rhetorical situation example essay

10 Rhetorical Situation Examples

rhetorical situation examples and definition, explained below

The term ‘rhetorical situation’ is defined as “the context in which speakers or writers create discourse” (Bitzer, 1999, p. 217)

If a literacy teacher asks you to describe the rhetorical situation, they’re asking you to analyze the context of the discourse.

So, what does this mean?

Usually, it means you need to examine two things:

The rhetorical elements used, and
The rhetorical devices used.

I’ll summarize these below so we can jump straight to our examples, then elaborate on them toward the end of the article. Here’s the TL;DR:

Rhetorical Elements

You’ll need to examine the following elements first and foremost to demonstrate the ‘rhetorical situation’:

Text: e.g. a books, speech, podcast, film, video, etc.
Author: e.g. the speaker, writer, or producer of the text.
Audience: e.g. the listener, reader, viewer, or consumer of the text.
Purpose: e.g. why the text was produced.
A setting: e.g. the time, location, and contextual factors (Gabrielsen, 2010).

Rhetorical Devices

These are the methods of communicating utilized in the text, including:

Logos: the use of logic to communicate.
Ethos: the use of authority or credibility when conveying a message.
Pathos: the use of emotion to communicate.

These devices are based on Aristotle’s philosophy.

By examining rhetorical elements and devices, we can develop a deeper understanding of a rhetorical situation, how it works, and perhaps, why it hasn’t worked so well!

Rhetorical Situation Examples

1. steve jobs stanford speech (2005).

In 2005, Steve Jobs delivered the commencement address at Stanford University, sharing personal stories of his life and career. The speech, titled “Connecting the Dots,” has since become iconic, offering lessons on life, work, and following one’s passion. Jobs addressed a crowd of graduates, faculty, and family members, leaving a lasting impact on the audience.

To determine the rhetorical situation, let’s unpick the key elements and devices in this discourse:

Text: The text was a commencement address, consisting of anecdotes from Jobs’ life, including dropping out of college, being fired from Apple, and facing a life-threatening illness, to convey broader life lessons.
Author: The author was Steve Jobs, the co-founder of Apple Inc. and Pixar Animation Studios, known for his innovation in the technology and entertainment industries.
Audience: The primary audience was the graduating class of Stanford University, along with faculty and families, but the speech has since reached a global audience through various media.
Purpose: The purpose of the speech was to inspire and motivate the graduates by encouraging them to pursue their passions, face setbacks with resilience, and see opportunities in life’s challenges.
Rhetorical Devices: Jobs employed storytelling as a major rhetorical device, using personal anecdotes to create an emotional connection (pathos) with the audience. He also established ethos through his reputation as a successful entrepreneur and innovator. The use of repetition and parallel structure helped emphasize key points and make the speech memorable.

2. J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter (1997)

In 1997, J.K. Rowling released “Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone,” the first book in a series that would become a global phenomenon. The novel introduced readers to a magical world filled with complex characters, intricate plots, and a battle between good and evil. The book, and the series it initiated, captivated audiences worldwide, influencing an entire generation and beyond.

Text: The text is a fantasy novel, blending elements of magic, adventure, and coming-of-age to explore themes of friendship, courage, and the choice between good and evil.
Author: The author, J.K. Rowling, was relatively unknown at the time but has since become one of the most successful and influential writers in modern literature.
Audience: Initially aimed at children and young adults, the novel quickly attracted readers of all ages, transcending demographic boundaries.
Purpose: The primary purpose was to entertain, but the novel also sought to explore deeper themes and values, such as the importance of choice, the value of friendship, and the nature of courage.
Rhetorical Devices: Rowling used vivid imagery and detailed world-building to immerse readers in the magical universe. The use of allegory allowed for the exploration of real-world themes within a fantastical context, and character development served to engage and invest the audience in the narrative.

3. Malala Yousafzai’s UN Speech (2012)

In 2012, Malala Yousafzai, a Pakistani activist for female education, delivered a speech at the United Nations Youth Assembly, advocating for the right to education for every child. This speech came after she survived an assassination attempt by the Taliban for her activism. Her address, titled “Malala Day,” called for worldwide access to education and emphasized the power of youth.

Text: The text was a formal speech, rich with personal anecdotes, global examples, and a call to action, focusing on the importance of education and the role of youth in enacting change.
Author: The author, Malala Yousafzai, was a young education activist from Pakistan, who became a symbol of resilience and advocacy for girls’ education worldwide.
Audience: The primary audience was the United Nations Youth Assembly, but the speech was also broadcast globally, reaching a diverse international audience.
Purpose: The purpose was to advocate for universal access to education, particularly for girls, and to inspire young people to take action for change.
Rhetorical Devices: Malala used ethos by sharing her personal experiences and challenges, pathos by evoking emotions related to the struggles of children deprived of education, and logos by presenting facts and logical arguments for universal education. The repetition of phrases like “We will continue” emphasized determination and resilience.

4. Al Gore’s An Inconvenient Truth (2006)

In 2006, former Vice President Al Gore released the documentary “An Inconvenient Truth,” aiming to educate the public about the reality and dangers of climate change. The film combined data, personal anecdotes, and visual imagery to present a compelling case for urgent action. It played a significant role in raising global awareness about climate change and won two Academy Awards.

Text: The text was a documentary film, utilizing a mix of scientific data, visual graphics, personal narratives, and future projections to convey the urgency of addressing climate change.
Author: The author and narrator of the documentary was Al Gore, former Vice President of the United States, and a long-time environmental advocate.
Audience: The intended audience was the global public, policymakers, and anyone with a stake in the future of the planet.
Purpose: The film aimed to raise awareness about the reality of climate change, educate the public on its consequences, and inspire individual and collective action to address it.
Rhetorical Devices: Gore effectively used ethos, drawing on his political background and environmental advocacy. Pathos was employed through alarming visual imagery and projections of climate impact, and logos through the presentation of scientific data and facts. The juxtaposition of current realities with future projections served to emphasize the urgency of action.

5. Greta Thunberg’s UN Speech (2019)

In 2019, Greta Thunberg, a young climate activist from Sweden, addressed the United Nations Climate Action Summit, passionately urging world leaders to take immediate action against climate change. Her speech, “How Dare You,” criticized the inaction of political leaders and highlighted the urgent need for substantive change to combat environmental degradation. The address became a rallying cry for environmental activists around the world.

Text: The text was a concise yet powerful speech, marked by emotive language, direct criticism, and a clear call for urgent and meaningful action against climate change.
Author: The author, Greta Thunberg, was a teenage climate activist from Sweden, who gained international recognition for her Fridays for Future movement and candid advocacy for environmental protection.
Audience: The primary audience was the world leaders and delegates at the United Nations Climate Action Summit, but the speech also reached a global audience through extensive media coverage.
Purpose: The purpose of the speech was to hold world leaders accountable for their inaction, raise awareness about the climate crisis, and galvanize immediate and substantive action to protect the environment.
Rhetorical Devices: Thunberg employed pathos through her passionate and emotive delivery, ethos by referencing her personal sacrifices and commitment to climate activism, and logos by citing scientific data on climate change. The repeated phrase “How dare you” served as a powerful rhetorical device to emphasize her criticism and demand accountability.

6. Facebook (2004-Now)

In 2004, Mark Zuckerberg launched Facebook, a social networking platform initially for Harvard students, which quickly expanded to other universities and eventually to the general public. Facebook’s mission was to connect people and build community, but it also raised questions about privacy, data security, and the impact on social dynamics. The platform revolutionized communication and became a subject of scrutiny and debate.

Text: The text in this scenario is the platform itself, Facebook, which included user profiles, status updates, friend requests, and various features that allowed for online social interaction and information sharing.
Author: The author is, well, anyone with a Facebook profile who wants to make a post!
Audience: The initial audience was Harvard students, but it quickly expanded to include a diverse and global user base, ranging from teenagers to older adults.
Purpose: The primary purpose of Facebook was to connect people, facilitate communication, and build online communities, but it also aimed to monetize user engagement through targeted advertising.
Rhetorical Devices: The platform utilized user-friendly interface and features to appeal to a wide audience (ethos), incorporated real-time notifications and updates to engage users emotionally (pathos), and used algorithms and data analytics to optimize user experience and advertising (logos). The concept of “friends” and “likes” served as rhetorical devices to foster a sense of community and validation.

7. MLK’s I Have a Dream Speech (1963)

In 1963, Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his famous “I Have a Dream” speech during the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom. The speech articulated King’s vision of a future where people would not be judged by the color of their skin but by their character. This address became a defining moment in the Civil Rights Movement and a symbol of the ongoing fight for racial equality.

Text: The text was a public speech, characterized by its rhythmic cadence, vivid imagery, and references to the American Dream, the Bible, and the U.S. Constitution.
Author: The author, Martin Luther King Jr., was a prominent leader in the Civil Rights Movement, known for his advocacy for nonviolent resistance and racial equality.
Audience: The immediate audience was the over 250,000 civil rights supporters present at the march, but the speech was also broadcast nationwide, reaching a much wider audience.
Purpose: The purpose of the speech was to advocate for an end to racism and segregation, inspire hope and solidarity among civil rights supporters, and call for freedom and equality for all.
Rhetorical Devices: King employed a range of rhetorical devices including anaphora, through the repetition of the phrase “I have a dream,” metaphors, comparing racial injustice to a “bank of injustice,” and allusions to biblical and historical texts, establishing ethos, pathos, and logos.

8. Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet (1590s)

William Shakespeare’s play “Romeo and Juliet,” written in the early 1590s, is a tragic tale of two young lovers from feuding families in Verona. The play explores themes of love, fate, conflict, and death, and it has been celebrated for its exploration of the human condition and the consequences of societal discord. The timeless story has been adapted countless times across various mediums.

Text: The text is a play, written in iambic pentameter, consisting of dialogue, soliloquies, and stage directions, exploring complex characters and universal themes.
Author: The author, William Shakespeare, was an English playwright and poet, widely regarded as one of the greatest writers in the English language and world literature.
Audience: The original audience was the theatergoers of Elizabethan England, but the play has since reached a global audience and has been studied and performed worldwide.
Purpose: The purpose of “Romeo and Juliet” was to entertain, but also to explore and reflect on human nature, societal conflict, love, and fate.
Rhetorical Devices: Shakespeare used a variety of rhetorical devices including metaphor, simile, foreshadowing, and dramatic irony. The use of soliloquies provided insight into characters’ thoughts and motivations, and the poetic structure added rhythm and emphasis to the dialogue.

