organization studies research network

Organization Studies Research Network

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Exploring the nature and future of organizations and their impacts on society.

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Organization studies.

International Conference on Knowledge, Culture, and Change in Organizations

Founded in 1993, the Organization Studies Research Network comes together around a common concern for, and a shared interest to explore, new possibilities in knowledge, culture and change management, within the broader context of the nature and future of organizations and their impact on society. We seek to build an epistemic community where we can make linkages across disciplinary, geographic, and cultural boundaries. As a Research Network, we are defined by our scope and concerns and motivated to build strategies for action framed by our shared themes and tensions .

When you join the organization studies research network , you become part of an international network of scholars, researchers, and practitioners. membership makes our independent organization possible. membership also comes with many benefits, including subscriber access to all electronic publications, discounts to conference registrations, and a range of other opportunities to stay connected and be supported by the network. if you are not already a member, we encourage you to find out more. join today to connect with a movement of like-minded researchers, get access to a large body of knowledge, and professional development opportunities, and let our research network become the advocate of what you do., to get regular updates sign up for our newsletter , like us on facebook , follow us on twitter , or join the cgscholar community ., network partners.

The Organization Studies Research Network is thankful for the contributions and support of the following organizations.

International Graduate Center for Education

Charles Darwin University, Darwin, Australia

University of Konstanz

Konstanz, Germany

Penn State University

Pennsylvania, USA

The University of Auckland

Auckland, New Zealand

Universidade Lusíada de Lisboa

Lisbon, Portugal

University of Nicosia

Nicosia, Cyprus

Learn more about our partners here .

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Organization Studies

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Description

Aims and Scope

Editorial Board
Abstracting / Indexing
Submission Guidelines

Organization Studies (OS), published in collaboration with the European Group for Organization Studies (EGOS), is a global, peer-reviewed journal that promotes the understanding of organizations, organizing and the organized, and the societal relevance of that understanding. OS prompts engagement with organizations and organizing as psychological, social, economic, cultural, political, historical and philosophical phenomena, and is the leading journal in the development of relevant and impactful knowledge of how organizations and organizing shape and are shaped by societies.

OS welcomes innovative, high-quality research from all paradigms and disciplines that advance organization research. It promotes multidisciplinarity through research that engages across disciplinary boundaries; it invites all social science methodologies and methods that provide insights into organizations, organizing and the organized in and between societies. It encourages studies that reflect on the broader implications of their results. + Follow Organization Studies on Facebook - click here. + Follow Organization Studies on Twitter - click here. + Follow Organization Studies on LinkedIn - click here. Organization Studies Guidelines for Reviewers .

"Organization Studies goes to the top of the stack because it is such a reliable source of thoughtful scholarship. Authors get into the pages of this journal by reflecting deeply on issues. There is less running after transient 'mainstreams', and more willingness to enact meaningful discourse that people should take seriously. Organization Studies features 'seasoned inquiry' in the best sense of that phrase. It dominates that niche hands down." Karl E Weick

" I am a great admirer of Organization Studies . Its issues contain articles with new ideas, analysis that is rigorous, empirical methodologies that are sound and helpful ideas relevant to thoughtful practitioners." Chris Argyris

"Organization Studies is an exemplar of quality publishing in organization theory. Its success has helped enormously to build the more creative and confident European management research community we now have. I am confident OS will retain its European distinctiveness while becoming a premier publishing outlet for the best scholarship from throughout the world. OS can make a difference both in intellectual and policy terms and I have great hopes it will". Andrew Pettigrew

All issues of Organization Studies are available to browse online . This journal is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) .

Organization Studies (OS) is a highly ranked and globally respected, multidisciplinary journal with over 40 years history of publishing excellent organization research. OS aims at advancing our knowledge of organizations, organizing, the organized, the disorganized and the unsettled. It is broadly rooted in the social sciences and the humanities and promotes an understanding of these phenomena as shaping, and shaped by, the cultures, economies, and societies of which they are part.

OS invites innovative high-quality research from a wide range of philosophical traditions, disciplines, and methodological approaches. It encourages the interplay between theorizing and empirical research, in the belief that they are mutually informative.

OS welcomes articles that push organization theory forward through research that fully or partly draws on empirical data to research studies based on qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods. Further, we accept conceptual articles that develop theory without reliance on empirical data. In the medium term, OS will focus on empirical manuscripts and will advise authors of manuscripts that do not draw on empirical data in any form to submit to Organization Theory (OT) instead.

If you would like to know more about the Aims & Scope, please read the most recent editorial here. If you would like to learn more about the historical intellectual signature of OS , please click here.

Our commitment

We are committed to OS being the leading hub of a community of scholars – authors, reviewers, editors and readers –, whose defining characteristics are a passion for ideas, open-minded intellectual curiosity, collegiate critique, and uncompromising adherence to the highest scholarly standards.

We expect every article published in OS to provide meaningful insights that challenge and exceed existing knowledge in the area of organization studies. We encourage bold research, driven by academic curiosity that crosses existing boundaries and dares to explore novel ground. We are looking for original research, but do not seek novelty as an end in itself, but rather as the result of the passion to advance our scholarly community and move our journal entrepreneurially ahead.

We are open to paradigmatic plurality and multidisciplinary research, but each article must have a solid theoretical grounding and must strive to develop further the tradition to which it adheres. We are committed to the accumulation of knowledge and demand that all articles engage seriously with existing literature. Submissions need to clearly communicate which conversations they wish to be part of or challenge, and what the novel theoretical insights are that their research contributes in relation to existing organizational literatures.

We are open to a wide range of epistemologies, methodologies and methods and expect empirical submissions to account for and motivate the approach chosen. Empirical studies must display professional rigour in data collection and analysis appropriate for the specific approach.

Types of Submissions

OS welcomes the following types of submissions: (a) empirical or conceptual ‘Research articles’; (b) shorter, essay-style ‘X and Organization Studies’; (c) ‘Perspectives articles’ that serve as introductions to Virtual Special Issues; (d) ‘Method/ology articles; (e) ‘Agora’ opinion pieces, and (f) ‘Media reviews’.

Empirical or conceptual papers, 'X and Organization Studies,' "Perspective articles' and Method/ology article are all peer-reviewed and benefit from our rigorous and developmental review process

Empirical or conceptual research articles

We welcome empirical and conceptual research articles. Manuscripts must be original in style and content (not under review, accepted and/or published elsewhere). The maximum length of submitted manuscripts is 13,000 words (including references and appendices).

‘X and Organization Studies’ essays

‘X and OS’ are essay-style articles that draw attention to unexplored, unthought, or marginalized topics in order to revitalize research and inspire the field of organization studies more broadly. Articles in this section will have to contribute to both the ‘X’ and the ‘OS’. ‘X and OS’ are written prior to when a full empirical or conceptual research article can address a topic, but also, importantly, they accomplish their objective in the style of an essay (please see here for our expectations concerning this article type; recent examples can be found here ). The maximum length of X and OS essays is 7.500 words (including references). Authors are asked to discuss preliminary ideas with the Editors-in-Chief. After initial green light from the EiC, developed manuscripts will go through a regular peer review process."

Perspectives articles

Perspectives articles are introductions to Virtual Special Issues, which cover a set of articles (five to six) previously published in Organization Studies . Perspectives pieces provide a focused overview of the evolution of a topic over time, the contribution of selected prior articles to the development and ongoing debate, and, most importantly, raise concerns about missing insights and knowledge, in order to outline fruitful avenues for future research. The Perspectives article is published in a regular OS issue, and also published online together with the previously published OS articles as part of a Virtual Special Issue. Interested authors should discuss their ideas with the Editors-in-Chief. The maximum length of a Perspectives article is 13,000 words (including references). Previous Virtual Special Issues can be found here . After initial green light from the EiC, developed manuscripts will go through a regular peer review process.

Method/ology articles

Method/ology articles address questions of methodology and method broadly (including philosophy of science, ontology, epistemology, study design, novel analytical methods, and writing). Method/ology articles should situate themselves firmly within organization studies and tackle issues or problems directly related to the “doing” of organization studies research. They must address topics of interest to readers of OS and make clear the connection to research conducted in OS . The maximum length for Method/ology articles is 13.000 words (including references).

In line with the idea of knowledge emerging from gathering together in spaces like assemblies and squares, OS publishes short opinion pieces in the form of single contributions or as dialogues in essay style (all in all no longer than 2,000 words including references). In the Agora , we deal with the big issues of our times and their organizational dimensions. With this format, we wish to offer a forum for debating contemporary matters of academic interest to the readers of Organization Studies , in the hope that this triggers discussion or sets off reflections that lead to empirical studies and theorizing. Agora pieces are single-authored: (please see here for our expectations concerning this article type; recent examples can be found here ). Those interested in contributing to the Agora section should contact the Editors-in-Chief in advance, briefly sketching the issue and their personal views, the organizational relevance, why the issue deserves sparking an urgent debate, and the kind of research required.

Authors who have published an Agora piece, cannot resubmit for the three years following the date of acceptance of their published Agora. This is to guarantee variety and fairness in access to this section of the Journal.

