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Meaning of hypothesis – Learner’s Dictionary

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(Definition of hypothesis from the Cambridge Learner's Dictionary © Cambridge University Press)

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injury to someone caused by severe cold, usually to their toes, fingers, ears, or nose, that causes permanent loss of tissue

Keeping up appearances (Talking about how things seem)

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How to Write a Great Hypothesis

Hypothesis Definition, Format, Examples, and Tips

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Amy Morin, LCSW, is a psychotherapist and international bestselling author. Her books, including "13 Things Mentally Strong People Don't Do," have been translated into more than 40 languages. Her TEDx talk,  "The Secret of Becoming Mentally Strong," is one of the most viewed talks of all time.

Verywell / Alex Dos Diaz

• The Scientific Method

Hypothesis Format

Falsifiability of a hypothesis.

• Operationalization

Hypothesis Types

Hypotheses examples.

• Collecting Data

A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. It is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in a study. It is a preliminary answer to your question that helps guide the research process.

Consider a study designed to examine the relationship between sleep deprivation and test performance. The hypothesis might be: "This study is designed to assess the hypothesis that sleep-deprived people will perform worse on a test than individuals who are not sleep-deprived."

At a Glance

A hypothesis is crucial to scientific research because it offers a clear direction for what the researchers are looking to find. This allows them to design experiments to test their predictions and add to our scientific knowledge about the world. This article explores how a hypothesis is used in psychology research, how to write a good hypothesis, and the different types of hypotheses you might use.

The Hypothesis in the Scientific Method

In the scientific method , whether it involves research in psychology, biology, or some other area, a hypothesis represents what the researchers think will happen in an experiment. The scientific method involves the following steps:

• Forming a question
• Performing background research
• Creating a hypothesis
• Designing an experiment
• Collecting data
• Analyzing the results
• Drawing conclusions
• Communicating the results

The hypothesis is a prediction, but it involves more than a guess. Most of the time, the hypothesis begins with a question which is then explored through background research. At this point, researchers then begin to develop a testable hypothesis.

Unless you are creating an exploratory study, your hypothesis should always explain what you  expect  to happen.

In a study exploring the effects of a particular drug, the hypothesis might be that researchers expect the drug to have some type of effect on the symptoms of a specific illness. In psychology, the hypothesis might focus on how a certain aspect of the environment might influence a particular behavior.

Remember, a hypothesis does not have to be correct. While the hypothesis predicts what the researchers expect to see, the goal of the research is to determine whether this guess is right or wrong. When conducting an experiment, researchers might explore numerous factors to determine which ones might contribute to the ultimate outcome.

In many cases, researchers may find that the results of an experiment  do not  support the original hypothesis. When writing up these results, the researchers might suggest other options that should be explored in future studies.

In many cases, researchers might draw a hypothesis from a specific theory or build on previous research. For example, prior research has shown that stress can impact the immune system. So a researcher might hypothesize: "People with high-stress levels will be more likely to contract a common cold after being exposed to the virus than people who have low-stress levels."

In other instances, researchers might look at commonly held beliefs or folk wisdom. "Birds of a feather flock together" is one example of folk adage that a psychologist might try to investigate. The researcher might pose a specific hypothesis that "People tend to select romantic partners who are similar to them in interests and educational level."

Elements of a Good Hypothesis

So how do you write a good hypothesis? When trying to come up with a hypothesis for your research or experiments, ask yourself the following questions:

• Is your hypothesis based on your research on a topic?
• Can your hypothesis be tested?
• Does your hypothesis include independent and dependent variables?

Before you come up with a specific hypothesis, spend some time doing background research. Once you have completed a literature review, start thinking about potential questions you still have. Pay attention to the discussion section in the  journal articles you read . Many authors will suggest questions that still need to be explored.

How to Formulate a Good Hypothesis

To form a hypothesis, you should take these steps:

• Collect as many observations about a topic or problem as you can.
• Evaluate these observations and look for possible causes of the problem.
• Create a list of possible explanations that you might want to explore.
• After you have developed some possible hypotheses, think of ways that you could confirm or disprove each hypothesis through experimentation. This is known as falsifiability.

In the scientific method ,  falsifiability is an important part of any valid hypothesis. In order to test a claim scientifically, it must be possible that the claim could be proven false.

Students sometimes confuse the idea of falsifiability with the idea that it means that something is false, which is not the case. What falsifiability means is that  if  something was false, then it is possible to demonstrate that it is false.

One of the hallmarks of pseudoscience is that it makes claims that cannot be refuted or proven false.

The Importance of Operational Definitions

A variable is a factor or element that can be changed and manipulated in ways that are observable and measurable. However, the researcher must also define how the variable will be manipulated and measured in the study.

Operational definitions are specific definitions for all relevant factors in a study. This process helps make vague or ambiguous concepts detailed and measurable.

For example, a researcher might operationally define the variable " test anxiety " as the results of a self-report measure of anxiety experienced during an exam. A "study habits" variable might be defined by the amount of studying that actually occurs as measured by time.

These precise descriptions are important because many things can be measured in various ways. Clearly defining these variables and how they are measured helps ensure that other researchers can replicate your results.

Replicability

One of the basic principles of any type of scientific research is that the results must be replicable.

Replication means repeating an experiment in the same way to produce the same results. By clearly detailing the specifics of how the variables were measured and manipulated, other researchers can better understand the results and repeat the study if needed.

Some variables are more difficult than others to define. For example, how would you operationally define a variable such as aggression ? For obvious ethical reasons, researchers cannot create a situation in which a person behaves aggressively toward others.

To measure this variable, the researcher must devise a measurement that assesses aggressive behavior without harming others. The researcher might utilize a simulated task to measure aggressiveness in this situation.

Hypothesis Checklist

• Does your hypothesis focus on something that you can actually test?
• Does your hypothesis include both an independent and dependent variable?
• Can you manipulate the variables?
• Can your hypothesis be tested without violating ethical standards?

The hypothesis you use will depend on what you are investigating and hoping to find. Some of the main types of hypotheses that you might use include:

• Simple hypothesis : This type of hypothesis suggests there is a relationship between one independent variable and one dependent variable.
• Complex hypothesis : This type suggests a relationship between three or more variables, such as two independent and dependent variables.
• Null hypothesis : This hypothesis suggests no relationship exists between two or more variables.
• Alternative hypothesis : This hypothesis states the opposite of the null hypothesis.
• Statistical hypothesis : This hypothesis uses statistical analysis to evaluate a representative population sample and then generalizes the findings to the larger group.
• Logical hypothesis : This hypothesis assumes a relationship between variables without collecting data or evidence.

