needs, we checked in with one another weekly to discuss what tasks we were working on, the level of urgency of a particular task, if we had any issues that were preventing progress, and our plans for addressing these tasks in the coming week. To help keep track of these tasks, we created a shared document listing out all of our milestones. We also used GitHub projects and GitHub tags (see Rule 8) that we updated on an approximately monthly basis.

Rule 10: Make it last: Plan for the long haul

The longevity of a web app depends on well-planned support (i.e., funding), maintenance, and documentation. Without proper planning, the impact of your web app will be cut short. In terms of support, web apps are commonly included in grants as a mechanism for disseminating research findings to stakeholders. In our limited US-based experience, proposals are rarely required to include plans on how a proposed web app will exist beyond the duration of the 1- to 5-year grant. Even when proposals include discussion of long-term web app support, the development phase often occurs toward the end of a project period, leaving little time for the web app to be discovered and used. By contrast, funders in the United Kingdom and EU often require a software management plan (e.g., [ 68 , 69 ]). To ensure long-term maintenance and utility of your web app, determine who will be designated as the web app maintainer(s) [ 58 , 70 ] and how long-term web app ownership and maintenance is defined [ 71 ].

Regarding documentation, we recommend budgeting time (and funds) for documenting your web app as well as incorporating documentation and project sustaining best practices (e.g., [ 72 – 74 ]). Whenever possible, build your web app using widely supported technologies and include a test suite (see Rule 2) to ensure that the web app code will function properly as an ensemble after you have made changes to the source code and web app dependencies (i.e., the software and code versions that your web app depends on to run). If your code relies on established R packages, Python libraries, or other software with particular version numbers, using a container system like Docker (e.g., [ 75 ]) or software environment like Conda (e.g., https://docs.conda.io/en/latest ) is critical for helping to future-proof your code and support its replicability. Although fundamentally different, both container systems and software environments allow for preservation of version-dependent software libraries with your unique code. You can use platforms like Zenodo ( https://about.zenodo.org ) to permanently archive versions of your web app code and allow them to be cited via a digital object identifier (DOI).

For ShellCast, we explicitly included documentation of typical developer tasks in a DEVELOPER.md markdown file, included several other markdown files to document other important web app–related setup steps and tasks, and included a text file listing all the required R packages and Python libraries. We also documented ShellCast unit tests, and in the future, would like to implement automatic unit testing and deployment of the ShellCast web app using continuous integration platforms (e.g., Travis CI; https://travis-ci.org ). While we did not use GitHub Actions ( https://docs.github.com/en/actions ) at the time we were developing ShellCast. This tool offers another helpful approach to automate tasks, including running your testing scripts. You can learn more about successful web app documentation, maintenance, and longevity as well as doing open and reproducible science from many resources available online (e.g., [ 76 – 82 ]), several of which are in the ten simple rules collection [ 21 , 37 , 57 , 70 , 72 – 74 , 83 – 87 ].

In the case of open-source web app development, researchers may wish to plan for and initiate involvement of the user community (see Rule 1), including researchers in related fields who are interested in maintaining the web app into the future. This group of interested users is often referred to as a maintainer community. Look to collaboration guidelines such as those proposed by The Mozilla Open Leaders Project for maintainer community best practices [ 88 ] or the Sustain online discussion board for open-source projects ( https://discourse.sustainoss.org ). Last but not least, we reiterate the importance of leveraging technology services offered through your university (e.g., domain names; see Rule 7) to avoid issues that could arise if your maintenance funds are limited (now or in the future). University technology services may impose some restrictions, like the lack of a public release option for a university-sponsored GitHub Enterprise account, but they at least provide a measure of expected sustainability and support from the organization’s IT and developer teams.

In many cases, app discoverability and longevity are linked and can be improved by using established cyberinfrastructure or building upon existing web apps. For example, Openscapes ( https://openscapes.org ) staff encourages researchers interested in open and reproducible science (including software and web app development) to ask themselves: “[Am] I being as open as I can be, am I being as inclusive as I can be, and will I be able to maintain what I’m starting?” [ 58 , 89 ]. Before beginning web app development, scan the web app landscape to see if there are similar open-source projects that could be adapted, rather than building a web app from scratch. Your subject specialist librarian is a great resource for starting this scan (see Rule 7) and can also help you navigate evolving practices in software citation (e.g., [ 90 ]), data publishing (e.g., [ 91 ]), and other emerging topics that are web app related. Most research libraries have subject specialists and/or functional experts (i.e., data management librarians) and can be generally supportive of many questions beyond providing resources for research. Since research infrastructure—the services, protocols, standards, and software that the academic ecosystem needs to perform its functions—is constantly modernizing and standardizing, these library staff can also help you improve the longevity of your web app. Specifically, they can share information and resources to build sustainable products (i.e., your web app) that are also interoperable across the landscape.

Since routine web app operation requires a domain name, web hosting, and cloud computing services, funds are needed for long-term support (see Rule 6). Researchers interested in developing web apps should acknowledge the need for continued support in proposals and outline potential funding sources that they can pursue to support web app longevity. Acknowledging that web apps require regular maintenance and enduring financial support demonstrates understanding of the realistic resources it takes for a web app to come to fruition, thus increasing the researcher’s credibility. Applying for alternate funding opportunities like Fund Open Source Software ( https://fundoss.org ), Chan Zuckerberg Initiative for Essential Open Source Software ( https://chanzuckerberg.com/rfa/essential-open-source-software-for-science ), Google Summer of Code ( https://summerofcode.withgoogle.com ), and Outreachy ( https://www.outreachy.org ), to name a few, can stretch the longevity of your web app. Of course, an alternative approach for sustaining a web app is to explore options for commercialization [ 20 ], which could cover the cost of web app expenses through advertisements or other user base-associated business models.

Conclusions

Web apps serve as powerful tools to extend research findings to members of the public and research community, but their development is not easy. Successfully creating web apps for educational and outreach purposes requires teamwork with professionals that have diverse skill sets as well as careful and thoughtful planning to ensure that the web apps are relevant to end users, accessible to all, and long lasting. Here, we have outlined ten simple rules for researchers to consider as they venture out on their own web app development journeys, with several of these rules serving as “lessons learned” from our own personal experiences developing the web app, ShellCast. In summary, a good thought to keep in mind is build for usability, budget in flexibility, and begin maintenance plans from the start.

Supporting information

ShellCast wireframes, including (a) main page map view when user is not signed in, (b) main page table view, (c) ShellCast “About” page, (d) user login page, (e) user notifications/profile page, and (f) main page map view when user is signed in (can see lease pin and click pin to see lease-specific information).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1009663.s001

S1 Text. First version of our RFPs contract “Scope of Work” section.

RFP, request for proposals.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1009663.s002

S2 Text. Final version of our RFPs contract “Scope of Work” section.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1009663.s003

S3 Text. “Phase 0” ShellCast user testing survey questions.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1009663.s004

S4 Text. “Phase 1” ShellCast user testing survey questions.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1009663.s005

S5 Text. ShellCast privacy policy.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1009663.s006

Acknowledgments

We thank Everette Allen, Walter Turner, and Crystal Tenan for their critical feedback on this manuscript and for teaching us many of the lessons summarized here.