Media Reviews

Books are and remain at the heart and centre of scholarly formats. However, in order to account for the relevance of and inspiration from other forms of media in the process of defining, producing, and diffusing knowledge, we have broadened the scope of reviews and OS now offers a Media Reviews section. Proposals should be directed towards our Media Review Editors (email: [email protected] ).

If you are interested in proposing a Special Issue, please click here .

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Please read the guidelines below carefully before visiting Organization Studies ’ ScholarOne submission site https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/orgstudies to upload your manuscript. In addition, we ask you to have a close look into our and Sage’s general Editorial and Publishing Policies that are to be found here . Manuscripts not conforming to these guidelines and policies may be returned.

What do we publish? 1.1 Aims & Scope 1.2 Article types
Preparing your manuscript 2.1 Title, Keywords, and Abstract 2.2 Manuscript formatting 2.3 Reference style
Submitting a manuscript 3.1 ORCID
After acceptance 4.1 Author Accepted Manuscripts (AAM) 4.2 Online First publication
Further information

1. What do we publish?

1.1 Aims & Scope

OS welcomes innovative, high-quality research from all paradigms and disciplines that advance organization research; it invites all social science methodologies and methods, and encourages studies that reflect on the broader implications of their results.

Before submitting your manuscript to OS, please ensure you have read our Aims & Scope . Only manuscripts of sufficient quality that meet the OS aims and scope will be reviewed.

1.2 Article Types

OS welcomes the following types of submissions:

(a) empirical or conceptual ‘Research articles’; (b) shorter, essay-style ‘X and Organization Studies’; (c) ‘Perspectives articles’ that serve as introductions to Virtual Special Issues; (d) ‘Method/ology articles; (e) ‘Agora’ opinion pieces, and (f) ‘Media reviews’.

Perspectives articles are introductions to Virtual Special Issues, which cover a set of articles (five to six) previously published in Organization Studies. Perspectives pieces provide a focused overview of the evolution of a topic over time, the contribution of selected prior articles to the development and ongoing debate, and, most importantly, raise concerns about missing insights and knowledge, in order to outline fruitful avenues for future research. The Perspectives article is published in a regular OS issue, and also published online together with the previously published OS articles as part of a Virtual Special Issue. Interested authors should discuss their ideas with the Editors-in-Chief. The maximum length of a Perspectives article is 13,000 words (including references). Previous Virtual Special Issues can be found here . After initial green light from the EiC, developed manuscripts will go through a regular peer review process.

Method/ology articles address questions of methodology and method broadly (including philosophy of science, ontology, epistemology, study design, novel analytical methods, and writing). Method/ology articles should situate themselves firmly within organization studies and tackle issues or problems directly related to the “doing” of organization studies research. They must address topics of interest to readers of OS and make clear the connection to research conducted in OS. The maximum length for Method/ology articles is 13.000 words (including references).

In line with the idea of knowledge emerging from gathering together in spaces like assemblies and squares, OS publishes short opinion pieces in the form of single contributions or as dialogues in essay style (all in all no longer than 2,000 words including references). In the Agora, we deal with the big issues of our times and their organizational dimensions. With this format, we wish to offer a forum for debating contemporary matters of academic interest to the readers of Organization Studies, in the hope that this triggers discussion or sets off reflections that lead to empirical studies and theorizing. Agora pieces are single-authored: (please see here for our expectations concerning this article type; recent examples can be found here . Those interested in contributing to the Agora section should contact the Editors-in-Chief in advance, briefly sketching the issue and their personal views, the organizational relevance, why the issue deserves sparking an urgent debate, and the kind of research required.

2. Preparing your manuscript

2.1 Title, Keywords, and Abstract

The title, keywords and abstract are key to ensuring readers find your article online. Submissions of articles and essays should be accompanied by

an informative abstract of 300 words (maximum): Good abstracts describe the material presented in the paper, including the question or focus, the type of study reported (e.g., conceptual, empirical, qualitative, field, network study, etc.), the context, the main data source, and the most significant findings and contributions. The better your abstract, the easier it is for others to identify, read, and build upon your work;
5 to 7 keywords: Four keywords must be selected from the OS ScholarOne keyword list, the remaining keywords may be freely chosen.

Authors should explain any background information about the submission that the acting editor should be aware of in a cover letter (see also under 3. Submitting a manuscript).

2.2 Manuscript formatting

Manuscripts submitted to OS must be in an editable (e.g. Word) format, we do not accept manuscripts as PDF file.

Organize the manuscript by using primary, secondary, and tertiary headings, rather than numbered headings (see recent OS issues for examples).

Within the manuscript, text should be typed double-spaced in 12-point Times New Roman. Tables may be single-spaced and in smaller fonts.

When submitting a paper and during the review process, tables and figures should be inserted in the text to facilitate reading of the manuscript. Ensure that figures and tables are inserted in editable formats (Word, Excel, PowerPoint). Before acceptance, you will have to upload all tables and figures in separate files. Figures supplied in colour will appear in colour online regardless of whether or not these illustrations are reproduced in colour in the printed version. For specifically requested colour reproduction in print, you will receive information regarding the costs from Sage after receipt of your accepted article.

2.3 Reference style

References to articles, books, and other source works cited in the text and listed in the references section should follow the OS Style and Reference Guide (see here for details).

3. Submitting a manuscript

Authors should not re-submit a manuscript that OS has rejected at an earlier time, unless they are doing so at the explicit invitation of one of the editors.

Ordinarily, the editors will only consider up to a maximum of three submissions at a time from an author (regardless of single- or co-author status). Should an author believe there are exceptional circumstances to consider when it comes to this policy, we ask the author to contact us for a consultation.

OS is hosted on Sage track, a web based online submission and peer review system powered by ScholarOne. Authors need to submit their manuscripts (in editable format) to the OS ScholarOne submission site https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/orgstudies

On the site, you will be asked to upload a title page , with contact information for all authors. Please include acknowledgements and funding information on the title page.

Please also make sure that you answer all the manuscript- and author-related questions in the system, and that all authors’ names are entered into the manuscript submission form.

Every submission must name a corresponding author who will be involved in all correspondence regarding the manuscript. Provide full contact details for the corresponding author on the OS ScholarOne site. Academic affiliations are required for all co-authors.

Please add an author b iography of no more than 100 words on each author’s personal history and current interests (1 st step of your submission under the header “Type, Title, & Abstract”).

When authors submit a manuscript for consideration, they must certify that the manuscript is not at the same time under review for publication in another outlet (e.g., book chapter, journal) nor that it, or a closely related version of the manuscript, has previously been published in another outlet.

Please indicate in your cover letter people who have already viewed the paper, members of thesis committees and colleagues who would have a conflict of interest in reviewing the paper, and any other circumstances that might affect the integrity of the anonymize review process. It is not useful to include a description or summary of the paper in the cover letter. Use the cover letter to tell the editor whether any of the data in a submitted manuscript have been published elsewhere or are used in manuscripts under review in other outlets and how the submitted manuscript differs. (Please see our Editorial and Publishing Policies for further information.)

Authors should prepare their manuscripts in such a way that they cannot be identified. To preserve anonymity in the anonymize review process, authors should avoid revealing their identity in text through obvious and/or multiple self-references to previous work or in footnotes. If authors cite their own published work or work in progress, however, these references must be included in the references with full bibliographic information. Authors should reference their own work as they would the work of any other scholar. Reviewers will ask what the contribution of a manuscript is above what has already been published and must have this information.

Any acknowledgements and funding information should be provided in the respective fields on the OS ScholarOne site and on the title page, but not in the main text of the manuscript. (In manuscripts accepted for OS publication any acknowledgements will appear at the end of the article prior to the Declaration of Conflicting Interests (if applicable), any notes and the References).

Authors are responsible for obtaining permission from copyright holders for reproducing any illustrations, pictures, tables, figures or lengthy quotations previously published elsewhere.

For further information including guidance on fair dealing for criticism and review, please see the Journal Permission Guidelines . More information is also available on the Copyright and Permissions page on the Sage Author Gateway .

As part of our commitment to ensuring an ethical, transparent and fair peer review process Sage is a supporting member of ORCID, the Open Researcher and Contributor ID . ORCID provides a unique and persistent digital identifier that distinguishes researchers from every other researcher, even those who share the same name, and, through integration in key research workflows such as manuscript and grant submission, supports automated linkages between researchers and their professional activities, ensuring that their work is recognized.

The collection of ORCID iDs from corresponding authors is now part of the submission process of this journal. If you already have an ORCID iD you will be asked to associate that to your submission during the online submission process. We also strongly encourage all co-authors to link their ORCID ID to their accounts in our online peer review platforms. It takes seconds to do: click the link when prompted, sign into your ORCID account and our systems are automatically updated. Your ORCID iD will become part of your accepted publication’s metadata, making your work attributable to you and only you. Your ORCID iD is published with your article so that fellow researchers reading your work can link to your ORCID profile and from there link to your other publications.

If you do not already have an ORCID iD please follow this link to create one or visit our ORCID homepage to learn more.

4. After acceptance

4.1 Author Accepted Manuscripts (AAM)

OS makes accepted manuscripts available to subscribers online as rapidly as possible. Author Accepted Manuscripts (AAM) are the final author-created accepted version before they have gone through Sage’s copy editing, formatting and proofing process. Author Accepted Manuscripts are posted online in PDF format and clearly identified as unedited manuscript by the bar “Author Accepted” across the pages. Authors can correct last minor errors within their article when reviewing proofs during the copy-editing process but no changes can be made to the AAM PDF.

