transformational leadership term paper example

What is Transformational Leadership? (Examples + How-To)

You're on a quest to become a better leader, and you've stumbled upon a term that keeps popping up: transformational leadership. You're in the right place to find out what it means, why it matters, and how it could change your life and the lives of those you lead.

Transformational Leadership is a leadership style where the leader inspires and motivates team members to exceed expectations, fosters an environment of trust and respect, and ultimately drives positive organizational change.

Don't just skim the surface; let's get into the nitty-gritty of transformational leadership. We'll uncover its roots, its impact, organizational effectiveness, and even its criticisms.

What is Transformational Leadership?

Transformational Leadership is a term that gets tossed around a lot, especially when people talk about great leaders who've made a real difference. But what does it actually mean?

Imagine you're in a boat and everyone's rowing. But there's a catch: You're not getting anywhere because everyone's rowing in different directions. A great transformational leader steps in and not only aligns everyone to row in the same direction but also makes them want to row harder and faster.

In simpler terms, a good transformational leaders' leader isn't just a boss; they're more like a mentor or coach.

Transformational Leadership is when you, the leader, motivate and inspire your team to exceed usual expectations and performance levels. You achieve this through various ways: communicating a compelling vision, fostering creativity, and building strong, respectful relationships with team members.

Importantly, transformational organizational leadership is not about directing or controlling. It's about nurturing growth—in both individuals and organizations.

The History of Transformational Leadership

You now know what transformational leadership is, but where did it come from? The concept of transformational leadership isn't as new as you might think; it has roots that date back to the late 20th century.

The term was first introduced in a presidential address by sociologist James V. Downton in 1973. But the concept really gained traction when James MacGregor Burns penned his seminal book "Leadership" in 1978.

Burns drew a line between transactional leaders , those who operate on an exchange basis like "do this for me, and I'll give you that," and transformational leaders , who ignite the internal motivations of their team members to exceed expectations.

Burns argued that effective transformational leaders create a more ethical and empowering environment.

The 1980s brought more meat to the bones of transformational leadership theory. Researchers like Bernard M. Bass expanded upon Burns' ideas.

Bass introduced the concept of Charismatic Leadership , which is a component of transformational leadership. He said that transformational leaders often have strong sense of charisma, but charisma alone isn't enough. You also need to empower your team, listen to them, and encourage their personal growth.

By now, you're starting to see how this leadership style has evolved over time. Knowing its history gives you a richer understanding of why it's so impactful today.

And as you'll find out, transformational leadership is not just a theory but a practice that has been embraced across diverse settings—from businesses to politics and education.

The Four 'I's of Transformational Leadership

You're probably thinking, "Okay, transformational leadership sounds great, but what makes it tick?" Experts usually break it down into four key components, often referred to as the Four 'I's.

First up is Idealized Influence . This is all about being a role model. You set high standards for ethical behavior and show dedication. When your team sees you walking the walk, they're more likely to trust you and follow your lead.

Second is Inspirational Motivation . Imagine you're a coach giving a halftime speech. You're uplifting your team, filling them with energy and enthusiasm for the tasks ahead. You set exciting visions for the future and show how everyone plays a vital part in reaching that vision.

The third 'I' stands for Intellectual Stimulation . Here, you're not just giving orders; you're encouraging your team to think creatively and solve problems. Imagine a teacher who doesn't just want the correct answer but challenges students to explain how they got there.

Last but not least, is Individualized Consideration . This means you're tuned into each team member's needs and potential for growth. It's like a gardener knowing exactly how much water, sunlight, and nutrients each type of plant in the garden needs. You provide coaching, give feedback, and open doors for individual consideration and opportunities that will help them grow.

Together, these four components make the transformational leadership style what it is—a holistic approach to guiding a team to reach and exceed their potential.

Transformational Leadership vs Other Leadership Styles

By now, you're getting a pretty good grip on what transformational leadership entails. But how does it stack up against other leadership styles? After all, it's not the only game in town.

You might have heard of Authoritarian Leadership , where the leader calls all the shots and expects the team to follow without question. It's like a strict parent dictating every move their child makes.

Transformational leadership, in contrast, gives room for creative thinking and individual growth. Instead of telling you what to do, a transformational leader guides you in discovering the best course of action for yourself.

Then there's Laissez-Faire Leadership , a style of organizational structure where the leader takes a hands-off approach. Picture a laid-back supervisor who lets the team figure things out on their own.

While this approach can foster independence, it often lacks the motivational spark that transformational leadership provides.

Don't forget about Transactional Leadership , which we touched on earlier. This management style is more about give-and-take. It's like a business deal: "You complete this task, you get a reward."

While transactional leadership can be effective, it doesn't aim to transform or inspire on a deeper level.

Transformational leadership has its own unique flavor. It combines the best of different worlds: it's motivating but not controlling, structured but not rigid, and inspirational without being unrealistic.

Examples of Transformational Leaders

1) Nelson Mandela

First, let's talk about Nelson Mandela. He led South Africa out of apartheid and into a new era of racial equality and democracy.

Mandela didn't just give orders; he inspired a nation. His leadership wasn't about transactions; it was about transformative change.

He exemplifies Idealized Influence , one of the Four 'I's we talked about earlier, by being a moral compass for his followers.

2) Oprah Winfrey

Next up is Oprah Winfrey. She broke multiple barriers in her career, and her impact extends beyond television to education and philanthropy.

Oprah is a fantastic example of Inspirational Motivation . She has the unique ability to connect with people, inspiring them to take action and make positive changes in their lives.

3) Steve Jobs

Steve Jobs, co-founder of Apple, transformed the way we interact with technology. He pushed for innovative designs and user-friendly interfaces, changing our relationship with computers, smartphones, and tablets.

Jobs exemplifies Intellectual Stimulation by encouraging his team to think differently and challenge the status quo.

4) Malala Yousafzai

Malala Yousafzai stood up for girls' education in Pakistan, despite facing life-threatening dangers. Her courage and advocacy have inspired a global movement.

Malala represents Inspirational Motivation and Idealized Influence by standing up for what she believes in and motivating others to do the same.

5) Richard Branson

The founder of the Virgin Group, Richard Branson, is known for his adventurous spirit and willingness to take risks. He has created a culture that fosters innovation and creativity across various industries, from music to air travel.

Branson illustrates Intellectual Stimulation by continually encouraging new ideas and approaches.

6) Angela Merkel

Angela Merkel, the Chancellor of Germany for over a decade, was a stabilizing force in European politics. She managed multiple crises, from the financial downturn to the refugee situation, with a balanced and humane approach.

Merkel shows Individualized Consideration by focusing on long-term solutions that consider the well-being of all parties involved.

7) Tony Dungy

Tony Dungy, former NFL coach, transformed the Indianapolis Colts into a Super Bowl-winning team. More importantly, he did it while emphasizing the importance of character and moral integrity.

Dungy is a prime example of Idealized Influence because he led by example, setting a standard for both sportsmanship and leadership.

The Psychology Behind Transformational Leadership

You might be wondering, "What's the secret sauce that makes transformational leadership so effective?" Well, it's not just about actions; it's also about the psychological impact on the team.

Firstly, this leadership style taps into Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs . Remember Maslow? He's the guy who said we have a pyramid of needs , from basic survival up to self-actualization. Transformational leaders aim for the top. They're not just offering you a paycheck (survival); they're helping you fulfill your potential ( self-actualization ).

Second, there's the concept of Emotional Intelligence , or EQ. Transformational leaders usually score high in EQ. They're tuned into their own emotions and can read the room, sensing the team's mood and adjusting their approach accordingly.

Lastly, let's talk about Intrinsic Motivation . This means you're doing something because you genuinely want to, not because you're getting a reward or avoiding a penalty. Transformational leaders excel at firing up this kind of motivation. They inspire you to give your best not for external rewards and punishments, but because you're committed to the vision and the team.

So, the psychology of transformational leadership is a mix of meeting higher-level needs, emotional intelligence, and intrinsic motivation. It's a compelling blend that not only gets results but also fosters a positive, engaged, and loyal team.

How to Cultivate Transformational Leadership Skills

By now, you've got a solid understanding of what transformational leadership is and why it works so well. You've even seen it in action through real-world examples and psychological frameworks. But here's the kicker: you can develop these skills, too. Let's break it down step by step.

First on the list is Self-Awareness . Before you can lead others, you need to know yourself . Take some time to reflect on your strengths and weaknesses. There are tools like the SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats) that can help. Knowing where you stand enables you to be a more effective leader.

Second, work on Communication Skills . Effective communication is more than just talking; it's about listening, too. If you can clearly articulate your vision and also pay attention to what others are saying, you're on the right track.

Last but not least, cultivate Empathy . This means putting yourself in someone else's shoes and understanding their perspective. Empathy allows you to connect on a deeper level, making it easier to inspire and motivate your team. It turns out, being a good leader is also about being a good human.

So there you have it—three achievable steps to hone your transformational leadership skills. And guess what? As you develop these skills, you'll not only become a better leader but also a better teammate, friend, and overall person.

Applications of Transformational Leadership

You've read about how transformational leadership works and how to cultivate the skills it requires. But where does this leadership style really shine? Let's unpack its applications in various fields, showing you that it's not a one-size-fits-all kind of deal.

In the Business World , transformational leadership helps companies adapt and innovate. Whether it's a tech startup or a century-old manufacturing firm, this leadership style can invigorate a company's culture. Leaders inspire employees to be proactive, solve problems creatively, and feel a stronger commitment to their roles.

Workplace Scenario: Improving Productivity in a Sales Team

• Identify the Issue : The sales team is not meeting its targets.
• Open Dialogue : The manager arranges a meeting to understand the challenges faced by the team. This is a form of Individualized Consideration .
• Clear Vision : The manager outlines a new sales strategy, which focuses on relationship-building with clients rather than just meeting quotas. This falls under Inspirational Motivation .
• Skill Development : The manager organizes training sessions to improve customer communication skills, tapping into Intellectual Stimulation .
• Celebrate Wins : Small victories, like landing a big client or successfully implementing a new sales tactic, are celebrated, reinforcing Idealized Influence .

Now, imagine a Healthcare Setting . Medical professionals often face high stress and life-or-death situations. A transformational leader in this space focuses on team well-being, encourages continued education, and fosters an environment where everyone feels valued. This can lead to improved patient care and job satisfaction.

Hospital Scenario: Reducing Stress and Improving Patient Care

• Identify the Issue : The nursing staff is stressed due to high patient load, leading to decreased patient satisfaction.
• Foster Team Cohesion : The head nurse organizes team-building activities aimed at reducing stress and improving collaboration. This is an application of Idealized Influence .
• Streamline Processes : The head nurse introduces a new roster system that distributes workload more evenly, embodying Inspirational Motivation .
• Education and Upskilling : Workshops are arranged to train nurses in stress management techniques and advanced patient care methods, encouraging Intellectual Stimulation .
• Personal Attention : The head nurse holds regular one-on-one meetings with each nurse to discuss challenges and offer solutions, showcasing Individualized Consideration .

Let's not forget Education . Teachers and administrators can significantly benefit from applying transformational leadership principles. By inspiring both educators and students to strive for higher standards and increased performance, learning environments become more enriching and productive.

Classroom Scenario: Boosting Student Engagement in History Class

• Identify the Issue : Students find history boring and are disengaged during class.
• Vision and Inspiration : The teacher decides to tie historical events to current social issues, making it more relatable and exciting. This is an example of Inspirational Motivation .
• Involve the Students : The teacher includes students in the lesson planning, asking them to pick current events that interest them. This exemplifies Individualized Consideration .
• Empower and Educate : The teacher breaks the class into small groups and asks them to research and present their chosen topic, fostering critical thinking and teamwork.
• Feedback Loop : After the presentations, the teacher praises individual and group efforts and gives constructive feedback, reinforcing Idealized Influence and Intellectual Stimulation .

And it doesn't stop there; transformational leadership can be applied in Non-Profits , Community Organizations , and even in Home Settings . It's that versatile. You see, this transformational leadership characteristics and style is more than just a management tactic; it's a strategy for enhancing collective effort and well-being, regardless of the context.

So there you have it—a broad look at where transformational leadership can be effectively applied. No matter the field, the core principles hold true: inspire, engage, and bring out the best in everyone.

