chapter 3 research parts ppt

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Academic Research Writing: Chapter 3 Methodology, General Lecture Notes

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Stevejobs.education

Dr. David Annan

Very often, little attention is paid to how students have to prepare and understand the processes of conducting research and mostly young scholars struggle in the early stages in the university career about what is required of them and how to present their proposal to their supervisors. Keeping this in mind, the purpose of this guidebook is to offer a critical and practical mind map introduction to research writing to assist researchers in creating an appropriate design for their research studies and to offer the simplest guide of creating a logical orientated research. The book is made using simple graphs to explain what is expected of researchers at each stage of their research writing to enable them to understand if any a missing link when conducting their research. The book is mostly content mind-map and figures to make it easier for the researcher to understand what is expected of them from the stages of their research to completion. It presents the basic tenets of methodological steps so that the researcher can become familiar with how to conduct research and what techniques to use in their choice for research writing.

Dhirawit Pinyonatthagarn

budianto rosidi

Dr Dare E Ajayi

The complexities and diversities of human nature and challenges necessitated the need to discover and identify ways to solving and meeting human and academic problem needs. The existence of problems gave rise to the the need for research. The book takes researchers and students through the latest and best research practice through the adoption of simple, adoptable and practicable research models for academic and contemporary research writing.

Marivic Sumagaysay

Roohullah Nawandish

Andrew Johnson

This chapter excerpt describes the processes of writing a review of the literature for an academic article.

This 7-minute mini-lecture describes the basic elements of quantitative research and qualitative research. This provides a foundation for understanding educational research.

Bozhena Tikhonova

Vidyodaya Journal of Management

N.J. Dewasiri

Scholarly or academic writing is clear, concise, planned, coherent, and backed up by evidence. Its purpose is to aid the reader’s understanding. Hence, it consists of a formal style and tone. Further, it does not require the use of long sentences and instead uses clear and concise language with simple vocabulary. Research report writing is an integral part of academic writing. Hence, both academic and research report writing play a vital role in developing a multitude of researchers across the globe. The authors of the book entitled “A Guide to Academic Writing and Research Reports” identified such a role to develop prolific researchers amongst the student community both within and outside the university in Sri Lanka.

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Chapter 3 Research

Mar 18, 2019

320 likes | 649 Views

Chapter 3 Research. A Scientific Approach. Provides systematic ways of investigating claims in ways that improve on casual observations Requires that theories be backed up by empirical evidence from controlled studies and that observations be checked and repeated before conclusions are drawn.

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• research designs
• mediating variables
• highly structured
• child psychopathology research
• epidemiological research addresses questions

Presentation Transcript

Chapter 3Research

A Scientific Approach • Provides systematic ways of investigating claims in ways that improve on casual observations • Requires that theories be backed up by empirical evidence from controlled studies and that observations be checked and repeated before conclusions are drawn

Scientific Approaches to Research (cont.) Figure 3.1 The research process in abnormal child psychology.

Skepticism in Child Psychopathology Research • Reasons: • experts on childhood disorders frequently disagree • findings often in conflict with one another • research has led to different treatment recommendations, and some treatments shown to have no effect • conclusions are often qualified, with no definitive answers • findings often dismissed because of exceptions or personal experiences to the contrary

Common Research Topics • Nature and Distribution of Childhood Disorders • epidemiological research addresses questions about the nature and distribution of childhood disorders • incidence rates: the extent to which new cases of a disorder appear over a specified time period • prevalence rates: all cases, whether new or previously existing, that are observed during a specified time period

Common Research Topics (cont.) • Correlates, Risks, and Causes • correlated variables are associated at a particular point in time with no clear proof that one precedes the other • risk factor: variable that precedes an outcome of interest and increases the chances that the outcome will occur • protective factor: variable that precedes an outcome of interest and decreases the chances that the outcome will occur

Common Research Topics (cont.) • Moderating and Mediating Variables • moderating variable: a factor that influences the direction or strength of the relationship between other variables of interest • mediating variable: the process, mechanism, or means through which a variable produces a particular outcome; describes what happens at the psychological or neurobiological level to explain how one variable results from another

Common Research Topics (cont.) Figure 3.2 Mediating variables: The type of discipline used by mothers on days they are feeling distressed mediates the relationship between maternal distress and child behavior problems.