AAMs can be cited by the Digital Object Identifier (DOI). Once the manuscript has gone through copy-editing, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof, the AAM is replaced by the OnlineFirst version. All versions of the article have the same DOI as the Author Accepted Manuscript.

To view the list of AAMs, visit the journal’s homepage and click on the Accepted Manuscripts link at the top of the page (see landing page here ).

4.2 Online First publication

OS benefits from OnlineFirst, a feature offered through Sage’s electronic journal platform, Sage Journals Online. It allows final revision articles (completed articles in queue for assignment to an upcoming issue) to be hosted online prior to their inclusion in a final print and online journal issue which significantly reduces the lead time between submission and publication. For more information, please visit the Sage OnlineFirst Fact Sheet .

5. Further information

Any correspondence, queries or additional requests for information on the Manuscript Submission process should be sent to the Editorial Office as follows:

Sophia Tzagaraki, Managing Editor E-mail: [email protected]

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Organization Studies Conference Proceedings (2)
The International Journal of Knowledge, Culture, and Change Management: Annual Review (1,548)
Change Management: An International Journal (142)
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Organizational Cultures: An International Journal (178)
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The International Journal of Interdisciplinary Organizational Studies (150)

Analyzing the Influence of Emotional Intelligence on Workplace Conduct

Senthilkumar Kalyanasundaram

Senchulakshmi Desigan

Naveen Prakash Gururavi

Undercurrent Forces Beneath a Long-Standing Migration Corridor:

Akadet Chaichanavichakit

The International Journal of Interdisciplinary Organizational Studies, Volume 19, Issue 2

Stakeholder-Value Chain/Network Matrix/Map (SVM)

Junesoo Lee

Comparative Study of Antecedent Factors Affecting Entrepreneurial Venture Success among Omani Nationals and Expatriates in Oman

Mohamed Wahish Hashim

Ilya Bystrov

Fawaz Ali Al Thawabieh

Farzaneh Yarahmadi

A Bibliometric Analysis of the Impact of Digital Marketing in Higher Education

Riyanka Jain

Manisha Rao

Organizational Culture, Cultural Control, and the Self

Theaanna Kiaos

Getting Workers to Engage in Organizational Citizenship Behaviors and Decrease Their Intention to Quit

Audrey Babic

Elodie Baijot

Organizational Cultures: An International Journal, Volume 24, Issue 2

The Role of Relationship Quality in Collaborative Knowledge Networks and Organizational Learning in Enhancing the Quality of Hajj Services

Rola Younis Masoud Mohammed

Muhammad Zafar Yaqub

Influence of Employeesâ Perception of Corporate Social Responsibility Practices on Organizational Commitment

Ayoub Katfi

Oumaima El Mnouer

Hamza Katfi

Otmane Katfi

Toward a Model of Sense of Control

Muhammad Rehan Masoom

COVID-19 and Digital Innovation

Nicole M. Cunningham

Manfred F. Maute

Perceived Opportunities and Threats of Belt and Road Initiative

Chu Le Chong

Poh Chuin Teo

Theresa C. F. Ho

Punitha Sinnappan

Complementing Self-Determination Theory

Dwi Indriastuti

Olivia Fachrunnisa

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The International Journal of Interdisciplinary Organizational Studies

The Organization Studies Journal Collection comes together around a common concern for, and a shared interest to explore, new possibilities in knowledge, culture and change management, within the broader context of the nature and future of organizations and their impact on society. We seek to build an epistemic community to make linkages across disciplinary, geographic, and cultural boundaries. The journal collection is defined by our Research Network scope and concerns and motivated to build strategies for action framed by our shared themes and tensions. The International Journal of Interdisciplinary Organizational Studies explores the social dynamics of public, community, and privately owned organizations. The International Journal of Interdisciplinary Organizational Studies stemmed from the themed journal collection of Common Ground's Interdisciplinary Social Sciences Research Network. The Interdisciplinary Social Sciences Journal Collection was founded in 2006. In 2021, The International Journal of Interdisciplinary Organizational Studies was moved from the interdisciplinary network to become the premiere journal for the Organization Studies Research Network. The Journal is meant to serve as a means of communication and discussion of important issues related to scientific activities. The Journal publishes only original articles in different languages which have international importance. In addition to full-length research articles, the Journal also publishes review articles. Papers can be focused on fundamental research leading to new methods, or adaptation of existing methods for new applications. Articles for the Journal are peer-reviewed by third-party reviewers who are selected from among specialists in the subject matter of peer-reviewed materials. The Journal is a kind of forum for discussing issues and problems facing science and scholars, as well as an effective means of interaction between the members of the academic community. The Journal is read by a large number of scholars, and the circulation of the journal is constantly growing. Articles containing fundamental or applied scientific results in all areas of research are accepted for consideration. The Editorial Board of the Journal composes of 25 members and is chaired by Academician Dr. Spencer S Stober.

Collection Founded: 2006 Serial Founded: 2013 (Volume 8) ISSN: 2324-7649 (Print) ISSN: 2324-7657 (Online) LCCN Permalink: http://lccn.loc.gov/2012203439 DOI: http://doi.org/10.18848/2324-7649/CGP Past Publication Frequency: Quarterly (2013–2017) Current Publication Frequency: Monthly

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v.8(1); 2022 Jan

Comparative organizational network analysis considering formal power-based networks and organizational hierarchies

Valentina ramos.

a Grupo de Investigación SIGTI, Escuela Politécnica Nacional, Ecuador

Pablo Pazmiño

b Empresa Estrategia & Gestion, Ecuador

Antonio Franco-Crespo

Carlos ramos-galarza.

c Universidad Indoamérica, Pontifica Universidad Católica del Ecuador, Ecuador

Eduardo Tejera

d Universidad de las Américas, Ecuador

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Comparative organizational network analysis makes it possible to identify the similarities and differences between organizations according to the content of their networks. This research is a comparative study of organizational networks based on formal power. To accomplish this goal, networks were developed in three organizations from different sectors with workers distributed in high, middle and operational levels in the organizational hierarchy. For the study, 100% of the workers within the identified networks were included. The results indicated that, considering centrality and connectivity network indices, there were no statistically significant differences between organizations according to formal power network behavior. However, we obtained statistically significant differences in terms connectivity and centrality considering the workers’ hierarchy. The representative nodes of high and middle hierarchical levels had higher indices of connectivity and centrality than the nodes representative of the operational level. This study makes it possible to identify the formal roles within networks based on legitimate power, which can serve as a basis for decision-making processes and resource allocations, for the strategic use of the networks created.

Comparative organizational network analysis; Legitimate power; Formal leadership; Connectivity; Centrality.

1. Introduction

The use and study of organizational networks has started to be considered an essential part of organizational culture; and the importance given to organizational leadership, workers’ relationships and the establishment of social patterns can be identified and verified through organizational network analysis ( Balkundi and Kilduff, 2006 ). Networks have also served to differentiate effective managers from successful leaders due to their use as a strategic form of decision making ( Robbins and Judge, 2013 ). Technology has allowed the use of networks to proliferate and the recognition if their importance for the managerial actions of both formal and informal organizational leaders ( Campbell and Meddings, 2006 ). Additionally, the use of networks in leadership processes allows us to identify the ways in which leaders guide their activities, how they can measure the effectiveness of communication and how they conduct their planning ( Liu and Moskvina, 2016 ). Thus, one of the main uses of networks by leaders is the achievement of personal objectives and goals, and another main use is a means to help their colleagues and collaborators achieve their own objectives ( Campbell and Meddings, 2006 ).

1.1. Leadership and formal power in organizations

Leadership and power in organizations have been concepts that have often been treated in an interconnected way ( Taucean et al., 2016 ). On many occasions, one term has been confused with the other, but despite having similarities, there are elements that differentiate them. Power has been identified as the current or potential ability to influence other people ( Campbell and Meddings, 2006 ; French and Raven, 2014 ; Lunenburg, 2012 ). Fernandez (1991) indicates that leadership also implies the exercise of influence over other people. This influence can be represented by personal attributes or contingent elements. In this sense, power and leadership are characterized by the levels of influence that people exercise, where leaders can have access to various types of power ( Campbell and Meddings, 2006 ). For Taucean et al. (2016) , the effective use of power allows the success of leaders to be determined ( Lunenburg, 2012 ; Taucean et al., 2016 ).

One of the forms of power that is identified as part of formal leadership is the power given by the authority. This type of power is also known as legitimate power and refers to the ability to influence and make decisions based on their position within the organizational hierarchy ( Lunenburg, 2012 ; Taucean et al., 2016 ). This form of power has been recognized as the most effective in certain organizations, especially to obtain quick responses and to improve the performance of the organization's members ( Campbell and Meddings, 2006 ). One important aspect of legitimate power is that in organizational spaces, we can find people who have the right to influence and people who have the obligation to receive this influence ( French and Raven, 2014 ). The same happens with leaders in general since leadership applies when there is a consensus between the person who influences and the person who agrees to be influenced ( Fernandez, 1991 ). However, formal leaders have a type of legitimate influence that allows them to have direct access and control over an organization's resources and to make decisions with greater impact compared to what informal leaders could do ( Sparrowe and Liden, 2005 ). For Zohar and Tenne-Gazit (2008) , there are two ways in which influence manifests itself between people: communication and relationships. Both communication and relationships lead to the formation of networks ( Zohar and Tenne-Gazit, 2008 ).