A hypothesis often follows a basic format of "If {this happens} then {this will happen}." One way to structure your hypothesis is to describe what will happen to the  dependent variable  if you change the  independent variable .

The basic format might be: "If {these changes are made to a certain independent variable}, then we will observe {a change in a specific dependent variable}."

A few examples of simple hypotheses:

• "Students who eat breakfast will perform better on a math exam than students who do not eat breakfast."
• "Students who experience test anxiety before an English exam will get lower scores than students who do not experience test anxiety."​
• "Motorists who talk on the phone while driving will be more likely to make errors on a driving course than those who do not talk on the phone."
• "Children who receive a new reading intervention will have higher reading scores than students who do not receive the intervention."

Examples of a complex hypothesis include:

• "People with high-sugar diets and sedentary activity levels are more likely to develop depression."
• "Younger people who are regularly exposed to green, outdoor areas have better subjective well-being than older adults who have limited exposure to green spaces."

Examples of a null hypothesis include:

• "There is no difference in anxiety levels between people who take St. John's wort supplements and those who do not."
• "There is no difference in scores on a memory recall task between children and adults."
• "There is no difference in aggression levels between children who play first-person shooter games and those who do not."

Examples of an alternative hypothesis:

• "People who take St. John's wort supplements will have less anxiety than those who do not."
• "Adults will perform better on a memory task than children."
• "Children who play first-person shooter games will show higher levels of aggression than children who do not." 

Collecting Data on Your Hypothesis

Once a researcher has formed a testable hypothesis, the next step is to select a research design and start collecting data. The research method depends largely on exactly what they are studying. There are two basic types of research methods: descriptive research and experimental research.

Descriptive Research Methods

Descriptive research such as  case studies ,  naturalistic observations , and surveys are often used when  conducting an experiment is difficult or impossible. These methods are best used to describe different aspects of a behavior or psychological phenomenon.

Once a researcher has collected data using descriptive methods, a  correlational study  can examine how the variables are related. This research method might be used to investigate a hypothesis that is difficult to test experimentally.

Experimental Research Methods

Experimental methods  are used to demonstrate causal relationships between variables. In an experiment, the researcher systematically manipulates a variable of interest (known as the independent variable) and measures the effect on another variable (known as the dependent variable).

Unlike correlational studies, which can only be used to determine if there is a relationship between two variables, experimental methods can be used to determine the actual nature of the relationship—whether changes in one variable actually  cause  another to change.

The hypothesis is a critical part of any scientific exploration. It represents what researchers expect to find in a study or experiment. In situations where the hypothesis is unsupported by the research, the research still has value. Such research helps us better understand how different aspects of the natural world relate to one another. It also helps us develop new hypotheses that can then be tested in the future.

Thompson WH, Skau S. On the scope of scientific hypotheses .  R Soc Open Sci . 2023;10(8):230607. doi:10.1098/rsos.230607

Taran S, Adhikari NKJ, Fan E. Falsifiability in medicine: what clinicians can learn from Karl Popper [published correction appears in Intensive Care Med. 2021 Jun 17;:].  Intensive Care Med . 2021;47(9):1054-1056. doi:10.1007/s00134-021-06432-z

Eyler AA. Research Methods for Public Health . 1st ed. Springer Publishing Company; 2020. doi:10.1891/9780826182067.0004

Nosek BA, Errington TM. What is replication ?  PLoS Biol . 2020;18(3):e3000691. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.3000691

Aggarwal R, Ranganathan P. Study designs: Part 2 - Descriptive studies .  Perspect Clin Res . 2019;10(1):34-36. doi:10.4103/picr.PICR_154_18

Nevid J. Psychology: Concepts and Applications. Wadworth, 2013.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Definition of 'hypothesis'

hypothesis in American English

Hypothesis in british english, examples of 'hypothesis' in a sentence hypothesis, related word partners hypothesis, trends of hypothesis.

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In other languages hypothesis

• American English : hypothesis / haɪˈpɒθɪsɪs /
• Brazilian Portuguese : hipótese
• Chinese : 假设
• European Spanish : hipótesis
• French : hypothèse
• German : Hypothese
• Italian : ipotesi
• Japanese : 仮説
• Korean : 가설
• European Portuguese : hipótese
• Spanish : hipótesis
• Thai : สมมุติฐาน

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Definition of hypothesis noun from the Oxford Advanced American Dictionary

• formulate/advance a theory/hypothesis
• build/construct/create/develop a simple/theoretical/mathematical model
• develop/establish/provide/use a theoretical/conceptual framework/an algorithm
• advance/argue/develop the thesis that…
• explore an idea/a concept/a hypothesis
• make a prediction/an inference
• base a prediction/your calculations on something
• investigate/evaluate/accept/challenge/reject a theory/hypothesis/model
• design an experiment/a questionnaire/a study/a test
• do research/an experiment/an analysis
• make observations/calculations
• take/record measurements
• carry out/conduct/perform an experiment/a test/a longitudinal study/observations/clinical trials
• run an experiment/a simulation/clinical trials
• repeat an experiment/a test/an analysis
• replicate a study/the results/the findings
• observe/study/examine/investigate/assess a pattern/a process/a behavior
• fund/support the research/project/study
• seek/provide/get/secure funding for research
• collect/gather/extract data/information
• yield data/evidence/similar findings/the same results
• analyze/examine the data/soil samples/a specimen
• consider/compare/interpret the results/findings
• fit the data/model
• confirm/support/verify a prediction/a hypothesis/the results/the findings
• prove a conjecture/hypothesis/theorem
• draw/make/reach the same conclusions
• read/review the records/literature
• describe/report an experiment/a study
• present/publish/summarize the results/findings
• present/publish/read/review/cite a paper in a scientific journal

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• 2 [ uncountable ] guesses and ideas that are not based on certain knowledge synonym speculation It would be pointless to engage in hypothesis before we have the facts.

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Dictionary definition of hypothesis

An educated guess or a proposed explanation for a phenomenon or a pattern of observations. "The experiment yielded results that supported the initial hypothesis."