9. Churchill’s We Shall Fight on the Beaches (1944)

In 1940, Winston Churchill delivered one of his most famous speeches to the House of Commons of the United Kingdom during World War II, known as the “We Shall Fight on the Beaches” speech. The speech was a powerful call to arms, aiming to inspire the British people and maintain morale during a particularly challenging time in the war. Churchill’s words became a symbol of British resilience and determination.

Text: The text was a wartime speech, characterized by its defiant tone, vivid imagery of defense, and the repeated assurance of Britain’s resolve to fight against Nazi Germany, regardless of the circumstances.
Author: The author, Winston Churchill, was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, known for his leadership during World War II and his ability to inspire and unite the British people through his speeches.
Audience: The immediate audience was the House of Commons, but the speech was also broadcast over the radio to the British public and the wider world.
Purpose: The purpose of the speech was to bolster British morale, assure the public of the government’s commitment to victory, and demonstrate resolve to the international community.
Rhetorical Devices: Churchill employed anaphora, with the repetition of the phrase “We shall fight,” to emphasize determination. He used vivid imagery to depict various battle scenarios, and pathos to evoke a sense of national pride and duty.

10. The US Declaration of Independence (1776)

In 1776, Thomas Jefferson penned the United States Declaration of Independence, a document that declared the thirteen American colonies independent from British rule. The text outlined the philosophical justification for independence, listed grievances against King George III, and articulated the fundamental principles that the new nation would embody. The Declaration is a foundational document of the United States and a symbol of the pursuit of liberty.

Text: The text is a formal political document, characterized by its eloquent prose, philosophical reasoning, and clear enumeration of grievances and principles.
Author: The principal author was Thomas Jefferson, a Founding Father and the third President of the United States, with contributions from John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert Livingston.
Audience: The immediate audience was the British Crown, but the document was also addressed to the international community and the American people, both contemporaneous and future.
Purpose: The purpose of the Declaration was to formally announce and justify the colonies’ decision to sever ties with Britain and to articulate the foundational principles of the new nation, including equality, liberty, and self-governance.
Rhetorical Devices: Jefferson employed a range of rhetorical devices including parallelism, in the listing of grievances; allusion, to philosophical and Enlightenment ideas; and pathos, to evoke a sense of injustice and the desire for liberty. The famous phrase “We hold these truths to be self-evident” exemplifies the use of ethos to establish the moral grounding of the American cause.

Let’s dive deeper into the five rhetorical elements you’ll want to look at in order to explain a rhetorical istuation:

The text is the medium through which the message is conveyed.

It can take various forms, such as books, speeches, podcasts, films, videos, or digital content, each with its unique characteristics and conventions.

The nature of the text influences how the message is received and interpreted by the audience (Gabrielsen, 2010).

For instance, a speech might appeal to the audience’s emotions through tone and delivery, while a written article might rely on structured arguments and evidence (Toye, 2013). Understanding the nuances of the text is crucial for analyzing the effectiveness of the communication.

See More: A List of Text Types

The author is the originator of the message, responsible for crafting the content and delivering it to the audience.

This person utilizes their knowledge, experiences, and perspectives to shape the message, whether they are a speaker, writer, filmmaker, or content creator.

The author’s credibility, intentions, and relationship with the audience play a significant role in how the message is received (Toye, 2013). For example, a well-respected expert in a field may have more influence over an audience than an unknown individual.

Analyzing the author’s background, motivations, and biases is essential for a comprehensive understanding of the rhetorical situation.

3. Audience

The audience is the recipient of the message, whose interpretation and response are integral to the communication process.

This group can be diverse, encompassing listeners, readers, viewers, or consumers, each bringing their unique perspectives, values, and expectations to the interaction.

The audience’s background, beliefs, and context significantly influence how they perceive and react to the message (Gabrielsen, 2010; Toye, 2013).

A successful communicator must understand and consider the audience’s needs, expectations, and potential biases to effectively convey their message. The audience’s engagement and response are key indicators of the success or failure of the rhetorical situation.

See More: Examples of Intended Audiences

The purpose is the driving force behind the creation of the text, answering the question of why the message was produced.

It can range from informing, persuading, entertaining, inspiring, to challenging the audience, and it shapes the content, tone, and structure of the message (Gabrielsen, 2010).

Understanding the purpose is crucial for both the author and the audience, as it guides the creation of the message and influences how the audience interprets and responds to it (Toye, 2013).

A clear and well-defined purpose is more likely to result in effective communication and achieve the desired outcome. Analyzing the purpose provides insight into the goals of the author and the potential impact of the message.

Analyzing purpose is a particularly important media literacy skill .

The setting encompasses the time, location, and contextual factors that frame the rhetorical situation (Toye, 2013).

This includes the historical, cultural, social, and political environment in which the communication occurs.

The setting influences both the creation and reception of the message, shaping the author’s perspective and the audience’s interpretation.

For example, a speech delivered during a time of crisis may be received differently than one given in a period of stability.

Understanding the setting is essential for a holistic analysis of the rhetorical situation, providing context and background that illuminate the motivations, challenges, and implications of the communication (Gabrielsen, 2010).

Rhetorical Devices (Aristotle)

Besides elements of the text, we can also examine the text’s rhetorical devices, which are the methods employed to communicate and persuade.

Generally, we refer to Aristotle’s writings on rhetoric for this.

Here are Aristotle’s rhetorical devices:

1. Logos (Appeal to Logic)

Logos is a rhetorical device that involves the use of logical reasoning to persuade the audience. It often incorporates facts, statistics, data, and well-structured arguments to appeal to the audience’s sense of reason.

A communicator using logos will aim to present clear, concise, and coherent arguments that are supported by evidence and sound reasoning (Bitzer, 1998).

This approach is particularly effective when discussing topics that require a rational and objective perspective.

By appealing to the audience’s intellect, logos helps to establish the credibility of the argument and the reliability of the speaker or writer.

2. Ethos (Appeal to Credibility)

Ethos is a rhetorical device focused on establishing the credibility and moral character of the speaker or writer.

It involves demonstrating knowledge, expertise, and a sense of ethics to gain the trust and respect of the audience.

Ethos can be established through the author’s reputation, professional background, and the way they present themselves and their arguments.

The use of appropriate language, tone, and style, as well as showing respect for differing viewpoints, contributes to building ethos (Bitzer, 1998; Rapp, 2022).

When the audience perceives the communicator as credible and trustworthy, they are more likely to be persuaded by the message.

3. Pathos (Appeal to Emotions)

Pathos appeals to the emotions, values, and desires of the audience to elicit feelings that support the speaker or writer’s argument.

It involves the use of emotive language, vivid imagery, and personal anecdotes to create an emotional response.

Pathos can be particularly effective in persuading the audience by making them feel a certain way, whether it be compassion, anger, joy, or sorrow (Bitzer, 1998).

However, it is important for pathos to be balanced with logos and ethos to ensure the argument does not become overly emotional or manipulative.

When used effectively, pathos can create a strong connection between the audience and the message, making the argument more compelling.

4. Telos (Purpose)

Telos is not traditionally listed as a rhetorical device in the same manner as logos, ethos, and pathos.

However, in a broader sense, telos refers to the purpose or goal of a rhetorical situation or a speaker’s intention in communication (Rapp, 2022). It involves considering the end purpose of the message and how it aligns with the values, expectations, and needs of the audience.

Understanding telos is crucial for both the communicator and the audience, as it provides insight into the motivations behind the message and its intended impact. A clear and well-defined telos is essential for effective communication and achieving the desired outcome.

5. Kairos (Timing)

Kairos refers to the opportune moment or the right timing in which to deliver a message. It involves considering when the audience will be most receptive and when the message will have the greatest impact.

Kairos takes into account external factors such as the cultural, social, and political climate, as well as internal factors like the audience’s mood and level of interest (Rapp, 2022).

Recognizing and seizing the opportune moment can significantly enhance the effectiveness of the message.

Kairos, therefore, emphasizes the importance of context and timing in rhetorical situations, contributing to the persuasiveness and success of the communication.

Aristotle. (2014). The Art of Rhetoric . Toronto: HarperCollins.

Bitzer, L. (1998). The Rhetorical Sitaution . In Condit, C. M., Lucaites, J. L., & Caudill, S. (Eds.). Contemporary Rhetorical Theory, First Edition. Guilford Publications.

Gabrielsen, J. (2010). The Power of Speech . Hans Reitzels Forlag.

Rapp, C. (2022). Aristotle’s Rhetoric. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2022). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2022/entries/aristotle-rhetoric/

Toye, R. (2013). Rhetoric: A Very Short Introduction . Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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How to Write a Rhetorical Analysis Essay–Examples & Template

What is a Rhetorical Analysis Essay?

A rhetorical analysis essay is, as the name suggests, an analysis of someone else’s writing (or speech, or advert, or even cartoon) and how they use not only words but also rhetorical techniques to influence their audience in a certain way. A rhetorical analysis is less interested in what the author is saying and more in how they present it, what effect this has on their readers, whether they achieve their goals, and what approach they use to get there.

Its structure is similar to that of most essays: An Introduction presents your thesis, a Body analyzes the text you have chosen, breaks it down into sections and explains how arguments have been constructed and how each part persuades, informs, or entertains the reader, and a Conclusion section sums up your evaluation.

Note that your personal opinion on the matter is not relevant for your analysis and that you don’t state anywhere in your essay whether you agree or disagree with the stance the author takes.

In the following, we will define the key rhetorical concepts you need to write a good rhetorical analysis and give you some practical tips on where to start.

Key Rhetorical Concepts

Your goal when writing a rhetorical analysis is to think about and then carefully describe how the author has designed their text so that it has the intended effect on their audience. To do that, you need to consider a number of key rhetorical strategies: Rhetorical appeals (“Ethos”, “Logos”, and “Pathos”), context, as well as claims, supports, and warrants.

Ethos, Logos, and Pathos were introduced by Aristotle, way back in the 4th century BC, as the main ways in which language can be used to persuade an audience. They still represent the basis of any rhetorical analysis and are often referred to as the “rhetorical triangle”.

These and other rhetorical techniques can all be combined to create the intended effect, and your job as the one analyzing a text is to break the writer’s arguments down and identify the concepts they are based on.

Rhetorical Appeals

Rhetorical appeal #1: ethos.