1.2. Organizational networks and leadership

Organizational networks are structures based on the existence of nodes, which in this case would be the people who work in the organization; and the existence of relationships between nodes ( Balkundi and Kilduff, 2006 ; Liu and Moskvina, 2016 ). Leadership in organizations can be studied from the analysis of organizational networks through the identification of the weights of people who function as nodes in these networks ( Liu and Moskvina, 2016 ). Networks can be classified as formal or informal depending on the relationships between nodes. Formal networks refer to the relationships between nodes based on legitimate, reward or punishment power, having a direct relationship with the hierarchy that people occupy ( Marineau, 2014 ; Norbom, 2010 ; Peiró and Meliá, 2003 ); and informal networks are when the relationships between nodes are based on referent and expert powers ( Peiró and Meliá, 2003 ; Ramos et al., 2019 ). Formal leaders can be part of informal networks when the characteristics of the activities they perform are not necessarily planned or intentionally elaborated; thus, they are not a part of their formal roles ( Hoppe and Reinelt, 2010 ; Sparrowe and Liden, 2005 ).

However, formal relationships between workers and their leaders within formal networks have been recognized as crucial for the success of organizational management processes ( Sparrowe and Liden, 2005 ). Informal leaders who do not have formal authority experience many frustrations when seeking to implement functional activities and usually manipulate the networks where they seek to exert a more social influence ( Balkundi and Kilduff, 2006 ). Additionally, Marineau (2014) affirms that networks made by formal power, where formal leaders are identified, have relationships and forms of management that turn out to be more precise than those of informal networks.

1.3. Roles of formal leaders in organizational network analysis

There are several roles that nodes occupy in the studies of organizational networks and that define the function that the node occupies within its network. The importance of identifying the roles of the nodes is given by determining how critical the presence of that node is within the network ( Pasqualino et al., 2013 ). In this way, people can be identified as connectors, as bridges, and as centralizers of information, among other node classifications ( Balkundi and Kilduff, 2006 ; Long et al., 2013 ; Pasqualino et al., 2013 ). The two roles that were identified as being related to formal leadership for the present study were the bonding and bridging roles.

Bonding refers to the connectivity that people have with other people; thus, it is related to forming their own group ( Hoppe and Reinelt, 2010 ). This type of meter allows the identification of social elements such as trust, which can lead to indicators of group work efficiency and is determined from the density of the network connectivity. Conversely, bridging refers to the mediating role of a node that facilitates connections between groups within the network ( Hoppe and Reinelt, 2010 ). Bridging allows us to identify a node's potential for collaboration and the use of network resources. One of the indices associated with bridging that has been little considered in the social sciences is stress centrality, which makes it possible to calculate the number of short paths between nodes ( Brandes and Erlebach, 2005 ). This does not necessarily indicate that the communication between groups is lost when eliminating a node with a high level of stress centrality but rather that the communication path is lengthened.

Leaders who are nodes with high stress centrality are key people because they can speed up the transmission of information and, consequently, can facilitate their work as organizational managers. To guarantee effective communication in networks, it is essential that the information arrives in the fastest way possible and spreads throughout the network, but this depends on the level of connectivity of its nodes ( Zohar and Tenne-Gazit, 2008 ). According to Jia et al. (2012) , considering the short connectivity paths between nodes, which is the stress centrality index, is the better way to identify these important nodes because identifying these nodes shortens the divergence of the information that is transmitted ( Ishakian et al., 2012 ; Scardoni and Lau, 2012 ).

This study aims to characterize the roles of formal leaders in organizational networks based on formal power, considering the connectivity and stress centrality indices in the networks. Formal leaders with high connectivity are those who receive the largest number of selections, so it is a popularity factor; furthermore, formal leaders with high stress centrality are those through whom information passes immediately from a greater number of nodes, which allows them to be identified as critical in decision-making processes due to the quality of information and relationships they manage.

2. Materials and methods

This research is a comparative study of the analysis of organizational networks based on informal power and the occupational hierarchies of its members.

2.1. Sample

The sample consisted of 100% of the population of workers from three companies in Ecuador belonging to the banking, cooperative and commercial sectors. The organizations were chosen for their heterogeneity according to their economic sector. This way, conclusions act as result of a comparative analysis, using contrast between organizations, as a form of multiple case study. The description of the population is found in Table 1 .

Table 1

Characterization of organizational workers.

Note. For network studies, the entire population of the organizations was considered, so the number of participants was 100% representative of their organizations.

2.2. Instrument

For the construction of the networks, the same question was asked to the three organizations: "Who is my boss?" It should be noted that the original questionnaire was longer and referred to different sources of power. However, it was decided to choose the question that was common in the three organizations analyzed, that was related to formal power. This allowed us to acquire information to form the network corresponding to formal power to establish the roles of the formal leaders in it. The survey applied contained the names of all the workers of each organization so that there were no errors when selecting the name of the worker according to the question, as well as their own name. The option of "no one" was included in the answers.

2.3. Design

The survey was available until all collaborators completely completed it, and it was a requirement that the entire population complete the instrument. Due to the characteristics of the network and to control the filling, the instrument was not anonymous; however, it was indicated that the results would only be processed by the researchers, and it was also required that participants signed a filling consent form. Having access to the names of the participants made it possible to perform the subsequent the filling process.

2.4. Data analysis

The indices used in the networks were connectivity and stress centrality. As previously explained, the determination of nodes using both indicators makes it possible to identify the people who had the highest degree of selections and, therefore, those who exert the greatest influence within the network. Meanwhile, stress centrality allows to identify those nodes through which relevant information passes within the network, which is also relevant for leadership. The calculations were made using the Cytoscape program, which also allowed us to identify the connectivity and stress centrality indices of each of the nodes. The graphs made reflect each of the leaders of the three levels of hierarchies identified in different colors: senior managers (red), middle managers (black) and operational personnel (green).

The results presented show the calculations related to the stress centrality and power network connectivity of three organizations and the differences calculated between them. Likewise, as part of the research, the results of these indices are shown by comparing the hierarchical levels within each organization.

3.1. Description of organizational networks based on formal power

Organizational networks based on formal power are represented in Figures 1 , ,2, 2 , and and3. 3 . In the case of Company 1, the network based on formal power is represented in Figure 1 .

Organizational network of Company 1, based on legitimate power. Note. The people who are high-level managers are in red, the middle-level managers are in black and the operational-level workers are in green.

Organizational Network of Company 2, based on legitimate power. Note. In red are the people who are part of high-level managers, in black are the middle-level managers and in green the operational-level workers.

Organizational Network of Company 3, based on legitimate power. Note. In red are the people who are part of high-level managers, in black are the middle-level managers and in green the operational-level workers.

Figure 1 shows that the network is composed of three groups: a large island, where most of the collaborators are interconnected; and two smaller islands, where there is no communication with the rest of the collaborators. The black and red nodes, representing the top and middle managers of the organization, respectively, can be seen graphically as the nodes in the center of the main choices.

This Figure shows a distribution of high and middle managers towards the center of the network, which allows us to affirm that the relationships between the leaders of the higher management are closer than the relationships between people who do not occupy the same hierarchy. However, leaders from middle management are found in the main centers of groups who are formed towards the periphery of the network. This means that they continue to have an important role within the network, but they are more connected with the nodes that represent people with less hierarchy. The network graph of Company 2 is presented in Figure 2 .

The distribution of the network in Figure 2 shows that there are two large groups that do not connect with each other; however, workers are distributed in these two groups in almost the same proportion. The black and red nodes can also be visualized in the election centers and as connectors between the groups.

In Figure 2 we can find something like Figure 1 . In this organization, the nodes that correspond to high-level leaders are close and interconnected with each other, while the nodes of the middle management are found more towards the periphery of the network and have more connections with people who do not have higher hierarchies within the organization. Finally, the network related to Company 3 is graphed in Figure 3 .

Figure 3 shows three groups: one has the largest number of collaborators interconnected, and the other two groups are smaller and are not connected to each other or to the largest group. The red and black nodes appeared as central in most elections, except for a few groups where the key people are not necessarily from the highest hierarchies. Unlike the previous Figures, in Figure 3 people with higher hierarchy are more dispersed within the network and we can affirm that the relationships they have with those nodes that represent people without formal hierarchical roles are similar to the relationships that they have with them the people of middle management.

3.2. Differences between organizations considering the centrality and connectivity indices

Table 2 shows the results obtained from the calculations, where the general differences between indices can be identified.

Table 2

Organizational differences considering connectivity and stress in the formal power network.

Note : The difference mean comparison results were obtained using the Kruskal-Wallis test.

As seen in Table 2 , there are no statistically significant differences between organizations considering general values related to the connectivity and stress indices. There were also no differences in relation to the standard deviations for each of the evaluated indices. This allows us to affirm that the organization is not a key attribute that defines the analysis of the formal power network. This is a positive result. Since there are no differences between organizations, we can conclude that the behavior of people within the network will respond to their hierarchy, regardless of the organization in which they belong.