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A conceptual framework proposed through literature review to determine the dimensions of social transparency in global supply chains

• Published: 16 May 2024

Cite this article

• Preethi Raja 1 &
• Usha Mohan   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2161-7600 1  

The current focus in supply chain management (SCM) research revolves around the relationship between sustainability and supply chain transparency (SCT). Despite the three pillars of sustainability – environmental, social, and economic- the limited and scattered analysis is on the social part, and the least is on socially responsible supply chain management (SR-SCM). SCT plays a significant role in elevating the sustainability of the supply chain. This review paper emphasizes the integration of SCT and sustainable supply chain, especially the social aspect as SR-SCM, and coining the new term social transparency (ST). ST is openness to communicating details about the impact of business on people, their well-being, and compliance with social sustainability standards and policies. This paper establishes a conceptual framework using three research methods. systematic literature review, content analysis-based literature review, and framework development. By locating studies in databases like EBSCO, Scopus, and Web of Science, 273 peer-reviewed articles were identified in the intersection of social sustainability, supply chains, and transparency. Finally, the framework proposes five dimensions: tracking and tracing suppliers till provenance, product and process specifications, financial transaction information, social sustainability policies and compliance, and performance assessment to determine ST in global supply chains.

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Data availability.

The data that supports the findings of this systematic literature review and content analysis are either included in this manuscript or are publicly available in the referenced sources. All included studies and their respective citations are provided in the reference section. Any additional data or materials used for this review can be obtained upon request from the corresponding author.

Abbreviations

Supply chain management

Socially responsible supply chain management

Supply Chain Transparency

Social Transparency

Multinational Corporations

Code of Conduct

Corporate Social Responsibility

Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses

Radio frequency Identification

Internet of Things

Sustainable Supply Chain Management

Supply Chain

Textile Standard Certification

Worldwide Responsible Accredited Production

Global Organic Textile Standard

Global Recycled Standard

Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction on the use of Chemicals

Social Accountability International Certification

Indian Standards Institution Mark

Bureau of Indian Standards

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Raja, P., Mohan, U. A conceptual framework proposed through literature review to determine the dimensions of social transparency in global supply chains. Manag Rev Q (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11301-024-00440-1

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• 09 May 2024

Cubic millimetre of brain mapped in spectacular detail

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Rendering based on electron-microscope data, showing the positions of neurons in a fragment of the brain cortex. Neurons are coloured according to size. Credit: Google Research & Lichtman Lab (Harvard University). Renderings by D. Berger (Harvard University)

Researchers have mapped a tiny piece of the human brain in astonishing detail. The resulting cell atlas, which was described today in Science 1 and is available online , reveals new patterns of connections between brain cells called neurons, as well as cells that wrap around themselves to form knots, and pairs of neurons that are almost mirror images of each other.

The 3D map covers a volume of about one cubic millimetre, one-millionth of a whole brain, and contains roughly 57,000 cells and 150 million synapses — the connections between neurons. It incorporates a colossal 1.4 petabytes of data. “It’s a little bit humbling,” says Viren Jain, a neuroscientist at Google in Mountain View, California, and a co-author of the paper. “How are we ever going to really come to terms with all this complexity?”

Slivers of brain

The brain fragment was taken from a 45-year-old woman when she underwent surgery to treat her epilepsy. It came from the cortex, a part of the brain involved in learning, problem-solving and processing sensory signals. The sample was immersed in preservatives and stained with heavy metals to make the cells easier to see. Neuroscientist Jeff Lichtman at Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and his colleagues then cut the sample into around 5,000 slices — each just 34 nanometres thick — that could be imaged using electron microscopes.

Jain’s team then built artificial-intelligence models that were able to stitch the microscope images together to reconstruct the whole sample in 3D. “I remember this moment, going into the map and looking at one individual synapse from this woman’s brain, and then zooming out into these other millions of pixels,” says Jain. “It felt sort of spiritual.”

A single neuron (white) shown with 5,600 of the axons (blue) that connect to it. The synapses that make these connections are shown in green. Credit: Google Research & Lichtman Lab (Harvard University). Renderings by D. Berger (Harvard University)

When examining the model in detail, the researchers discovered unconventional neurons, including some that made up to 50 connections with each other. “In general, you would find a couple of connections at most between two neurons,” says Jain. Elsewhere, the model showed neurons with tendrils that formed knots around themselves. “Nobody had seen anything like this before,” Jain adds.

The team also found pairs of neurons that were near-perfect mirror images of each other. “We found two groups that would send their dendrites in two different directions, and sometimes there was a kind of mirror symmetry,” Jain says. It is unclear what role these features have in the brain.

Proofreaders needed

The map is so large that most of it has yet to be manually checked, and it could still contain errors created by the process of stitching so many images together. “Hundreds of cells have been ‘proofread’, but that’s obviously a few per cent of the 50,000 cells in there,” says Jain. He hopes that others will help to proofread parts of the map they are interested in. The team plans to produce similar maps of brain samples from other people — but a map of the entire brain is unlikely in the next few decades, he says.

“This paper is really the tour de force creation of a human cortex data set,” says Hongkui Zeng, director of the Allen Institute for Brain Science in Seattle. The vast amount of data that has been made freely accessible will “allow the community to look deeper into the micro-circuitry in the human cortex”, she adds.

Gaining a deeper understanding of how the cortex works could offer clues about how to treat some psychiatric and neurodegenerative diseases. “This map provides unprecedented details that can unveil new rules of neural connections and help to decipher the inner working of the human brain,” says Yongsoo Kim, a neuroscientist at Pennsylvania State University in Hershey.

doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-024-01387-9

Shapson-Coe, A. et al. Science 384 , eadk4858 (2024).

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Cultural Relativity and Acceptance of Embryonic Stem Cell Research

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There is a debate about the ethical implications of using human embryos in stem cell research, which can be influenced by cultural, moral, and social values. This paper argues for an adaptable framework to accommodate diverse cultural and religious perspectives. By using an adaptive ethics model, research protections can reflect various populations and foster growth in stem cell research possibilities.

INTRODUCTION

Stem cell research combines biology, medicine, and technology, promising to alter health care and the understanding of human development. Yet, ethical contention exists because of individuals’ perceptions of using human embryos based on their various cultural, moral, and social values. While these disagreements concerning policy, use, and general acceptance have prompted the development of an international ethics policy, such a uniform approach can overlook the nuanced ethical landscapes between cultures. With diverse viewpoints in public health, a single global policy, especially one reflecting Western ethics or the ethics prevalent in high-income countries, is impractical. This paper argues for a culturally sensitive, adaptable framework for the use of embryonic stem cells. Stem cell policy should accommodate varying ethical viewpoints and promote an effective global dialogue. With an extension of an ethics model that can adapt to various cultures, we recommend localized guidelines that reflect the moral views of the people those guidelines serve.