Detailed meaning of hypothesis

It is a statement that can be tested through scientific experimentation or further observation. In scientific research, a hypothesis is used as a starting point for an investigation, and it serves as a basis for designing experiments and collecting data to either support or disprove it. A hypothesis typically consists of two parts: the independent variable, which is the factor being tested, and the dependent variable, which is the effect that is being observed. The hypothesis states the expected relationship between the two variables. For example, if a scientist wants to test the effect of a new drug on blood pressure, the independent variable would be the drug and the dependent variable would be the blood pressure. The hypothesis in this case would be "The new drug will lower blood pressure" A hypothesis is a crucial step in the scientific method as it guides the research and helps to focus on a specific question or problem. The results of the research and experimentation can support or disprove the hypothesis, and it can lead to new discoveries and knowledge. In summary, a hypothesis is an educated guess or proposed explanation for a phenomenon or a pattern of observations, it's a statement that can be tested through scientific experimentation or further observation, it's a crucial step in the scientific method that guides the research and helps to focus on a specific question or problem.

Example sentences containing hypothesis

1. The scientist formulated a hypothesis to explain the observed phenomenon. 2. The hypothesis proposed by the researcher challenged the existing theories in the field. 3. The students conducted experiments to test their hypothesis about plant growth. 4. The hypothesis stated that increased exposure to sunlight would improve mood. 5. The team developed a hypothesis to investigate the effects of a new drug on cancer cells. 6. The hypothesis suggested that regular exercise would lead to improved cognitive function.

History and etymology of hypothesis

The noun 'hypothesis' draws its linguistic lineage from the combination of two ancient Greek elements. The first part, 'hypo,' originates from the Greek word 'hupo,' meaning 'under' or 'beneath.' The second component, 'thesis,' derives from 'tithēmi,' meaning 'to place' or 'to put forth.' In the context of scientific inquiry and philosophical discourse, the term 'hypothesis' embodies the notion of putting forth an educated guess or proposition that lies beneath the surface of empirical observation. It signifies a preliminary and testable explanation for a phenomenon or a pattern of observations. Thus, the etymology of 'hypothesis' underscores its foundational role in the systematic process of scientific inquiry, where ideas are posited as a starting point for further investigation and analysis.

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Further usage examples of hypothesis

1. The scientist's hypothesis about the origins of the universe sparked a lively debate among colleagues. 2. The study aimed to confirm or refute the hypothesis that caffeine enhances athletic performance. 3. The researchers gathered data to support their hypothesis on the relationship between sleep and memory. 4. The hypothesis proposed that increased levels of pollution would lead to a decline in air quality. 5. The hypothesis suggested that exposure to violent media would lead to increased aggression in children. 6. The scientists revised their hypothesis based on the new evidence they gathered. 7. The study failed to confirm the hypothesis, leading the researchers to reconsider their approach. 8. The hypothesis provided a framework for the investigation, guiding the research process. 9. The scientist presented a compelling hypothesis that challenged conventional wisdom. 10. The hypothesis proposed that higher levels of stress would negatively affect decision-making abilities. 11. The researcher's hypothesis about the effects of music on productivity generated significant interest. 12. The study aimed to test the hypothesis that a specific diet would improve cardiovascular health. 13. The scientist formulated a hypothesis to test in the laboratory. 14. Her hypothesis about the market trends proved accurate. 15. We need evidence to support or refute this hypothesis. 16. The hypothesis was the starting point for the research project. 17. The hypothesis suggests a link between two variables. 18. He proposed an intriguing hypothesis for the mysterious phenomenon. 19. The hypothesis was based on years of careful observation. 20. The team's hypothesis challenged established scientific beliefs. 21. To validate the hypothesis, experiments were meticulously designed. 22. The hypothesis explained the unexpected results of the study. 23. Researchers are now testing the hypothesis with real-world data. 24. The success of the mission hinged on the accuracy of the initial hypothesis.

Quiz categories containing hypothesis

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hunch,proposal

eb68db_80f17f7a153340fd98f74a39f7c06f32.mp3

theory, fact, certainty, knowledge

https://static.wixstatic.com/media/eb68db_7deb1bd10b274eeca38fe2f821b50c0d~mv2.jpg, https://static.wixstatic.com/media/eb68db_14656208e4464bb1a273d7ac7b8c2c94~mv2.jpg, https://static.wixstatic.com/media/eb68db_8aaddd85f1ff405b94e083dd525eb61f~mv2.jpg, https://static.wixstatic.com/media/eb68db_8aaddd85f1ff405b94e083dd525eb61f~mv2.jpg

conjecture,postulate,premise,proposition,suggestion,supposition,thesis

TOEFL 5, Analytical and Interpretive, Inquiry and Insight, Insight and Intelligence

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noun as in theory

Strongest matches

• explanation
• interpretation
• proposition
• supposition

Strong matches

• attribution
• demonstration
• presupposition
• speculation

Weak matches

• shot in the dark
• starting point
• tentative law

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Example sentences.

Each one is a set of questions we’re fascinated by and hypotheses we’re testing.

Mousa’s research hinges on the “contact hypothesis,” the idea that positive interactions among rival group members can reduce prejudices.

Do more research on it, come up with a hypothesis as to why it underperforms, and try to improve it.

Now is the time to test your hypotheses to figure out what’s changing in your customers’ worlds, and address these topics directly.

Whether computing power alone is enough to fuel continued machine learning breakthroughs is a source of debate, but it seems clear we’ll be able to test the hypothesis.

Though researchers have struggled to understand exactly what contributes to this gender difference, Dr. Rohan has one hypothesis.

The leading hypothesis for the ultimate source of the Ebola virus, and where it retreats in between outbreaks, lies in bats.

In 1996, John Paul II called the Big Bang theory “more than a hypothesis.”

To be clear: There have been no double-blind or controlled studies that conclusively confirm this hair-loss hypothesis.

The bacteria-driven-ritual hypothesis ignores the huge diversity of reasons that could push someone to perform a religious ritual.

And remember it is by our hypothesis the best possible form and arrangement of that lesson.

Taken in connection with what we know of the nebulæ, the proof of Laplace's nebular hypothesis may fairly be regarded as complete.

What has become of the letter from M. de St. Mars, said to have been discovered some years ago, confirming this last hypothesis?

To admit that there had really been any communication between the dead man and the living one is also an hypothesis.

"I consider it highly probable," asserted Aunt Maria, forgetting her Scandinavian hypothesis.