3.3. Differences between hierarchical levels considering the centrality and connectivity indices

The centrality and connectivity indices were also measured considering the different hierarchies in the three organizations analyzed. The results are shown in Table 3 .

Table 3

Hierarchical differences considering connectivity and stress in the formal power network.

Considering the mean differences between the connectivity and centrality values in the three hierarchical levels evaluated, we can affirm that there are statistically significant differences between people according to the hierarchy they occupy in the three organizations. In two out of three organizations, there are no differences between middle managers and senior managers according to the centrality and connectivity indices, which indicates that the level that people have at this hierarchy does not have a significant impact on their position within the network. However, both levels represent a formal power compared to the operational hierarchy, which are employees who are not in charge of other employees and who, therefore, do not have formal leadership roles within the organization.

Correlation analyses between the connectivity and centrality were performed for each hierarchy evaluated. These results are given in Table 4 .

Table 4

Relationship between centrality and connectivity for each hierarchical level.

Note : Spearman's correlation coefficient was used for correlation. ∗∗ indicates p < 0.01.

The results show that the levels of centrality and connectivity in each of the hierarchies analyzed present statistically significant and positive correlations. That is, the higher the connectivity is, the higher the centrality. In this sense, the formal leaders of organizations are people who have a greater influence due to the number of selections they receive, which confirms their leadership position. These people, due to the results obtained in the correlations, are also leaders considering their role within the network, related to access to information, which increases the power that the person has within their network.

4. Discussion

Our results show the relationships that exist between the sources of formal power and the level of the occupational hierarchy of the people, considering connectivity and centrality indices, which are higher in workers in higher hierarchical levels. Our results also show that the behavior of formal power networks between organizations does not present statistically significant differences. These results are discussed below. However, Fernandez (1991) acquired different results since he obtained consistency in the formation of leaders using organizational networking in only two out of three organizations studied. For this author, the network behavior indicators did not prove to be homogeneous in different organizations when explaining the development of formal leaders.

4.1. Organizational networks based on formal power do not present differences considering their connectivity and centrality indices in the organizations studied

The studies where organizational networks are compared are called network comparative studies, and their objective is to identify the similarities and differences between the networks found ( Cherifi et al., 2016 ; King et al., 2009 ; Wong et al., 2015 ). However, previous research comparing organizations has presented different inconsistencies when organizational networks have been compared, probably due to the nature of the networks. In the study conducted by Brass (1984) , the results obtained showed differences in the values related to centrality in the networks. Merrill et al. (2008) also found discrepancies in the results from a study of health organizations aimed at comparing organizational networks according to indicators of density, complexity and centrality, among others; and concluded that organizations by their context are unique in relation to the behavior of their networks. This has allowed several authors to argue the importance of the use of networks as a form of intelligence in organizations ( Daňa et al., 2020 ), but there are still not enough studies using comparative analysis of organizational networks.

Our results suggest that there are similar behaviors in organizations when the measurements cover the same concept and type of the network, at least in terms of networks related to legitimate power. More research is needed in this regard to verify whether our results are related to the context in which they were obtained.

4.2. Formal power networks present significant differences considering the hierarchies within each organization

According to Peiró and Meliá (2003) , the existence of formal power may or may not be related to the hierarchical positions that people occupy in their organizational contexts. For authors such as Marineau (2014) and Patterson et al. (2018) , the legitimate power of a formal leader is related to how legitimate this leader is perceived, not because of their hierarchical position itself. However, the results obtained in the present investigation indicate that networks based on formal power have key nodes that coincide with the hierarchical position of the people in their organization. Studies such as that of Aalbers and Ipskamp (2012) , Ramos et al. (2019) and Taucean et al. (2016) confirm this. Sutanto et al. (2011) indicated that informal leaders appear more frequently in networks that reflect relationships that are also informal.

For Aalbers and Ipskamp (2012) , the higher the hierarchical level that a person occupies is, the more legitimate their participation within the organization, and this gives legitimacy to the ideas and information that come from this person; therefore, it is not strange that they become references in their networks of formal power. The participation of high hierarchies in networks allows the allocation of resources and accesses that strengthen their participation in networks ( Aalbers and Ipskamp, 2012 ; Katz, 2018 ). At the same time, it allows us to better direct the activity of the network toward the fulfillment of organizational objectives and facilitates innovation processes.

Despite the risk indicated in studies by Lunenburg (2012) , where people whose predominant power is formal can misuse it and, consequently, can use coercive power modes combined with legitimate power, in the case of the organizations studied, the high levels of connectivity and centrality found indicate that people, according to their hierarchy, are referred to as important nodes within the organizational network. These results contrast with what was shown by Sutanto et al. (2011) since their research started from the premise that centrality indicators are associated with informal roles within an organization. The present research shows that, in the context studied, legitimate power is used in a more strategic way, based on the functions given by the hierarchy, and is based more on the notion that a leader is capable of influence through legitimate power ( Lunenburg, 2012 ).

5. Conclusion

Our results are from a comparative study of organizational networks considering legitimate or formal power and the organizational hierarchies distributed in high managers, middle managers, and operational workers. These results show that even though the graphs that represent the networks have different visual behaviors, we can identify similarities in relation to the positions of the representative nodes of high and medium hierarchies with these being the ones that receive the most selections by the rest of the nodes. When the levels of centrality and connectivity between the three organizations were compared, there were no statistically significant differences. However, considering the hierarchies of the workers, we did find differences between high-level managers, middle-level managers and operational workers. Two of the three organizations did not present significant differences in the centrality and connectivity indices between high- and middle-level managers.

The main conclusions derived from our research affirm that organizations, even if they are from different sectors, maintain the same relationships between their nodes, considering their connectivity and centrality indices in networks based on formal power. However, people have differences in relation to centrality and connectivity according to their hierarchy within the organization, allowing us to conclude that formal networks are related to formal leadership and that their use allows them to make strategic decisions in accordance with the organizational objective and influences the allocation of resources for the development of the different activities.

5.1. Limitations

The study could benefit from a larger sample of organizations to extend the conclusions from the context studied and into cross-cultural studies. It is also recommended that more networks, especially informal networks, be used to compare the results obtained, especially considering the role of informal leaders.

5.2. Further implications of the study

This study highlights the need to conduct more comparative studies considering organizational networks to determine patterns in a context and to be able to develop theories that allow one to explain the behavior of the relationships between nodes in a network. The analysis of organizational networks based on both formal and informal power is one of the key elements for the decision-making processes of management at different hierarchical levels. The results allow us to understand the relationships that are established and the roles that leaders can occupy according to their hierarchy.

Declarations

Author contribution statement.

Valentina Ramos: Conceived and designed the experiments; Performed the experiments; Analyzed and interpreted the data.

Pablo Pazmiño: Conceived and designed the experiments; Performed the experiments.

Antonio Franco-Crespo: Contributed reagents, materials, analysis tools or data.

Carlos Ramos-Galarza: Contributed reagents, materials, analysis tools or data.

Eduardo Tejera: Conceived and designed the experiments; Performed the experiments; Analyzed and interpreted the data.

Funding statement

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability statement

Declaration of interests statement.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Additional information

No additional information is available for this paper.

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Senior Director of Development for Economic Security and Technology - Office of Development

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At CSIS we actively seek to employ a diverse group of people who embody our organizational values. We welcome and encourage individuals of all backgrounds to apply, especially those from traditionally underrepresented groups.

The Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) is a non-profit, bipartisan public policy organization established in 1962 to provide strategic insights and practical policy solutions to decision makers concerned with global security and prosperity. Over the years, it has grown to be one of the largest organizations of its kind, with a staff of some 200 employees, including more than 120 analysts working to address the changing dynamics of international security across the globe. CSIS’s annual revenue is over $50 million a year. This revenue comes from a diversity of sources and emphasizes scholarly entrepreneurism. The Office of Development leads efforts to strengthen relationships and bolster financial support from corporations, foundations, governments, and individuals to advance the Center’s institutional objectives. As part of a long-term strategic effort to secure CSIS’s future, the organization is investing in the growth of its central development team by recruiting key leaders.

The Senior Director of Development for Economic Security and Technology plays a central role in this effort by leading revenue growth and fundraising efforts in one of the Center’s core areas of work Economic Security and Technology. The Senior Director of Development works closely with CSIS programs in this issue area to develop and implement business growth strategies. The role serves as a key partner in new business development and in tactical support for idea generation, prospect identification, proposal development, partner relations, and more.

Reporting to the Chief Development Officer, the Senior Director of Development will provide leadership for strategy, support, and execution of business development and fundraising activities related to the Economic Security and Technology Department, which is led by the Department President and focuses on four themes

U.S. competitiveness, trade, innovation, and supply chain resiliency
Economic and technological competition with global powers such as China
Effectiveness of U.S. policy instruments such as sanctions, export controls and investment restrictions
The geopolitics of energy and strategic resources, including crucial mineral supply chains

The minimum annual salary for this position is $150,000.