Stem cells, characterized by their unique ability to differentiate into various cell types, enable the repair or replacement of damaged tissues. Two primary types of stem cells are somatic stem cells (adult stem cells) and embryonic stem cells. Adult stem cells exist in developed tissues and maintain the body’s repair processes. [1] Embryonic stem cells (ESC) are remarkably pluripotent or versatile, making them valuable in research. [2] However, the use of ESCs has sparked ethics debates. Considering the potential of embryonic stem cells, research guidelines are essential. The International Society for Stem Cell Research (ISSCR) provides international stem cell research guidelines. They call for “public conversations touching on the scientific significance as well as the societal and ethical issues raised by ESC research.” [3] The ISSCR also publishes updates about culturing human embryos 14 days post fertilization, suggesting local policies and regulations should continue to evolve as ESC research develops. [4]  Like the ISSCR, which calls for local law and policy to adapt to developing stem cell research given cultural acceptance, this paper highlights the importance of local social factors such as religion and culture.

I.     Global Cultural Perspective of Embryonic Stem Cells

Views on ESCs vary throughout the world. Some countries readily embrace stem cell research and therapies, while others have stricter regulations due to ethical concerns surrounding embryonic stem cells and when an embryo becomes entitled to moral consideration. The philosophical issue of when the “someone” begins to be a human after fertilization, in the morally relevant sense, [5] impacts when an embryo becomes not just worthy of protection but morally entitled to it. The process of creating embryonic stem cell lines involves the destruction of the embryos for research. [6] Consequently, global engagement in ESC research depends on social-cultural acceptability.

a.     US and Rights-Based Cultures

In the United States, attitudes toward stem cell therapies are diverse. The ethics and social approaches, which value individualism, [7] trigger debates regarding the destruction of human embryos, creating a complex regulatory environment. For example, the 1996 Dickey-Wicker Amendment prohibited federal funding for the creation of embryos for research and the destruction of embryos for “more than allowed for research on fetuses in utero.” [8] Following suit, in 2001, the Bush Administration heavily restricted stem cell lines for research. However, the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act of 2005 was proposed to help develop ESC research but was ultimately vetoed. [9] Under the Obama administration, in 2009, an executive order lifted restrictions allowing for more development in this field. [10] The flux of research capacity and funding parallels the different cultural perceptions of human dignity of the embryo and how it is socially presented within the country’s research culture. [11]

b.     Ubuntu and Collective Cultures

African bioethics differs from Western individualism because of the different traditions and values. African traditions, as described by individuals from South Africa and supported by some studies in other African countries, including Ghana and Kenya, follow the African moral philosophies of Ubuntu or Botho and Ukama , which “advocates for a form of wholeness that comes through one’s relationship and connectedness with other people in the society,” [12] making autonomy a socially collective concept. In this context, for the community to act autonomously, individuals would come together to decide what is best for the collective. Thus, stem cell research would require examining the value of the research to society as a whole and the use of the embryos as a collective societal resource. If society views the source as part of the collective whole, and opposes using stem cells, compromising the cultural values to pursue research may cause social detachment and stunt research growth. [13] Based on local culture and moral philosophy, the permissibility of stem cell research depends on how embryo, stem cell, and cell line therapies relate to the community as a whole. Ubuntu is the expression of humanness, with the person’s identity drawn from the “’I am because we are’” value. [14] The decision in a collectivistic culture becomes one born of cultural context, and individual decisions give deference to others in the society.

Consent differs in cultures where thought and moral philosophy are based on a collective paradigm. So, applying Western bioethical concepts is unrealistic. For one, Africa is a diverse continent with many countries with different belief systems, access to health care, and reliance on traditional or Western medicines. Where traditional medicine is the primary treatment, the “’restrictive focus on biomedically-related bioethics’” [is] problematic in African contexts because it neglects bioethical issues raised by traditional systems.” [15] No single approach applies in all areas or contexts. Rather than evaluating the permissibility of ESC research according to Western concepts such as the four principles approach, different ethics approaches should prevail.

Another consideration is the socio-economic standing of countries. In parts of South Africa, researchers have not focused heavily on contributing to the stem cell discourse, either because it is not considered health care or a health science priority or because resources are unavailable. [16] Each country’s priorities differ given different social, political, and economic factors. In South Africa, for instance, areas such as maternal mortality, non-communicable diseases, telemedicine, and the strength of health systems need improvement and require more focus. [17] Stem cell research could benefit the population, but it also could divert resources from basic medical care. Researchers in South Africa adhere to the National Health Act and Medicines Control Act in South Africa and international guidelines; however, the Act is not strictly enforced, and there is no clear legislation for research conduct or ethical guidelines. [18]

Some parts of Africa condemn stem cell research. For example, 98.2 percent of the Tunisian population is Muslim. [19] Tunisia does not permit stem cell research because of moral conflict with a Fatwa. Religion heavily saturates the regulation and direction of research. [20] Stem cell use became permissible for reproductive purposes only recently, with tight restrictions preventing cells from being used in any research other than procedures concerning ART/IVF.  Their use is conditioned on consent, and available only to married couples. [21] The community's receptiveness to stem cell research depends on including communitarian African ethics.

c.     Asia

Some Asian countries also have a collective model of ethics and decision making. [22] In China, the ethics model promotes a sincere respect for life or human dignity, [23] based on protective medicine. This model, influenced by Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), [24] recognizes Qi as the vital energy delivered via the meridians of the body; it connects illness to body systems, the body’s entire constitution, and the universe for a holistic bond of nature, health, and quality of life. [25] Following a protective ethics model, and traditional customs of wholeness, investment in stem cell research is heavily desired for its applications in regenerative therapies, disease modeling, and protective medicines. In a survey of medical students and healthcare practitioners, 30.8 percent considered stem cell research morally unacceptable while 63.5 percent accepted medical research using human embryonic stem cells. Of these individuals, 89.9 percent supported increased funding for stem cell research. [26] The scientific community might not reflect the overall population. From 1997 to 2019, China spent a total of $576 million (USD) on stem cell research at 8,050 stem cell programs, increased published presence from 0.6 percent to 14.01 percent of total global stem cell publications as of 2014, and made significant strides in cell-based therapies for various medical conditions. [27] However, while China has made substantial investments in stem cell research and achieved notable progress in clinical applications, concerns linger regarding ethical oversight and transparency. [28] For example, the China Biosecurity Law, promoted by the National Health Commission and China Hospital Association, attempted to mitigate risks by introducing an institutional review board (IRB) in the regulatory bodies. 5800 IRBs registered with the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry since 2021. [29] However, issues still need to be addressed in implementing effective IRB review and approval procedures.

The substantial government funding and focus on scientific advancement have sometimes overshadowed considerations of regional cultures, ethnic minorities, and individual perspectives, particularly evident during the one-child policy era. As government policy adapts to promote public stability, such as the change from the one-child to the two-child policy, [30] research ethics should also adapt to ensure respect for the values of its represented peoples.