Criticisms of Transformational Leadership

Alright, we've talked a lot about the good stuff, but nothing is perfect, right? Transformational leadership also has its fair share of challenges and criticisms. It's crucial to be aware of these to get a well-rounded understanding.

First off, there's the Hero Syndrome . Sometimes, transformational leaders are put on such a high pedestal that they become viewed as irreplaceable . This can lead to problems like lack of accountability or an over-reliance on a single individual for the group's success. It's vital to remember that even great leaders have limitations.

Then there's the issue of Manipulation . Because transformational leaders are so good at inspiring people, they could potentially use their influence for personal gain rather than the collective good. This could lead to ethical dilemmas, where the line between motivation and manipulation gets blurry.

Finally, let's talk about Sustainability . Can a leader keep up the high levels of enthusiasm and vision indefinitely? Burnout is a real concern. Additionally, once a leader has successfully transformed an organization or team, what comes next? Continuous transformation isn't always feasible or desirable.

So yes, while transformational leadership has numerous benefits, it also comes with its set of challenges. But don't fret; understanding these potential pitfalls prepares you to navigate them effectively.

The Future of Transformational Leadership

So, where is transformational leadership headed? In a world that's changing faster than ever, this style of leadership seems more relevant than ever. Let's explore some future trends and how they might shape or be shaped by transformational leadership.

First, we've got the Digital Age . Technology is revolutionizing how we work and communicate. Transformational leaders will need to adapt by fostering digital literacy and creating an environment where innovation thrives. Embracing tech tools can facilitate better communication, real-time feedback, and more efficient ways to inspire a remote workforce.

Second, there's an increasing focus on Diversity and Inclusion . Future transformational leaders will need to be well-versed in managing diverse teams . It's no longer just about being a great leader; it's about understanding different cultural perspectives and working towards inclusive growth. These leaders can act as bridges, uniting varied talents to achieve common goals.

Lastly, we have the Gig Economy . More people are opting for freelance or part-time roles . Traditional leadership models may struggle in such a setup, but transformational leaders could excel. They're skilled at quickly building rapport and aligning even short-term team members with a larger vision.

The world is evolving, and so are the challenges and opportunities that leaders face. The transformational leadership style, with its adaptability and focus on genuine connection, seems well-suited to navigate these changes. Whether you're an aspiring leader or already in a leadership role, understanding this future landscape empowers you to stay ahead of the curve.

From the very origins of transformational leadership, tracing back to James MacGregor Burns, all the way to its practical applications and future relevance, you've journeyed through a comprehensive understanding of this leadership style. You've even seen it in action across different settings like classrooms, workplaces, and hospitals.

While transformational leadership isn't the only game in town, its focus on genuine relationships, inspiration, and growth makes it incredibly relevant for today's challenges. It's a style that adapts well to change, making it a strong fit for our ever-evolving world.

Now, you're not just familiar with transformational leadership; you have the tools to implement it. Whether you’re an aspiring leader or already steering the ship, the principles you've learned can help you become more effective, empathetic, and yes, more transformational leader.

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Transformational Leadership

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• B. Parker Ellen III 2  

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Charismatic-inspirational leadership

Leadership that inspires and motivates followers to achieve outcomes beyond expectations and helps followers grow and develop by responding to their individual needs.

Introduction

The introduction of transformational leadership generally is credited to James MacGregor Burns ( 1978 ) who used the term to distinguish between those who led through the exchange of performance for rewards (i.e., transactional leaders) and those who led by inspiring followers to aim for and achieve ambitious goals (i.e., transformational leaders). This development in leadership thinking signaled the beginning of a shift to what has become known as new-genre perspectives that focus on more interpersonal, inspirational, and visionary leadership. Burns ( 1978 ) argued that transformational leaders develop followers as individuals and as future leaders by empowering them and responding to their needs. As a result, transformational leadership results in high...

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Barling J (2013) The science of leadership: lessons from research for organizational leaders. Oxford University Press

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Bass BM, Riggio RE (2006) Transformational leadership. Psychology Press (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum

Burns JM (1978) Leadership. Harper and Row, New York

Bono JE, Judge TA (2004) Personality and transformational and transactional leadership: a meta-analysis. J Appl Psychol 89(5):901–910

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Judge TA, Piccolo RF (2004) Transformational and transactional leadership: a meta-analytic test of their relative validity. J Appl Psychol 89(5):755–768

Van Knippenberg D, Sitkin SB (2013) A critical assessment of charismatic – transformational leadership research: back to the drawing board? Acad Manag Ann 7(1):1–60

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Ellen, B.P. (2016). Transformational Leadership. In: Farazmand, A. (eds) Global Encyclopedia of Public Administration, Public Policy, and Governance. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-31816-5_1343-1

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• Transformational leadership is associated with positive change in individuals and organizations.
• Transformational leaders typically have a strong vision, an open mind, are charismatic, and trusting of their team.
• Cultivating sense of personal happiness and contentment can help leaders inspire their teams.

Maybe you’ve had a “this is the way we’ve always done it” leader before. You know — the type who wants to stick with what’s familiar, even if it’s inefficient and ineffective. They don’t want to rock the boat or deviate from the norm. 

Transformational leadership is the exact opposite of that. 

Transformational leaders set their sights on improving systems, processes, teams, and entire organizations. They’re not content with the status quo. They want to leave things better than they found them. 

Needless to say, in the right circumstances, this leadership style can have a big impact. Here’s why, and how to make the jump from theoretical changemaking to true transformation. 

What is transformational leadership?

Transformational leadership is when a leader seeks to move beyond their own self-interest to promote positive change within individuals, teams, and companies. 

A transformational leader identifies opportunities for change, creates a plan for achieving the change, and then executes that plan by inspiring others. Their aim is to transform the teams and organizations they’re part of. 

The term originated with sociologist James V. Downton in 1973, but it’s more commonly associated with leadership expert James MacGregor Burns , who expanded on the original concept of transformational leadership. 

Other experts have continued to add to the approach over the past few decades. And today, it’s one of the more common and popular leadership styles – especially in organizations that need to innovate and adapt. 

What are the characteristics of a transformational leader?

Wondering how to tell if you’re a transformational leader (or what competencies you need to work on to fill those shoes)? Like any other leadership style, transformational leadership has some defining traits: 

• A strong vision: These leaders don’t want to make a change for the sake of shaking things up. Instead, they have a clear idea of where they’re headed and are able to relay that information to the team in a way that fosters understanding and increases motivation. 
• Charisma: Transformational leaders are often viewed as inspirational and highly charismatic people. While they’re in a management role, they step alongside their direct reports to develop them, encourage them, and mentor them.
• An open mind: Transformational leaders are hungry for change, but they recognize that it doesn’t need to come from the top. They’re approachable, open-minded, and always eager to hear feedback and ideas from other people. 
• A flexible approach: Change can be a rocky road and not every new idea will pan out. These leaders don’t white-knuckle their original suggestions. They’ll quickly adapt and roll with the punches when a suggested change doesn’t work out. It’s not a failure – it’s a learning experience.  
• Trust: Research shows that a high degree of trust is crucial for transformational leadership. Not only are these leaders trusted by their team members, but they also place a high degree of faith in their direct reports in return. They give them ownership over their work and autonomy to make contributions.

These qualities help transformational leaders pursue organizational improvement without breeding a sense of discouragement, frustration, or discontent.

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4 components of transformational leadership.

The root of transformational leadership is change and improvement, but there are different ways to go about that. This leadership style can be broken down into four components or factors, known as the “four I’s.” 

• Idealized influence: Leading by example as a positive role model for the entire team
• Inspirational motivation: Motivating employees to rally around a vision and get excited about how they can contribute
• Intellectual stimulation: Encouraging critical thinking and out-of-the-box ideas, rather than sticking with existing norms and processes
• Individual consideration: Considering the strengths, goals, and needs of each team member and acting as a coach or a mentor 

Each of those components is valuable on its own. But when you put them all together, you’re truly able to embody transformational leadership.

Transformational leadership vs. transactional leadership

These two styles sound similar, but they couldn’t be more different. While transformational leadership focuses on improving and inspiring, transactional leadership is far more rigid and structured, using rewards and punishments to motivate people.

For example, a transformational leader might incentivize an employee by connecting them to the broader vision and purpose, while a transactional leader might use something tangible like a commission or a bonus. 

One style isn’t inherently better than the other. They each have their unique benefits, drawbacks, and use cases.

Learn transformational leadership from these great examples  

There’s no shortage of real-world transformational leadership examples throughout history. A few recognizable transformational leaders include:

• Henry Ford: Henry Ford , founder of Ford Motor Company, not only revolutionized the automobile industry, but also pioneered worthy causes like safer conditions and better wages for workers. He had a strong vision for the future and was relentless in pursuing it.
• Oprah Winfrey: Television host and media mogul Oprah Winfrey built an entire career on her charisma. So, it makes sense that would trickle into the leadership of her staff. She’s known for being an accessible leader who prioritizes development, teamwork, praise, and psychological safety.
• Yvon Chouinard: As the founder of Patagonia, Yvon Chouinard didn’t only focus on internal transformation. He had his sights set on something bigger: the planet. From changing the climbing hardware the company sold in the early days to something more environmentally friendly to starting a self-imposed Earth tax to support environmental nonprofits, Patagonia is now associated with activism and environmental change — thanks to Yvon Chouinard’s early influence and values. 

How to become a transformational leader 

Discover the 7 core leadership styles (and take our quiz to find yours)

You already have a leadership style — it’s the approach you default to when you’re in the driver’s seat, whether you’re leading a team or a project. 

Here’s the good news: You can change your leadership style (or, in the case of situational leadership , adapt your approach to certain circumstances). To do so, you need to be intentional about your behaviors and choices. If you’re eager to embody more transformational leadership characteristics, here are a few strategies to help.

1. Know where you’re headed

To get people excited about change, you need to have a clear idea of what you’re working toward. If you’re rallying a team around your own goal or vision, make sure that you’re able to share specifics about what the change is, why it’s being made, what steps are involved, and what challenges you might face. 

This doesn’t always mean handing information down from on high – your team can be involved from the beginning. Use problem framing to talk openly with your team and align on a specific problem you’re solving before you identify your next steps together. When people are more invested in the problem, they’re often more invested in the solution too. 

Once you’re all on the same page, run the vision creation play to paint a clear picture of the future and motivate your team to get there. 

2. Look at what’s working (and what isn’t)

Transformational leadership isn’t just about change — it’s about improvement. To have the most meaningful impact, you need to focus on the areas and processes that actually need refinement. 

You can start by paying close attention to your team’s recent work. Are you running into the same bottlenecks over and over again? Are there certain goals you always fall short of? Those are areas worth turning your attention to. Try running a:

• Health monitor to evaluate your team
• Retrospective to evaluate a project

Don’t do those alone. Employees should be involved in these activities and conversations (remember, transformational leadership emphasizes their autonomy and contributions) so they can provide candid feedback about what they think needs tweaking. 

3. Avoid micromanaging

There’s a difference between uniting people around a shared goal and dishing out strict directions. Transformational leaders are similar to coaching leaders in that they act as mentors and resources, but then get out of the way and trust their teams to get their work done.

That can be a tough adjustment if you’re used to having a ton of oversight into what your employees are doing. Fortunately, providing plenty of clarity upfront can give you confidence that your team is moving in the right direction — even if you’re not always gripping the steering wheel. 

Use a system like team goals, signals, and measures or objectives and key results (OKRs) to define what a successful project looks like and how you’ll all know if you’re staying on track. 

Once you’ve laid those out, make an effort to avoid constant check-ins and instead let your team know that you’re there with an open door and a listening ear when they need you. 

4. Prioritize your happiness 

Research shows that leaders with a strong sense of personal happiness are better leaders. And a separate study found that teams consider happy leaders more transformational.

So as counterintuitive as it seems, if you want to be transformational, you need to invest in your happiness first. It’s like being on an airplane: you should put on your own oxygen mask before helping others.

It sounds simple enough, but it’s far more difficult in practice — particularly when you’re the one managing objectives, tracking progress, and dealing with complex team dynamics. Practicing some compassion (not just with your team, but also with yourself) can help. 

Compassionate leaders achieve less stress and more happiness than their less-compassionate colleagues. So, try out a few guided self-compassion exercises to be a little kinder to yourself (and then share your favorites with your team). 