Related Words

Words related to hypothesis are not direct synonyms, but are associated with the word hypothesis . Browse related words to learn more about word associations.

noun as in taking something for granted; something expected

• expectation
• postulation
• presumption
• sneaking suspicion
• theorization

noun as in putting regard in as true

• understanding

noun as in something regarded as true

• fundamental
• gospel truth

noun as in idea

• abstraction
• apprehension
• conceptualization
• consideration
• fool notion
• intellection

Viewing 5 / 29 related words

On this page you'll find 80 synonyms, antonyms, and words related to hypothesis, such as: assumption, axiom, conclusion, conjecture, explanation, and guess.

From Roget's 21st Century Thesaurus, Third Edition Copyright © 2013 by the Philip Lief Group.

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[ hahy- poth - uh -sis , hi- ]

• a proposition, or set of propositions, set forth as an explanation for the occurrence of some specified group of phenomena, either asserted merely as a provisional conjecture to guide investigation working hypothesis or accepted as highly probable in the light of established facts.
• a proposition assumed as a premise in an argument.
• the antecedent of a conditional proposition.
• a mere assumption or guess.

/ haɪˈpɒθɪsɪs /

• a suggested explanation for a group of facts or phenomena, either accepted as a basis for further verification ( working hypothesis ) or accepted as likely to be true Compare theory
• an assumption used in an argument without its being endorsed; a supposition
• an unproved theory; a conjecture

/ hī-pŏth ′ ĭ-sĭs /

, Plural hypotheses hī-pŏth ′ ĭ-sēz′

• A statement that explains or makes generalizations about a set of facts or principles, usually forming a basis for possible experiments to confirm its viability.
• plur. hypotheses (heye- poth -uh-seez) In science, a statement of a possible explanation for some natural phenomenon. A hypothesis is tested by drawing conclusions from it; if observation and experimentation show a conclusion to be false, the hypothesis must be false. ( See scientific method and theory .)

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Derived forms.

• hyˈpothesist , noun

Other Words From

• hy·pothe·sist noun
• counter·hy·pothe·sis noun plural counterhypotheses
• subhy·pothe·sis noun plural subhypotheses

Word History and Origins

Origin of hypothesis 1

Synonym Study

Example sentences.

Though researchers have struggled to understand exactly what contributes to this gender difference, Dr. Rohan has one hypothesis.

The leading hypothesis for the ultimate source of the Ebola virus, and where it retreats in between outbreaks, lies in bats.

In 1996, John Paul II called the Big Bang theory “more than a hypothesis.”

To be clear: There have been no double-blind or controlled studies that conclusively confirm this hair-loss hypothesis.

The bacteria-driven-ritual hypothesis ignores the huge diversity of reasons that could push someone to perform a religious ritual.

And remember it is by our hypothesis the best possible form and arrangement of that lesson.

Taken in connection with what we know of the nebulæ, the proof of Laplace's nebular hypothesis may fairly be regarded as complete.

What has become of the letter from M. de St. Mars, said to have been discovered some years ago, confirming this last hypothesis?

To admit that there had really been any communication between the dead man and the living one is also an hypothesis.

"I consider it highly probable," asserted Aunt Maria, forgetting her Scandinavian hypothesis.

Related Words

• explanation
• interpretation
• proposition
• supposition

What Is A Research (Scientific) Hypothesis? A plain-language explainer + examples

By:  Derek Jansen (MBA)  | Reviewed By: Dr Eunice Rautenbach | June 2020

If you’re new to the world of research, or it’s your first time writing a dissertation or thesis, you’re probably noticing that the words “research hypothesis” and “scientific hypothesis” are used quite a bit, and you’re wondering what they mean in a research context .

“Hypothesis” is one of those words that people use loosely, thinking they understand what it means. However, it has a very specific meaning within academic research. So, it’s important to understand the exact meaning before you start hypothesizing. 

Research Hypothesis 101

• What is a hypothesis ?
• What is a research hypothesis (scientific hypothesis)?
• Requirements for a research hypothesis
• Definition of a research hypothesis
• The null hypothesis

What is a hypothesis?

Let’s start with the general definition of a hypothesis (not a research hypothesis or scientific hypothesis), according to the Cambridge Dictionary:

Hypothesis: an idea or explanation for something that is based on known facts but has not yet been proved.

In other words, it’s a statement that provides an explanation for why or how something works, based on facts (or some reasonable assumptions), but that has not yet been specifically tested . For example, a hypothesis might look something like this:

Hypothesis: sleep impacts academic performance.

This statement predicts that academic performance will be influenced by the amount and/or quality of sleep a student engages in – sounds reasonable, right? It’s based on reasonable assumptions , underpinned by what we currently know about sleep and health (from the existing literature). So, loosely speaking, we could call it a hypothesis, at least by the dictionary definition.

But that’s not good enough…

Unfortunately, that’s not quite sophisticated enough to describe a research hypothesis (also sometimes called a scientific hypothesis), and it wouldn’t be acceptable in a dissertation, thesis or research paper . In the world of academic research, a statement needs a few more criteria to constitute a true research hypothesis .

What is a research hypothesis?

A research hypothesis (also called a scientific hypothesis) is a statement about the expected outcome of a study (for example, a dissertation or thesis). To constitute a quality hypothesis, the statement needs to have three attributes – specificity , clarity and testability .

Let’s take a look at these more closely.

Need a helping hand?

Hypothesis Essential #1: Specificity & Clarity

A good research hypothesis needs to be extremely clear and articulate about both what’ s being assessed (who or what variables are involved ) and the expected outcome (for example, a difference between groups, a relationship between variables, etc.).

Let’s stick with our sleepy students example and look at how this statement could be more specific and clear.

Hypothesis: Students who sleep at least 8 hours per night will, on average, achieve higher grades in standardised tests than students who sleep less than 8 hours a night.

As you can see, the statement is very specific as it identifies the variables involved (sleep hours and test grades), the parties involved (two groups of students), as well as the predicted relationship type (a positive relationship). There’s no ambiguity or uncertainty about who or what is involved in the statement, and the expected outcome is clear.

Contrast that to the original hypothesis we looked at – “Sleep impacts academic performance” – and you can see the difference. “Sleep” and “academic performance” are both comparatively vague , and there’s no indication of what the expected relationship direction is (more sleep or less sleep). As you can see, specificity and clarity are key.

Hypothesis Essential #2: Testability (Provability)

A statement must be testable to qualify as a research hypothesis. In other words, there needs to be a way to prove (or disprove) the statement. If it’s not testable, it’s not a hypothesis – simple as that.