Ethos refers to the reputation or authority of the writer regarding the topic of their essay or speech and to how they use this to appeal to their audience. Just like we are more likely to buy a product from a brand or vendor we have confidence in than one we don’t know or have reason to distrust, Ethos-driven texts or speeches rely on the reputation of the author to persuade the reader or listener. When you analyze an essay, you should therefore look at how the writer establishes Ethos through rhetorical devices.

Does the author present themselves as an authority on their subject? If so, how?

Do they highlight how impeccable their own behavior is to make a moral argument?

Do they present themselves as an expert by listing their qualifications or experience to convince the reader of their opinion on something?

Rhetorical appeal #2: Pathos

The purpose of Pathos-driven rhetoric is to appeal to the reader’s emotions. A common example of pathos as a rhetorical means is adverts by charities that try to make you donate money to a “good cause”. To evoke the intended emotions in the reader, an author may use passionate language, tell personal stories, and employ vivid imagery so that the reader can imagine themselves in a certain situation and feel empathy with or anger towards others.

Rhetorical appeal #3: Logos

Logos, the “logical” appeal, uses reason to persuade. Reason and logic, supported by data, evidence, clearly defined methodology, and well-constructed arguments, are what most academic writing is based on. Emotions, those of the researcher/writer as well as those of the reader, should stay out of such academic texts, as should anyone’s reputation, beliefs, or personal opinions.

Text and Context

To analyze a piece of writing, a speech, an advertisement, or even a satirical drawing, you need to look beyond the piece of communication and take the context in which it was created and/or published into account.

Who is the person who wrote the text/drew the cartoon/designed the ad..? What audience are they trying to reach? Where was the piece published and what was happening there around that time?

A political speech, for example, can be powerful even when read decades later, but the historical context surrounding it is an important aspect of the effect it was intended to have.

Claims, Supports, and Warrants

To make any kind of argument, a writer needs to put forward specific claims, support them with data or evidence or even a moral or emotional appeal, and connect the dots logically so that the reader can follow along and agree with the points made.

The connections between statements, so-called “warrants”, follow logical reasoning but are not always clearly stated—the author simply assumes the reader understands the underlying logic, whether they present it “explicitly” or “implicitly”. Implicit warrants are commonly used in advertisements where seemingly happy people use certain products, wear certain clothes, accessories, or perfumes, or live certain lifestyles – with the connotation that, first, the product/perfume/lifestyle is what makes that person happy and, second, the reader wants to be as happy as the person in the ad. Some warrants are never clearly stated, and your job when writing a rhetorical analysis essay is therefore to identify them and bring them to light, to evaluate their validity, their effect on the reader, and the use of such means by the writer/creator.

bust of plato the philosopher, rhetorical analysis essay

What are the Five Rhetorical Situations?

A “rhetorical situation” refers to the circumstance behind a text or other piece of communication that arises from a given context. It explains why a rhetorical piece was created, what its purpose is, and how it was constructed to achieve its aims.

Rhetorical situations can be classified into the following five categories:

Asking such questions when you analyze a text will help you identify all the aspects that play a role in the effect it has on its audience, and will allow you to evaluate whether it achieved its aims or where it may have failed to do so.

Rhetorical Analysis Essay Outline

Analyzing someone else’s work can seem like a big task, but as with every assignment or writing endeavor, you can break it down into smaller, well-defined steps that give you a practical structure to follow.

To give you an example of how the different parts of your text may look when it’s finished, we will provide you with some excerpts from this rhetorical analysis essay example (which even includes helpful comments) published on the Online Writing Lab website of Excelsior University in Albany, NY. The text that this essay analyzes is this article on why one should or shouldn’t buy an Ipad. If you want more examples so that you can build your own rhetorical analysis template, have a look at this essay on Nabokov’s Lolita and the one provided here about the “Shitty First Drafts” chapter of Anne Lamott’s writing instruction book “Bird by Bird”.

Analyzing the Text

When writing a rhetorical analysis, you don’t choose the concepts or key points you think are relevant or want to address. Rather, you carefully read the text several times asking yourself questions like those listed in the last section on rhetorical situations to identify how the text “works” and how it was written to achieve that effect.

Start with focusing on the author : What do you think was their purpose for writing the text? Do they make one principal claim and then elaborate on that? Or do they discuss different topics?

Then look at what audience they are talking to: Do they want to make a group of people take some action? Vote for someone? Donate money to a good cause? Who are these people? Is the text reaching this specific audience? Why or why not?

What tone is the author using to address their audience? Are they trying to evoke sympathy? Stir up anger? Are they writing from a personal perspective? Are they painting themselves as an authority on the topic? Are they using academic or informal language?

How does the author support their claims ? What kind of evidence are they presenting? Are they providing explicit or implicit warrants? Are these warrants valid or problematic? Is the provided evidence convincing?

Asking yourself such questions will help you identify what rhetorical devices a text uses and how well they are put together to achieve a certain aim. Remember, your own opinion and whether you agree with the author are not the point of a rhetorical analysis essay – your task is simply to take the text apart and evaluate it.

If you are still confused about how to write a rhetorical analysis essay, just follow the steps outlined below to write the different parts of your rhetorical analysis: As every other essay, it consists of an Introduction , a Body (the actual analysis), and a Conclusion .

Rhetorical Analysis Introduction

The Introduction section briefly presents the topic of the essay you are analyzing, the author, their main claims, a short summary of the work by you, and your thesis statement .

Tell the reader what the text you are going to analyze represents (e.g., historically) or why it is relevant (e.g., because it has become some kind of reference for how something is done). Describe what the author claims, asserts, or implies and what techniques they use to make their argument and persuade their audience. Finish off with your thesis statement that prepares the reader for what you are going to present in the next section – do you think that the author’s assumptions/claims/arguments were presented in a logical/appealing/powerful way and reached their audience as intended?

Have a look at an excerpt from the sample essay linked above to see what a rhetorical analysis introduction can look like. See how it introduces the author and article , the context in which it originally appeared , the main claims the author makes , and how this first paragraph ends in a clear thesis statement that the essay will then elaborate on in the following Body section:

Cory Doctorow ’s article on BoingBoing is an older review of the iPad , one of Apple’s most famous products. At the time of this article, however, the iPad was simply the latest Apple product to hit the market and was not yet so popular. Doctorow’s entire career has been entrenched in and around technology. He got his start as a CD-ROM programmer and is now a successful blogger and author. He is currently the co-editor of the BoingBoing blog on which this article was posted. One of his main points in this article comes from Doctorow’s passionate advocacy of free digital media sharing. He argues that the iPad is just another way for established technology companies to control our technological freedom and creativity . In “ Why I Won’t Buy an iPad (and Think You Shouldn’t, Either) ” published on Boing Boing in April of 2010, Cory Doctorow successfully uses his experience with technology, facts about the company Apple, and appeals to consumer needs to convince potential iPad buyers that Apple and its products, specifically the iPad, limit the digital rights of those who use them by controlling and mainstreaming the content that can be used and created on the device .

Doing the Rhetorical Analysis

The main part of your analysis is the Body , where you dissect the text in detail. Explain what methods the author uses to inform, entertain, and/or persuade the audience. Use Aristotle’s rhetorical triangle and the other key concepts we introduced above. Use quotations from the essay to demonstrate what you mean. Work out why the writer used a certain approach and evaluate (and again, demonstrate using the text itself) how successful they were. Evaluate the effect of each rhetorical technique you identify on the audience and judge whether the effect is in line with the author’s intentions.

To make it easy for the reader to follow your thought process, divide this part of your essay into paragraphs that each focus on one strategy or one concept , and make sure they are all necessary and contribute to the development of your argument(s).

One paragraph of this section of your essay could, for example, look like this:

One example of Doctorow’s position is his comparison of Apple’s iStore to Wal-Mart. This is an appeal to the consumer’s logic—or an appeal to logos. Doctorow wants the reader to take his comparison and consider how an all-powerful corporation like the iStore will affect them. An iPad will only allow for apps and programs purchased through the iStore to be run on it; therefore, a customer must not only purchase an iPad but also any programs he or she wishes to use. Customers cannot create their own programs or modify the hardware in any way.

As you can see, the author of this sample essay identifies and then explains to the reader how Doctorow uses the concept of Logos to appeal to his readers – not just by pointing out that he does it but by dissecting how it is done.

Rhetorical Analysis Conclusion

The conclusion section of your analysis should restate your main arguments and emphasize once more whether you think the author achieved their goal. Note that this is not the place to introduce new information—only rely on the points you have discussed in the body of your essay. End with a statement that sums up the impact the text has on its audience and maybe society as a whole:

Overall, Doctorow makes a good argument about why there are potentially many better things to drop a great deal of money on instead of the iPad. He gives some valuable information and facts that consumers should take into consideration before going out to purchase the new device. He clearly uses rhetorical tools to help make his case, and, overall, he is effective as a writer, even if, ultimately, he was ineffective in convincing the world not to buy an iPad .

Frequently Asked Questions about Rhetorical Analysis Essays

What is a rhetorical analysis essay.

A rhetorical analysis dissects a text or another piece of communication to work out and explain how it impacts its audience, how successfully it achieves its aims, and what rhetorical devices it uses to do that.

While argumentative essays usually take a stance on a certain topic and argue for it, a rhetorical analysis identifies how someone else constructs their arguments and supports their claims.

What is the correct rhetorical analysis essay format?

Like most other essays, a rhetorical analysis contains an Introduction that presents the thesis statement, a Body that analyzes the piece of communication, explains how arguments have been constructed, and illustrates how each part persuades, informs, or entertains the reader, and a Conclusion section that summarizes the results of the analysis.

What is the “rhetorical triangle”?

The rhetorical triangle was introduced by Aristotle as the main ways in which language can be used to persuade an audience: Logos appeals to the audience’s reason, Ethos to the writer’s status or authority, and Pathos to the reader’s emotions. Logos, Ethos, and Pathos can all be combined to create the intended effect, and your job as the one analyzing a text is to break the writer’s arguments down and identify what specific concepts each is based on.

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What Is a Rhetorical Analysis and How to Write a Great One

Helly Douglas

Do you have to write a rhetorical analysis essay? Fear not! We’re here to explain exactly what rhetorical analysis means, how you should structure your essay, and give you some essential “dos and don’ts.”

What is a Rhetorical Analysis Essay?