Transforming yourself into a transformational leader

Transformational leadership is an effective leadership style, especially in situations where people lack motivation and enthusiasm. 

However, keep in mind that change takes time, whether you’re changing a system, organization, or even your own approach to leadership.

If you want to be a transformational leader, stay committed to some of the strategies we outlined and you’ll see progress over time. After all, true transformation is just as much about the process as it is about the outcome. 

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How Transformational Leadership Can Inspire Others

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital.

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Are You a Transformational Leader?

Transformational leadership is a  leadership style that can inspire positive changes in those who follow. Transformational leaders are generally energetic, enthusiastic, and passionate. Not only are these leaders concerned and involved in the process, but they are also focused on helping every member of the group succeed.

Transformational leaders take control of situations by conveying a clear vision of the group's goals. These leaders have a marked passion for the work and an ability to make the rest of the group feel recharged and energized.

Transformational leaders focus on helping members of the group support one another and provide them with the support, guidance, and inspiration they need to work hard, perform well, and stay loyal to the group. The primary goals of transformational leadership are to inspire growth, promote loyalty, and instill confidence in group members.

This article discusses the characteristics of transformational leadership and its effects on groups.

History of Transformational Leadership

The concept of transformational leadership was initially introduced by leadership expert and presidential biographer James MacGregor Burns. According to Burns, transformational leadership can be seen when "leaders and followers make each other advance to a higher level of moral and motivation."

Through the strength of their vision and personality, transformational leaders are able to inspire followers to change expectations, perceptions, and motivations to work towards common goals.

Later, researcher Bernard M. Bass expanded upon Burns's original ideas to develop what is today referred to as Bass’s Transformational Leadership Theory. According to Bass, transformational leadership can be defined based on the impact that it has on followers. Transformational leaders, Bass suggested, garner trust, respect, and admiration from their followers.

Components of Transformational Leadership

Bass also suggested that there were four different components of transformational leadership. The four main elements of transformational leadership are:

• Intellectual stimulation: Transformational leaders not only challenge the status quo; they also encourage creativity among followers. The leader encourages followers to explore new ways of doing things and new opportunities to learn.
• Individualized consideration: Transformational leadership also involves supporting and encouraging individual followers. To foster supportive relationships, transformational leaders keep lines of communication open so that followers feel free to share ideas and so that leaders can offer immediate recognition of the unique contributions of each follower.
• Inspirational motivation: Transformational leaders have a clear vision that they can articulate to followers. These leaders can also help followers experience the same passion and motivation to fulfill these goals.
• Idealized influence: The transformational leader serves as a role model for followers. Because followers trust and respect the leader, they emulate this individual and internalize their ideals.

Groups led by this type of leader tend to be both successful and loyal. They give a lot to the team and care deeply about the group's ability to accomplish its goals. Turnover tends to be relatively low as transformational leaders can inspire a great deal of commitment in their followers.

Transformational Leadership Traits

So what are some typical signs of a transformational leader? Common characteristics of transformational leaders include:

• Able to encourage others to communicate and participate
• Active listening skills
• Adaptability
• Authenticity and genuineness
• Emotionally intelligent
• Inspirational
• Open-mindedness
• Proactive problem-solvers
• Self-awareness
• Willingness to take responsibility
• Willingness to take well-informed risks

While each leader is different, transformational leadership is characterized by a number of key traits. Five of the main qualities of a transformational leader are authenticity, self-awareness, humility, collaboration, and interdependence.

Examples of Transformational Leadership

Recognizable figures who are often cited as examples of transformational leadership include:

• Barack Obama : The former U.S. President was known for his transformational approach to running his administration, as well as his unifying, motivating, and hopeful communication style.
• Nelson Mandela : The former President of South Africa was famous for serving as a source of authentic inspiration.
• Oprah Winfrey : The media mogul is famous for her charismatic, visionary, and inspirational leadership style.
• Steve Jobs : Jobs was famous for his visionary leadership that transformed Apple into a leader in the technology industry.

Effects of Transformational Leadership

In their classic text, Transformational Leadership , authors Bass and Riggio explained that these leaders inspire people to achieve extraordinary results. Group members are not just encouraged to participate; they are also inspired to become leaders themselves.

Transformational leaders can accomplish this by being responsive and empowering. The individual's goals become better aligned with the purposes of the entire group so that each group member's success furthers the organization's goals.

Researchers have found that this style of leadership can have a positive effect on the group. Some of these effects include:

• Better performance : Those led by transformational individuals have better performance and are more satisfied than those in groups with different types of leaders.
• Better well-being : Employees who identified a higher level of transformational leadership in their employers also reported higher levels of well-being. The effect stayed significant even after researchers controlled for factors linked to well-being, such as job strain, education, and age.
• Sense of empowerment : This is attributed to the fact that transformational leaders believe that their followers can do their best, leading group members to feel inspired and empowered.

How to Become a More Transformational Leader

Becoming a more transformational leader may provide many benefits. Researchers believe that such results can help companies develop leadership training programs that can be used to teach transformational leadership skills.

Acquiring communication skills such as resolving workplace conflicts and recognizing employees' needs are important parts of transformational leadership. Such programs can serve as essential parts of health promotion efforts in the workplace to help improve employee well-being.

What can you do to become a more transformational leader? Leadership experts suggest that a robust and positive future vision plays a critical role. Not only is it essential to believe in this vision yourself, but you've also got to inspire others to buy into your vision as well.

You can also develop your transformational skills by being:

• Trustworthy

Transformational Leadership vs. Transactional Leadership

Transformational leadership is often contrasted with transactional leadership , which is a style that is essentially the opposite of transformational. In the transactional approach, leaders motivate their subordinates through the use of rewards and punishment.

While the transformational approach focuses on communication, inspiration, and positive reinforcement, transactional leaders supervise, monitor performance, and create routines to maximize efficiency. While the transactional approach can be effective in some situations, it does not foster loyalty, innovation, or creativity.

Motivates using rewards and punishments

Focused on compliance

Tends to focus on short-term goals

Uses extrinsic rewards (pay, promotions, etc.)

Motivates using enthusiasm and charismatic inspiration

Focused on commitment

More focused on long-term success

Uses intrinsic rewards (esteem, pride, etc.)

Potential Pitfalls of Transformational Leadership

While transformational leadership is often viewed as one of the best approaches to leadership, that doesn't mean that it is necessarily right for every situation. For example, when group members need more guidance and direction, it can be more effective to utilize a more transactional approach.

The transactional style can help improve group cohesion and commitment, but it can also contribute to burnout when group members feel constantly pressured to give up all of their time and effort to support the goals of the group.

In situations where a lot of creativity and innovation are important to success, a transformational style is often a beneficial approach. But if the focus is on achieving a prescribed set of short-term goals, taking a more transactional approach might lead to less chaos and better results.

Try our fast and free quiz to find out if you tend towards transformational leadership or one of the other styles.

The transformational style of leadership can be highly effective when used appropriately, but it might not necessarily be the best choice for every situation. In some cases, groups may require a more managerial or autocratic style that involves closer control and greater direction, particularly in situations where group member are unskilled and need a lot of oversight.

One way to improve your own leadership skills is to assess your own current leadership style and think about ways in which your strengths can benefit the group you are leading. By evaluating your own skills, you will be better able to play to your strengths and work on improving your areas of weakness.

Allen GP, Moore WM, Moser LR, Neill KK, Sambamoorthi U, Bell HS. The role of servant leadership and transformational leadership in academic pharmacy .  Am J Pharm Educ . 2016;80(7):113. doi:10.5688/ajpe807113

Choi SL, Goh CF, Adam MB, Tan OK. Transformational leadership, empowerment, and job satisfaction: the mediating role of employee empowerment .  Hum Resour Health . 2016;14(1):73. doi:10.1186/s12960-016-0171-2

Psychology Today. Are you a transformational leader ?

Jacobs C; Pfaff H; Lehner B, et al. The influence of transformational leadership on employee well-being: Results rrom a survey of companies in the information and communication technology sector in Germany. J Occup Environ Med . 2013;55(7):772-8.​ doi:10.1097/JOM.0b013e3182972ee5

Bass, B. M. & Riggio, R. E. Transformational Leadership . Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc; 2008.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Transformational Leadership: The Impact on Organizational and Personal Outcomes

Transformational leaders inspire followers to accomplish more by concentrating on the follower’s values and helping the follower align these values with the values of the organization. The purpose of this literature review is to investigate the impact of the transformational leadership style on organizational outcomes and the personal outcomes of the follower. This review examines the following organizational outcomes: organizational citizenship behavior/performance, organizational culture, and organizational vision. The review also explores the following personal outcomes of the follower: empowerment, job satisfaction, commitment, trust, self-efficacy beliefs, and motivation. By understanding the impact of transformational leadership on these outcomes, transformational leaders can influence employee behavior so that the behavior has a positive impact on the organization.

Transformational leadership theory has captured the interest of many researchers in the field of organizational leadership over the past three decades. This theory was developed by Burns (1978) and later enhanced by Bass (1985, 1998) and others (Avolio & Bass, 1988; Bass & Avolio, 1994; Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Tichy & Devanna, 1986). The major premise of the transformational leadership theory is the leader’s ability to motivate the follower to accomplish more than what the follower planned to accomplish (Krishnan, 2005). Transformational leadership has four components: idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration (Bass, 1985). Burns postulated that transformational leaders inspire followers to accomplish more by concentrating on the follower’s values and helping the follower align these values with the values of the organization. Furthermore, Burns identified transformational leadership as a relationship in which the leader and the follower motivated each other to higher levels which resulted in value system congruence between the leader and the follower (Krishnan, 2002).

Transformational leadership has been associated with the personal outcomes (Hatter & Bass, 1988; Barling, Moutinho, & Kelloway, 1998; Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1996) of the follower as well as organizational outcomes (Boerner, Eisenbeiss, & Griesser, 2007; Zhu, Chew, & Spangler, 2005; Jorg & Schyns, 2004; Barling, Weber, & Kelloway, 1996; Howell & Avolio, 1993). Research has shown that transformational leadership impacts follower satisfaction (Hatter & Bass; Koh, Steers, & Terborg, 1995) and commitment to the organization (Barling et al., 1996; Koh et al.). Research has also shown that transformational leadership impacts employee commitment to organizational change (Yu, Leithwood, & Jantzi, 2002) and organizational conditions (Lam, Wei, Pan, & Chan, 2002). Due to its impact on personal and organizational outcomes, transformational leadership is needed in all organizations (Tucker & Russell, 2004).

According to Aarons (2006), “Leadership is associated with organizational and staff performance” (p. 1163). Personal and organizational behavior related to leadership demands a more candid look at the leadership styles which may have a positive or negative impact on these two variables. The purpose of this literature review is to investigate the impact of the transformational leadership style on organizational outcomes and the personal outcomes of the follower. This review will examine the following organizational outcomes: organizational citizenship behavior/performance, organizational culture, and organizational vision. The review will also explore the following personal outcomes of the follower: empowerment, job satisfaction, commitment, trust, self-efficacy beliefs, and motivation. By understanding the impact of transformational leadership on the organizational and personal outcomes mentioned above, transformational leaders can influence and motivate the behavior of employees in such a way that the resultant behavior has a positive impact on the organization.

This literature review will investigate the following areas: transformational leadership theory and its relationship to, or influence on, organizational outcomes and the personal outcomes of the follower. Transformational leadership theory will provide the theoretical framework for examining the organizational and personal outcomes. The literature review will provide information regarding the importance of the transformational leadership theory to research and practice and for responding to the following research questions:

• What is the impact of the transformational leadership style on organizational outcomes?
• What is the impact of the transformational leadership style on the personal outcomes of the follower?

The literature review will conclude with the implications for further research, theory, and practice in the area of transformational leadership and organizational and personal outcomes.

Theoretical Framework

Transformational leadership theory was developed in the late 20 th century by Burns (1978) in his analysis of political leaders. Prior to this time much attention had been given to the examination of the approaches of leaders who successfully transformed organizations. Burns characterized transformational leadership as that which “occurs when one or more persons engage with others in such a way that leaders and followers raise one another to higher levels of motivation and morality” (p. 20). He believed that transformational leadership could raise followers from a lower level to a higher level of needs which agrees with Maslow’s (1954) hierarchy of needs.