For example, consider the hypothesis we mentioned earlier:

Hypothesis: Students who sleep at least 8 hours per night will, on average, achieve higher grades in standardised tests than students who sleep less than 8 hours a night.  

We could test this statement by undertaking a quantitative study involving two groups of students, one that gets 8 or more hours of sleep per night for a fixed period, and one that gets less. We could then compare the standardised test results for both groups to see if there’s a statistically significant difference. 

Again, if you compare this to the original hypothesis we looked at – “Sleep impacts academic performance” – you can see that it would be quite difficult to test that statement, primarily because it isn’t specific enough. How much sleep? By who? What type of academic performance?

So, remember the mantra – if you can’t test it, it’s not a hypothesis 🙂

Defining A Research Hypothesis

You’re still with us? Great! Let’s recap and pin down a clear definition of a hypothesis.

A research hypothesis (or scientific hypothesis) is a statement about an expected relationship between variables, or explanation of an occurrence, that is clear, specific and testable.

So, when you write up hypotheses for your dissertation or thesis, make sure that they meet all these criteria. If you do, you’ll not only have rock-solid hypotheses but you’ll also ensure a clear focus for your entire research project.

What about the null hypothesis?

You may have also heard the terms null hypothesis , alternative hypothesis, or H-zero thrown around. At a simple level, the null hypothesis is the counter-proposal to the original hypothesis.

For example, if the hypothesis predicts that there is a relationship between two variables (for example, sleep and academic performance), the null hypothesis would predict that there is no relationship between those variables.

At a more technical level, the null hypothesis proposes that no statistical significance exists in a set of given observations and that any differences are due to chance alone.

And there you have it – hypotheses in a nutshell. 

If you have any questions, be sure to leave a comment below and we’ll do our best to help you. If you need hands-on help developing and testing your hypotheses, consider our private coaching service , where we hold your hand through the research journey.

Psst... there’s more!

This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...

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16 Comments

Very useful information. I benefit more from getting more information in this regard.

Very great insight,educative and informative. Please give meet deep critics on many research data of public international Law like human rights, environment, natural resources, law of the sea etc

In a book I read a distinction is made between null, research, and alternative hypothesis. As far as I understand, alternative and research hypotheses are the same. Can you please elaborate? Best Afshin

This is a self explanatory, easy going site. I will recommend this to my friends and colleagues.

Very good definition. How can I cite your definition in my thesis? Thank you. Is nul hypothesis compulsory in a research?

It’s a counter-proposal to be proven as a rejection

Please what is the difference between alternate hypothesis and research hypothesis?

It is a very good explanation. However, it limits hypotheses to statistically tasteable ideas. What about for qualitative researches or other researches that involve quantitative data that don’t need statistical tests?

In qualitative research, one typically uses propositions, not hypotheses.

could you please elaborate it more

I’ve benefited greatly from these notes, thank you.

This is very helpful

well articulated ideas are presented here, thank you for being reliable sources of information

Excellent. Thanks for being clear and sound about the research methodology and hypothesis (quantitative research)

I have only a simple question regarding the null hypothesis. – Is the null hypothesis (Ho) known as the reversible hypothesis of the alternative hypothesis (H1? – How to test it in academic research?

this is very important note help me much more

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hypothesize

Definition of hypothesize

intransitive verb

transitive verb

• hypothecate

Examples of hypothesize in a Sentence

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'hypothesize.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

1738, in the meaning defined at intransitive sense

Dictionary Entries Near hypothesize

hypothetical

Cite this Entry

“Hypothesize.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hypothesize. Accessed 30 May. 2024.

Kids Definition

Kids definition of hypothesize, more from merriam-webster on hypothesize.

Britannica English: Translation of hypothesize for Arabic Speakers

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hypothesis noun

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What does the noun hypothesis mean?

There are seven meanings listed in OED's entry for the noun hypothesis , two of which are labelled obsolete. See ‘Meaning & use’ for definitions, usage, and quotation evidence.

Entry status

OED is undergoing a continuous programme of revision to modernize and improve definitions. This entry has not yet been fully revised.

How common is the noun hypothesis ?

How is the noun hypothesis pronounced, british english, u.s. english, where does the noun hypothesis come from.

Earliest known use

The earliest known use of the noun hypothesis is in the late 1500s.

OED's earliest evidence for hypothesis is from 1596, in the writing of Earl of Essex.

hypothesis is a borrowing from Greek.

Etymons: Greek ὑπόθεσις .

Nearby entries

• hypothecarious, adj. 1726–
• hypothecary, adj. 1656–
• hypothecate, v. 1693–
• hypothecation, n. 1681–
• hypothecative, adj. 1856–
• hypothecator, n. 1828–
• hypothecium, n. 1866–
• hypothenar, adj. 1706–
• hypothermia, n. 1886–
• hypothermic, adj. 1898–
• hypothesis, n. 1596–
• hypothesist, n. 1788–
• hypothesize, v. 1738–
• hypothesizer, n. 1833–
• hypothetic, adj. & n. a1680–
• hypothetical, adj. & n. 1588–
• hypothetically, adv. 1628–
• hypothetico-deductive, adj. 1912–
• hypothetico-deductively, adv. 1953–
• hypothetico-disjunctive, adj. & n. a1856–
• hypothetist, n. 1852–

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Meaning & use

Pronunciation, compounds & derived words, entry history for hypothesis, n..

hypothesis, n. was first published in 1899; not yet revised.

hypothesis, n. was last modified in July 2023.

Revision of the OED is a long-term project. Entries in oed.com which have not been revised may include:

• corrections and revisions to definitions, pronunciation, etymology, headwords, variant spellings, quotations, and dates;
• new senses, phrases, and quotations which have been added in subsequent print and online updates.

Revisions and additions of this kind were last incorporated into hypothesis, n. in July 2023.

Earlier versions of this entry were published in:

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• View hypothesis in OED Second Edition

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Citation details

Factsheet for hypothesis, n., browse entry.

• 1.1 Etymology
• 1.2 Pronunciation
• 1.3.1 Derived terms
• 1.3.2 Related terms
• 1.3.3 Translations
• 1.4 References
• 1.5 Further reading
• 1.6 Anagrams
• 2.1 Etymology
• 2.2 Pronunciation
• 3.1 Etymology
• 3.2 Pronunciation
• 3.3.1 Declension
• 3.3.2 Descendants
• 3.4 References

English [ edit ]

Etymology [ edit ].