Japan is also relatively supportive of stem cell research and therapies. Japan has a more transparent regulatory framework, allowing for faster approval of regenerative medicine products, which has led to several advanced clinical trials and therapies. [31] South Korea is also actively engaged in stem cell research and has a history of breakthroughs in cloning and embryonic stem cells. [32] However, the field is controversial, and there are issues of scientific integrity. For example, the Korean FDA fast-tracked products for approval, [33] and in another instance, the oocyte source was unclear and possibly violated ethical standards. [34] Trust is important in research, as it builds collaborative foundations between colleagues, trial participant comfort, open-mindedness for complicated and sensitive discussions, and supports regulatory procedures for stakeholders. There is a need to respect the culture’s interest, engagement, and for research and clinical trials to be transparent and have ethical oversight to promote global research discourse and trust.

d.     Middle East

Countries in the Middle East have varying degrees of acceptance of or restrictions to policies related to using embryonic stem cells due to cultural and religious influences. Saudi Arabia has made significant contributions to stem cell research, and conducts research based on international guidelines for ethical conduct and under strict adherence to guidelines in accordance with Islamic principles. Specifically, the Saudi government and people require ESC research to adhere to Sharia law. In addition to umbilical and placental stem cells, [35] Saudi Arabia permits the use of embryonic stem cells as long as they come from miscarriages, therapeutic abortions permissible by Sharia law, or are left over from in vitro fertilization and donated to research. [36] Laws and ethical guidelines for stem cell research allow the development of research institutions such as the King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, which has a cord blood bank and a stem cell registry with nearly 10,000 donors. [37] Such volume and acceptance are due to the ethical ‘permissibility’ of the donor sources, which do not conflict with religious pillars. However, some researchers err on the side of caution, choosing not to use embryos or fetal tissue as they feel it is unethical to do so. [38]

Jordan has a positive research ethics culture. [39] However, there is a significant issue of lack of trust in researchers, with 45.23 percent (38.66 percent agreeing and 6.57 percent strongly agreeing) of Jordanians holding a low level of trust in researchers, compared to 81.34 percent of Jordanians agreeing that they feel safe to participate in a research trial. [40] Safety testifies to the feeling of confidence that adequate measures are in place to protect participants from harm, whereas trust in researchers could represent the confidence in researchers to act in the participants’ best interests, adhere to ethical guidelines, provide accurate information, and respect participants’ rights and dignity. One method to improve trust would be to address communication issues relevant to ESC. Legislation surrounding stem cell research has adopted specific language, especially concerning clarification “between ‘stem cells’ and ‘embryonic stem cells’” in translation. [41] Furthermore, legislation “mandates the creation of a national committee… laying out specific regulations for stem-cell banking in accordance with international standards.” [42] This broad regulation opens the door for future global engagement and maintains transparency. However, these regulations may also constrain the influence of research direction, pace, and accessibility of research outcomes.

e.     Europe

In the European Union (EU), ethics is also principle-based, but the principles of autonomy, dignity, integrity, and vulnerability are interconnected. [43] As such, the opportunity for cohesion and concessions between individuals’ thoughts and ideals allows for a more adaptable ethics model due to the flexible principles that relate to the human experience The EU has put forth a framework in its Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being allowing member states to take different approaches. Each European state applies these principles to its specific conventions, leading to or reflecting different acceptance levels of stem cell research. [44]

For example, in Germany, Lebenzusammenhang , or the coherence of life, references integrity in the unity of human culture. Namely, the personal sphere “should not be subject to external intervention.” [45]  Stem cell interventions could affect this concept of bodily completeness, leading to heavy restrictions. Under the Grundgesetz, human dignity and the right to life with physical integrity are paramount. [46] The Embryo Protection Act of 1991 made producing cell lines illegal. Cell lines can be imported if approved by the Central Ethics Commission for Stem Cell Research only if they were derived before May 2007. [47] Stem cell research respects the integrity of life for the embryo with heavy specifications and intense oversight. This is vastly different in Finland, where the regulatory bodies find research more permissible in IVF excess, but only up to 14 days after fertilization. [48] Spain’s approach differs still, with a comprehensive regulatory framework. [49] Thus, research regulation can be culture-specific due to variations in applied principles. Diverse cultures call for various approaches to ethical permissibility. [50] Only an adaptive-deliberative model can address the cultural constructions of self and achieve positive, culturally sensitive stem cell research practices. [51]

II.     Religious Perspectives on ESC

Embryonic stem cell sources are the main consideration within religious contexts. While individuals may not regard their own religious texts as authoritative or factual, religion can shape their foundations or perspectives.

The Qur'an states:

“And indeed We created man from a quintessence of clay. Then We placed within him a small quantity of nutfa (sperm to fertilize) in a safe place. Then We have fashioned the nutfa into an ‘alaqa (clinging clot or cell cluster), then We developed the ‘alaqa into mudgha (a lump of flesh), and We made mudgha into bones, and clothed the bones with flesh, then We brought it into being as a new creation. So Blessed is Allah, the Best of Creators.” [52]

Many scholars of Islam estimate the time of soul installment, marked by the angel breathing in the soul to bring the individual into creation, as 120 days from conception. [53] Personhood begins at this point, and the value of life would prohibit research or experimentation that could harm the individual. If the fetus is more than 120 days old, the time ensoulment is interpreted to occur according to Islamic law, abortion is no longer permissible. [54] There are a few opposing opinions about early embryos in Islamic traditions. According to some Islamic theologians, there is no ensoulment of the early embryo, which is the source of stem cells for ESC research. [55]

In Buddhism, the stance on stem cell research is not settled. The main tenets, the prohibition against harming or destroying others (ahimsa) and the pursuit of knowledge (prajña) and compassion (karuna), leave Buddhist scholars and communities divided. [56] Some scholars argue stem cell research is in accordance with the Buddhist tenet of seeking knowledge and ending human suffering. Others feel it violates the principle of not harming others. Finding the balance between these two points relies on the karmic burden of Buddhist morality. In trying to prevent ahimsa towards the embryo, Buddhist scholars suggest that to comply with Buddhist tenets, research cannot be done as the embryo has personhood at the moment of conception and would reincarnate immediately, harming the individual's ability to build their karmic burden. [57] On the other hand, the Bodhisattvas, those considered to be on the path to enlightenment or Nirvana, have given organs and flesh to others to help alleviate grieving and to benefit all. [58] Acceptance varies on applied beliefs and interpretations.

Catholicism does not support embryonic stem cell research, as it entails creation or destruction of human embryos. This destruction conflicts with the belief in the sanctity of life. For example, in the Old Testament, Genesis describes humanity as being created in God’s image and multiplying on the Earth, referencing the sacred rights to human conception and the purpose of development and life. In the Ten Commandments, the tenet that one should not kill has numerous interpretations where killing could mean murder or shedding of the sanctity of life, demonstrating the high value of human personhood. In other books, the theological conception of when life begins is interpreted as in utero, [59] highlighting the inviolability of life and its formation in vivo to make a religious point for accepting such research as relatively limited, if at all. [60] The Vatican has released ethical directives to help apply a theological basis to modern-day conflicts. The Magisterium of the Church states that “unless there is a moral certainty of not causing harm,” experimentation on fetuses, fertilized cells, stem cells, or embryos constitutes a crime. [61] Such procedures would not respect the human person who exists at these stages, according to Catholicism. Damages to the embryo are considered gravely immoral and illicit. [62] Although the Catholic Church officially opposes abortion, surveys demonstrate that many Catholic people hold pro-choice views, whether due to the context of conception, stage of pregnancy, threat to the mother’s life, or for other reasons, demonstrating that practicing members can also accept some but not all tenets. [63]

Some major Jewish denominations, such as the Reform, Conservative, and Reconstructionist movements, are open to supporting ESC use or research as long as it is for saving a life. [64] Within Judaism, the Talmud, or study, gives personhood to the child at birth and emphasizes that life does not begin at conception: [65]

“If she is found pregnant, until the fortieth day it is mere fluid,” [66]

Whereas most religions prioritize the status of human embryos, the Halakah (Jewish religious law) states that to save one life, most other religious laws can be ignored because it is in pursuit of preservation. [67] Stem cell research is accepted due to application of these religious laws.