Bass (1985) refined and expanded Burns’ leadership theory. Bass said that a leader is “one who motivates us to do more than we originally expected to do” (p. 20). He said that this motivation could be achieved by raising the awareness level about the importance of outcomes and ways to reach them. Bass also said that leaders encourage followers to go beyond self-interest for the good of the team or the organization.

An expanded and refined version of Burn’s transformational leadership theory has been utilized in organizations since the 1980s (Bass, 1985; Bass, Waldman, Avolio, & Bebb, 1987; Tichy & Devanna, 1986). The use of this theory concentrated on exchanges between leaders and followers inside the organization. Transformational leadership serves as a means to “create and sustain a context for building human capacity by identifying and developing core values and unifying purpose, liberating human potential and generating increased capacity, developing leadership and effective followership, utilizing interaction-focused organizational design, and building interconnectedness” (Hickman, 1997, p. 2).

Transformational leaders work to bring about human and economic transformation. Within the organization they generate visions, missions, goals, and a culture that contributes to the ability of individuals, groups, and the organization to “practice its values and serve its purpose” (Hickman, 1997, p. 9). These leaders are reliable leaders who generate commitment from followers which results in a sense of shared purpose (Waddock & Post, 1991). The leader’s ability to inspire, motivate, and foster commitment to a shared purpose is crucial (Bass, Waldman et al., 1987).

Several studies have documented important connections between transformational leadership and organizational operation. Transformational leadership has been linked to an array of outcomes, such as employee commitment to the organization (Barling, Weber, & Kelloway, 1996) and job satisfaction and satisfaction with a leader (Koh, Steers, & Terborg, 1995; Lowe & Kroeck, 1996). Bryman (1992) discovered that transformational leadership is positively related to a number of important organizational outcomes including perceived extra effort, organizational citizenship behaviors, and job satisfaction. According to Trice and Beyer (1993) and Schein (1985), leadership can change and sustain the culture of the organization by generating new or reinforcing established sets of beliefs, shared values, practices, and norms within organizations. Trust in the workplace is another outcome that is developed through the organization’s leaders (Creed & Miles, 1996; Shaw, 1997). Literature concerning trust suggests that it is a central feature in the relationship that transformational leaders have with their followers (Butler, Cantrell, & Flick, 1999; Gillespie & Mann, 2000; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, & Bommer, 1996).

Organizational Outcomes

Transformational leaders influence subordinates by motivating and inspiring them to achieve organizational goals (Bass & Avolio, 1995). Transformational leaders also try to help subordinates imagine appealing future outcomes (Bass & Avolio) related to the organization. Research has shown that transformational leaders affect organizational outcomes such as organizational citizenship behavior, organizational commitment, job satisfaction, effort, and in-role performance (Nguni, Sleegers, & Denessen, 2006). This review of literature will specifically examine the influence of transformational leadership on the following organizational outcomes: organizational citizenship behavior/performance, organizational culture, and organizational vision. Table 1 presents characteristics of each outcome.

Table 1: Organizational Outcomes

Organizational Citizenship Behavior/Performance

Organizational citizenship behavior/performance is described as non-obligatory, voluntary behavior by an employee, which exceeds the employee’s normal work duties and is not associated with any type of organizational reward system (Organ, 1990). Research has shown that organizational citizenship behavior/performance has a positive effect on employee performance (MacKenzie, Podsakoff, & Ahearne, 1998; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, & Bachrach, 2000) and produces positive benefits for organizations and organizational personnel (Ackfeldt & Leonard, 2005; Bolino, Turnley, & Bloodgood, 2002; Barksdale & Werner, 2001). According to Schlechter and Engelbrecht (2006), “Organizational citizenship behavior is by its very nature an extremely positive and desirable behavioral phenomenon. It is behavior that the organization would want to promote and encourage” (p. 2). Moreover, organizational citizenship behavior/performance is positive, selfless behavior for organizations because it involves employees giving help to each other without the expectation that those receiving the help will have to give anything back in return (Nguni, Sleegers, & Denessen, 2006).

Past research has demonstrated that transformational leadership has a direct influence on organizational citizenship behavior/performance (MacKenzie, Podsakoff, & Rich, 2001; Podsakoff, MacKenzie & Bommer, 1996; Koh et al., 1995).

Transformational leaders are assumed to “stimulate followers to perform beyond the level of expectations” (Bass, 1985, p. 32). Therefore, it seems likely that transformational leaders, by stimulating followers’ organizational citizenship behavior (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Moorman, & Fetter, 1990), enhance quality and quantity of follower performance.

Bass (1990) theorized that transformational leadership creates employees who are unselfish, faithful, and connected to the organization. These types of employees often perform beyond what is expected of them (Bass, 1985) in relation to their job descriptions. Several studies have shown a direct connection between transformational leadership and the following organizational citizenship behaviors: virtue, helping, sportsmanship, courtesy, and altruism (MacKenzie et al., 2001; Pillai, Schriesheim, & Williams, 1999; Podsakoff et al., 1990). Based on past empirical research (Zellars, Tepper, & Duffy, 2002; Koh et al., 1995), Schlechter and Engelbrecht (2006) concluded that transformational leadership has a direct and an indirect impact on organizational citizenship behavior.

H 1 : The transformational leadership style will have a positive impact on organizational citizenship behavior/performance.

Organizational Culture

Organizational culture influences every facet of an organization (Saffold, 1988) and impacts various organizational outcomes such as commitment, performance, productivity, self-confidence, and ethical behavior (Deal & Kennedy, 1982; Denison, 1984; Ouchi, 1981; Posner, Kouzes, & Schmidt, 1985; Pritchard & Karasick, 1973; Sathe, 1985). Several definitions have been proposed to describe culture. Tichy (1982) defined culture as the “glue that holds an organization together” (p. 63). Forehand and von Gilmer (1964) stated that an organization’s culture is comprised of distinctive characteristics that distinguishes a particular organization from all others. Jones, Felps, and Bigley (2007) proposed a more elaborate definition of organizational culture. These authors described organizational culture in the following manner:

In general, culture is a property of an organization constituted by (1) its members’ taken-for-granted beliefs regarding the nature of reality, called assumptions; (2) a set of normative, moral, and functional guidelines or criteria for making decisions, called values; and (3) the practices or ways of working together that follow from the aforementioned assumptions and values, called artifacts (Geertz, 1973; Hatch, 1993; Pettigrew, 1979; Schein, 1985, 1990; Trice & Beyer, 1984). Organizational culture reflects a sort of negotiated order (Fine, 1984) that arises and evolves as members work together, expressing preferences, exhibiting more-or-less effective problem-solving styles (Swidler, 1986), and managing, at least satisfactorily, external demands and internal needs for coordination and integration (Schein, 1990). In effect, culture represents an aspect of the organizational environment that helps members make sense of their own and others’ behavior (Golden, 1992). (p. 142)

The leadership style of the organization’s leader has a major impact on the development of the organization’s culture. According to Schein (1985, 1995), the leader’s beliefs, values, and assumptions shape the culture of the organization and these beliefs, values, and assumptions are then taught to other members of the organization. Schein also stated that leaders have the power to embed organizational culture through various methods such as mentoring, role modeling, and teaching. Bass and Avolio (1993) provided the following description of transformational culture:

In a transformational culture, one fitting with the model of the four I’s, there is generally a sense of purpose and a feeling of family. Commitments are long-term. Leaders and followers share mutual interests and a sense of shared fates and interdependence. A transformational leadership culture, like leadership, can build on or augment the transactional culture of the organization. The inclusion of assumptions, norms, and values which are transformationally based does not preclude individuals pursuing their own goals and rewards. (p. 116)

The influence of transformational leaders on organizational cultures can be seen in the employees who work in the organization (Tucker & Russell, 2004). Transformational leaders help subordinates discover who they are and what part they play in helping the organization achieve its mission. By interacting with subordinates in this manner, transformational leaders help subordinates increase their level of commitment to the organization (Tucker & Russell). Transformational leaders also influence the organization’s culture through its impact on organizational productivity. When the values and the culture of an organization are accentuated by transformational leaders, productivity and innovation within the organization improves (Niehoff, Enz, & Grover, 1990). Moreover, transformational leaders influence organizational culture by helping organizations see the world in different ways (Mink, 1992). As the external environment of the organization changes, transformational leaders influence organizational culture by helping organizations adapt to this new environment (Smith, 1990).

Studies in various organizational types such as the military (Bass, Avolio, & Goodheim, 1987), religious organizations (Smith, Carson, & Alexander, 1984), industry (Avolio & Bass, 1987; Hatter & Bass, 1988), technology (Howell & Higgins, 1990), and laboratory settings (Waldman, Bass, & Einstein, 1987) all demonstrate that transformational leaders provide the leadership style which produces effective organizations (Sashkin, 1987). According to Schein (1992), “Organizational culture can determine the degree of effectiveness of the organization either through its strength or through its type” (p. 24). Weese (1995) conducted a study on several university sports programs and the results showed that transformational leaders have organizations with strong cultures and are better than other leaders at providing activities which continue to build culture.

H 2 : The transformational leadership style will have a positive impact on long-term commitment, a sense of purpose, and the mutual interest of leaders and followers.

Organizational Vision

Transformational leadership has four components: idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration (Bass, 1985) which involves motivating people, establishing a foundation for leadership authority and integrity, and inspiring a shared vision of the future (Tracey & Hinkin, 1998). Idealized influence and inspirational motivation are connected with the leader’s ability to formulate and articulate a shared vision (Dionne, Yammarino, Atwater, & Spangler, 2004). The leader exudes power and impacts followers through visionary means (Bass, 1985). Developing a transparent vision and inspiring subordinates to pursue the vision is of great importance to transformational leaders (Lievens, Van Geit, and Coetsier, 1997). According to Tucker and Russell (2004),

Transformational leaders emphasize new possibilities and promote a compelling vision of the future. A strong sense of purpose guides their vision. Transforming organizations led by transforming leaders appeal to human characteristics that lift their sights above the routine, everyday elements of a mechanistic, power-oriented system. Transformational leaders manifest passionate inspiration (Hersey & Blanchard, 1996) and visibly model appropriate behaviors (Kouzes & Posner, 1987). The goal is change that raises the organizations to new and exciting possibilities. To reach the goal, organizations must receive new energy and vision from their leaders. The process of transformational leadership grows out of this sense of vision and energy. (p. 105)

Several studies (Davidhizer & Shearer, 1997; Keller, 1995; King, 1994; Mink, 1992; Wofford & Goodwin, 1994; Zaccaro & Banks, 2001) have been conducted that demonstrate a positive relationship between transformational leaders and organizational vision. Transformational leaders are necessary in all organizations. The primary goal of these leaders is to change the current structure of the organization and inspire organizational employees to believe in a new vision that has new opportunities (Tucker & Russell) for the individual and the organization as a whole.

H 3 : The transformational leadership style will have a positive impact on organizational vision.

The transformational leadership theory has been positively linked to a variety of organizational outcomes (Bryman, 1992). The researchers (MacKenzie, Podsakoff, & Rich, 2001; Podsakoff, MacKenzie & Bommer, 1996; Avolio & Bass, 1987; Hatter & Bass, 1988; Zaccaro & Banks, 2001; Davidhizer & Shearer, 1997) demonstrated that transformational leadership has a positive influence on organizational citizenship behavior/performance, organizational culture, and organizational vision. This literature review has significant implications for transformational leadership research, theory, and practice. From a theoretical perspective, the literature review confirms the assertions of the transformational leadership theory, provides empirical evidence, and strengthens the belief that transformational leadership produces positive results for organizations. From a research standpoint, the literature review opens the door for further research on subordinates’ perception of the transformational leader’s influence on these and other organizational outcomes. Further research should also be performed to investigate the impact of transformational leadership on organizational climate. Organizational culture and climate “have been viewed as being distinct, a function of, or reaction to one another” (Hughes, Ginnett, & Curphy, 2002). The research should determine whether or not the transformational leader’s influence on organizational climate is congruent with or stands in contradiction to the transformational leader’s influence on organizational culture. From a practical outlook, this review of literature can help transformational leaders identify areas in which their particular leadership style has been proven to be most effective for organizations. This review of literature can also help these leaders better align their leadership skills with the goals and values of the organization so that their influence throughout the organization is greater and produces the highest level of results for the organization.