How do you write a rhetorical analysis, what are the three rhetorical strategies, what are the five rhetorical situations, how to plan a rhetorical analysis essay, creating a rhetorical analysis essay, examples of great rhetorical analysis essays, final thoughts.

A rhetorical analysis essay studies how writers and speakers have used words to influence their audience. Think less about the words the author has used and more about the techniques they employ, their goals, and the effect this has on the audience.

In your analysis essay, you break a piece of text (including cartoons, adverts, and speeches) into sections and explain how each part works to persuade, inform, or entertain. You’ll explore the effectiveness of the techniques used, how the argument has been constructed, and give examples from the text.

A strong rhetorical analysis evaluates a text rather than just describes the techniques used. You don’t include whether you personally agree or disagree with the argument.

Structure a rhetorical analysis in the same way as most other types of academic essays . You’ll have an introduction to present your thesis, a main body where you analyze the text, which then leads to a conclusion.

Think about how the writer (also known as a rhetor) considers the situation that frames their communication:

Topic: the overall purpose of the rhetoric
Audience: this includes primary, secondary, and tertiary audiences
Purpose: there are often more than one to consider
Context and culture: the wider situation within which the rhetoric is placed

Back in the 4th century BC, Aristotle was talking about how language can be used as a means of persuasion. He described three principal forms —Ethos, Logos, and Pathos—often referred to as the Rhetorical Triangle . These persuasive techniques are still used today.

Rhetorical Strategy 1: Ethos

Are you more likely to buy a car from an established company that’s been an important part of your community for 50 years, or someone new who just started their business?

Reputation matters. Ethos explores how the character, disposition, and fundamental values of the author create appeal, along with their expertise and knowledge in the subject area.

Aristotle breaks ethos down into three further categories:

Phronesis: skills and practical wisdom
Arete: virtue
Eunoia: goodwill towards the audience

Ethos-driven speeches and text rely on the reputation of the author. In your analysis, you can look at how the writer establishes ethos through both direct and indirect means.

Rhetorical Strategy 2: Pathos

Pathos-driven rhetoric hooks into our emotions. You’ll often see it used in advertisements, particularly by charities wanting you to donate money towards an appeal.

Common use of pathos includes:

Vivid description so the reader can imagine themselves in the situation
Personal stories to create feelings of empathy
Emotional vocabulary that evokes a response

By using pathos to make the audience feel a particular emotion, the author can persuade them that the argument they’re making is compelling.

Rhetorical Strategy 3: Logos

Logos uses logic or reason. It’s commonly used in academic writing when arguments are created using evidence and reasoning rather than an emotional response. It’s constructed in a step-by-step approach that builds methodically to create a powerful effect upon the reader.

Rhetoric can use any one of these three techniques, but effective arguments often appeal to all three elements.

The rhetorical situation explains the circumstances behind and around a piece of rhetoric. It helps you think about why a text exists, its purpose, and how it’s carried out.

The rhetorical situations are:

1) Purpose: Why is this being written? (It could be trying to inform, persuade, instruct, or entertain.)
2) Audience: Which groups or individuals will read and take action (or have done so in the past)?
3) Genre: What type of writing is this?
4) Stance: What is the tone of the text? What position are they taking?
5) Media/Visuals: What means of communication are used?

Understanding and analyzing the rhetorical situation is essential for building a strong essay. Also think about any rhetoric restraints on the text, such as beliefs, attitudes, and traditions that could affect the author's decisions.

Before leaping into your essay, it’s worth taking time to explore the text at a deeper level and considering the rhetorical situations we looked at before. Throw away your assumptions and use these simple questions to help you unpick how and why the text is having an effect on the audience.

Image showing what to consider when planning a rhetorical essay

1: What is the Rhetorical Situation?

Why is there a need or opportunity for persuasion?
How do words and references help you identify the time and location?
What are the rhetoric restraints?
What historical occasions would lead to this text being created?

2: Who is the Author?

How do they position themselves as an expert worth listening to?
What is their ethos?
Do they have a reputation that gives them authority?
What is their intention?
What values or customs do they have?

3: Who is it Written For?

Who is the intended audience?
How is this appealing to this particular audience?
Who are the possible secondary and tertiary audiences?

4: What is the Central Idea?

Can you summarize the key point of this rhetoric?
What arguments are used?
How has it developed a line of reasoning?

5: How is it Structured?

What structure is used?
How is the content arranged within the structure?

6: What Form is Used?

Does this follow a specific literary genre?
What type of style and tone is used, and why is this?
Does the form used complement the content?
What effect could this form have on the audience?

7: Is the Rhetoric Effective?

Does the content fulfil the author’s intentions?
Does the message effectively fit the audience, location, and time period?

Once you’ve fully explored the text, you’ll have a better understanding of the impact it’s having on the audience and feel more confident about writing your essay outline.

A great essay starts with an interesting topic. Choose carefully so you’re personally invested in the subject and familiar with it rather than just following trending topics. There are lots of great ideas on this blog post by My Perfect Words if you need some inspiration. Take some time to do background research to ensure your topic offers good analysis opportunities.

Image showing considerations for a rhetorical analysis topic

Remember to check the information given to you by your professor so you follow their preferred style guidelines. This outline example gives you a general idea of a format to follow, but there will likely be specific requests about layout and content in your course handbook. It’s always worth asking your institution if you’re unsure.

Make notes for each section of your essay before you write. This makes it easy for you to write a well-structured text that flows naturally to a conclusion. You will develop each note into a paragraph. Look at this example by College Essay for useful ideas about the structure.

1: Introduction

This is a short, informative section that shows you understand the purpose of the text. It tempts the reader to find out more by mentioning what will come in the main body of your essay.

Name the author of the text and the title of their work followed by the date in parentheses
Use a verb to describe what the author does, e.g. “implies,” “asserts,” or “claims”
Briefly summarize the text in your own words
Mention the persuasive techniques used by the rhetor and its effect

Create a thesis statement to come at the end of your introduction.

After your introduction, move on to your critical analysis. This is the principal part of your essay.

Explain the methods used by the author to inform, entertain, and/or persuade the audience using Aristotle's rhetorical triangle
Use quotations to prove the statements you make
Explain why the writer used this approach and how successful it is
Consider how it makes the audience feel and react

Make each strategy a new paragraph rather than cramming them together, and always use proper citations. Check back to your course handbook if you’re unsure which citation style is preferred.

3: Conclusion

Your conclusion should summarize the points you’ve made in the main body of your essay. While you will draw the points together, this is not the place to introduce new information you’ve not previously mentioned.

Use your last sentence to share a powerful concluding statement that talks about the impact the text has on the audience(s) and wider society. How have its strategies helped to shape history?

Before You Submit

Poor spelling and grammatical errors ruin a great essay. Use ProWritingAid to check through your finished essay before you submit. It will pick up all the minor errors you’ve missed and help you give your essay a final polish. Look at this useful ProWritingAid webinar for further ideas to help you significantly improve your essays. Sign up for a free trial today and start editing your essays!

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You’ll find countless examples of rhetorical analysis online, but they range widely in quality. Your institution may have example essays they can share with you to show you exactly what they’re looking for.

The following links should give you a good starting point if you’re looking for ideas:

Pearson Canada has a range of good examples. Look at how embedded quotations are used to prove the points being made. The end questions help you unpick how successful each essay is.

Excelsior College has an excellent sample essay complete with useful comments highlighting the techniques used.

Brighton Online has a selection of interesting essays to look at. In this specific example, consider how wider reading has deepened the exploration of the text.

Image showing tips when reading a sample essay

Writing a rhetorical analysis essay can seem daunting, but spending significant time deeply analyzing the text before you write will make it far more achievable and result in a better-quality essay overall.

It can take some time to write a good essay. Aim to complete it well before the deadline so you don’t feel rushed. Use ProWritingAid’s comprehensive checks to find any errors and make changes to improve readability. Then you’ll be ready to submit your finished essay, knowing it’s as good as you can possibly make it.

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Helly Douglas is a UK writer and teacher, specialising in education, children, and parenting. She loves making the complex seem simple through blogs, articles, and curriculum content. You can check out her work at hellydouglas.com or connect on Twitter @hellydouglas. When she’s not writing, you will find her in a classroom, being a mum or battling against the wilderness of her garden—the garden is winning!

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What is a Rhetorical Situation?

Using the Power of Language to Persuade, Inform, and Inspire

ThoughtCo / Ran Zheng

An Introduction to Punctuation
Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
B.A., English, State University of New York

Understanding the use of rhetoric can help you speak convincingly and write persuasively—and vice versa. At its most basic level, rhetoric is defined as communication —whether spoken or written, predetermined or extemporaneous—that’s aimed at getting your intended audience to modify their perspective based on what you’re telling them and how you’re telling it to them.

One of the most common uses of rhetoric we see is in politics. Candidates use carefully crafted language—or messaging—to appeal to their audiences’ emotions and core values in an attempt to sway their vote. However, because the purpose of rhetoric is a form of manipulation , many people have come to equate it with fabrication, with little or no regard to ethical concerns. (There’s an old joke that goes: Q: How do you know when a politician is lying? A: His lips are moving. )

While some rhetoric is certainly far from fact-based, the rhetoric itself is not the issue. Rhetoric is about making the linguistic choices that will have the most impact. The author of the rhetoric is responsible for the veracity of its content, as well as the intent—whether positive or negative—of the outcome he or she is attempting to achieve.

The History of Rhetoric

Probably the most influential pioneer in establishing the art of rhetoric itself was the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle , who defined it as “an ability, in each particular case, to see the available means of persuasion.” His treatise detailing the art of persuasion, “On Rhetoric,” dates from the 4th century BCE. Cicero and Quintilian, two of the most famous Roman teachers of rhetoric, often relied on elements culled from Aristotle’s precepts in their own work.

Aristotle explained how rhetoric functions using five core concepts: logos , ethos , pathos , kairos, and telos and much of rhetoric as we know it today is still based on these principles. In the last few centuries, the definition of “rhetoric” has shifted to encompass pretty much any situation in which people exchange ideas. Because each of us has been informed by a unique set of life circumstances, no two people see things in exactly the same way. Rhetoric has become a way not only to persuade but to use language in an attempt to create mutual understanding and facilitate consensus.