We recognize that all religions contain subsets and sects. The variety of environmental and cultural differences within religious groups requires further analysis to respect the flexibility of religious thoughts and practices. We make no presumptions that all cultures require notions of autonomy or morality as under the common morality theory , which asserts a set of universal moral norms that all individuals share provides moral reasoning and guides ethical decisions. [68] We only wish to show that the interaction with morality varies between cultures and countries.

III.     A Flexible Ethical Approach

The plurality of different moral approaches described above demonstrates that there can be no universally acceptable uniform law for ESC on a global scale. Instead of developing one standard, flexible ethical applications must be continued. We recommend local guidelines that incorporate important cultural and ethical priorities.

While the Declaration of Helsinki is more relevant to people in clinical trials receiving ESC products, in keeping with the tradition of protections for research subjects, consent of the donor is an ethical requirement for ESC donation in many jurisdictions including the US, Canada, and Europe. [69] The Declaration of Helsinki provides a reference point for regulatory standards and could potentially be used as a universal baseline for obtaining consent prior to gamete or embryo donation.

For instance, in Columbia University’s egg donor program for stem cell research, donors followed standard screening protocols and “underwent counseling sessions that included information as to the purpose of oocyte donation for research, what the oocytes would be used for, the risks and benefits of donation, and process of oocyte stimulation” to ensure transparency for consent. [70] The program helped advance stem cell research and provided clear and safe research methods with paid participants. Though paid participation or covering costs of incidental expenses may not be socially acceptable in every culture or context, [71] and creating embryos for ESC research is illegal in many jurisdictions, Columbia’s program was effective because of the clear and honest communications with donors, IRBs, and related stakeholders.  This example demonstrates that cultural acceptance of scientific research and of the idea that an egg or embryo does not have personhood is likely behind societal acceptance of donating eggs for ESC research. As noted, many countries do not permit the creation of embryos for research.

Proper communication and education regarding the process and purpose of stem cell research may bolster comprehension and garner more acceptance. “Given the sensitive subject material, a complete consent process can support voluntary participation through trust, understanding, and ethical norms from the cultures and morals participants value. This can be hard for researchers entering countries of different socioeconomic stability, with different languages and different societal values. [72]

An adequate moral foundation in medical ethics is derived from the cultural and religious basis that informs knowledge and actions. [73] Understanding local cultural and religious values and their impact on research could help researchers develop humility and promote inclusion.

IV.     Concerns

Some may argue that if researchers all adhere to one ethics standard, protection will be satisfied across all borders, and the global public will trust researchers. However, defining what needs to be protected and how to define such research standards is very specific to the people to which standards are applied. We suggest that applying one uniform guide cannot accurately protect each individual because we all possess our own perceptions and interpretations of social values. [74] Therefore, the issue of not adjusting to the moral pluralism between peoples in applying one standard of ethics can be resolved by building out ethics models that can be adapted to different cultures and religions.

Other concerns include medical tourism, which may promote health inequities. [75] Some countries may develop and approve products derived from ESC research before others, compromising research ethics or drug approval processes. There are also concerns about the sale of unauthorized stem cell treatments, for example, those without FDA approval in the United States. Countries with robust research infrastructures may be tempted to attract medical tourists, and some customers will have false hopes based on aggressive publicity of unproven treatments. [76]

For example, in China, stem cell clinics can market to foreign clients who are not protected under the regulatory regimes. Companies employ a marketing strategy of “ethically friendly” therapies. Specifically, in the case of Beike, China’s leading stem cell tourism company and sprouting network, ethical oversight of administrators or health bureaus at one site has “the unintended consequence of shifting questionable activities to another node in Beike's diffuse network.” [77] In contrast, Jordan is aware of stem cell research’s potential abuse and its own status as a “health-care hub.” Jordan’s expanded regulations include preserving the interests of individuals in clinical trials and banning private companies from ESC research to preserve transparency and the integrity of research practices. [78]

The social priorities of the community are also a concern. The ISSCR explicitly states that guidelines “should be periodically revised to accommodate scientific advances, new challenges, and evolving social priorities.” [79] The adaptable ethics model extends this consideration further by addressing whether research is warranted given the varying degrees of socioeconomic conditions, political stability, and healthcare accessibilities and limitations. An ethical approach would require discussion about resource allocation and appropriate distribution of funds. [80]

While some religions emphasize the sanctity of life from conception, which may lead to public opposition to ESC research, others encourage ESC research due to its potential for healing and alleviating human pain. Many countries have special regulations that balance local views on embryonic personhood, the benefits of research as individual or societal goods, and the protection of human research subjects. To foster understanding and constructive dialogue, global policy frameworks should prioritize the protection of universal human rights, transparency, and informed consent. In addition to these foundational global policies, we recommend tailoring local guidelines to reflect the diverse cultural and religious perspectives of the populations they govern. Ethics models should be adapted to local populations to effectively establish research protections, growth, and possibilities of stem cell research.

For example, in countries with strong beliefs in the moral sanctity of embryos or heavy religious restrictions, an adaptive model can allow for discussion instead of immediate rejection. In countries with limited individual rights and voice in science policy, an adaptive model ensures cultural, moral, and religious views are taken into consideration, thereby building social inclusion. While this ethical consideration by the government may not give a complete voice to every individual, it will help balance policies and maintain the diverse perspectives of those it affects. Embracing an adaptive ethics model of ESC research promotes open-minded dialogue and respect for the importance of human belief and tradition. By actively engaging with cultural and religious values, researchers can better handle disagreements and promote ethical research practices that benefit each society.

This brief exploration of the religious and cultural differences that impact ESC research reveals the nuances of relative ethics and highlights a need for local policymakers to apply a more intense adaptive model.

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[5] Concerning the moral philosophies of stem cell research, our paper does not posit a personal moral stance nor delve into the “when” of human life begins. To read further about the philosophical debate, consider the following sources:

Sandel M. J. (2004). Embryo ethics--the moral logic of stem-cell research.  The New England journal of medicine ,  351 (3), 207–209. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp048145 ; George, R. P., & Lee, P. (2020, September 26). Acorns and Embryos . The New Atlantis. https://www.thenewatlantis.com/publications/acorns-and-embryos ; Sagan, A., & Singer, P. (2007). The moral status of stem cells. Metaphilosophy , 38 (2/3), 264–284. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24439776 ; McHugh P. R. (2004). Zygote and "clonote"--the ethical use of embryonic stem cells.  The New England journal of medicine ,  351 (3), 209–211. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp048147 ; Kurjak, A., & Tripalo, A. (2004). The facts and doubts about beginning of the human life and personality.  Bosnian journal of basic medical sciences ,  4 (1), 5–14. https://doi.org/10.17305/bjbms.2004.3453

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[7] Socially, at its core, the Western approach to ethics is widely principle-based, autonomy being one of the key factors to ensure a fundamental respect for persons within research. For information regarding autonomy in research, see: Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, & National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research (1978). The Belmont Report. Ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research.; For a more in-depth review of autonomy within the US, see: Beauchamp, T. L., & Childress, J. F. (1994). Principles of Biomedical Ethics . Oxford University Press.