Personal Outcomes

Research studies have repeatedly shown that transformational leadership is positively connected to personal outcomes (Dumdum, Lowe, & Avolio, 2002; Fuller, Patterson, Hester, & Stringer, 1996). The relationship between transformational leadership and personal outcomes such as job satisfaction and commitment is well established (Bass, 1998). Bass (1985) declared that transformational leaders inspire their followers to go above and beyond their own self interests for the sake of the organization as a whole. As a result, these leaders are able to bring a deeper insight and appreciation of input received from each member. Bass (1985) further argued that transformational leaders encourage followers to think critically and look for new approaches to do their jobs. This challenge given to followers motivates them to become more involved in their tasks which results in an increase in the degree of satisfaction with their work and commitment to the organization. There is also empirical support for this position. Dvir, Eden, Avolio, and Shamir (2002) showed that transformational leaders had a direct impact on followers’ empowerment, morality, and motivation. In another experimental study, Barling, Weber, and Kelloway (1996) reported a significant impact of transformational leadership on followers’ commitment and unit-level financial performance. Other studies also showed positive relationships between transformational leadership and personal outcomes such as satisfaction, performance, and commitment (Bycio, Hackett, & Allen, 1995; Dundum et al.; Fuller et al.; Koh, Steers, & Terborg, 1995;). By showing respect and confidence in their followers, transformational leaders create a great degree of trust and loyalty on the part of the followers to the extent that followers are willing to identify with the leader and the organization. This trust and loyalty results in followers who trust in and identify with the leader and are willing to commit to the organization even under very difficult circumstances.

This review of literature will specifically examine the influence of transformational leadership on the following personal outcomes: empowerment, job satisfaction, commitment, trust, self-efficacy beliefs, and motivation. Table 2 presents characteristics of each outcome.

Empowerment

Transformational leaders utilize behavior that empowers followers and intensifies their motivation (Masi & Cooke, 2000). Followers are empowered not only by the vision formed by the transformational leader, but also by the signals the leader sends regarding their capacity to achieve that vision (Eden, 1992). Transformational leaders construct a participative climate and empowered condition that allows followers to respond quickly and with flexibility to change in organizational and environmental demands (Lawler, 1994; Harrison, 1995).

Transformational leadership theory has repeatedly stressed followers’ progress in the direction of independence and empowerment over robotically following a leader (Graham, 1988). Intellectuals consider a critical-independent approach to be a necessary empowerment process among followers of transformational leaders. Bass and Avolio (1990) stated that transformational leaders augment followers’ power to think on their own, develop fresh ideas, and question operating rules that are archaic. Avolio and Gibbons (1988) stated that a major goal of transformational leadership is to develop follower self-management and self-development. Shamir (1991) similarly stressed the transformational impact of transformational leaders on follower independence. The view that empowerment is an outcome of transformational leadership is also consistent with Kelley’s (1992) theory of styles of followership. According to Conger and Kanungo (1988), transformational leadership is also connected to empowerment through self-efficacy.

H 4 : The transformational leadership style will have a positive impact on empowerment.

Table 2: Personal Outcomes

Job Satisfaction

Job satisfaction can be defined as “a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job and job experience” (Locke, 1976, p. 1304). Job satisfaction stems from the follower’s perception that the job actually provides what he or she values in the work situation (Nguni, Sleegers, & Denessen, 2006).

Job satisfaction is often theorized as containing the following essentials: the job itself, supervisor relationship, management beliefs, future opportunity, work environment, pay/benefits/rewards, and co-worker relationships (Morris, 1995). When job satisfaction is examined in the context of transformational leadership, several predictions are suggested. First, transformational leadership might intrinsically foster more job satisfaction given its ability to impart a sense of mission and intellectual stimulation. Also, transformational leaders encourage the followers to take on more responsibility and autonomy. The work tasks would then provide the followers with an increased level of accomplishment and satisfaction (Emery & Barker, 2007).

Empirical studies have shown that leadership behavior has an immense and steady influence on employees’ job satisfaction (Griffin & Bateman, 1986; Steers & Rhodes, 1978). Maeroff (1988) has reported that job satisfaction is positively related to transformational leadership.

H 5 : The transformational leadership style will have a positive impact on job satisfaction.

Mowday, Porter, and Steers (1982) defined commitment utilizing three components: identification with the values and goals of the organization, willingness to exert effort on behalf of the organization, and commitment to stay in the organization. Organizational commitment is defined as “the relative strength of an individual’s identification with and involvement in a particular organization” (p. 27). Bass (1998) and Yukl (2002) defined commitment differently. Yukl’s definition refers to an internal agreement and enthusiasm when carrying out a request or a task. Bass, however, referred to loyalty and attachment to the organization when he discusses commitment.

Earlier research studies demonstrated that an individual’s work experiences and organizational and personal factors serve as antecedents to organizational commitment (Allen & Meyer, 1990, 1996; Eby, Freeman, Rush, & Lance, 1999; Meyer & Allen, 1997). One key determinant of commitment is leadership (Mowday, Porter, & Steers, 1982). Transformational leaders engender their followers’ commitment to the organization (Barling, Weber, & Kelloway, 1996), the organizational goals and values (Bass, 1998), and team commitment (Arnold, Barling, & Kelloway, 2001). Extensive research is available which indicates that transformational leadership is positively associated with organizational commitment in a variety of organizational settings and cultures (Bono & Judge, 2003; Dumdum, Lowe, & Avolio, 2002; Koh, Steers, & Terborg, 1995; Lowe, & Kroeck, 1996; Walumbwa & Lawler, 2003). Previous research has found that transformational leadership has a large impact on organizational commitment (Dee, Henkin, & Singleton, 2004; Koh et al., 1995; Nguni, Sleegers, & Denessen, 2006).

H 6 : The transformational leadership style will have a positive impact on commitment.

Trust is a construct with multiple components and several dimensions which vary in nature and importance according to the context, relationship, tasks, situations, and people concerned (Hardy & McGrath, 1989). Although there is no universal definition of trust, a frequently used concept emphasizes interpersonal relationships and a “willingness to be vulnerable” (Mayer, Davis, & Schoorman, 1995) based on the belief that the leader is proficient, concerned, and dependable. Hence, when trust declines, a reversal occurs and people become hesitant to take risks, demanding greater defenses against the possibility of betrayal “and increasingly insist on costly sanction mechanisms to defend their interests” (Kramer & Tyler, 1996, p. 4).

Some writers maintain that workplace trust is developed primarily through an organization’s leaders (Creed & Miles, 1996; Fairholm, 1994; Shaw, 1997). Literature concerning trust and management indicated that trust is an essential element in the relationship that transformational leaders have with their followers (Butler, Cantrell, & Flick, 1999; Gillespie & Mann, 2000; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Moorman, & Fetter 1990; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, & Bommer, 1996; Simon, 1995). The degree of trust which exists in an organization can determine much of the organization’s character, influence organizational structure, control mechanisms, job satisfaction, job design, commitment, communication, and organizational citizenship behavior (Zeffane & Connell, 2003).

H 7 : The transformational leadership style will have a positive impact on trust.

Self-efficacy Beliefs

Self-efficacy belief has been a focus of organizational research for nearly three decades (Bandura, 1986, 1997, 2000;Luthans, 2002a, 2002b). Self-efficacy represents an individual’s belief in his or her capabilities to successfully accomplish a specific task or set of tasks (Bandura, 1986). Gist and Mitchell (1992) defined self-efficacy as a belief in one’s capability to perform work activities with skill. Self-efficacy can also be described as the confidence which followers have in being successful and the value they attach to possible outcomes. Self-efficacy beliefs influence patterns of thoughts, emotions, and actions in which people spend considerable effort in pursuit of objectives, persevere in the face of adversity, and exercise some control over events that affect their lives (Bandura, 1986, 1993, 1997). Individual achievements require qualifications and skills and a personal belief in one’s ability to successfully perform a particular action (Bandura, 1986).

Self-efficacy can be increased through transformational leadership (Waldman & Spangler, 1989). An increase in confidence and valence of outcomes can produce a noticeable rise in followers’ efforts to succeed, thus making leadership the stimulus to effort beyond expectations (Bass, 1985; Tichy & Devanna, 1986).

Transformational leaders are able to raise the self-efficacy of followers by showing confidence in followers and helping them work through individual problems and developmental challenges (Bandura, 1977; Gist, 1987).

H 8 : The transformational leadership style will have a positive impact on self-efficacy beliefs.

Burns (1978) referred to motivation as one of three main domains of a follower’s development. He proposed that transformational leaders motivate followers in such a way that the followers’ primary motive is to satisfy self-actualization needs rather than the lower needs in Maslow’s (1954) need hierarchy. Bass (1985, 1998) further extended Burn’s theory and “suggested that transformational leaders expand their followers ‘need portfolios’ by raising them or Maslow’s hierarchy” (Dvir, Eden, Avolio, & Shamir, 2002, p. 736).

Bass (1985) also held that the follower’s extra effort shows how much a leader motivates them to perform beyond contractual expectations. The emphasis placed on satisfying self-actualization needs reflects the type of need underlying followers’ motivation and extra effort results from generating higher levels of motivation.

Conger and Kanungo (1988) maintained that there is a difference in the energy shown by followers of transformational and non-transformational leaders. House and Shamir (1993) built on this work and held that transformational leaders selectively arouse motivation of followers and that this motivation arousal has several important effects, including increased commitment to the vision and mission articulated by the leader. Yukl and Van Fleet (1982) found that transformational leadership is positively related to subordinate’s perceptions of leader effectiveness and higher levels of motivation. Similarly, Hatter and Bass (1988) found that followers of transformational leaders report high satisfaction and motivation.

H 9 : The transformational leadership style will have a positive impact on motivation.

Transformational leadership has a positive influence on personal outcomes (Nguni, Sleegers, & Denessen, 2006). The literature (Bono & Judge, 2003; Butler, Cantrell, & Flick, 1999; Dumdum, Lowe, & Avolio, 2002; Gillespie and Mann, 2000; Griffin & Bateman, 1986; Hatter & Bass, 1988; Masi & Cooke, 2000; Steers & Rhodes, 1978; Waldman & Spangler, 1989; Yukl & Van Fleet, 1982) demonstrates that transformational leadership has a positive influence on empowerment, job satisfaction, commitment, trust, self-efficacy beliefs, and motivation. From a theoretical standpoint, this literature review reinforced the conceptual model of transformational leadership proposed by Bass (1985) and demonstrated that transformational leadership is significantly correlated with personal outcomes. From a research point of view, the literature review revealed a lack of literature related to transformational leadership and its impact on these personal outcomes in a church-work environment. Further research should be done to discover the processes by which transformational leaders apply their influence on followers (Bono & Judge; Kark, Shamir, & Chen, 2003; Lord, Brown & Feiberg, 1999; Yukl, 1998). This topic has not been adequately addressed in the literature. According to Bass (1999), there is a clear need for greater attention in this area to understand the mechanisms through which transformational leadership influences personal attitudes in order to develop a more complete understanding of the inner workings of transformational leadership. This research should determine what these processes and mechanisms are and how each one affects different outcomes. In practice, this literature review demonstrates that organizations can benefit greatly by providing transformational leadership which would enhance positive personal outcomes among followers. The enhanced positive personal outcomes would then have a positive effect on overall productivity and organizational performance.

Investigating the influence of transformational leadership on various organizational and personal (follower) outcomes can provide organizations and leaders with valuable insight related to organizational and employee behavior. Prior research has demonstrated that transformational leadership has a direct influence on organizational citizenship behavior/performance, organizational culture, and organizational vision. Research studies have also shown that transformational leadership impacts certain characteristics related to the follower such as empowerment, commitment, self-efficacy beliefs, job satisfaction, trust, and motivation. Although the organizational and personal behaviors examined in this study have been shown to be heavily influenced by transformational leadership, this study does not provide an exhaustive discussion of all the ways these behaviors are influenced by transformational leadership.