Fast Facts: Aristotle's Five Core Concepts of Rhetoric

Logos: Often translated as “logic or reasoning,” logos originally referred to how a speech was organized and what it contained but is now more about content and structural elements of a text.
Ethos: Ethos translates as “credibility or trustworthiness,” and refers to the character a speaker or author and how they portray themselves through words.
Pathos: Pathos is the element of language designed to play to the emotional sensibilities of an intended audience, and geared toward using the audience’s own attitudes to incite agreement or action.
Telos: Telos refers to the particular purpose a speaker or author hopes to achieve, even though the goals and attitude of the speaker may differ vastly from those of his or her audience.
Kairos: Loosely translated, kairos means “setting” and deals with the time and place that a speech takes place and how that setting may influence its outcome.

Elements of a Rhetorical Situation

What exactly is a rhetorical situation ? An impassioned love letter, a prosecutor's closing statement, an advertisement hawking the next needful thing you can't possibly live without—are all examples of rhetorical situations. As different as their content and intent may be, all of them have the same five basic underlying principles:

The text , which is the actual communication, whether written or spoken
The author , which is the person who creates a specific communication
The audience , who is the recipient of a communication
The purpose(s) , which are the various reasons for authors and audiences to engage in communication
The setting , which is the time, place, and environment that surrounds a particular communication

Each of these elements has an impact on the eventual outcome of any rhetorical situation. If a speech is poorly written, it may be impossible to persuade the audience of its validity or worth, or if its author lacks credibility or passion the result may be the same. On the other hand, even the most eloquent speaker can fail to move an audience that is firmly set in a belief system that directly contradicts the goal the author hopes to achieve and is unwilling to entertain another point of view. Finally, as the saying implies, "timing is everything." The when, where, and prevailing mood surrounding a rhetorical situation can greatly influence its eventual outcome.

While the most commonly accepted definition of a text is a written document, when it comes to rhetorical situations, a text can take on any form of communication a person intentionally creates. If you think of communication in terms of a road trip, the text is the vehicle that gets you to your desired destination—depending on the driving conditions and whether or not you have enough fuel to go the distance. There are three basic factors that have the biggest influence on the nature of any given text: the medium in which it’s delivered, the tools that are used to create it, and the tools required to decipher it:

The Medium —Rhetorical texts can take the form of pretty much any and every kind of media that people use to communicate. A text can be a hand-written love poem; a cover letter that’s typed, or a personal dating profile that’s computer-generated. Text can encompass works in the audio, visual, spoken-word, verbal, non-verbal, graphic, pictorial, and tactile realms, to name but a few. Text can take the form of a magazine ad, a PowerPoint presentation, a satirical cartoon, a film, a painting, a sculpture, a podcast, or even your latest Facebook post, Twitter tweet, or Pinterest pin.
The Author’s Toolkit (Creating) —The tools required to author any form of text impact its structure and content. From the very rudimentary anatomical tools humans use to produce speech (lips, mouth, teeth, tongue, and so forth) to the latest high-tech gadget, the tools we choose to create our communication can help make or break the final outcome.
Audience Connectivity (Deciphering) —Just as an author requires tools to create, an audience must have the capability to receive and understand the information that a text communicates, whether via reading, viewing, hearing, or other forms of sensory input. Again, these tools can range from something as simple as eyes to see or ears to hear to something as complex as sophisticated as an electron microscope. In addition to physical tools, an audience often requires conceptual or intellectual tools to fully comprehend the meaning of a text. For instance, while the French national anthem, “La Marseillaise,” may be a rousing song on its musical merits alone, if you don’t speak French, the meaning and importance of the lyrics are lost.

Loosely speaking, an author is a person who creates text to communicate. Novelists, poets, copywriters, speechwriters, singer/songwriters, and graffiti artists are all authors. Each author is influenced by his or her individual background. Factors such as age, gender identification, geographic location, ethnicity, culture, religion, socio-economic condition, political beliefs, parental pressure, peer involvement, education, and personal experience create the assumptions authors use to see the world, as well as the way in which they communicate to an audience and the setting in which they are likely to do so.

The Audience

The audience is the recipient of the communication. The same factors that influence an author also influence an audience, whether that audience is a single person or a stadium crowd, the audience’s personal experiences affect how they receive communication, especially with regard to the assumptions they may make about the author, and the context in which they receive the communication.

There are as many reasons to communicate messages as there are authors creating them and audiences who may or may not wish to receive them, however, authors and audiences bring their own individual purposes to any given rhetorical situation. These purposes may be conflicting or complementary.

The authors’ purpose in communicating is generally to inform, to instruct, or to persuade. Some other author goals may include to entertain, startle, excite, sadden, enlighten, punish, console, or inspire the intended audience. The purpose of the audience to become informed, to be entertained, to form a different understanding, or to be inspired. Other audience takeaways may include excitement, consolation, anger, sadness, remorse, and so on.

As with purpose, the attitude of both the author and the audience can have a direct impact on the outcome of any rhetorical situation. Is the author rude and condescending, or funny and inclusive? Does he or she appear knowledgeable on the subject on which they’re speaking, or are they totally out of their depth? Factors such as these ultimately govern whether or not the audience understands, accepts, or appreciates the author’s text.

Likewise, audiences bring their own attitudes to the communication experience. If the communication is undecipherable, boring, or of a subject that holds no interest, the audience will likely not appreciate it. If it’s something to which they are attuned or piques their curiosity, the author’s message may be well received.

Every rhetorical situation happens in a specific setting within a specific context, and are all constrained by the time and environment in which they occur. Time, as in a specific moment in history, forms the zeitgeist of an era. Language is directly affected by both historical influence and the assumptions brought to bear by the current culture in which it exists. Theoretically, Stephen Hawking and Sir Isaac Newton could have had a fascinating conversation on the galaxy, however, the lexicon of scientific information available to each during his lifetime would likely have influenced the conclusions they reached as a result.

The specific place that an author engages his or her audience also affects the manner in which a text is both created and received. Dr. Martin Luther King’s “I have a Dream” speech, delivered to a rapt crowd on August 28, 1963, is considered by many as one of the most memorable pieces of American rhetoric of the 20 th century, but a setting doesn’t have to be public, or an audience large for communication to have a profound impact. Intimate settings, in which information is exchanged, such as a doctor’s office or promises are made—perhaps on a moonlit balcony—can serve as the backdrop for life-changing communication.

In some rhetorical contexts, the term “community” refers to a specific group united by like interests or concerns rather than a geographical neighborhood. Conversation, which most often refers to a dialog between a limited number of people takes on a much broader meaning to and refers to a collective conversation which encompasses a broad understanding, belief system, or assumptions that are held by the community at large.

Constraints: Definition and Examples in Rhetoric
Audience Analysis in Speech and Composition
Exigence in Rhetoric
The Implied Audience
An Overview of Classical Rhetoric
What Is a Message in Communication?
Rhetorical Analysis Definition and Examples
Definition of Audience
Word Choice in English Composition and Literature
Situated Ethos in Rhetoric
Definition and Examples of Rhetorical Stance
Definition and Examples of Paragraphing in Essays
Common Ground in Rhetoric
What Is a Rhetorical Device? Definition, List, Examples
Rhetorical Move
Rhetoric: Definitions and Observations

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

Chapter 10: The Rhetorical Situation

Martin Luther King speaking at the University of Minnesota, 1967

This chapter is about the rhetorical situation . The rhetorical situation is a framework for rhetorical analysis designed for individual speeches and assessing their reception by an audience. This chapter offers a detailed explanation of the rhetorical situation and defines its core components: the exigence , the audience , and constraints . The second section of the chapter provides detailed examples of the rhetorical situation. The third section explains a related model of “situation” called the “ rhetorical ecology .” This chapter contains YouTube video content not presented in the recorded lectures.

Watching the video clips embedded in the chapters may add to the projected “read time” listed in the headers. Please also note that the audio recording for this chapter covers the same tested content as is presented in the chapter below.

Chapter Recordings

Part 1: Defining the Rhetorical Situation (Video, ~20m)
Part 2: Analysis of a Rhetorical Situation (Video, ~20m)
Part 3: Rhetorical Ecologies (Video, ~12m)

Written Assignments

Assignment Description for Short Paper 3: Rhetorical Analysis

Part 1: Defining the Rhetorical Situation

The rhetorical situation is a fundamental framework for understanding rhetoric as a form of persuasion , that is, as a speech or text that seeks to influence an audience’s actions. It describes rhetoric as a response to a problem or an answer to a question. Given an imperfect state of affairs, rhetoric responds or intervenes to create some change by addressing an audience. The rhetorical situation is also part of the tradition of public address scholarship. Public address may consist in the composition of eloquent speeches that are to be delivered in public settings, a studied reflection upon the geographical locations where public events have occurred in the past, or the researching of presidential correspondence, letters, or newsprint publications about former occupants of the executive branch. Public address is most aptly described as the criticism of public speech that approximates more closely a genuinely historical point of view regarding the ideas of our shared social history.

The rhetorical situation is also part of a tradition that understands rhetoric as context-dependent. Often, rhetorical scholars attribute this idea to Aristotle, who defines rhetoric as “the available means of persuasion in any given situation. “ In other words, understanding the force of a persuasive speech act relies upon a deep knowledge of the setting in which it was spoken. Aristotle also describes rhetoric’s situations in terms of three discrete genres : Forensic rhetoric is about the past and whether it did or did not happen; the traditional “situation” for forensic rhetoric was the courtroom proceeding. Epideictic, about matters of praise or blame, was speech situated in public spaces and delivered to a mass audience. Deliberative or policy-making speeches would occur in the situation of legislation and lawmaking, in service of developing a future course of action.

These three original genres of speech give the speech that is delivered in these spaces a specific function. They respond to a set of pre-defined circumstances concerning matters of fact , good and bad judgment , and policy . The rhetorical situation is an extension of this understanding. It provides us with a framework that says that speech responds to a set of pre-existing circumstances and is tailored for an audience.

According to Lloyd Bitzer, the rhetorical situation is that it is a “complex of persons, events, objects, and relations presenting an actual or potential exigence which can be completely or partially removed if discourse, introduced in the situation, can so constrain human decision or action as to bring about the significant modification of the exigence.