[8] Sherley v. Sebelius , 644 F.3d 388 (D.C. Cir. 2011), citing 45 C.F.R. 46.204(b) and [42 U.S.C. § 289g(b)]. https://www.cadc.uscourts.gov/internet/opinions.nsf/6c690438a9b43dd685257a64004ebf99/$file/11-5241-1391178.pdf

[9] Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act of 2005, H. R. 810, 109 th Cong. (2001). https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/109/hr810/text ; Bush, G. W. (2006, July 19). Message to the House of Representatives . National Archives and Records Administration. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2006/07/20060719-5.html

[10] National Archives and Records Administration. (2009, March 9). Executive order 13505 -- removing barriers to responsible scientific research involving human stem cells . National Archives and Records Administration. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/removing-barriers-responsible-scientific-research-involving-human-stem-cells

[11] Hurlbut, W. B. (2006). Science, Religion, and the Politics of Stem Cells.  Social Research ,  73 (3), 819–834. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40971854

[12] Akpa-Inyang, Francis & Chima, Sylvester. (2021). South African traditional values and beliefs regarding informed consent and limitations of the principle of respect for autonomy in African communities: a cross-cultural qualitative study. BMC Medical Ethics . 22. 10.1186/s12910-021-00678-4.

[13] Source for further reading: Tangwa G. B. (2007). Moral status of embryonic stem cells: perspective of an African villager. Bioethics , 21(8), 449–457. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8519.2007.00582.x , see also Mnisi, F. M. (2020). An African analysis based on ethics of Ubuntu - are human embryonic stem cell patents morally justifiable? African Insight , 49 (4).

[14] Jecker, N. S., & Atuire, C. (2021). Bioethics in Africa: A contextually enlightened analysis of three cases. Developing World Bioethics , 22 (2), 112–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12324

[15] Jecker, N. S., & Atuire, C. (2021). Bioethics in Africa: A contextually enlightened analysis of three cases. Developing World Bioethics, 22(2), 112–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12324

[16] Jackson, C.S., Pepper, M.S. Opportunities and barriers to establishing a cell therapy programme in South Africa.  Stem Cell Res Ther   4 , 54 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1186/scrt204 ; Pew Research Center. (2014, May 1). Public health a major priority in African nations . Pew Research Center’s Global Attitudes Project. https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2014/05/01/public-health-a-major-priority-in-african-nations/

[17] Department of Health Republic of South Africa. (2021). Health Research Priorities (revised) for South Africa 2021-2024 . National Health Research Strategy. https://www.health.gov.za/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/National-Health-Research-Priorities-2021-2024.pdf

[18] Oosthuizen, H. (2013). Legal and Ethical Issues in Stem Cell Research in South Africa. In: Beran, R. (eds) Legal and Forensic Medicine. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-32338-6_80 , see also: Gaobotse G (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[19] United States Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services. (1998). Tunisia: Information on the status of Christian conversions in Tunisia . UNHCR Web Archive. https://webarchive.archive.unhcr.org/20230522142618/https://www.refworld.org/docid/3df0be9a2.html

[20] Gaobotse, G. (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[21] Kooli, C. Review of assisted reproduction techniques, laws, and regulations in Muslim countries.  Middle East Fertil Soc J   24 , 8 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43043-019-0011-0 ; Gaobotse, G. (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[22] Pang M. C. (1999). Protective truthfulness: the Chinese way of safeguarding patients in informed treatment decisions. Journal of medical ethics , 25(3), 247–253. https://doi.org/10.1136/jme.25.3.247

[23] Wang, L., Wang, F., & Zhang, W. (2021). Bioethics in China’s biosecurity law: Forms, effects, and unsettled issues. Journal of law and the biosciences , 8(1).  https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsab019 https://academic.oup.com/jlb/article/8/1/lsab019/6299199

[24] Wang, Y., Xue, Y., & Guo, H. D. (2022). Intervention effects of traditional Chinese medicine on stem cell therapy of myocardial infarction.  Frontiers in pharmacology ,  13 , 1013740. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2022.1013740

[25] Li, X.-T., & Zhao, J. (2012). Chapter 4: An Approach to the Nature of Qi in TCM- Qi and Bioenergy. In Recent Advances in Theories and Practice of Chinese Medicine (p. 79). InTech.

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[27] Luo, D., Xu, Z., Wang, Z., & Ran, W. (2021). China's Stem Cell Research and Knowledge Levels of Medical Practitioners and Students.  Stem cells international ,  2021 , 6667743. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6667743

[28] Zhang, J. Y. (2017). Lost in translation? accountability and governance of Clinical Stem Cell Research in China. Regenerative Medicine , 12 (6), 647–656. https://doi.org/10.2217/rme-2017-0035

[29] Wang, L., Wang, F., & Zhang, W. (2021). Bioethics in China’s biosecurity law: Forms, effects, and unsettled issues. Journal of law and the biosciences , 8(1).  https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsab019 https://academic.oup.com/jlb/article/8/1/lsab019/6299199

[30] Chen, H., Wei, T., Wang, H.  et al.  Association of China’s two-child policy with changes in number of births and birth defects rate, 2008–2017.  BMC Public Health   22 , 434 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-12839-0

[31] Azuma, K. Regulatory Landscape of Regenerative Medicine in Japan.  Curr Stem Cell Rep   1 , 118–128 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40778-015-0012-6

[32] Harris, R. (2005, May 19). Researchers Report Advance in Stem Cell Production . NPR. https://www.npr.org/2005/05/19/4658967/researchers-report-advance-in-stem-cell-production

[33] Park, S. (2012). South Korea steps up stem-cell work.  Nature . https://doi.org/10.1038/nature.2012.10565

[34] Resnik, D. B., Shamoo, A. E., & Krimsky, S. (2006). Fraudulent human embryonic stem cell research in South Korea: lessons learned.  Accountability in research ,  13 (1), 101–109. https://doi.org/10.1080/08989620600634193 .

[35] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics, 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

[36] Association for the Advancement of Blood and Biotherapies.  https://www.aabb.org/regulatory-and-advocacy/regulatory-affairs/regulatory-for-cellular-therapies/international-competent-authorities/saudi-arabia

[37] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: Interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia.  BMC medical ethics ,  21 (1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

[38] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: Interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics , 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

Culturally, autonomy practices follow a relational autonomy approach based on a paternalistic deontological health care model. The adherence to strict international research policies and religious pillars within the regulatory environment is a great foundation for research ethics. However, there is a need to develop locally targeted ethics approaches for research (as called for in Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics, 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6), this decision-making approach may help advise a research decision model. For more on the clinical cultural autonomy approaches, see: Alabdullah, Y. Y., Alzaid, E., Alsaad, S., Alamri, T., Alolayan, S. W., Bah, S., & Aljoudi, A. S. (2022). Autonomy and paternalism in Shared decision‐making in a Saudi Arabian tertiary hospital: A cross‐sectional study. Developing World Bioethics , 23 (3), 260–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12355 ; Bukhari, A. A. (2017). Universal Principles of Bioethics and Patient Rights in Saudi Arabia (Doctoral dissertation, Duquesne University). https://dsc.duq.edu/etd/124; Ladha, S., Nakshawani, S. A., Alzaidy, A., & Tarab, B. (2023, October 26). Islam and Bioethics: What We All Need to Know . Columbia University School of Professional Studies. https://sps.columbia.edu/events/islam-and-bioethics-what-we-all-need-know