Further empirical research related to these outcomes and transformational leadership may provide more insight into the development of theories related to leadership and organizational behavior. Empirical research has concluded that transformational leadership has a direct and an indirect impact on organizational citizenship behavior. Further research could investigate the direct connection between transformational leadership and the organizational citizenship behaviors of virtue, helping, sportsmanship, courtesy, and altruism. This research could investigate any possible mediators of transformational leadership and each individual behavior.

Empirical research has also shown that transformational leaders have organizations with strong cultures and are better than other leaders at providing activities which continue to build culture. Studies in various organizational types demonstrate that transformational leaders provide the leadership style which produces effective organizations. Further research could inquire and discover which attribute of the transformational leader has the positive effect on the organization culture or is it the leader’s overall leadership style.

Prior research has concluded that there exists a positive relationship between transformational leaders and organizational vision. The transformational leader has inspired organizational employees to believe in new visions that have new opportunities. Further research in this area could investigate the ways in which transformational leaders positively affect the organizational vision and if there are any mediators between the leader and the vision.

Further research related to transformational leadership and the personal (follower) outcomes of empowerment, commitment, self-efficacy beliefs, job satisfaction, trust, and motivation may also provide further insight into leadership theory and practice. Past research showed that empowerment is viewed as an outcome of transformational leadership. It also showed that transformational leadership is connected to empowerment through self-efficacy. Further research in the area of empowerment could include a study investigating collective efficacy and empowerment with the level of analysis on a group level rather than an individual level.

Research studies have shown that leadership behavior has a massive and steady influence on employees’ job satisfaction. Empirical studies have concluded that job satisfaction is positively related to transformational leadership. Further research in the area of job satisfaction could investigate the individual work tasks and an exploration of which ones foster greater levels of accomplishment and satisfaction.

Extensive research has indicated that transformational leadership is positively associated with organizational commitment in a variety of organizational settings and cultures. Further research in this area could investigate the effect of an individual’s work experiences, organizational and personal factors on commitment.

Literature concerning trust and management has indicated that trust is an essential element in the relationship that transformational leaders have with their followers. Further research could investigate possible mediators between transformational leadership and trust.

Self-efficacy can be increased through transformational leadership. Transformational leadership style has been shown to have a positive impact on self-efficacy beliefs. Further research could investigate self-efficacy as a possible mediator between transformational leadership and other attributes.

Transformational leadership is positively related to a subordinate’s perceptions of leader effectiveness and higher levels of motivation. Studies have found that followers of transformational leaders report high satisfaction and motivation. Further research could include an investigation of the transformational leader’s motivation of followers and the effects of this motivation which could include increased commitment to the vision and mission articulated by the leader.

The particular leadership style utilized by leaders in organizations has a profound impact on the organizational and personal outcomes of the follower. The findings from this study related to the influence of transformational leadership on organizational and personal (follower) outcomes showed positive outcomes for the organization and follower. Further research and analysis of findings related to transformational leadership and the organizational and personal outcomes investigated in this study may assist organizations in selecting leaders who have leadership qualities which would be an asset to the future growth and development of the organization as well as the future growth and development of the followers.

About the Author

Roger Givens has almost 10 years of experience serving in ministry within the local church. He has served as senior pastor of Shekinah Ministries International for the past 3 years. He is the founder and director of Jethro’s House Ministries, Inc., a mentoring and training ministry for pastors. Before founding Shekinah Ministries International, Givens faithfully served in various ministries across the U.S. as an assistant pastor, staff evangelist, training director for Christian educators, and director of security. His interest is in understanding transformational leadership, socialization, and psychological empowerment with emphasis on the relationship between leader and follower in the 21 st century African American church.

E-mail: rogegiv@regent.edu

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Understanding the Impact of Transformational Leadership on Project Success: A Meta-Analysis Perspective

1 School of Traffic and Transportation Engineering, Changsha University of Science and Technology, Changsha 410114, China

2 Engineering Research Center of Catastrophic Prophylaxis and Treatment of Road and Traffic Safety of Ministry of Education, Changsha University of Science and Technology, Changsha 410114, China

Dongjiao Fan

Associated data.

The data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.

This paper aims to systematically analyze the reasons for the differences in the relationship between transformational leadership (TL) and project success and apply meta-analysis to summarize which dimensions of TL are the main driving forces for project success. Adopting the meta-analysis approach, we investigated 31 independent studies ( N  = 6475) and studied the theoretical moderators of this relationship from the perspectives of mediating variables, cultural background, and document type to test whether the moderating effects can explain the inconsistent research results. The results reveal that TL positively affects project success and leadership charm is the primary driver of TL. Also, the existence of a mediating mechanism has a more significant impact on the success of the leading project. Meanwhile, compared with project construction under the Western cultural background, countries with Eastern culture are more inclined to use a people-oriented philosophy for project management to promote project success. This research provides an empirical perspective to help project leaders select management talents, regulate leaders' words and deeds, and cultivate technical and soft leadership skills. Besides, this paper proposes a unique and nuanced view of the relationship between TL and project success, enhancing people's understanding of the TL's role in influencing project success.

1. Introduction

“Construction Industry 4.0,” as a part of “Industry 4.0,” is a specific application under the subdivision of the construction industry. It mainly contains two themes: “smart factory” and “smart production.” With the emergence of the intelligent construction concept, a plenty of new-generation information technologies, such as 5G, construction robots, and BIM, have been applied in construction projects [ 1 – 3 ]. The integration of technologies has led to a gradual shift in project management from mechanization and digitalization to informatization and intelligence. However, many studies have shown that even with the increasing level of technology and management associated with project construction, the level of project success has not improved significantly due to the increasing complexity and uncertainty of the construction environment. For construction companies and project organizations, changes in production models require far-reaching strategic decisions at all levels of the construction industry. Therefore, it is necessary to change the project organization to achieve a higher level of sustainable project success. It is well known that leaders play a dominant role in project organization reform, which is essential to increase organizational resilience and agility and develop high-reliability organizations [ 4 ]. Particularly in the last decade, an increasing number of project operations have developed under the project manager responsibility system. The project manager undertakes the leadership responsibility for the entire process of project implementation and overall management. This change will inevitably affect the leadership behavior of project managers and put forward higher requirements for their ability and comprehensive quality. Compared with other leadership styles, transformational leadership (TL) has advantages in enhancing project success. For example, it attaches great importance to the leaders' standards of behavior and concerns for the needs of followers. Meanwhile, many reasons suggest that TL is indispensable in project organizational change [ 5 – 7 ]. Bass [ 8 ] argued that today's construction environment requires subordinates to perform beyond ordinary expectations, and TL can deliver. Therefore, both subordinates and superiors of the project believe that leaders with a transformational style are more productive and suitable for project managers [ 9 ].

In recent years, many scholars have conducted many empirical studies to explore the role of TL in project success [ 10 , 11 ]. On the one hand, most researchers have shown that TL can promote project success. Zhang et al. [ 12 ] summarized the recent research results of some scholars and believed that TL plays a vital role in project success or failure. Appropriate TL is necessary for individuals or groups to carry out innovative behaviors [ 13 ]. Odusami et al. [ 14 ] conducted research to suggest a remarkable correlation between project managers' professional level, leadership style, team composition, and project success. Berssaneti et al. [ 15 ] pointed out that project success depends on many factors, including leadership ability, leadership style, and leadership skills of the project manager. However, on the other hand, some studies are reckoning that the project's successful realization will be hindered by TL [ 16 – 18 ]. Zhang [ 19 ] found an inhibitory relationship between the project manager's emotional intelligence and leadership style. Iqbal et al. [ 20 ] conducted surveys and interviews with engineering organizations in Malaysia. They believed that project leaders' high degree of psychological empowerment negatively impacted project performance due to their leadership style. Besides, Chen et al. [ 21 ] proposed an inverted U-shaped relationship between TL and project success, which suggests that it is most conducive to improving the project success rate when TL is at a medium level.

According to the discussion above, there are apparent conflicts in the strength, direction, and statistical significance of the relationship in most studies, which creates confusion in theory and practice. The scholars have not yet formed a consistent perspective on the relationship between TL and project success. Furthermore, the existing research lacks a more systematic and comprehensive integration of TL that contributes to project success, as well as fails to analyze and explain the differences in findings. Simultaneously, the impact of different dimensions of TL on the project's success has not yet been explored by scholars from the perspective of meta-analysis. Therefore, this paper intends to adopt a meta-analysis method through the comprehensive reanalysis of different individual research results to examine the overall effect of TL and other dimensions of TL on project success. Based on the literature collation results, this study explores mediating variables, cultural factors, and publication type factors as the moderating variables, focusing on identifying the reasons for the divergence between different research variables. The research conclusions are expected to comprehensively evaluate TL's theoretical and practical value in construction projects and inspire the sustainable development of project management practices in construction enterprises.

The remainder of the paper is structured as follows: Section 2 sums up the theoretical literature. Section 3 describes the methodology and the process of data collection. Section 4 analyses the results of the meta-analysis. A detailed discussion, implication, and limitation are provided in Section 5 . Finally, Section 6 concludes this paper and points out the future research direction.

2. Literature Review and Hypotheses Development

2.1. transformational leadership.

Burns proposed TL in 1978, and then Bass defined and quantified it in 1985 [ 8 ]. According to Bass, TL means that the leaders use words and actions to make subordinates realize the meaning and value of their work [ 22 ]. In this process, leaders also create a working atmosphere of trust and cooperation to inspire subordinates' enthusiasm for success and self-realization. In this way, the project manager can encourage them to surpass their interests for the organization's benefit to work more and improve their personal and organizational interests as well as the society's common well-being.

At present, most of the research on TL has been influenced by Bass. Although the multidimensionality of the transformational leader structure has been controversial [ 23 , 24 ], with the gradual intensification of the discussion on TL, experts and scholars have extended the research from qualitative to quantitative and gradually presented different measurement dimensions of TL. Bass [ 22 ] initially proposed that the dimensions of TL have charm, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration. After that, Bommer [ 23 ] developed the integration, high-performance implementation, and personalized support. Also, Bass and Avolio [ 24 ] thought it includes charm, charisma, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration. Eventually, Li [ 25 ] proposed that TL can be divided into four dimensions: idealized influence, intellectual stimulation, leader charism, and individualized consideration, and they are widely accepted and used. Based on the discussion above, TL is embodied in four dimensions in this paper: (1) idealized influence, which draws a future blueprint for team members, and strengthens team beliefs; (2) intellectual stimulation, which clarifies team goals and encourages members to continue to cooperate in their work, practice, and innovation; (3) leadership charisma, which enhances the self-confidence, self-esteem, and autonomy of members; (4) individualized consideration, which can improve employee identification, loyalty, and enthusiasm.

2.2. Project Success

Nowadays, project management has become ubiquitous in the construction industry, capacity building, and social projects [ 26 ]. Project success was introduced in the research field of project management in the 1960s and was initially applied for project management performance. Many scholars have defined project success with deepening the research, but they have not yet come to a consistent conclusion. This article summarizes the opinions of essential project management scholars and practitioners on the definition of project success based on the published literature ( Table 1 ).

Definitions of project success.

However, as project functions and the number of stakeholders has ascended, project success has a broader concept, which must be a multidimensional structure [ 34 , 35 ]. Therefore, the Project Management Institute (PMI) defines project success to balance the competing demands for project quality, scope, time, and cost, as well as meet project stakeholders' changing concerns and expectations (PMI, 2008). Specifically, it includes the organization's benefits, user satisfaction, the benefits to project personnel, sustainability, and business success. Specific to the engineering project, the stakeholders have not formed a unified opinion on the project's success. The main reason is that many stakeholders involved in the project have inconsistent standards about project success and an extended project success evaluation period.

At the same time, scholars now no longer only focus on complex indicators such as quality, schedule, and cost for measuring project success but start to explore soft indicators, such as whether the partnership is enhanced, whether the company's capabilities have improved, and whether there is a willingness to cooperate next time, etc.

2.3. Transformational Leadership and Project Success

Many scholars, such as Nam [ 36 ], Khawaja et al. [ 37 ], and Wang et al. [ 38 ], have supported leadership as a critical factor in promoting project success. Empirical evidence generally recognises the positive impact of TL on follower attitudes, effort, and performance. According to Bass and Avolio [ 39 ], TL motivates their subordinates to do things that not only exceed what they are simply asked to do, but also the effects often exceed their expectations. Simultaneously, in addition to directly affecting the performance of cross-level followers, TL can also indirectly affect project performance through direct subordinate leaders who contact cross-level followers [ 40 ]. Singh [ 41 ] postulated that the intellectual stimulation dimension of TL enhances exploratory thinking and communicates a clear vision of the project, motivating project members to generate new ideas.