ESSENTIAL DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES

Business Development, Fundraising (70%)

• The Senior Director of Development for Economic Security and Technology builds and executes comprehensive business development and fundraising strategies for the Department. The primary focus is on actively identifying, securing, and stewarding external contracts, gifts and grants from corporations, foundations, and governments. • This role manages a portfolio of current and prospective corporate and foundation partners at the six-figure level. Partners include corporations funding restricted and unrestricted opportunities, corporate memberships, foundations, and other entities. • The Senior Director of Development attends visits and meetings with prospects and donors; prepares program and development leadership for donor/prospect meetings and executes timely follow-up. • The Senior Director of Development grows and manages an active pipeline of prospective partners and existing donors and implements strategies to engage and solicit grants and gifts from a diverse range of sources, in close partnership with the development team, program leadership and others across the Center. • Collaborating with Department and development leadership, this role drafts communication including letters of interest, concept papers, proposals, and MOUs relevant to the Department’s business development and fundraising priorities. Implements outreach strategies for current and prospective donors regarding relevant events and publications to drive greater awareness and impact. • Responsible for the timely compilation of donor database information especially as it relates to documenting correspondence with donors, meeting notes, proposals, and background information.

Department Support (30%)

• The Senior Director of Development serves as a trusted business development and fundraising advisor, with the knowledge, experience, and confidence to empower, guide, and support colleagues and teammates. The Department team will look to this role to provide guidance on the execution of strategy especially on high priority current and potential donors. This will include regularly engaging scholars and staff, and effectively managing partners who have multiple affiliations across the Center. Working tactfully, while remaining persistent about culture change towards the institution’s broader strategic plan, will be an important aspect. Developing a service-oriented approach and engaging in best practice relationship management approaches will be essential for success. • This role develops a deep understanding of the research issues for the Department, especially as it relates to fundraising and business development; understands the fundraising and business development trends as it relates to the Department’s priority areas. • The Senior Director of Development partners with the Economic Security and Technology Department, the broader development team, and the finance team to gather and report on data related to fundraising. Participates in all budget discussions and contributes significantly to discussions related to revenue and fundraising. Keeps Department and development leadership apprised of fundraising activities including proposals in the pipeline, status of current grants, and grant deliverables and expectations. Partners with development, finance, and Department teams to track deliverables and manage grant modifications or special reporting needs if needed. Liaises with funders to obtain grant modifications and extensions, if needed. Collaborates with the Department team and the Associate Director for Foundation Relations to ensure timely production of grant reports. Submits reports to donors, as appropriate.

KNOWLEDGE, EDUCATION, AND EXPERIENCE

• (Required) Knowledge and understanding of the Washington policy ecosystem, including the formal structures and informal networks around policymaking in Economic Security and Technology. • (Important) Prior experience with econ and tech leaders, senior government officials, and government relations professionals will be helpful; a strong network of contacts in the areas of national security and economics and technology; a deep interest in relevant trends and topics. • (Preferred) Proven skills with implementing strategic approaches to building relationships and securing financial support and/or fundraising in the non-profit industry. Ability to solicit six- and seven-figure grants and gifts from individuals, corporations, and foundations. • (Required) Understanding and familiarity with navigating complex institutions while engaging scholars (or equivalent) and leadership. • (Important) Entrepreneurial and goal-oriented attitude and leading through influence will be important for success in this role. Diplomacy and collaboration are critical. • (Required) Exceptional written and verbal communication skills, including the ability to iterate and explain complex research. • A bachelor’s degree is required; master’s degree in a related field is preferred. • (Required) Ten years of policy, business development, fundraising, or relevant leadership experience. • (Important) Solid ability to understand and interpret budget and financial reports and related information. • (Preferred) Ability to travel on occasion.

PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS AND WORK CONDITIONS

The physical demands are representative of those that must be met by an employee to successfully perform the essential functions of this job. Performances of duties require the regular use of a computer, ability to move throughout the building, greet guests, and occasionally serve beverages and lift up to ten pounds. The noise level in the work environment is usually moderate.

Qualified applicants will receive consideration for employment without regard to race, color, religion, sex, national origin, sexual orientation, gender identity, disability or protected veteran status.

Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Employer.

• This position is in-person and based in CSIS’s Washington, DC office. • This position will be supported administratively through a junior staff member.

HOW TO APPLY

Interested applicants should submit a resume and cover letter at http//csis.org/aboutus/careers

To submit an application for this position, click the “Apply” button below, and you will be redirected to our secure recruitment portal.

Introduction
Article Information

BOD indicates board of directors; CEO, chief executive officer; CFO, chief financial officer; CIO, chief information officer; CMO, chief medical officer; COO, chief operating officer; CSO, chief strategy officer; HHR, human resources officer; HHS, US Department of Health and Human Services; MCO, marketing/communications officer.

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Odei BC , Seldon C , Fernandez M, et al. Representation of Women in the Leadership Structure of the US Health Care System. JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4(11):e2136358. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.36358

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Representation of Women in the Leadership Structure of the US Health Care System

1 James Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus
2 Sylvester Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Miami, Miami, Florida
3 Northeast Ohio Medical University, Rootstown
4 MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
5 The Ohio State University School of Medicine, Columbus
6 Morehouse School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
7 MultiCare Tacoma General Hospital, Tacoma, Washington

The US health care system serves a heterogeneous population with varied health care needs, 1 which underscores the importance of diverse perspectives in health care leadership. However, few contemporary studies have assessed gender diversity in the leadership structure of organizations (health systems and health insurance groups) that form the US health care system. Consequently, this study evaluated the representation of women among the highest-ranking executives in the US health care system.

This cross-sectional study was deemed exempt from review by The Ohio State University Institutional Review Board, which waived the informed consent requirement because the data were publicly available. We followed the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology ( STROBE ) reporting guideline.

For this analysis, we identified the following health care organizations: health systems with a minimum of 5 affiliated hospitals, 2 health insurance groups with at least 0.09% of the US health insurance market share, 3 and the US Department of Health and Human Services. We collected information on executives from each organization’s website. Between April 1 and May 31, 2021, we collected data on the gender of members of the senior executive leadership teams and/or boards of directors (BODs) of the selected organizations. Each executive was assigned to binary categories of gender (man or woman), and gender was identified by reviewing a combination of gender identifiers, names, and corresponding photographs. Organizations without available online data on their executives and individuals for whom gender could not be determined were excluded from the study.

Descriptive statistics were used to define the distributions of continuous variables. One-sided binomial testing was used to compare the gender representation within individual positions, with the null hypothesis that gender distribution was equally men and women at all positions (p = 0.5; q = 0.5). Multiple binary logistic regression modeling was performed to identify the factors associated with having a woman as chief executive officer (CEO) using all of the variables shown in the Table .

Statistical analyses were conducted using R, version 4.0.3 (R Foundation for Statistical Computing). P < .05 indicated statistical significance. We used unpaired binomial testing, with a 1-sided P value, and binary logistic regression, with a 2-sided P value.

A total of 3911 senior executives (2608 [66.7%] from health systems, and 1303 [33.3%] from health insurance groups) and 3462 BODs (2319 [67.0%] from health systems, and 1143 [33.0%] from health insurance groups) were examined, representing 161 health systems and 108 health insurance groups. We also assessed 31 leadership positions within the US Department of Health and Human Services. Of these executives, 13 were men (41.9%) and 18 were women (58.1%).

The median (IQR) size of the executive teams was 14 (11-20) members for health systems and 11 (9-15) members for health insurance groups. Among BODs, the median (IQR) size was 15 (11-19) members for health systems and 13 (10-14) members for health insurance groups.

The proportion of BOD chairpersons who were women was 17.5% in health systems and 21.3% in health insurance groups. Only 15.3% of the CEO roles in health systems and only 15.8% of the CEO positions in health insurance groups were held by women ( Figure , A). Among BODs and senior executive teams in both health systems and health insurance groups, we found that approximately 20% to 50% of leadership positions were filled by women ( Figure , B and C).

In the health systems, a woman as CEO was associated with a higher proportion of women either on the BODs (odds ratio [OR], 1.09; 5%-95% CI, 1.01-1.18; P = .03) or in senior executive positions (OR, 1.06; 5%-95% CI, 1.02-1.11; P = .008). Similarly, a higher proportion of women on senior executive teams of health insurance groups was associated with increased representation of women as CEOs (OR, 1.06; 5%-95% CI, 1.01-1.12; P = .02).

Although women currently represent a slight majority of the US population and a large majority of the US health care workforce, 4 they are generally underrepresented on leadership teams, which likely diminishes their role in policy decisions that affect population and women’s health. In addition, a recent study reported an association between gender diversity in organizational leadership and improved organizational performance, 5 suggesting the loss of cognitive capital with the underrepresentation of women on executive teams.

Women held only approximately 15% of the CEO positions in health care organizations. Members of the BOD, whose primary responsibility includes choosing a CEO, appeared to have a role in increasing the representation of women as CEOs in health systems when the BODs had a more gender-diverse composition. It also appeared that organizations with senior leadership with gender diversity were more likely to have a woman as CEO.

In this study, the factors associated with the representation of women may have been limited in scope. Furthermore, assigning gender to binary categories was a limitation. The findings support the increased prioritization of gender diversity 6 at all hierarchical areas in the US health care system.

Accepted for Publication: October 4, 2021.