First, the rhetorical situation is a complex of persons, events, objects, and relations . The complex of persons includes speakers and audiences. Events include important and historic instances of speech and speech-making. Objects include the symbols gathered by speeches, what those speeches reference, and the speech’s effects. The complex relations of the situation describes the audiences it brings forth and the modes of identification it cultivates.
Second, the rhetorical situation presents an actual or potential exigence . An exigence is “an urgency marked by imperfection.” It describes a state of discontent or emergency in which speech is an adequate response and can bring about a resolution. Exigences ultimately describe the problem that the speech must respond to.
Third, the rhetorical situation can completely or partially remove the exigence . This means that an adequate speech makes the exigence is reversible by producing effects and audiences that are capable of addressing or effecting the change as the emergency requires.
Fourth, the rhetorical situation introduces discourse into the situation . This means that the use or application of rhetoric can undo the emergency. A speech that will heal the situation will bring things to a resolution.
Fifth, the speech presented in a rhetorical situation may constrain human decisions or actions . This means that a situation is rhetorical when speech resolves an emergency by steering people to act in a way that, had the speech not happened, they otherwise would not.
Finally, the speech presented in a rhetorical situation may bring about a significant modification of the exigence . Significant modification means that the speech does something to address the problem. Ultimately, this effect of speech upon a greater exigence is what makes the situation a rhetorical one.

Key Aspects of Rhetorical Situations

The historical context is the larger background in which a message is situated. The rhetorical situation is a subset of that field, a smaller, more defined relative of a greater historical context.
The rhetorical situation always places three specific elements into a relationship with each other. These are the rhetorical exigence , the audience , and the constraints .
A rhetorical exigence is an urgency marked by imperfection. It is the thing to which a speech – the rhetorical response – responds.
A rhetorical audience is those people who have the capacity to act on the speaker’s message.
A rhetorical constraint describes those things that limit the audience to interpret the message and steer them to act in one direction or another.

A Rhetorical Situation is not a “Context” …

A further important feature of the rhetorical situation is that it is not the same as context. This is, first of all, because every message occurs in a context, and not all contexts are rhetorical. Practically, this means that context is general, and the rhetorical situation is specific. A historical context is one in which any message can occur.

… because not all contexts are rhetorical.

A rhetorical situation is a situation that allows for a response, a speech that is capable of changing people’s minds and motivating their actions. The second reason the rhetorical situation is not the same as context is that only a rhetorical situation can invite a rhetorical response.

… because only a rhetorical situation can invite a rhetorical response.

Context is the history of an utterance, a series of motivations, occurrences, and acts that set a precedent for a public and cultural status quo . As a running example of the difference between context and situation, let’s consider the 2020 presidential impeachment hearings.

The greater context for these presidential impeachment hearings might include the 1987 Iran-Contra scandal and the 1998 impeachment hearing of Bill Clinton. Both are distant historical events in which speeches and arguments were made concerning Congress’s authority over the Executive branch. Consistently, attorneys for the President have claimed that Congress did not have the authority to investigate the President whereas Congress has claimed that authority.

The rhetorical situation for Presidential impeachment hearings in 2020 would instead be the circumstances and consequences surrounding a 2019 phone call between Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelensky and Donald Trump. The speakers and speeches generated by the impeachment trials themselves would be the “rhetoric” that responded to this situation. It would be comprised of Congressional testimony, official investigative reports, political biographies, and commentary by political pundits.

Rhetorical Response/Rhetorical Audience

Not every response to a rhetorical situation is rhetorical. Non-rhetorical responses are those that do not affect the exigency. Rhetorical responses are those that do. An emergency such as war might provoke messages that people should be afraid or display courage. Those messages can’t be separated from the emergency that occasioned it. In that sense, they are “responses” to the rhetorical situation. But not every “response” has its intended effects, and not every “response” can be directly tied back to the exigence at hand.

Below is an example of the testimony offered during the 2019 impeachment hearings instigated by the Zelensky-Trump phone conversation. The speaker is Fiona Hill, a U.S. diplomatic liaison to the Ukraine who was removed from her post just days before the phone call occurred.

A response is rhetorical when it is addressed to a rhetorical audience , that is, those auditors or listeners who have the capacity to act. Not all audiences can be rhetorical audiences. In practice, this means more people will hear the rhetorical response than can address it—only people who can act count as the rhetorical audience.

For example, consider a political speech urging young people to vote delivered by a candidate that is delivered to an audience that has a mix of high school students. However, this speech may be heard by the younger members of the crowd or people whose naturalization status prevents them from voting. If the sought-after effect of the speech is for people to vote for the candidate, then Bitzer’s theory of the rhetorical situation is limited because it only includes those with the capability to vote.

Exigence, Audience, and Constraints

The rhetorical exigence is defined as imperfection marked by urgency. It is a defect, an obstacle, something waiting to be done, a thing other than it should be. There are also non-rhetorical exigences , or “emergencies,” for which speech isn’t a good or effective response. Bitzer describes a natural disaster as a “non-rhetorical exigence” – a well-delivered speech, traditionally conceived, might not be the best immediate response. Instead of speech alone, an adequate rhetorical response would have to include emergency alerts, funding, and climate change mitigation efforts. What makes for a rhetorical exigence is when speech provides the remedy to the imperfection by urgency.

In the case referenced earlier, the recorded conversation between Zelensky and Trump documented a request to investigate Joe Biden in exchange for an already-promised military defense system. This conversation is the rhetorical exigence : it generated a public emergency for which speech was deemed to be a fitting response.

The rhetorical audience is defined as only those capable of being influenced by discourse and of being mediators of change. They must be capable of making some change that would adjust the exigence due to hearing the speech.

There were at least two rhetorical audiences for the 2020 impeachment proceedings. One rhetorical audience of the Senate hearings consisted of the US Senate and Chief Justice John Roberts. They were the ones who would be ultimately voting on the Impeachment. In the style of forensic rhetoric, the Senators and possibly Roberts in the event of a tie were charged with discovering whether or not the President had committed an impeachable offense. Because they were the ones with the capacity to act, they composed the rhetorical audience.

The American voting public was a second rhetorical audience insofar as the messages conveyed in the Senate were meant to convince voters to turn out for the November 2020 election. Hearing the appeals on the Senate floor also persuaded those who could vote to cast them.

Finally, rhetorical constraints are comprised of persons, events, objects, and relations. These are part of the situation because they have the power to constrain decision-making and action.

In the Senate, constraints could include procedural limitations such as who gets to make the rules about how and when testimony is offered. It could be relations, in the sense partisan groups would seek to shut the trials down. It could be that another emergency interrupts the proceedings, or prevents that event from being remembered.

Responses to Rhetorical Situations

There are different kinds of responses to rhetorical situations.

The first response is conformity , in which the audience accepts what the speech is asking of them, and they perform the action that is requested.
The second is desecration which violates what would have been an appropriate response. Given that there is a normal range of responses that would be accepted from a situation, the response of desecration would violate those expectations and challenge them. If someone were giving a eulogy, for instance, laughter would be a prohibited response and example of desecration.

The famous Apple “1984” advertisement linked below offers a dramatized example of both “conformity” and “desecration,” in the sense that the gathered viewers are in conformity with the televised speaker’s message whereas the running character who throws the sledgehammer violates conformist expectations and desecrating both the speaker and their message.

The third response is non-participation , which rejects the legitimacy of the rhetorical situation by refusing to be a part of it. In other words, it says that the emergency is not that big of an emergency, or that we don’t have to be so concerned about the emergency that is being posed. That non-participation is a rhetorical response because it simultaneously responds to the exigency by refusing to recognize it.
Finally, contextual reconstruction is when a rhetor redefines the situation. In other words, given the rhetorical effort to redefine or reframe the exigency, it provides an alternative look at the current circumstances.

Below is an episode of Crossfire, a debate-style television show from the early 2000s which embraces a both-sides format. This episode features John Stewart, recently the new host of the Daily Show . Stewart first engages in non-participation by rejecting the premise of the show and refusing to “debate.” He then engages in a contextual reconstruction that reframes Crossfire as contributing to a destructive both-sides mentality in politics. Stewart’s explanation is a contextual reconstruction because reframed the event, putting it in a new light. His appearance also coincided with the cancellation of the show shortly thereafter.

Part 2: Analysis of a Rhetorical Situation

This section of the chapter provides detailed examples of the major terms of the rhetorical situation, including rhetorical exigence, context, audience, and constraints. It ends with an example of a rhetorical situation, with a brief discussion of each of its parts.

Rhetorical Exigence: Michael Brown and Barack Obama

The exigence is the defect of the status quo. It is a problem we live with that has become acute; it is an emergency that is other than it should be. Rhetorical exigences can be modified through discourse. “In any rhetorical situation, there will be at least one controlling exigence which functions as an organizing principle.” This “organizing exigence” defines the audience to be addressed and the change to be effected.

On August 9, 2014, a police officer shot and killed Michael Brown in Ferguson, MO, spurring nationwide mass protests against police brutality. The following year, in April 2015, protests erupted in Baltimore after the death of Freddie Gray, who was brutally assaulted as he was arrested, fell into a coma, and died. These events also illustrated the larger problem that police departments had started to acquire military equipment as a way to police crowds, and technologies that the military had previously used during wartime deployments oversees suddenly became technologies used to police American citizens. Worse yet, police who were using these weapons had not been trained to use them appropriately. The racial bias of police departments across the country was becoming apparent given the accumulation of events related to police brutality.

This short speech by Barack Obama on October 31, 2015 sought to address the exigence of mass incarceration and over-policing by healing the divide between the different groups he addresses. We should think hard about whether this speech is accomplishing that goal given its emphasis on helping the economy and people recently released from prison. However, what is clear is that it is both a response to a problem that exists prominently at the moment that Obama is speaking and a way of curating the behavior of the audiences that are meant to hear this speech.

If the rhetorical situation “specifies the audience to be addressed,” then in the above clip, we can quite clearly hear Obama discussing “drug rehabilitation” and the pipeline from schools to prisons. We also heard Obama discussing police officers as people who “protect Americans.” To whom is this addressed? Both audiences: it is meant to affirm both the structural causes of mass incarceration for the public made angry by prominent instances of police brutality and defend violent police officers by describing them as civil servants. However, this speech neither addresses police brutality directly nor holds police officers accountable for excessive use of force. Specified audiences of the rhetorical situation includes over-policed and structurally oppressed Americans and police officers, resulting in a “middle voice” that is stretched between these audiences.