Moreover, the leaders who demonstrate TL can gain their immediate followers [ 9 ] and are increasingly confident in trying new methods to complete projects with the support of their managers. Dulaimi [ 41 ] found that the leader's charisma and innovation support behavior are the main reasons for the investigated project's success in Singapore. Also, literature reviews show that project managers' individualized care and idealized influence play a vital role in achieving tremendous project success [ 42 , 43 ]. Therefore, according to the findings above, this research proposes the following hypotheses:

•   H1: TL positively affects project success
•   H2a: leader charisma positively affects project success
•   H2b: idealized influence positively affects project success
•   H2c: intellectual stimulation positively affects project success
•   H2d: individualized care positively affects project success

2.4. Moderating Relationships

Due to independent research's heterogeneity, certain potential control variables may affect the relationship between TL and project success. This paper summarizes the literature in this article and finds that the literature has differences in mediating variables, cultural background, and publication types.

2.4.1. The Existence of Mediating Variables

Many studies have used mediating variables when discussing the relationship between TL and project success. Chou [ 44 ] used cognitive trust and collective effectiveness as intermediary variables to reveal the interrelationship between TL and team performance. Furthermore, García-Morales et al. [ 45 ] analyzed the impact of TL on organizational performance through organizational learning and innovation's dynamic capabilities. Aga and Vallejo [ 46 ] adopted a field survey with a sample of 200 development project managers in Ethiopian nongovernmental organization (NGO) departments. It adopted the structural equation model to find that team building plays a mediating role between TL and project success. Hassan et al. [ 47 ] saw that leaders apply their skills and abilities to contribute to the success of construction projects in Pakistan in project management. Thus, based on the existing literature, this study proposed the following hypothesis:

•   H3: the existence of mediating variables moderates the relationship between TL and project success

2.4.2. Document Type

As the relationship between TL and project success varies across studies, the meta-analysis literature includes both published journal articles and unpublished papers. Therefore, the type of literature publication may be a source of variation. Furthermore, the earlier the published research, the more likely it will report significant training effects [ 48 ]. Meanwhile, the uncertainty and controversy gradually become clear through the in-depth analysis. Compared to unpublished literature such as thesis, the journal papers are more inclined to describe significant results and distort the natural effect to avoid becoming drawer files [ 49 ]. Therefore, this paper proposes the following hypothesis:

•   H4: the document type moderates the relationship between TL and project success

2.4.3. Cultural Background

Culture is a consciousness system gradually formed by human beings through coping with problems and adapting to the social development. It shapes not only humans' behavior but also influences humans' psychological needs. The leaders' attitudes, behaviors, and motivations towards their subordinates will vary depending on their culture [ 50 ].

These cultural differences will also impact the effectiveness of leadership behavior [ 51 ]. Western culture is mainly influenced by European and American cultures, which actively encourages people to express their visions and tendencies in organizations and promotes individualism. However, Eastern culture is more affected by Confucian patriarchal culture, and it advocates collectivism more than Western civilization, especially during the construction of large-scale projects [ 3 ]. The project teams can collaborate and cooperate based on task interdependence to promote the efficient integration of heterogeneous innovation resources. On the other hand, the samples used in different studies usually come from different countries. The differences in the countries' economic level and cultural environment where the models belong have a particular impact on the project's successful realization [ 52 , 53 ]. Therefore, the following hypothesis is formulated:

•   H5: cultural background moderates the relationship between TL and project success, and TL in developed countries has a more significant impact on project success

According to the above assumptions, this study proposed a theoretical research model, shown in Figure 1 .

The theoretical research model.

3. Method and Data

In recent years, meta-analysis has contributed prominently to the literature review as a new method of combining empirical research with research hypotheses. Specifically, meta-analysis can reanalyze multiple empirical research results with the same research purpose to obtain the fundamental relationship between variables. The advantage of meta-analysis is that it can systematically analyze many documents and evaluate the inconsistency of different research results [ 54 ]. This method can discover and explain the differences between various research results, systematically integrate the existing empirical research results, and further improve its reliability and validity. Therefore, this paper mainly uses Hunter and Schmidt's primary effect test as well as moderating effect test method. It adopts CMA 2.0 software to assist with the version bias heterogeneity test.

3.1. Literature Sources and Collection

According to the following three steps, this research points to the literature collection to ensure the systematic literature collection. Firstly, this study shows computerized keyword searches in the databases Web of Science, Google Scholar, Science Direct, Elsevier, and Springer before October 2020. The papers are searched by the following keywords: “transformational leadership,” “project success,” “project manager,” and “Construction project success.” Secondly, to avoid the omission of essential documents since some related studies on TL and project success are not included in the above databases, this research combines the collected records with the references of these documents, especially compared to the review literature one by one. Finally, the study manually searches the most essential and relevant journals, such as “ Journal of Cleaner Production ,” “ The Leadership Quarterly ,” and “ International Journal of Project Management .”

The process and results are shown in Figure 2 .

The flowchart of study selection.

3.2. Literature Inclusion Criteria

The searched documents are filtered according to the following criteria: (1) It must be a survey or experimental empirical research, excluding pure theoretical and literature review articles. (2) It uses both the TL measurement scale and the project success measurement scale, and at least reports the correlation coefficient ( r ) between the dimension or total score of one scale and the dimension or total score of another scale. Or it can be converted into the F -value, t -value, or X 2 value of r . (3) The selected research is not only limited to journal papers, but also includes thesis, book chapters, etc. (4) If the data is published repeatedly, the published journal articles shall be taken. (5) Document effect value encodes an effect value based on each independent sample.

3.3. Document Coding Content and Results

The subsamples included in the meta-analysis are also ordered as follows: firstly, the necessary information of the research (author name and publication time), sample size, and whether there are intermediate variables in the empirical research (divided into yes and no), the cultural background of the study (divided into Eastern culture, Western culture, and others) and the type of article (journal papers, thesis).

Secondly, the research should primarily discuss the total effect of TL on project success. This paper adopts the weighted average method for the influence coefficients of different dimensions of TL mentioned in the literature on project success. If they encounter the literature that discusses the disparate dimensions of TL on project success, the final effect value would be obtained by taking the average layer by layer. The necessary coding information of the main effects analysis is shown in Table 2 .

Descriptive characteristics of the studies.

Note . Y: the existence of mediating variables; N: the absence of mediating variables; W: Western culture; W: Eastern culture; J: journal; T: thesis.

4.1. Test for Publication Bias

Funnel plots are the most commonly used approach to determine the presence of publication bias. Figure 3 shows the distribution of the effect value. It can be seen that most of the samples concentrate at the top of the funnel chart, and the scattered points distribute near the effect value [ 55 ]. Therefore, the possibility of publication bias in this study is relatively slight. Besides, this paper introduces a “file drawer” analysis according to Rosenthal [ 56 ] to estimate the severity of publication bias. The larger the coefficient, the greater the number of studies required to reverse this result, the more reliable the conclusions of the meta-analysis, and the smaller the relative impact of bias. After calculation, when P =0.05, Nfs = 10223, and P =0.01, Nfs = 7945, the fail-safe coefficient of this study indicate that the conclusion is more reliable.

Funnel plot of standard error by Fisher's Z .

This paper adopts Fail-safe, Egger's test (regression intercept method), and rank correlation test for further testing to test the publication deviation more accurately. The results are shown in Table 3 . The fail-safe factor is N  = 11495, indicating that if people want to overturn the TL effect, 11,495 documents are needed to get the opposite result. Egger's test results show that the P value is 0.88, which is not significant, and there is no publication bias. The level correlation test results, Tau values being −0.09 ( P =0.58), suggest that there is no publication bias in the effect size.

Publication bias test.

4.2. Test of Heterogeneity

This study tests data for heterogeneity, which is a key step in synthesizing the global effect value from the practical value of a single study. The Q test results reflect the degree of heterogeneity of each effect size. If each effect size is heterogeneous, it indicates that the true error causes the difference of each effect size in the meta-analysis. Since the combination of variables can lead to sampling errors, the random-effects model should be applied. The test results are shown in Table 4 . It can be learnt that Q (19) = 1713.0, P < 0.001, and I 2  = 98.89%, indicating that the effect size of each study is heterogeneous. Among them, I 2 greater than 75% means that the observed variation above 75% is caused by the true difference in effect size, reaching a high level of heterogeneity [ 56 ]. The values of Tau 2 are 0.317, which means that 31.7% of the inter-study variation can be used to calculate the weight.

Results of the heterogeneity test.

The heterogeneity test results show that the correlation between TL and project success is heterogeneous in the selected studies. Therefore, the random effect model is used in this study since it is more accurate for meta-analysis.

4.3. Theoretical Model and Test of Direct Relations

4.3.1. total effect size test result.

According to the heterogeneity test results, the random-effects model was selected to test the main effects of the relationship between TL and project success (see Table 5 ). From the drawing, we can see that the overall test of the relationship between TL and project success, a total of 31 effect sizes ( N  = 6475), the overall correlation coefficient of TL and project success is 0.589 ( P < 0.001), in 95% of the confidence interval is significant. When | r | ≤ 0.1, it is low correlation, 0.1 < | r | < 0.4 is medium correlation, and | r | ≥ 0.4 is high correlation. Based on this judgment, TL is positively correlated with project success. Therefore, hypothesis 1 is supported.

Total effect size element analysis results as the test.

Note. K  = number of studies; N  = sample size; r  = effect size; 95% CI = confidence interval around r .

4.3.2. Subdimension Effect Size Test Results

It can be seen from Table 6 that the Q test results of the heterogeneity of the relationship between each dimension of TL and project success are significant, indicating that each effect size is heterogeneous, and the random-effects model can be used. N 's loss of safety factor is more powerful than 500, showing no publication bias in each dimension's effect value.

Dimensional meta-analysis results.

Note. K  = number of studies; N  = sample size; r  = effect size; and 95% CI = confidence interval around r .

From the dimensional meta-analysis results, the four dimensions of TL have some differences in their effect size; in detail, leadership charm is the largest (0.731) while intellectual stimulation is the most minor (0.619). According to Cohen's scale for social science research, correlations with values close to 0.2, 0.5, and 0.8 correspond to weak, moderate, and decisive effect sizes. Thus, leadership charisma reasonably correlates with project success, while vision motivation has a fragile relationship. As a result, hypothesis 2a–d is accepted.

4.3.3. Moderation Analysis

As can be seen from the above, there is significant heterogeneity in the effect sizes for the meta-analysis in this paper. To further analyze the heterogeneity source, random-effects models are also adopted to test whether mediating variables, cultural background (Eastern culture, Western culture, and others), and literature publication types (journal papers, thesis).

The results in Table 7 show that whether to participate in the intermediary variables has a significant moderating effect on the relationship between TL and project success ( Q  = 336.669, P < 0.001). In the presence of intermediary variables, TL ( r  = 0.649, P < 0.001) and the correlation coefficients of project success were significantly higher than those of Western cultural background ( r  = 0.452, P < 0.001). Hence, hypothesis H3 is supported.

Results of moderation analysis.

Note. Y: the existence of mediating variables; N: the absence of mediating variables; W: Western culture; E: Eastern culture; O: other; J: journal; T: thesis; K  = number of studies; N  = sample size; r  = effect size; 95% CI = confidence interval around r .

The cultural background also significantly moderates the relationship between TL and project success ( Q  = 55.641, P < 0.001). The empirical results indicate that TL in Eastern cultural backgrounds can play a more critical role in influencing project success. Thus, hypothesis H4 is supported.

Similarly, the literature publication has a significant moderating effect on the relationship between TL ( Q  = 214.251, P < 0.001) and project success. Under the dissertation type, the correlation coefficient between TL ( r  = 0.765, P < 0.001) and project success was significantly lower than that of the journal paper type ( r  = 0.513, P < 0.001). Therefore, it assumes that H5 is accepted.

5. Discussion and Implications

5.1. discussion.