Published: November 29, 2021. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.36358

Corresponding Author: Bismarck C. Odei, MD, James Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, 460 W 10th Ave, Columbus, OH 43210 ( [email protected] ).

Author Contributions: Drs Odei and Rooney had full access to all of the data in the study and take responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.

Concept and design: Odei, Seldon, Fernandez, Bae, Ahmed.

Acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data: Odei, Seldon, Rooney, Bae, Acheampong.

Drafting of the manuscript: All authors.

Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content: Odei, Seldon, Rooney, Bae, Acheampong.

Statistical analysis: Odei, Rooney, Acheampong.

Administrative, technical, or material support: Seldon, Fernandez, Bae.

Supervision: Odei, Ahmed.

Conflict of Interest Disclosures: Dr Seldon reported receiving personal fees from Elekta for participation in Championing Women and Diversity in Radiation Oncology: A Panel Discussion outside the submitted work. No other disclosures were reported.

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Your Team Members Aren’t Participating in Meetings. Here’s What to Do.

Luis Velasquez

Ask yourself: What do people need to feel that their contributions are valued?

Traditional advice for leaders who want to increase meeting participation call for clarifying expectations, setting clear agendas, and asking open-ended questions. While these strategies have their merits, they might not always work because they’re usually based on the leader’s assumptions about what the team needs, rather than facts about what they actually need. Managers who want their teams to be more engaged in meetings need to foster a safe, inclusive team culture, which requires a deep understanding of their team’s unique dynamics. The author presents several strategies for encouraging employees to engage during meetings.

Sue, a former client of mine, was starting a new VP role at a fintech organization. She found out quickly that the team she inherited had a lower level of participation, collaboration, questioning, and general engagement than the one she had left behind. This was particularly evident in team meetings.

Luis Velasquez , MBA, Ph.D. is an executive coach who works with senior leaders and their teams to become more cohesive, effective, and resilient. He is the founder and managing partner of Velas Coaching LLC , a leadership facilitator at the Stanford University Graduate School of Business, a former University professor, and research scientist. Connect with him on LinkedIn.

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Exploring the formation mechanism of new energy vehicle industry-university-research innovation network: the role of structural, cognitive and relational social capital

Published: 27 May 2024

Cite this article

Xia Cao 1 ,
Xin Zhang ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4349-9414 1 &
ZeYu Xing 2

The purpose of this paper is to consider the joint action of structural, cognitive and relational social capital, and to explore the formation mechanism of the innovation network of new energy vehicles (NEV). The research data come from China's NEV cooperative invention patent applications from 2001 to 2019. This paper uses the exponential random graph model (ERGM) to study the impact of different dimensions of social capital on the NEV industry-university-research (I-U-R) innovation network. The results show that from the perspective of structural capital, the closed network structure has a positive impact on the formation of NEV I-U-R innovation network. From the perspective of cognitive capital, the homogeneity of knowledge base has a positive effect on the formation of the NEV I-U-R innovation network, and the innovation subjects with the same knowledge base breadth and the same knowledge base depth are more inclined to form a cooperative relationship. For relational capital, institutional environment similarity and organizational structure similarity are important factors affecting the formation of NEV I-U-R innovation network to a similar extent. The findings of this study provide scientific references for promoting the sustainable development of I-U-R innovation network in NEV industry.

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This study is supported by the National Social Science Foundation of China (No. 21BGL064); the social Science Foundation of Heilongjiang province in China (No. 20JYB042); the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (No. 2023M742686); the National Funding for Postdoctoral Researchers' Innovation Program (GZC20231971), and the National Social Science Foundation of China (No. 23CJY070).

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Cao, X., Zhang, X. & Xing, Z. Exploring the formation mechanism of new energy vehicle industry-university-research innovation network: the role of structural, cognitive and relational social capital. Scientometrics (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-024-05050-y

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Kellogg creates first research institute applying complexity sciences to unlock new understandings of societal, market and business issues

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Northwestern University’s Kellogg School of Management announced today the creation of the Ryan Institute on Complexity to be led by distinguished faculty in the areas of physics, economics and sociology. The Ryan Institute will comprise a revolutionary research lab designed to change the way business, markets and societal issues are studied, combining multidisciplinary talents and quantitative sciences in new ways to tackle bigger problems faster. Funded by a $25 million gift from the Ryan Family Foundation, the Ryan Institute will place Kellogg and Northwestern at the forefront of solving increasingly complex societal, business and market challenges by harnessing the power of big data and artificial intelligence. The institute will provide Kellogg students with an understanding of powerful new quantitative approaches to problem solving. The field of complexity science had a watershed moment in 2021 when the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded in this area for the first time. But complexity science’s potential in the realm of business is just starting to be tapped, and the possibilities are vast — in better understanding everything from the intertwined forces driving a nation’s innovativeness to the inner workings of a global team dynamic. The goal is to improve understanding of how the success of organizations, regions and nations build from their deep and rich interconnections. With this focus, the Ryan Institute will be the first of its kind to be housed in a business school. It will gather leaders from academia and industry in diverse fields, along with PhD students and postdoctoral fellows to collectively study the future of quantitative sciences, complex systems and the complex issues affecting businesses and society. Initial areas of focus include the power of social networks, the secrets of invention and human-machine partnerships. Unique to the institute will be a “dry lab” setting typically found in the hard sciences, which will enable scholars to work with big data and the quantitative tools needed to study social and business phenomena on a large scale. This approach holds the promise of generating deeper and more generalizable insights into society’s biggest questions, such as understanding human-machine partnerships at the forefront of generative AI. A key pillar of study will focus on leveraging large language models (LLMs) with the belief that generative AI will not replace humans, but those who understand AI will replace those who don’t. Given the explosion of big data and the rapid acceleration of AI, there are now opportunities to better understand the world in ways that previously were subject only to hypothesis. “Kellogg has always taken an interdisciplinary approach to open new areas,” said Kellogg Dean Francesca Cornelli. “Our vision is bold — that complexity science shall permeate every aspect of business, with the most effective leaders succeeding through understanding and managing a system’s connectivity. Thanks to the generosity of the Ryan Family, Kellogg will drive a new field and best prepare the leaders of the future.” “We are thrilled to support the establishment of this revolutionary research institute that will place Kellogg and Northwestern University at the forefront of the study of complexity science,” said Pat Ryan, Jr (’97 JD, MBA) of the Ryan Family Foundation. “Cutting-edge analytical approaches can now unlock previously unimaginable understandings of our complex world that will be transformational for business and society.”