Context: 13th by Ava DuVernay

Obama’s speech, shown above, occurs within a larger context of racial policing in the United States, which disproportionately targets minoritized communities. Every message occurs within a context: a larger, more encompassing umbrella term for the setting in which a speech or utterance happens. Context is the history of the speech or utterance, a series of motivations, occurrences, and acts that set a precedent for the current status quo – which means how things are in our present moment, right now. Consider the video below as an illustration of the larger context for Obama’s 10/31/2015 speech. The documentary “13th” by Ava DuVernay explains the historical transition from slavery to the thirteenth amendment to a contemporary system of mass incarceration.

Rhetorical Audience: George H.W. Bush v. Michael Dukakis

Next, let’s consider the rhetorical audience, which describes only those capable of being influenced by a speech (or rhetorical discourse) and of being mediators of change.

Above is another rhetorical message that is situated within the larger context of mass incarceration. However, it has a different situation: the 1988 Dukakis/Bush presidential election. The video is a campaign advertisement from the first George Bush campaign which attacks Dukakis. The exigence is Dukakis’s early lead on George Bush, which created an opening for a rhetorical response. This response is important for how it targeted specific voters by preying on the stereotype of violent minorities and the idea that people who had been imprisoned would always be “prisoners” or “criminals,” regardless of rehabilitation or if their incarceration was unjust. Let’s take a look at the video.

The rhetorical audience here isn’t just who can be influenced by the message. Viewers, for instance, might be angered by the message that’s being sent by this video. It is specifically those who would act on that message by voting against the Dukakis campaign. Viewers who might react against this message are also a rhetorical audience. They may reject the message and doing the opposite of what it asks or offer an alternative explanation of mass incarceration that does not rely on racist caricatures.

Rhetorical Constraints: Parody and Satire

Let’s consider the last element of the rhetorical situation: constraints. Constraints are comprised of persons, events, objects, and relations that are part of the situation because they can constrain decision-making and action that could modify the exigence. This example offers another campaign ad. IT is not as clearly related to the larger context of mass incarceration. This video illustrates “constraints” by showing how political campaign ads are always limited in what they can say or the messages they communicate.

The Phil Gulbright/Gil Fulbright/Phillip Mymoufwiffarts political advertisement illustrates the limitations on the speaker because he draws attention to how his own beholdenness to multiple audiences: the voting public and his private donors – narrowly shape his own rhetorical response.

Rhetorical Situation: The Challenger Address

The final example of the rhetorical situation is Ronald Reagan’s Challenger Address Speech.

The following explanation of this rhetorical situation comes from Catherine Palczewski et al.:

Reagan clearly identified the exigence : “the tragedy of the shuttle Challenger … is truly a national loss” that made it a day “for mourning and remembering,” but the march of progress and the call for exploration gave meaning to that loss of life.

The context for this meaning was a history of exploration associated with past empires. According to Reagan, the members of the space shuttle crew had “a hunger to explore the universe” and were part of a long line of explorers. The examples of the 1967 Apollo I fire and the 1596 death of Francis Drake offered similar historical events that helped make the loss of life during exploration seem normal and expected. As Reagan explained to schoolchildren: “Its all part of the process of exploration and discovery.”

The audiences in the situation were composed of people who shared the need for reassurance and the sentiment that exploration defines the people of the United States: the families of the astronauts, schoolchildren, NASA workers, and the viewing public who had tuned in to the event. Reagan provided an explanation not of the accident but of exploration. He thus offered a response that quickly passed through stages of mourning while seeking to reinforce the public faith in expanded American space exploration. Reagan’s hybrid response sought to justify funding for the space program (a deliberative goal) while also eulogizing the lives of the astronauts who had died in the explosion (an epideictic goal).

The constraints in the situation concerned the genre of eulogy, which Reagan mirrored in structuring his speech. He also assumed a paternalistic role in the speech, speaking not only as President but as an elder relative to schoolchildren who had been watching the speech from across the country.

As a total rhetorical situation , the rhetor, Reagan, responded to an exigence by speaking to particular audiences , such as school children and the viewing public, in a way that accounted for constraints such as the appropriate way to respond to a tragic loss of life. Reagan did not just respond to this situation, but sought to actively redefine what it meant.

Part 3: Rhetorical Ecologies

Although Lloyd Bitzer develops the concept of “the rhetorical situation” there are several other participants in this conversation. I’d like to draw our attention to Lloyd Bitzer, Richard Vatz, and Jenny Edbauer.

Bitzer is the originator of the rhetorical situation. In his view, there is first a situation, then there is a rhetorical response, and finally, rhetoric that people can act upon. The emergency arises and it creates conditions for a speaker to invent a speech that moves people to some action.
Vatz argues that rhetoric arises not because of a situation, but because of the speaker. From this point of view, there is no emergency unless a rhetor perceives there to be an emergency. It is the speaker’s job to create a shared reality for the audience through their speech. However, if the public’s perception of an emergency depends on the speaker, a real, material reality may be at odds with other “emergencies” that a speaker brings to the public’s attention as distractions. The realities of pandemics and climate change, for instance, may be something that a speaker cannot distract from with another “imagined” exigence. Some emergencies simply cannot be ignored or deflected by a speaker because they form such a commonly felt urgency.
Edbauer argues that rhetoric never occurs in one situation but always unfolds across many situations. Whereas Bitzer and Vatz focus on individual speeches delivered in isolated situations, Edbauer is more interested in the way that rhetoric moves from one situation to another, much like a viral tweet or video. Rhetoric that occurs in one situation may then give rise to similar rhetoric that arises in a separate situation. This then may create yet another rhetorical response, unrelated to the first, and so on. The speaker isn’t the most important person in the Edbauer model. Instead, the rhetoric moves from one rhetorical moment to the next to produce a message across a variety of situations.

Rhetorical ecologies are variations on the traditional framework of the rhetorical situation. A rhetorical situation is typically conceived as a speaker’s unique creation or as a response to an emergency. Edbauer’s version of a rhetorical situation suggests that it isn’t fixed; it does not happen once or in isolation. Instead, Edbauer argues that exigences are always a series of events. These situations create a network of lived experiences and structures of feeling. Edbauer also contextualizes rhetoric in terms of time, history, and experience. Rhetoric from this point of view isn’t linear. It doesn’t start with a speaker who devises a speech that is received by an audience. Rhetoric moves from one moment to another, from one situation to another. It changes depending on the historical moment and the particular experiences that a given instance of rhetoric foregrounds.

Newton's fixed space vs. Einstein's flexible spacetime, from the film "Testing Einstein's Universe" by Norbert Bartel.

The Rhetorical Situation: Traditionally conceived, situations are fixed spaces. By comparison, rhetorical ecologies are dynamic spaces . The word situation comes from the Latin Situs , which signifies a bordered and fixed location. An example of Situs is the (incorrect) idea of the Earth as the presumptive center of the Universe, having a stable position that does not affect the space around it. A Situs for rhetoric would mean that everything revolves around the speech’s ability to respond to an emergency.
The Rhetorical Ecology: Instead of a Situs for rhetoric , the ecology model describes rhetoric’s force, intensity, and circulatory range as a distribution . This would be like the shift from the Newtonian Model to the Einsteinian Model, where space is molded or shaped around the speech or object. In other words, there is no clear “center” for rhetoric; rhetoric instead has many centers with distinct mass and gravity. Rather than just one speech or rhetorical discourse, an ecology-based approach would think about multiple speeches or discourses and how they affect and interact with one another.

Writing as Rhetorical Situation and Rhetorical Ecology

Let’s consider “writing an assignment” in terms of the situation and ecology models of rhetoric. As a Situs , writing would be a very linear process. It would follow a first, second, third progression: receive the assignment (the exigence), outline and draft a (rhetorical) response, and see if it had the intended effect (upon an instructor or peers). The writer would make a message, then transmit it to an audience. Bitzer would say that there is an emergency to which the writer responds, like an upcoming deadline, and then their text or speech offers a more or less adequate response to that emergency.

Writing conceived in terms of distribution means that it would occur across a range of processes and encounters. There is, for instance, the event of starting a blank document and the tyranny of the blinking cursor. Your encounter with the keyboard might restrict or open up the flow of words. It might also create physical limitations as your fingers begin to cramp or your posture hunches over. You may stop, lose your place, or write across multiple days, weeks, or months. Then again, the same act of writing may occur in a group setting or a collaborative document. These interactions could energize your writing and stimulate productivity, or zap your ability to focus by creating pools of distracting conversation. As distribution, writing doesn’t happen in one moment or even because of one person. Instead, it happens across many moments and with the influence of many people. In a rhetorical ecology, there isn’t just one audience for writing but many. Writing would occur across distinct situations that describe how the process of writing is lived, or even how our writing outlives our unique authorship, getting picked up by other people who revise and repurpose it.

According to Edbauer, “To say that we are connected is another way of saying that we are never outside the networked interconnections of forces, energies, rhetorics, moods, and experiences. In other words our practical consciousness is never outside the prior and ongoing structure of feeling that shape the social field.”

Rhetorical ecologies highlight the importance of a shared and interactive social field. They demand an understanding of how certain speech acts, utterances, or writing circulate and proliferate. Similar to biology, where ecology refers to the relationships between organisms and their environment, rhetorical ecologies illustrate how words interact with their environment over and over again. Rhetoric from this perspective isn’t static but viral; it has effects beyond what a single author could ever anticipate.

“The intensity, force, and circulatory range of a rhetoric[al ecology] are always expanding through the mutations and new exposures attached to that given rhetoric, much like a virus. … A rhetoric emerges already infected by the viral intensities that are circulating in the social field.”

Examples of Rhetorical Ecologies: The Amen Break

The Rhetorical Ecology model means that rhetoric never just occurs within one isolated situation, but evolves and moves across different situations. This means that rhetoric interacts with other pressing issues or concerns of the moment. A viral intensity is how topics may be pressing or important at one moment and how those concerns may transform a given instance of rhetoric from one moment to the next. Below is a clip about the “Amen break,” which explains how a given text moves across situations rather than remaining stationary.

As the video indicates, although you may not know it, you have likely heard the Amen break in many different advertisements and musical genres. Rather than occurring in a single situation, the Amen break happens across different moments that enable it to mean something different in each instance. As an example of a rhetorical ecology, the message undergoes a significant transformation as it moves from one situation to another; it means differently because it moves.

Examples of Rhetorical Ecologies: Keep Austin Weird

Let’s consider a separate example of the rhetorical ecology that comes directly from Edbauer’s article on the topic. The phrase ‘Keep Austin Weird!’ started in Austin, Texas, with the closure of the Sound Exchange, a popular record store. Gradually over time, more and more large businesses started entering Austin, including Urban Outfitters, Barnes and Noble, and Baja Grille, each of which is (or was) a national chain. Two local businesses, Book People Books and Waterloo Records decided to stand against Austin’s stand to give a tax break to a Borders that was opening across the street from them.