This paper conducts an in-depth analysis of the empirical research on the relationship between TL and project success based on the meta-analysis method. It mainly focuses on the relationship between the various dimensions of TL and project success and the moderating role of the mediator variables, cultural background, and document type. Therefore, the following conclusions are drawn:

Firstly, the results suggest that TL can positively influence project success, in line with previous studies. The significant challenges of modern society and the increasingly different business environment require people to re-examine leadership research and change the traditional concepts and ways of thinking about leadership in the construction industry. A study by scholar Kissi [ 57 ] confirmed the necessity of project organizations to cultivate TL behavior to improve performance. By summarizing traditional team-building practices, Do [ 58 ] found that transformational leaders are more likely to enhance team members' understanding of project goals, roles, and responsibilities, interpersonal communication, and problem-solving skills, which will also help affect project success.

Secondly, this article's four dimensions of TL can improve project success in a cooperative-friendly way. To be specific, correlation strength is leadership charm, individualized consideration, idealized influence, and intellectual stimulation. Perhaps most empirical research on TL focuses on business operations, and the number of research samples in the construction context is relatively tiny. Stanislas [ 59 ] analyzed the indicators that affect sustainable construction and found that the personal charm of the project manager is one of the crucial indicators that can improve leadership effectiveness. Zia [ 60 ] reckoned that the emotional intelligence of project managers could improve partnerships and promote effective communication between project members. Maqbool [ 61 ] pointed out project managers with high emotional intelligence who bear the desired competencies and exhibit transformational leadership behavior are influential leaders and ensure higher success in projects than their counterparts. Also, Shafi [ 7 ] also indicated that idealized influence, intellectual stimulation, and inspirational motivation greatly influence organizational innovation. Many studies support this article's results [ 62 , 63 ]. Therefore, the results of this article will help construction companies choose the right project manager for the project. At the same time, TL should pay attention to the rational use of the complementarity and dependence between various dimensions in the management process to promote project success.

Thirdly, mediating variables, cultural background, and document types are all sources of heterogeneity. Through a systematic review of meta-literature, this article finds one or more intermediary variables in most existing empirical models, such as knowledge learning, psychological capital, interorganizational relationships, and innovation atmosphere. Scholar Qaisar introduced psychological capital as an intermediary variable to construct a model and found that it negatively affected the relationship between the two. The existence of positive mediating variables will positively impact the relationship between project leadership style and performance, and vice versa. Under the East and the West's different cultural backgrounds, the influence of TL on project success is significantly different and regular. Under the environment of Eastern culture, the impact of TL on project success is higher than that of Western civilization. In particular, influenced by traditional Confucian culture [ 3 , 64 ], high power distance, and collectivism, low-level project members in Chinese construction organizations are more likely to follow or accept organizational tasks assigned to leaders. However, the project members under a Western cultural background are more inclined to individualism, reflecting their ability and value [ 65 ]. Therefore, the construction project members under different cultural backgrounds will have other internalized explanations when facing the same leadership style, resulting in differences. Under the experience of Eastern culture, TL has a more noticeable impact on project members than in Western countries, resulting in a higher project success rate. In journal papers, more studies have been found to study the relationship between the two, and a large number of research scholars tend to establish empirical models to explore the boundaries of the two through different variables, which is also the direction of future research.

5.2. Theoretical Implications

On the one hand, this research enriches and extends the development of TL and project success theory. Through a meta-analysis, the reasons for the inconsistent conclusions on the relationship between TL and project success in past studies have been identified, and a focused comparison of the impact of different dimensions of TL and project success is conducted. The research results show that TL has a positive and significant relationship with project success, which provides a new research perspective for improving project success. TL and its impact on the success of the project have been reviewed in previous studies, mainly from the perspective of the overall impact of TL on the success of the project; this is far from enough. Therefore, this article analyzes and explains the differences in previous research results as a whole and helps to clarify the indistinguishability of the project success relationship caused by the mixed use of TL concepts. It can provide more accurate estimates of TL performance in different dimensions and dig deeper. The essence of TL's influence on project success is analyzed, and the impact of TL's dimensions on project success is sorted.

On the other hand, this article enriches and refines the boundary conditions and scope of application that influence the success of the TL project. Based on the empirical data analysis of the former National People's Congress, by further refining the moderating effects of the existence of mediating variables, document type, and cultural background, on the relationship between the two, a detailed discussion of the mechanism of TL and project success can be realized. The research results reveal the precise path of transformational leadership influencing project success, enriching and perfecting the existing project success model research. This article helps to understand TL-style project managers' internal laws of successful project operation and consolidates academic support for project management success in construction projects.

5.3. Practical Implications

This study provides several practical implications for construction companies and leaders. First of all, it helps construction companies preferentially select project managers. The results show that TL's leaders enhance team cohesion and mutual understanding, create a harmonious working atmosphere, promote the open exchange of ideas and analyses between project teams, and emphasize developing followers' self-management or self-leadership skills. In particular, selecting talents with strong leadership charm and abilities is more conducive to establishing a highly reliable organization for the project to cope with today's complex and changing international environment.

Then, the project managers should focus on their words and deeds on project members. Each project member can understand their mission and goal direction through vision incentives, translating into personal work goals. Inspiring leadership behavior through intelligence can create a challenging organizational atmosphere. This can make the project members more innovative and encourage them to express their ideas. The project manager actively cares about the organization's tasks and the needs of the project members, recognises the uniqueness and diversity of the beliefs and values of the project members, and provides corresponding support. Project managers should improve their own leadership charisma to enhance the self-confidence of members. At the same time, when making decisions, project leaders must have individualized considerations and seek more opinions from members to improve the identity and loyalty of project members. For example, in the Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge [ 66 ], well-trained professional subcontractors need better treatment, stable commitment, professional training, improved working conditions, genuine care, and on-site management for workers on-site. Therefore, it helps the Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge to achieve great success.

Finally, the construction project managers require to be trained in technical and soft leadership skills. The former ensures that project managers clearly understand and apply project management methods. The latter helps to adapt these methods to the specific social and cultural environment of the construction project. Thus, TL's leaders must make full use of the new generation of information technology, such as 5G, BIM, robots, etc. In the whole life cycle of project construction, they should lead the project members to achieve project success [ 67 ]. Also, they need to learn to use knowledge management and scenario deduction to make decisions, create a working environment that is most suitable for project members, and avoid limiting leaders' behaviors to a certain level. Meanwhile, as a survey concluded, different leadership styles are ideal for various projects [ 68 ]. So, it is necessary to adopt a diverse leadership style that adapts to the organizational environment to balance administrative tasks and meet the requirements of project members.

6. Limitation and Future Research Directions

There are several limitations that are worth mentioning. Firstly, the meta-analysis method only includes the analysis of the Pearson correlation coefficient when selecting samples, which will lead to the loss of some models. The removal of samples due to the inability to obtain effective effect sizes may affect the relationship in this article. Secondly, there is a limitation of potential moderating variable analysis. This study examines the potential moderating effects of situational features, design features, and measurement features, but different research samples will be affected by other factors. Future research can further explore other mediating factors, such as stakeholder relationships, psychological empowerment, individual values of project members, etc., to understand why certain construction activities can succeed while others fail.

7. Conclusions

There is a growing amount of research on the relationship between TL and project success, but the findings lack consensus. This meta-analysis provides more statistically valuable and accurate results for the general relationship between TL and project success by overcoming a single study's sampling error and sample size limitations. In addition, the moderating effects can be further tested to explore the influence of the existence of mediating variables, cultural background, and document types on the relationship of TL and project success and the inconsistent results of extant studies. In this way, a comprehensive theoretical framework is constructed for this study. The findings of this paper can provide better insights for choosing the right development strategy and improve leadership effectiveness to promote the project's sustainable development under the Industry 4. 0 era.

Acknowledgments

This study was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant no. 71771031), the General Scientific Research Project of Hunan Education Department (Grant no. 20C0041), the Open Fund of Engineering Research Center of Catastrophic Prophylaxis and Treatment of Road and Traffic Safety of the Ministry of Education, Changsha University of Science and Technology (Grant no. kfj170402), Changsha Municipal Natural Science Foundation (Grant no. kq2014115), and Changsha University of Science and Technology Graduate Research and Innovation Project (Grant no. CX2021SS09).

Data Availability

Conflicts of interest.

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

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Transformational Leadership, Term Paper Example

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The world of construction is no place for the soft-hearted.  It’s been my experience that nice people do come in last when you’re dealing with project bids and delivery deadlines.  As the owner of my own construction company, I learned to never suffer fools gladly, never let my guard down, and never, ever show a hint of weakness.

But that was then, and this is now.

I am a different person than I was a year ago.  The man who once took pleasure in making his secretary cry because she’d lost the phone number of a potential client is gone, a victim of the economic downturn that saw his small empire die a painful death.  I used to be a hard-as-nails boss who didn’t bother to say good morning to his employees at the beginning of the day, nor good night to them when their hard work was done.  There wasn’t time for such niceties; I had a business to run, after all.I had neglected to see my employees as people with lives of their own.  They existed merely to help me carve out my own big piece of the pie that is the American dream.

The night I closed my business down for good, I was transformed from successful businessman on the verge of making it big to just another unemployed business owner behind on his mortgage.  My dream was over and, in retrospect, I’m glad.

I’ve had many mentors throughout my life, including my father, uncles, and aunts and who taught me to value physical labor and entrepreneurship.  My first boss, John Behrendt, a tough man who could yell at you at the top of his lungs one minute and send you on a family vacation the next spoke volumes when it came to leading by example.  John owned a Sound/Audio Visual company, and mutual friends would tease him behind his back for being a psychopath.  He was a pure example of tough love and leading by example.  His priorities didn’t include counting nickels and dimes but rather pleasing his employees and friends.  I don’t think any mentor has taught me more about life and what it means to be a transformational mentor than John. When I ran into him at a wedding and learned that he was dying, my heart sank.  My reply was that we are all dying, but what are we going to do about it between now and then.It was through our conversation that I realized I was entering the Fundamental State of Leadership and needed to help guide him through his journey.

The line between poor and not-poor is as thin as a missed paycheck for many people, and as sharp as a knife to the gut.  My family and I were never in any major danger of ending up destitute, but on that first night of unemployment, driving away from my office for the last time, I began to have an idea of the damage I’d done to my employees, time and time again.  On how many occasions had I threatened to fire people for minor mistakes?  And how many times had I actually followed through on those threats?  A great many times, I’m afraid, because I was a man who didn’t believe in second chances or excuses.

But as fate had it, I was a lucky man.  I got a second chance.  Not just employment-wise, though that happened, too, but with my family.  The job that matters the most.

While running my own business, I kept madman’s hours–sixty, eighty hours a week, every week.  I have four sons, but they barely knew me, and what they did know of me, they didn’t like very much.  I was the the disciplinarian, the man whose actions stated do what I say, not what I do.   My lifestyle and my leadership taught them that their goals could only be achieved through intimidation and fear.

For a brief, life-changing six months, I became a stay-at-home dad and embarked on a journey that changed my outlook on work, life, and parenthood forever.  After an initial period of anger and reluctance, I realized that I had two choices:  stay miserable and make my family miserable or relax and roll with what life had offered me.  Fortunately, I decided to stop feeling sorry for myself and enjoy getting to know my sons again.  We became mentors to each other–the boys taught me the joys of playing sports and I taught them that a father should be kind and honest.  Like Reuben Warshawsky in Norma Rae , I met a great deal of resistance from the outside world:  other parents thought I was strange and abrasive, my old construction buddies thought I’d gone soft.  But the boys were my four Norma Raes–we joined together, a united front, working towards our common goal of making it through each day in one piece.

I’m back to work again as the Director of Construction for a family of Transportation companies, and I’m proud to say that my experience with my sons has transformed my approach to the business world beyond my wildest expectations.  I no longer see rudeness as a virtue, nor do I enjoy making other human beings feel small.  My competitive drive has been replaced instead with the desire to make my own small portion of the world a happier place.  I’m not the toughest boss on the job site anymore, and I’m grateful for that.  Instead, I say hello and goodnight to my coworkers.  I ask about their kids and talk about my own.  I allow happiness and hard work to intersect, and my life has been made that much richer for it.  I have become the kind of man my transformational mentor taught me to be, so long ago, and someday, perhaps, my sons will be able to say the same thing.

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