From Late Middle English thesis ( “ lowering of the voice ” ) [1] and also borrowed directly from its etymon Latin thesis ( “ proposition, thesis; lowering of the voice ” ) , from Ancient Greek θέσῐς ( thésis , “ arrangement, placement, setting; conclusion, position, thesis; lowering of the voice ” ) , from τῐ́θημῐ ( títhēmi , “ to place, put, set; to put down in writing; to consider as, regard ” ) [2] [3] (ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *dʰeh₁- ( “ to do; to place, put ” ) ) + -σῐς ( -sis , suffix forming abstract nouns or nouns of action, process, or result ) . The English word is a doublet of deed .

Sense 1.1 (“proposition or statement supported by arguments”) is adopted from antithesis . [2] Sense 1.4 (“initial stage of reasoning”) was first used by the German philosopher Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762–1814), and later applied to the dialectical method of his countryman, the philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831).

The plural form theses is borrowed from Latin thesēs , from Ancient Greek θέσεις ( théseis ) .

Pronunciation [ edit ]

• ( Received Pronunciation ) IPA ( key ) : /ˈθiːsɪs/ , ( archaic ) /ˈθɛsɪs/
• ( General American ) IPA ( key ) : /ˈθisɪs/
• Rhymes: -iːsɪs
• Hyphenation: the‧sis
• ( Received Pronunciation ) IPA ( key ) : /ˈθiːsiːz/
• ( General American ) IPA ( key ) : /ˈθisiz/
• Rhymes: -iːsiːz
• Hyphenation: the‧ses

Noun [ edit ]

thesis ( plural theses )

• ( rhetoric ) A proposition or statement supported by arguments .
• 1766 , [ Oliver Goldsmith ], “The Conclusion”, in The Vicar of Wakefield:   [ … ] , volume II, Salisbury, Wiltshire: [ … ] B. Collins, for F [ rancis ] Newbery ,   [ … ] , →OCLC ; reprinted London: Elliot Stock , 1885 , →OCLC , pages 218–219 : I told them of the grave, becoming, and ſublime deportment they ſhould aſſume upon this myſtical occaſion, and read them two homilies and a theſis of my own compoſing, in order to prepare them.
• ( mathematics , computer science ) A conjecture , especially one too vague to be formally stated or verified but useful as a working convention.
• ( logic ) An affirmation , or distinction from a supposition or hypothesis .
• ( philosophy ) In the dialectical method of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel : the initial stage of reasoning where a formal statement of a point is developed ; this is followed by antithesis and synthesis .
• ( music , prosody , originally ) The action of lowering the hand or bringing down the foot when indicating a rhythm ; hence, an accented part of a measure of music or verse indicated by this action; an ictus , a stress . Antonym: arsis
• ( music , prosody , with a reversal of meaning ) A depression of the voice when pronouncing a syllables of a word ; hence, the unstressed part of the metrical foot of a verse upon which such a depression falls , or an unaccented musical note .

Derived terms [ edit ]

• all but thesis
• bachelor's thesis
• Church-Turing thesis
• conflict thesis
• doctoral thesis
• graduate thesis
• Habakkuk thesis
• master's thesis
• Merton thesis
• private language thesis
• thesis defense
• thesis film
• thesis statement

Related terms [ edit ]

Translations [ edit ], references [ edit ].

• ^ “ thē̆sis, n. ”, in MED Online , Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan , 2007 .
• ^ “ thesis, n. ”, in Lexico , Dictionary.com ; Oxford University Press , 2019–2022 .

Further reading [ edit ]

• “ thesis ”, in The Century Dictionary   [ … ] , New York, N.Y.: The Century Co. , 1911 , →OCLC .
• “ thesis ”, in Webster’s Revised Unabridged Dictionary , Springfield, Mass.: G. & C. Merriam , 1913 , →OCLC .

Anagrams [ edit ]

• Heists , Sethis , heists , shiest , shites , sithes , thises

Dutch [ edit ]

From Latin thesis , from Ancient Greek θέσις ( thésis , “ a proposition, a statement, a thing laid down, thesis in rhetoric, thesis in prosody ” ) .

thesis   f ( plural theses or thesissen , diminutive thesisje   n )

• Dated form of these . Synonyms: dissertatie , proefschrift , scriptie

Latin [ edit ]

From Ancient Greek θέσις ( thésis , “ a proposition, a statement, a thing laid down, thesis in rhetoric, thesis in prosody ” ) .

• ( Classical Latin ) IPA ( key ) : /ˈtʰe.sis/ , [ˈt̪ʰɛs̠ɪs̠]
• ( modern Italianate Ecclesiastical ) IPA ( key ) : /ˈte.sis/ , [ˈt̪ɛːs̬is]

thesis   f ( genitive thesis ) ; third declension

Declension [ edit ]

Descendants [ edit ].

• → Dutch: thesis
• → Armenian: թեզ ( tʻez )
• → Dutch: these
• → Persian: تز ( tez )
• → Romanian: teză
• → Turkish: tez
• Galician: tese
• Italian: tesi
• English: thesis
• Portuguese: tese
• Spanish: tesis
• “ thesis ”, in Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short ( 1879 ) A Latin Dictionary , Oxford: Clarendon Press
• thesis in Gaffiot, Félix ( 1934 ) Dictionnaire illustré latin-français , Hachette.

• English terms derived from Proto-Indo-European
• English terms derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *dʰeh₁-
• English terms inherited from Middle English
• English terms derived from Middle English
• English terms borrowed from Latin
• English terms derived from Latin
• English terms derived from Ancient Greek
• English doublets
• English 2-syllable words
• English terms with IPA pronunciation
• English terms with audio links
• Rhymes:English/iːsɪs
• Rhymes:English/iːsɪs/2 syllables
• Rhymes:English/iːsiːz
• English lemmas
• English nouns
• English countable nouns
• English nouns with irregular plurals
• en:Rhetoric
• English terms with quotations
• en:Mathematics
• en:Computer science
• en:Philosophy
• English contranyms
• Dutch terms derived from Latin
• Dutch terms derived from Ancient Greek
• Dutch terms with audio links
• Dutch lemmas
• Dutch nouns
• Dutch nouns with Latin plurals
• Dutch nouns with plural in -en
• Dutch feminine nouns
• Dutch dated forms
• Latin terms derived from Proto-Indo-European
• Latin terms derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *dʰeh₁-
• Latin terms borrowed from Ancient Greek
• Latin terms derived from Ancient Greek
• Latin 2-syllable words
• Latin terms with IPA pronunciation
• Latin lemmas
• Latin nouns
• Latin third declension nouns
• Latin feminine nouns in the third declension
• Latin feminine nouns
• Word of the day archive
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Pavlov’s Dogs Experiment and Pavlovian Conditioning Response

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Like many great scientific advances, Pavlovian conditioning (aka classical conditioning) was discovered accidentally. Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849–1936) was a physiologist, not a psychologist.