Kellogg faculty Dashun Wang, Ben Jones and Brian Uzzi

The Ryan Institute will be led by three Kellogg professors who are all highly recognized leaders in their fields, as well as frequent collaborators: Dashun Wang , a physicist and Professor of Management and Organizations; Ben Jones , an economist and the Gordon and Llura Gund Family Professor of Entrepreneurship and Professor of Strategy; and Brian Uzzi , a sociologist and the Richard L. Thomas Professor of Leadership and Organizational Change. “If we can integrate complexity science and this fundamental thinking from physics and the natural sciences and apply it to business and markets, developing thought leadership and training future leaders in the school — that could be a very meaningful contribution to society,” said Wang. Research and tools emerging from the Ryan Institute will also drive the creation of unique curriculum at Kellogg, including the first PhD training program in a business school helping to train future thought leaders in complexity. The Institute will also collaborate closely with other Northwestern schools and institutions. The Ryan Institute will hold an annual conference as a premier, global convening of thought leaders in the study of complexity. The Ryan Institute Conference will bring together academia and industry to provide opportunities for collaboration across leaders in the field. About the Ryan Family Foundation and Pat & Shirley Ryan family The Ryan family [Pat '59, '09 H ('97, '00 P) and Shirley '61, '19 H ('97, '00 P); Pat '97 JD, MBA and Lydia; Rob '00 JD, MBA and Jennifer; and Corbett] has made deep and broad philanthropic investments across the institution including nanotechnology, the musical arts, the Ryan Family Scholars Program for high-achieving, low-income students with exceptional leadership potential, and the ongoing efforts to Rebuild Ryan Field. The Patrick G. and Shirley W. Ryan Family Foundation is the philanthropic arm of the Ryan family. Patrick G. Ryan is a 1959 Northwestern graduate. He received his undergraduate degree in business from what was then called the School of Business and now is named the Kellogg School of Management. He also received an honorary degree from the University in 2009 in appreciation for his 14 years of service as chairman of Northwestern’s Board of Trustees. In 2013, he was inducted into Northwestern’s Athletics Hall of Fame. Shirley Welsh Ryan is a 1961 Northwestern graduate. She received her undergraduate degree in English Literature from what was then called the College of Arts and Sciences and is now named the Weinberg College of Arts and Sciences. In 2019, Northwestern awarded Mrs. Ryan the honorary title of Doctor of Humane Letters. Mr. Ryan is distinguished as one of the nation’s most successful entrepreneurs and prominent civic leaders. His first business venture while a student involved selling scrapbooks to fellow students, which paid for his Northwestern education. Mr. Ryan founded and served for 41 years as CEO of Aon Corporation, the leading global provider of risk management, insurance and reinsurance brokerage. At the time of his retirement, Aon had nearly $8 billion in annual revenue with more than 500 offices in 120 countries. In 2010, Mr. Ryan founded Ryan Specialty, a service provider of specialty products and solutions for insurance brokers, agents and carriers. The firm provides distribution, underwriting, product development, administration and risk management services by acting as a wholesale broker and a managing underwriter. Mr. Ryan currently serves as chairman and CEO of Ryan Specialty Holdings, Inc., which completed its initial public offering in July 2021. The firm’s shares trade on the New York Stock Exchange under the symbol “RYAN.” Mr. Ryan is distinct in having founded and built two major New York Stock Exchange traded companies. Mr. Ryan is a member of the Chicago Business Hall of Fame, and a member and past president of the Economic Club of Chicago. He also is a member of the International Insurance Hall of Fame and the Automotive Hall of Fame, a member and past chairman of Northwestern’s Board of Trustees, a recipient of the esteemed Horatio Alger Award and a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He is a former director of numerous public multi-national corporations as well as many major cultural and not-for-profit organizations. Shirley Welsh Ryan is founder of Pathways.org, which is used by 40 million parents and healthcare professionals annually through its video-based website and social media in every country except North Korea. Three hundred U.S. institutions of higher learning use Pathway.org’s free materials. Mrs. Ryan’s pioneering work to empower every infant’s fullest physical development has won numerous awards. Two U.S. presidents have appointed her to the National Council on Disability in Washington D.C., which advises the U.S. Congress on disability policy. In 2017, Pathways.org merged with the Shirley Ryan Ability Lab, acclaimed for 32 years as the number one U.S. rehabilitation hospital by U.S. News and World Report. The Pathways.org Medical Round Table (P.M.R.T.), created in 1990, is the first Infant Milestone Chart of typical and atypical development to be endorsed by the American Academy of Pediatrics (A.A.P.). All Pathways.org material is in accord with the leadership of P.M.R.T. and A.A.P. Mrs. Ryan is a strong believer in the power of early infant detection, therapeutic intervention, universal accessibility, and the concept that all children can learn. She serves on the boards of University of Notre Dame, the Lyric Opera of Chicago, the Art Institute of Chicago, the Chicago Council on Global Affairs, Alain Locke Charter School and WTTW-PBS. She also has served on the boards of the Kennedy Center for Performing Arts in Washington D.C. and Ronald McDonald House Charities; has chaired the Chicago Community Trust; and founded the Lincoln Park Zoo Women’s Board. For 46 years, Mrs. Ryan has led a Northwestern graduate-level course entitled Learning for Life. Mrs. Ryan has been awarded honorary doctorates from Northwestern, the University of Notre Dame and the University of Illinois at Chicago. She also has received the Chicago History Museum Award for Distinction in Civic Leadership. In addition to earning her B.A. from Northwestern, Mrs. Ryan studied at the Sorbonne of the University of Paris and the École du Louvre in Paris. In addition to Mr. and Mrs. Ryan, the Ryan Family includes Northwestern Trustee Pat ’97 JD, MBA and Lydia; Rob ’00 JD, MBA and Jennifer; and Corbett.

Phenylketonuria Over Time: What We’re Learning from a Natural History Study

Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a genetic metabolic disorder that increases the body's levels of the amino acid phenylalanine. People with PKU cannot properly break down the extra phenylalanine in the food they eat, which allows it to build up in the person's blood, urine, and body. When left untreated, phenylalanine can build up to harmful levels.

To learn more about PKU and related conditions, the Phenylalanine Families and Researchers Exploring Evidence (PHEFREE) Consortium is conducting “ A Longitudinal Study of Hyperphenylalaninemia .” The team is gathering information over time about participants’ health, well-being, and thinking abilities to improve treatment and quality of life.

Here, lead investigator Uta Lichter-Konecki, MD, PhD , and PKU patient Jen Christenson share more about the study and what it’s like to participate.

What are we learning about PKU and similar conditions from this study?

Dr. Lichter-Konecki: A treatment for PKU was developed in the mid-1950s and implemented in the US after invention (and implementation) of newborn screening in the mid- to late-‘60s. For many decades, medical professionals, scientists, and the general public thought that PKU was a problem solved—only those involved directly in the care of the patients knew it was not. The dietary treatment invented in the mid-1950s is extremely hard to follow and the outcome of the patient depends on how diligently a family is able to implement the treatment. Adolescents and adults often discontinue the treatment because it is so hard. This tends to lead to neurocognitive and behavioral health deterioration, causing some patients difficulty in their lives.

How did you become involved with this study?

Christenson: I am a middle-aged adult who, at birth, was diagnosed with PKU. My doctor is one of the founders of the PHEFREE consortium. He mentioned this study at a 2019 event for families with PKU and other IEMs (inborn errors of metabolism) and it piqued my interest. Fast-forward a couple of years, through COVID shut-downs, to my next in-person PKU clinic visit. There I was able to hear more about, ask questions, and become enrolled in the study.

What makes this study unique?

Dr. Lichter-Konecki: This is the first assessment of the state of PKU patient care in a population of PKU patients in 24 years. New treatments have been developed in the meantime; however, their acceptance and effectiveness after FDA approval has not been assessed. How PKU patients fair in today’s world with its challenges has also not been assessed.

Why did you decide to join the study?

Christenson: Being a middle-aged adult with PKU means I am in an even more rare grouping of people who were diagnosed and treated for PKU since birth. I am part of the first generation of patients who were instructed that treatment would be for our entire lifespan. Being such, we—patients, medical professionals, and scientists—do not know exactly how PKU (and its treatments) have affected us long-term, nor what will happen as we age further. There is little long-term and robust data past childhood on those of us with PKU of my generation.

Personally, I know PKU affects me, but what does the data show? That is what will be important going forward for the best possible assessments, supports, treatments, and cures to come to fruition. My hope is that this study will help to build that much-needed data.

How will this study contribute to clinical trial readiness?

Dr. Lichter-Konecki: Physicians treating PKU patients are aware of the challenges they face in their everyday lives, including executive function deficits, severe anxiety, and consistent employment. However, biomarkers previously used in clinical trials failed to measure these challenges and any changes with those challenges accurately, making it difficult to assess whether a new treatment was successful or not.

What has it been like for you to participate in the study?

Christenson: I greatly appreciate being able to participate in the study. As a child in the 1970s and 80s, I was part of a PKU collaborative study. The study helped change treatment protocol from childhood treatment to lifetime treatment. But since then, I’ve often wondered… now what? What do we know about how PKU will affect us over a lifespan? So, the fact that the study is being conducted validates the curiosity and concern I have for how PKU has and will affect me. I consider being a part of the study an honor.

What are the successes and challenges of this study?

Dr. Lichter-Konecki: We are in our fifth year of funding; the first patient was enrolled in early 2022. We are seeing indications that neuropsychological test instruments, including those of the NIH Toolbox , that we are using for the study are better biomarkers to document PKU patient challenges than the ones previously used.

Challenges are that the most compliant patients and families often of younger patients are willingly participating in the study, but those patients that are working or just trying to make ends meet do not feel like they can afford to participate in the study. We also have challenges with diversity; PKU is more common in certain populations.

What excites you about the study?

Christenson: I am excited that the questions and concerns patients like myself have been asking are being studied. I’m excited to see how the information from this study informs future evaluations, helps to move new treatment protocols forward, and makes way for a cure.

How will this study impact patients, now or in the future?

Dr. Lichter-Konecki: If we reach our goal of developing better biomarkers to be used in clinical trials—and we seem to be well on our way to do so—then future clinical trials, some of them already in the pipeline, will be more successful in demonstrating effectiveness.

How could this study impact your life?

Christenson: This study could affect my life in many ways. Ultimately, my hope is that it would lead to better supports, treatments, and a cure for PKU in my lifetime.

What is the status of this study, and what’s next?

Dr. Lichter-Konecki: We are in the fifth year of our first funding cycle and are preparing our application for renewal of funding so that we can complete our work of developing new biomarkers for the treatment of PKU.

“A Longitudinal Study of Hyperphenylalaninemia” is currently recruiting. Learn more about the study and how to join .

The Phenylalanine Families and Researchers Exploring Evidence (PHEFREE) Consortium is part of the Rare Diseases Clinical Research Network (RDCRN), which is funded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and led by the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS) through its Division of Rare Diseases Research Innovation (DRDRI). PHEFREE is funded under grant number U54HD100982 as a collaboration between NCATS, the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS), and the Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS).

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Organizational Cultures: An International Journal, Volume 24, Issue 2

The Role of Relationship Quality in Collaborative Knowledge Networks and Organizational Learning in Enhancing the Quality of Hajj Services

Influence of Employeesâ Perception of Corporate Social Responsibility Practices on Organizational Commitment

Toward a Model of Sense of Control

COVID-19 and Digital Innovation

Perceived Opportunities and Threats of Belt and Road Initiative

Complementing Self-Determination Theory

The International Journal of Interdisciplinary Organizational Studies

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Comparative organizational network analysis considering formal power-based networks and organizational hierarchies

Pablo Pazmiño

Antonio Franco-Crespo

Eduardo Tejera

Associated Data

1. Introduction

1.1. Leadership and formal power in organizations

1.2. Organizational networks and leadership

1.3. Roles of formal leaders in organizational network analysis

Influence of Employeesâ Perception of Corporate Social Responsibility Practices on Organizational Commitment