[39] Ababneh, M. A., Al-Azzam, S. I., Alzoubi, K., Rababa’h, A., & Al Demour, S. (2021). Understanding and attitudes of the Jordanian public about clinical research ethics.  Research Ethics ,  17 (2), 228-241.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016120966779

[40] Ababneh, M. A., Al-Azzam, S. I., Alzoubi, K., Rababa’h, A., & Al Demour, S. (2021). Understanding and attitudes of the Jordanian public about clinical research ethics.  Research Ethics ,  17 (2), 228-241.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016120966779

[41] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[42] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[43] The EU’s definition of autonomy relates to the capacity for creating ideas, moral insight, decisions, and actions without constraint, personal responsibility, and informed consent. However, the EU views autonomy as not completely able to protect individuals and depends on other principles, such as dignity, which “expresses the intrinsic worth and fundamental equality of all human beings.” Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[44] Council of Europe. Convention for the protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine: Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine (ETS No. 164) https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list?module=treaty-detail&treatynum=164 (forbidding the creation of embryos for research purposes only, and suggests embryos in vitro have protections.); Also see Drabiak-Syed B. K. (2013). New President, New Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research Policy: Comparative International Perspectives and Embryonic Stem Cell Research Laws in France.  Biotechnology Law Report ,  32 (6), 349–356. https://doi.org/10.1089/blr.2013.9865

[45] Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[46] Tomuschat, C., Currie, D. P., Kommers, D. P., & Kerr, R. (Trans.). (1949, May 23). Basic law for the Federal Republic of Germany. https://www.btg-bestellservice.de/pdf/80201000.pdf

[47] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Germany . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-germany

[48] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Finland . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-finland

[49] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Spain . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-spain

[50] Some sources to consider regarding ethics models or regulatory oversights of other cultures not covered:

Kara MA. Applicability of the principle of respect for autonomy: the perspective of Turkey. J Med Ethics. 2007 Nov;33(11):627-30. doi: 10.1136/jme.2006.017400. PMID: 17971462; PMCID: PMC2598110.

Ugarte, O. N., & Acioly, M. A. (2014). The principle of autonomy in Brazil: one needs to discuss it ...  Revista do Colegio Brasileiro de Cirurgioes ,  41 (5), 374–377. https://doi.org/10.1590/0100-69912014005013

Bharadwaj, A., & Glasner, P. E. (2012). Local cells, global science: The rise of embryonic stem cell research in India . Routledge.

For further research on specific European countries regarding ethical and regulatory framework, we recommend this database: Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Europe . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-europe   

[51] Klitzman, R. (2006). Complications of culture in obtaining informed consent. The American Journal of Bioethics, 6(1), 20–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/15265160500394671 see also: Ekmekci, P. E., & Arda, B. (2017). Interculturalism and Informed Consent: Respecting Cultural Differences without Breaching Human Rights.  Cultura (Iasi, Romania) ,  14 (2), 159–172.; For why trust is important in research, see also: Gray, B., Hilder, J., Macdonald, L., Tester, R., Dowell, A., & Stubbe, M. (2017). Are research ethics guidelines culturally competent?  Research Ethics ,  13 (1), 23-41.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016116650235

[52] The Qur'an  (M. Khattab, Trans.). (1965). Al-Mu’minun, 23: 12-14. https://quran.com/23

[53] Lenfest, Y. (2017, December 8). Islam and the beginning of human life . Bill of Health. https://blog.petrieflom.law.harvard.edu/2017/12/08/islam-and-the-beginning-of-human-life/

[54] Aksoy, S. (2005). Making regulations and drawing up legislation in Islamic countries under conditions of uncertainty, with special reference to embryonic stem cell research. Journal of Medical Ethics , 31: 399-403.; see also: Mahmoud, Azza. "Islamic Bioethics: National Regulations and Guidelines of Human Stem Cell Research in the Muslim World." Master's thesis, Chapman University, 2022. https://doi.org/10.36837/ chapman.000386

[55] Rashid, R. (2022). When does Ensoulment occur in the Human Foetus. Journal of the British Islamic Medical Association , 12 (4). ISSN 2634 8071. https://www.jbima.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/2-Ethics-3_-Ensoulment_Rafaqat.pdf.

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[57] Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[58] Lecso, P. A. (1991). The Bodhisattva Ideal and Organ Transplantation.  Journal of Religion and Health ,  30 (1), 35–41. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27510629 ; Bodhisattva, S. (n.d.). The Key of Becoming a Bodhisattva . A Guide to the Bodhisattva Way of Life. http://www.buddhism.org/Sutras/2/BodhisattvaWay.htm

[59] There is no explicit religious reference to when life begins or how to conduct research that interacts with the concept of life. However, these are relevant verses pertaining to how the fetus is viewed. (( King James Bible . (1999). Oxford University Press. (original work published 1769))

Jerimiah 1: 5 “Before I formed thee in the belly I knew thee; and before thou camest forth out of the womb I sanctified thee…”

In prophet Jerimiah’s insight, God set him apart as a person known before childbirth, a theme carried within the Psalm of David.

Psalm 139: 13-14 “…Thou hast covered me in my mother's womb. I will praise thee; for I am fearfully and wonderfully made…”

These verses demonstrate David’s respect for God as an entity that would know of all man’s thoughts and doings even before birth.

[60] It should be noted that abortion is not supported as well.

[61] The Vatican. (1987, February 22). Instruction on Respect for Human Life in Its Origin and on the Dignity of Procreation Replies to Certain Questions of the Day . Congregation For the Doctrine of the Faith. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_19870222_respect-for-human-life_en.html

[62] The Vatican. (2000, August 25). Declaration On the Production and the Scientific and Therapeutic Use of Human Embryonic Stem Cells . Pontifical Academy for Life. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_academies/acdlife/documents/rc_pa_acdlife_doc_20000824_cellule-staminali_en.html ; Ohara, N. (2003). Ethical Consideration of Experimentation Using Living Human Embryos: The Catholic Church’s Position on Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research and Human Cloning. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology . Retrieved from https://article.imrpress.com/journal/CEOG/30/2-3/pii/2003018/77-81.pdf.

[63] Smith, G. A. (2022, May 23). Like Americans overall, Catholics vary in their abortion views, with regular mass attenders most opposed . Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2022/05/23/like-americans-overall-catholics-vary-in-their-abortion-views-with-regular-mass-attenders-most-opposed/

[64] Rosner, F., & Reichman, E. (2002). Embryonic stem cell research in Jewish law. Journal of halacha and contemporary society , (43), 49–68.; Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[65] Schenker J. G. (2008). The beginning of human life: status of embryo. Perspectives in Halakha (Jewish Religious Law).  Journal of assisted reproduction and genetics ,  25 (6), 271–276. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10815-008-9221-6

[66] Ruttenberg, D. (2020, May 5). The Torah of Abortion Justice (annotated source sheet) . Sefaria. https://www.sefaria.org/sheets/234926.7?lang=bi&with=all&lang2=en

[67] Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[68] Gert, B. (2007). Common morality: Deciding what to do . Oxford Univ. Press.