During the 1890s, Pavlov researched salivation in dogs in response to being fed. He inserted a small test tube into the cheek of each dog to measure saliva when the dogs were fed (with a powder made from meat).

Pavlov predicted the dogs would salivate in response to the food in front of them, but he noticed that his dogs would begin to salivate whenever they heard the footsteps of his assistant, who was bringing them the food.

When Pavlov discovered that any object or event that the dogs learned to associate with food (such as the lab assistant) would trigger the same response, he realized that he had made an important scientific discovery.

Accordingly, he devoted the rest of his career to studying this type of learning.

Pavlovian Conditioning: Theory of Learning

Pavlov’s theory of learning, known as classical conditioning, or Pavlovian conditioning, posits that behaviors can be learned through the association between different stimuli.

Classical conditioning (later developed by Watson, in 1913) involves learning to associate an unconditioned stimulus that already brings about a particular response (i.e., a reflex) with a new (conditioned) stimulus, so that the new stimulus brings about the same response.

Pavlov developed some rather unfriendly technical terms to describe this process:

• Neutral Stimulus (NS) : A stimulus that initially does not elicit a particular response or reflex action. In other words, before any conditioning takes place, the neutral stimulus has no effect on the behavior or physiological response of interest. For example, in Pavlov’s experiment, the sound of a metronome was a neutral stimulus initially, as it did not cause the dogs to salivate.
• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): This is a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without any learning needed. In Pavlov’s experiment, the food was the unconditioned stimulus as it automatically induced salivation in the dogs.
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): This is a previously neutral stimulus that, after being repeatedly associated with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response. For instance, in Pavlov’s experiment, the metronome became a conditioned stimulus when the dogs learned to associate it with food.
• Conditioned Response (CR): This is a learned response to the conditioned stimulus. It typically resembles the unconditioned response but is triggered by the conditioned stimulus instead of the unconditioned stimulus. In Pavlov’s experiment, salivating in response to the metronome was the conditioned response.
• Unconditioned Response (UR): This is an automatic, innate reaction to an unconditioned stimulus. It does not require any learning. In Pavlov’s experiment, the dogs’ automatic salivation in response to the food is an example of an unconditioned response.

Pavlov’s Dog Experiment

Pavlov (1902) started from the idea that there are some things that a dog does not need to learn. For example, dogs don’t learn to salivate whenever they see food. This reflex is ‘hard-wired’ into the dog.

Pavlov showed that dogs could be conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell if that sound was repeatedly presented at the same time that they were given food.

Pavlov’s studies of classical conditioning have become famous since his early work between 1890 and 1930. Classical conditioning is “classical” in that it is the first systematic study of the basic laws of learning (also known as conditioning).

Pavlov’s dogs were individually situated in secluded environments, secured within harnesses. A food bowl was positioned before them, and a device was employed to gauge the frequency of their salivary gland secretions.

The data from these measurements were systematically recorded onto a rotating drum, allowing Pavlov to meticulously monitor the rates of salivation throughout the course of the experiments.

First, the dogs were presented with the food, and they salivated. The food was the unconditioned stimulus and salivation was an unconditioned (innate) response. (i.e., a stimulus-response connection that required no learning).

Unconditioned Stimulus (Food) > Unconditioned Response (Salivate)

In his experiment, Pavlov used a metronome as his neutral stimulus. By itself, the metronome did not elicit a response from the dogs. 

Neutral Stimulus (Metronome) > No Response

Next, Pavlov began the conditioning procedure, whereby the clicking metronome was introduced just before he gave food to his dogs. After a number of repeats (trials) of this procedure, he presented the metronome on its own.

As you might expect, the sound of the clicking metronome on its own now caused an increase in salivation.

Conditioned Stimulus (Metronome) > Conditioned Response (Salivate)

So, the dog had learned an association between the metronome and the food, and a new behavior had been learned.

Because this response was learned (or conditioned), it is called a conditioned response (and also known as a Pavlovian response). The neutral stimulus has become a conditioned stimulus.

Temporal contiguity

Pavlov found that for associations to be made, the two stimuli had to be presented close together in time (such as a bell).

He called this the law of temporal contiguity. If the time between the conditioned stimulus (bell) and the unconditioned stimulus (food) is too great, then learning will not occur.

‘Unconditioning’ through experimental extinction

In extinction, the conditioned stimulus (the bell) is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus (the food).

Over time, the dog stops associating the sound of the bell with the food, and the conditioned response (salivation) weakens and eventually disappears.

In other words, the conditioned response is “unconditioned” or “extinguished.”

Spontaneous recovery

Pavlov noted the occurrence of “spontaneous recovery,” where the conditioned response can briefly reappear when the conditioned stimulus is presented after a rest period, even though the response has been extinguished.

This discovery added to the understanding of conditioning and extinction, indicating that these learned associations, while they can fade, are not completely forgotten.

Generalization

The principle of generalization suggests that after a subject has been conditioned to respond in a certain way to a specific stimulus, the subject will also respond in a similar manner to stimuli that are similar to the original one.

In Pavlov’s famous experiments with dogs, he found that after conditioning dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell (which was paired with food), the dogs would also salivate in response to similar sounds, like a buzzer.

This demonstrated the principle of generalization in classical conditioning.

However, the response tends to be more pronounced when the new stimulus closely resembles the original one used in conditioning.

This relationship between the similarity of the stimulus and the strength of the response is known as the generalization gradient.

This principle has been exemplified in research, including a study conducted by Meulders and colleagues in 2013.

Impact of Pavlov’s Research

Ivan Pavlov’s key contribution to psychology was the discovery of classical conditioning, demonstrating how learned associations between stimuli can influence behavior.

His work laid the foundation for behaviorism, influenced therapeutic techniques, and informed our understanding of learning and memory processes.

Behaviorism: Pavlov’s work laid the foundation for behaviorism , a major school of thought in psychology. The principles of classical conditioning have been used to explain a wide range of behaviors, from phobias to food aversions.