Common Research Topics (cont.) • Outcomes associated with childhood problems • Interventions • treatment efficacy: refers to whether or not a treatment can produce changes under well-controlled conditions • treatment effectiveness: refers to whether the treatment can be shown to work in actual clinical practice, rather than in laboratory conditions

Standardization, Reliability, and Validity • Standardization • the process by which a set of norms is specified for a measurement procedure so that it can be used consistently across different assessments • Reliability • the consistency of a measure, either across raters or time • Validity • the extent to which the method actually measures the construct of interest

Forms of Measurement • Reporting • includes unstructured clinical interviews, highly structured interviews, and questionnaires • inaccuracies may occur because of inability to recall events, selective recall or bias, and intentional distortions • requires a certain level of verbal ability, therefore often not considered reliable with children under age 7 or 8

Forms of Measurement (cont.) • Psychophysiology and Neuroimaging • physiological responses often recorded include heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, pupil dilation, and electrical skin conductance • limitations of physiological measures include inconsistency, high level of inference often involved, and susceptibility to extraneous influences • electroencephalogram (EEG) measures electrical activity of the brain • neuroimaging procedures examine the structure and/or function of the brain

Forms of Measurement (cont.) • Observation • may range from unstructured, naturalistic observations to highly structured • compared to naturalistic observations, structured observations are often cost-effective, allow for focused attention, are useful for studying infrequent behavior, and allow for greater control over the situation • major limitation is that one cannot be certain the observations are a representative sample of behavior

Validity of Studies • Internal validity • the extent to which a particular variable, rather than extraneous influences, accounts for the findings • may be threatened by maturation, effects of testing, an subject selection biases • External validity • the extent to which findings can be generalized to other people, settings, times, measures, and characteristics • may be threatened by subject reactivity to participation, the setting, and the time measurements are made

Identifying the Sample • A careful definition of the sample is critical for comparability of findings across studies • Must consider comorbidities among the sample • Random selection is rare in child psychopathology studies; often need to use a sample of convenience

General Approaches to Research • Nonexperimental vs Experimental Research • in true experiments, researchers have maximum control over the independent variable, subjects are randomly assigned, and possible sources of bias are controlled • correlational studies only examine relationships among variables- causality cannot be determined • natural experiments involve comparisons between conditions that already exist

General Approaches to Research (cont.) • Prospective vs Retrospective Research • real-time prospective designs: sample is followed longitudinally over time; time consuming and susceptible to sample attrition • retrospective designs: sample is asked for information relating to an earlier time period; highly susceptible to recall bias and distortion • Analogue Research • evaluation of a specific variable under conditions that only resemble the situation to which one wishes to generalize

Research Designs • Case Studies • intensive and usually anecdotal observations and analyses of an individual child; rich sources of descriptive information • often viewed as unscientific and flawed because of uncontrolled methods and selective biases, as well as the inherent difficulties in integrating observations, drawing valid inferences, and generalizing from one child to other children

Research Designs (cont.) • Single-Case Experimental Designs • often used to evaluate the impact of treatments • involves repeated assessment of behavior over time, replication of treatment effects within the same subject, and the subject serving as own control • common examples are the A-B-A-B (reversal) design and the multiple-baseline design • weaknesses: possible interactions between treatment and subject characteristics, limited generality of findings, and subjectivity and inconsistency of visual inspection of the data

Research Designs (cont.) • Between-Group Comparison Designs • involves comparisons between experimental and control groups • Cross-Sectional Studies • individuals at different ages or stages of development are studied at the same point in time • often efficient and less susceptible to attrition and practice effects • do not allow for inferences regarding change in the individual and are susceptible to cohort effects

Research Designs (cont.) • Longitudinal Studies • same individuals are studied at different ages or stages of development • allows for identification of patterns that are common to all children and for tracking differences in developmental paths • disadvantages include time commitment, increased costs, aging effects, cohort effects, period effects, and practice effects

Qualitative Research • Purpose is to describe, interpret, and understand the phenomenon of interest in the context in which it is experienced • Although intensive and intimate, may be biased by researcher’s values and preferences, and findings cannot be generalized to other individuals

Ethical and Pragmatic Issues • Informed Consent and Assent • informed consent must be obtained from parents • child’s assent must be obtained when child is around age 7 or older • Voluntary Participation • participation in research must be voluntary • may be compromised by subtle pressure and coercion

Ethical and Pragmatic Issues (cont.) • Confidentiality and Anonymity • disclosed information must be kept confidential • individuals must be advised about any exceptions to confidentiality • disclosures of abuse common problem in child research • Non-harmful procedures • no research procedures may be used that may harm a child physically or psychologically

Ethical and Pragmatic Issues (cont.) • Other Ethical and Pragmatic Concerns • may arise when research involves potentially invasive procedures, deception, the use of punishment, the use of incentives • final responsibility of ethical integrity is with the investigator

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Chapter 3 Research Design.

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