[69] World Medical Association (2013). World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki: ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. JAMA , 310(20), 2191–2194. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.281053 Declaration of Helsinki – WMA – The World Medical Association .; see also: National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. (1979).  The Belmont report: Ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research . U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.  https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-policy/belmont-report/read-the-belmont-report/index.html

[70] Zakarin Safier, L., Gumer, A., Kline, M., Egli, D., & Sauer, M. V. (2018). Compensating human subjects providing oocytes for stem cell research: 9-year experience and outcomes.  Journal of assisted reproduction and genetics ,  35 (7), 1219–1225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10815-018-1171-z https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6063839/ see also: Riordan, N. H., & Paz Rodríguez, J. (2021). Addressing concerns regarding associated costs, transparency, and integrity of research in recent stem cell trial. Stem Cells Translational Medicine , 10 (12), 1715–1716. https://doi.org/10.1002/sctm.21-0234

[71] Klitzman, R., & Sauer, M. V. (2009). Payment of egg donors in stem cell research in the USA.  Reproductive biomedicine online ,  18 (5), 603–608. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1472-6483(10)60002-8

[72] Krosin, M. T., Klitzman, R., Levin, B., Cheng, J., & Ranney, M. L. (2006). Problems in comprehension of informed consent in rural and peri-urban Mali, West Africa.  Clinical trials (London, England) ,  3 (3), 306–313. https://doi.org/10.1191/1740774506cn150oa

[73] Veatch, Robert M.  Hippocratic, Religious, and Secular Medical Ethics: The Points of Conflict . Georgetown University Press, 2012.

[74] Msoroka, M. S., & Amundsen, D. (2018). One size fits not quite all: Universal research ethics with diversity.  Research Ethics ,  14 (3), 1-17.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016117739939

[75] Pirzada, N. (2022). The Expansion of Turkey’s Medical Tourism Industry.  Voices in Bioethics ,  8 . https://doi.org/10.52214/vib.v8i.9894

[76] Stem Cell Tourism: False Hope for Real Money . Harvard Stem Cell Institute (HSCI). (2023). https://hsci.harvard.edu/stem-cell-tourism , See also: Bissassar, M. (2017). Transnational Stem Cell Tourism: An ethical analysis.  Voices in Bioethics ,  3 . https://doi.org/10.7916/vib.v3i.6027

[77] Song, P. (2011) The proliferation of stem cell therapies in post-Mao China: problematizing ethical regulation,  New Genetics and Society , 30:2, 141-153, DOI:  10.1080/14636778.2011.574375

[78] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[79] International Society for Stem Cell Research. (2024). Standards in stem cell research . International Society for Stem Cell Research. https://www.isscr.org/guidelines/5-standards-in-stem-cell-research

[80] Benjamin, R. (2013). People’s science bodies and rights on the Stem Cell Frontier . Stanford University Press.

Mifrah Hayath

SM Candidate Harvard Medical School, MS Biotechnology Johns Hopkins University

Olivia Bowers

MS Bioethics Columbia University (Disclosure: affiliated with Voices in Bioethics)

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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License .

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Google DeepMind’s Groundbreaking AI for Protein Structure Can Now Model DNA

Google spent much of the past year hustling to build its Gemini chatbot to counter ChatGPT , pitching it as a multifunctional AI assistant that can help with work tasks or the digital chores of personal life. More quietly, the company has been working to enhance a more specialized artificial intelligence tool that is already a must-have for some scientists.

AlphaFold , software developed by Google’s DeepMind AI unit to predict the 3D structure of proteins, has received a significant upgrade. It can now model other molecules of biological importance, including DNA, and the interactions between antibodies produced by the immune system and the molecules of disease organisms. DeepMind added those new capabilities to AlphaFold 3 in part through borrowing techniques from AI image generators.

“This is a big advance for us,” Demis Hassabis , CEO of Google DeepMind, told WIRED ahead of Wednesday’s publication of a paper on AlphaFold 3 in the science journal Nature . “This is exactly what you need for drug discovery: You need to see how a small molecule is going to bind to a drug, how strongly, and also what else it might bind to.”

AlphaFold 3 can model large molecules such as DNA and RNA, which carry genetic code, but also much smaller entities, including metal ions. It can predict with high accuracy how these different molecules will interact with one another, Google’s research paper claims.

The software was developed by Google DeepMind and Isomorphic labs, a sibling company under parent Alphabet working on AI for biotech that is also led by Hassabis. In January, Isomorphic Labs announced that it would work with Eli Lilly and Novartis on drug development.

AlphaFold 3 will be made available via the cloud for outside researchers to access for free, but DeepMind is not releasing the software as open source the way it did for earlier versions of AlphaFold. John Jumper, who leads the Google DeepMind team working on the software, says it could help provide a deeper understanding of how proteins interact and work with DNA inside the body. “How do proteins respond to DNA damage; how do they find, repair it?” Jumper says. “We can start to answer these questions.”

Understanding protein structures used to require painstaking work using electron microscopes and a technique called x-ray crystallography. Several years ago, academic research groups began testing whether deep learning , the technique at the heart of many recent AI advances, could predict the shape of proteins simply from their constituent amino acids, by learning from structures that had been experimentally verified.

In 2018, Google DeepMind revealed it was working on AI software called AlphaFold to accurately predict the shape of proteins. In 2020, AlphaFold 2 produced results accurate enough to set off a storm of excitement in molecular biology. A year later, the company released an open source version of AlphaFold for anyone to use, along with 350,000 predicted protein structures, including for almost every protein known to exist in the human body. In 2022 the company released more than 2 million protein structures.

Reece Rogers

Louryn Strampe

Brendan I. Koerner

Scott Gilbertson

The latest AlphaFold’s ability to model different proteins was improved in part through an algorithm called a diffusion model that helps AI image generators like Dall-E and Midjourney create weird and sometimes photo-real imagery. The diffusion model inside AlphaFold 3 sharpens the molecular structures the software generates. The diffusion model is able to generate plausible protein structures based on patterns it picked up from analyzing a collection of verified protein structures, much as an image generator learns from real photographs how to render realistic-looking snapshots.

AlphaFold 3 is not perfect, though, and offers a color-coded confidence scale for its predictions. Areas of a protein structure colored blue indicate high confidence, while red areas show less certainty.

David Baker , a professor at the University of Washington who leads a group working on techniques for protein design, has competed with AlphaFold. In 2021, before DeepMind open sourced its creation, his team released an independent protein-structure prediction inspired by AlphaFold. His own lab recently released a diffusion model to help model a wider range of molecular structures, but he concedes that AlphaFold 3 is more capable. “The structure prediction performance of AlphaFold 3 is very impressive,” Baker says.

Baker adds that it is a shame that the source code for AlphaFold 3 has not been released to the scientific community.

Hassabis, who leads all of Alphabet’s AI initiatives, has long taken a special interest in the potential for AI to accelerate scientific research . But he says the latest techniques being developed for AlphaFold, a highly specialized AI system, could prove useful for building more general systems that aim to exceed human capabilities on many dimensions.

If AI programs like Google’s Gemini become a lot more capable over the next decade, he says, “you could imagine them using things like AlphaFold as tools, to achieve some other goal.”

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