Therapy Techniques: Techniques based on classical conditioning, such as systematic desensitization and exposure therapy , have been developed to treat a variety of psychological disorders, including phobias and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

In these therapies, a conditioned response (such as fear) can be gradually “unlearned” by changing the association between a specific stimulus and its response.

• Little Albert Experiment : The Little Albert experiment, conducted by John B. Watson in 1920, demonstrated that emotional responses could be classically conditioned in humans. A young child, “Little Albert,” was conditioned to fear a white rat, which generalized to similar objects. 

Educational Strategies: Educational strategies, like repetitive learning and rote memorization, can be seen as applications of the principles of classical conditioning. The repeated association between stimulus and response can help to reinforce learning.

Marketing and Advertising: Principles from Pavlov’s conditioning experiments are often used in advertising to build brand recognition and positive associations.

For instance, a brand may pair its product with appealing stimuli (like enjoyable music or attractive visuals) to create a positive emotional response in consumers, who then associate the product with it.

Critical Evaluation

Pavlovian conditioning is traditionally described as learning an association between a neutral conditioned stimulus (CS) and an unconditioned stimulus (US), such that the CS comes to elicit a conditioned response (CR). This fits many lab studies but misses the adaptive function of conditioning (Domjan, 2005).

From a functional perspective, conditioning likely evolves to help organisms effectively interact with biologically important unconditioned stimuli (US) in their natural environment.

For conditioning to happen naturally, the conditioned stimulus (CS) can’t be arbitrary, but must have a real ecological relationship to the US as a precursor or feature of the US object.

Pavlovian conditioning prepares organisms for important biological events by conditioning compensatory responses that improve the organism’s ability to cope.

The critical behavior change from conditioning may not be conditioned responses (CRs), but rather conditioned modifications of unconditioned responses (URs) to the US that improve the organism’s interactions with it.

Evidence shows conditioning occurs readily with naturalistic CSs, like tastes before illness, infant cues before nursing, prey sights before attack. This conditioning is more robust and resistant to effects like blocking.

Traditional descriptions of Pavlovian conditioning as simply the acquired ability of one stimulus to evoke the original response to another stimulus paired with it are inadequate and misleading (Rescorla, 1988).

New research shows conditioning is actually about learning relationships between events, which allows organisms to build mental representations of their environment.

Just pairing stimuli together doesn’t necessarily cause conditioning. It depends on whether one stimulus gives information about the other.

Conditioning rapidly encodes relations among a broad range of stimuli, not just between a neutral stimulus and one eliciting a response. The learned associations allow complex representations of the world.

Recently, Honey et al. (2020, 2022) presented simulations using an alternative model called HeiDI that accounts for Rescorla’s findings. HeiDI differs by allowing reciprocal CS-US and US-CS associations. It uses consistent learning rules applied to all stimulus pairs.

The simulations suggest HeiDI explains Rescorla’s results via two mechanisms:

• Changes in US-CS associations during compound conditioning, allowing greater change in some US-CS links
• Indirect influences of CS-CS associations enabling compounds to recruit associative strength from absent stimuli

HeiDI integrates various conditioning phenomena and retains key Rescorla-Wagner insights about surprise driving learning. However, it moves beyond the limitations of Rescorla-Wagner by providing a framework to address how learning translates into performance.

HeiDI refers to the authors of the model (Honey, Dwyer, Iliescu) as well as highlighting a key feature of the model – the bidirectional or reciprocal associations it proposes between conditioned stimuli and unconditioned stimuli.

H – Honey (the lead author’s surname), ei – Bidirectional (referring to the reciprocal associations), D – Dwyer (the second author’s surname), I – Iliescu (the third author’s surname).

• Domjan, M. (2005). Pavlovian conditioning: A functional perspective.  Annu. Rev. Psychol. ,  56 , 179-206.
• Honey, R.C., Dwyer, D.M., & Iliescu, A.F. (2020a). HeiDI: A model for Pavlovian learning and performance with reciprocal associations. Psychological Review, 127, 829-852.
• Honey, R. C., Dwyer, D. M., & Iliescu, A. F. (2022). Associative change in Pavlovian conditioning: A reappraisal .  Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Learning and Cognition .
• Meulders A, Vandebroek, N. Vervliet, B. and Vlaeyen, J.W.S. (2013). Generalization Gradients in Cued and Contextual Pain-Related Fear: An Experimental Study in Health Participants .  Frontiers in Human Neuroscience ,  7 (345). 1-12.
• Pavlov, I. P. (1897/1902). The work of the digestive glands. London: Griffin.
• Pavlov, I. P. (1928). Lectures on conditioned reflexes . (Translated by W.H. Gantt) London: Allen and Unwin.
• Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned Reflexes: An Investigation of the Physiological Activity of the Cerebral Cortex . Translated and edited by Anrep, GV (Oxford University Press, London, 1927).
• Rescorla, R. A. (1988). Pavlovian conditioning: It’s not what you think it is .  American Psychologist ,  43 (3), 151.
• Pavlov, I. P. (1955). Selected works . Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House.
• Watson, J.B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist Views It. Psychological Review, 20 , 158-177.
• Watson, J. B., & Rayner, R. (1920). Conditioned emotional reactions.  Journal of experimental psychology ,  3 (1), 1.

Further Reading

• Logan, C. A. (2002). When scientific knowledge becomes scientific discovery: The disappearance of classical conditioning before Pavlov. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 38 (4), 393-403.
• Learning and Behavior PowerPoint

What was the main point of Ivan Pavlov’s experiment with dogs?

The main point of Ivan Pavlov’s experiment with dogs was to study and demonstrate the concept of classical conditioning.

Pavlov showed that dogs could be conditioned to associate a neutral stimulus (such as a bell) with a reflexive response (such as salivation) by repeatedly pairing the two stimuli together.

This experiment highlighted the learning process through the association of stimuli and laid the foundation for understanding how behaviors can be modified through conditioning.

What is Pavlovian response?

The Pavlovian response, also known as a conditioned response, refers to a learned, automatic, and involuntary response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus through classical conditioning. It is a key concept in Pavlov’s experiments, where dogs learned to salivate in response to a bell.

When did Pavlov discover classical conditioning?

Ivan Pavlov discovered classical conditioning during his dog experiments in the late 1890s and early 1900s. His seminal work on classical conditioning, often called Pavlovian conditioning, laid the foundation for our understanding of associative learning and its role in behavior modification.

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