According to Steve Baroo, the owner of Book People Books: “I was talking to the people of Waterloo Records about our struggle to stop the city of Austin from providing incentives to the developer, who planned to put a chain book store across the street from our stores. I suggested that we get some bumper stickers that said: ‘Keep Austin Weird,’ put both our logos on them and then give them away at our stores. He decided that we should buy five-thousand stickers and saw what our customers thought.”

The five thousand stickers were so popular that the stores immediately bought another ten thousand and then twenty-five thousand stickers. Almost a year later, nearly sixty thousand stickers had been distributed. Soon enough, other Austin businesses joined their call to weirdness. Local businesses began to sell T-shirts with individual logos on the front and the same ‘Keep Austin Weird’ logo on the back. The phrase ‘Keep Austin Weird’ quickly passed into the city’s general culture and popular circulation. One pledge pitch for a local public radio station told listeners, “You too can work toward keeping Austin Weird by pledging to keep KOOP 917 FM on the air.”

In certain parts of Austin, it is nearly impossible to go for very long without finding some display of the slogan on a T-shirt, bumper sticker, tote bag, mug, or a local businesses billboard vowing to keep it weird. In fact, even the increasingly popular counter-slogans managed to illustrate a kind of distributed ecological spread of this rhetoric.

Appearing on T-shirts and bumper stickers throughout Austin, there is the ‘Make Austin Normal’ campaign, by a University of Texas business student who wanted to make a point of – and profit from – the ironic popularity of the “Weird” slogan. “Keep Austin Weird” was also taken up by large, gentrifying businesses, largely against its original intent. Its uptake by the South By Southwest (SXSW) Convention and Festival and local politicians indicated that real estate corporate interests co-opted the phrase interests. Ultimately, the message moved from one situation to the next and changed until eventually its meaning became antithetical to what it had signified at its inception.

Keep Minnesota Passive Aggressive sticker

We can even see evidence of this spread in Minnesota in the form of parodic “Keep Minnesota Passive-Aggressive” slogans. Ultimately Edbauer’s case study investigates how ‘Keep Austin Weird’ is distributed through a rhetorical ecology, one going beyond the traditional boundaries of the rhetorical situation. As rhetorics and their companion counter-rhetorics move between situations, they respond to, resist, and transform the message. Sometimes these messages address the original exigence; other times, they deflect from it. When we set aside the rhetor, audience, exigence, and constraints as the only elements of rhetoric deserving of attention, we can see how textual movement extends our understanding of where, when, and how communication happens.

Additional Resources

Models of the Rhetorical Situation

Bitzer, Lloyd F. “The rhetorical situation.” Philosophy & rhetoric (1968): 1-14.
Jamieson, Kathleen M. Hall. “Generic constraints and the rhetorical situation.” Philosophy & Rhetoric (1973): 162-170.
Vatz, Richard E. “The myth of the rhetorical situation.” Philosophy & rhetoric (1973): 154-161.
Consigny, Scott. “Rhetoric and its situations.” Philosophy & rhetoric (1974): 175-186.
Biesecker, Barbara A. “Rethinking the Rhetorical Situation from within the Thematic of ‘Différance’.” Philosophy & rhetoric (1989): 110-130.
Garret, Mary, and Xiaosui Xiao. “The rhetorical situation revisited.” Rhetoric Society Quarterly 23.2 (1993): 30-40.
Edbauer, Jenny. “Unframing models of public distribution: From rhetorical situation to rhetorical ecologies.” Rhetoric society quarterly 35.4 (2005): 5-24.

Examples of Rhetorical Situation-Based Criticism

Cisneros, Josue David. “Reclaiming the Rhetoric of Reies López Tijerina: Border Identity and Agency in “The Land Grant Question”.” Communication Quarterly 60.5 (2012): 561-587.
Cox, J. Robert. “The fulfillment of time: King’s ‘I have a dream’ speech (August 28, 1963).” Texts in Contexts: Critical Dialogues on Significant Episodes in American Political Rhetoric (1989): 181-204.
Hariman, Robert. “Time and the Reconstitution of Gradualism in King’s Address: A Response to Cox: Critical Dialogues on Significant Episodes in American Political Rhetoric.” Texts in context: Critical dialogues on significant episodes in American political rhetoric . Hermagoras Press, 1989.
Gaipa, Mark. “A Creative Psalm of Brotherhood”: The (De) constructive Play in Martin Luther King’s “Letter from Birmingham Jail.” Quarterly Journal of Speech 93.3 (2007): 279-307.
Johnson, Andre E. “My Sanctified Imagination: Carter G. Woodson and a Speculative (Rhetorical) History of African American Public Address, 1925–1960.” Rhetoric and Public Affairs 24.1-2 (2021): 15-50.
Johnson, Paul Elliott. “The art of masculine victimhood: Donald Trump’s demagoguery.” Women’s Studies in Communication 40.3 (2017): 229-250.
Murphy, John M. “” Our mission and our moment”: George W. Bush and September 11th.” Rhetoric & Public Affairs 6.4 (2003): 607-632.
Murphy, John M. “Political economy and rhetorical matter.” Rhetoric & Public Affairs 12.2 (2009): 303-315.
Murphy, John M. “” A time of shame and sorrow”: Robert F. Kennedy and the American jeremiad.” Quarterly Journal of Speech 76.4 (1990): 401-414.
Palczewski, Catherine H. “The 1919 Prison Special: Constituting white women’s citizenship.” Quarterly Journal of Speech 102.2 (2016): 107-132.
Winderman, Emily. “S (anger) goes postal in The Woman Rebel: Angry rhetoric as a collectivizing moral emotion.” Rhetoric and Public Affairs 17.3 (2014): 381-420.
Zarefsky, David. “Making the case for war: Colin Powell at the United Nations.” Rhetoric & Public Affairs 10.2 (2007): 275-302.

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How to write a rhetorical analysis

What is a rhetorical analysis?

What are the key concepts of a rhetorical analysis, rhetorical situation, claims, supports, and warrants.

Step 1: Plan and prepare
Step 2: Write your introduction
Step 3: Write the body
Step 4: Write your conclusion

Frequently Asked Questions about rhetorical analysis

What is the Rhetorical Situation?

The rhetorical situation refers to

Exigence — the driving force behind the call to write or speak. It’s the situation that prompts the need for communication , urging the speaker or writer to use discourse to respond to a particular matter
Audience — the specific individuals or groups (aka discourse communities) to whom the discourse is directed
Constraints — the effects of rhetorical affordances and constraints on communication, composing and style

The Rhetorical Situation may also be called occasion; rhetorical situation ; rhetorical occasion ; situational constraints; the spin room; the no-spin room, the communication situation.

Rhetorical Situations are sometimes described as formal, semi-formal, or informal. They may also be described as home-based, school-based, or work-based .

Related Concepts: Epistemology ; Rhetoric ; Rhetorical Analysis ; Rhetorical Stance

We are always situated, in situations, in the world, in a context, living in a certain way with others, trying to achieve this and avoid that. Eugene Gendlin, p.2

Why Does the Rhetorical Situation Matter?

Writers, speakers, and knowledge workers . . . need a robust understanding of the rhetorical situation in order to respond appropriately to an exigency , a call for discourse.

Having “rhetorical knowledge” and being able to In order to determine the available means of persuasion., successful communicators analyze their rhetorical situation .

Rhetorical Theory has been a major subject of study and conversation among writers and speakers since the 5th century BCE, when sophists taught persuasive techniques to young aristocrats who hoped to succeed in legal and political arenas. Rhetorical theories provide insights into ways writers and speakers can craft their messages so they are persuasive.

Rhetorical theory has had a profound impact on writing instruction in the U.S. The CWPA (Council of Writing Program Administrators) defines rhetorical knowledge as a foundational competency in college-level writing:

“The assertion that writing is “rhetorical” means that writing is always shaped by a combination of the purposes and expectations of writers and readers and the uses that writing serves in specific contexts. To be rhetorically sensitive, good writers must be flexible. They should be able to pursue their purposes by consciously adapting their writing both to the contexts in which it will be read and to the expectations, knowledge, experiences, values, and beliefs of their readers. They also must understand how to take advantage of the opportunities with which they are presented and to address the constraints they encounter as they write. In practice, this means that writers learn to identify what is possible and not possible in diverse writing situations. Writing an email to a friend holds different possibilities for language and form than does writing a lab report for submission to an instructor in a biology class. Instructors emphasize the rhetorical nature of writing by providing writers opportunities to study the expectations, values, and norms associated with writing in specific contexts. This principle is fundamental to the study of writing and writing instruction. It informs all other principles in this document” (Conference 2015).

What is Rhetorical Analysis?

Since antiquity, rhetoricians have exhorted writers and speakers to think deeply and carefully about their audience , purpose , and topic . In the rhetorical tradition, this process—this activity of considering what you want to say, your purpose , and then adjusting what you want to say based on your evaluation of your audience —is called rhetorical analysis .

Rhetorical Analysis begins with a careful consideration of the contextual variables that need to be considered to respond with clarity and persuasion to the communication situation.

Scholarly conversations about what those contextual variables are have evolved over time.

Loyd Bitzer’s Rhetorical Model

In 1968, Loyd Bitzer, a rhetorician, articulated a theoretical model of the rhetorical situation.

Bitzer depicts the rhetorical situation as

“a complex of persons, events, objects, and relations presenting an actual or potential exigence [emphasis added] which can be completely or partially removed if discourse, introduced into the situation, can so constrain human decision or action as to bring about the significant modification of the exigence” (p.9).

Thus, Bitzer imagines the rhetorical situation as a dynamic between three primary forces:

Constraints

For Bitzer, the impetus for writing or speaking is the situation:

“Rhetorical discourse is called into existence by situation” (p. 9).
The situation gives rise to an exigency , which is “an imperfection marked by urgency; it is a defect, an obstacle, something waiting to be done, a thing that is other than it should be” (p. 6)

Moreover, Bitzer argues the situation presumes a response:

“the situation dictates the sorts of observations to be made; it dictates the significant physical and verbal responses. . . .” (p. 5)

Bitzer’s theory of the rhetorical situation, published as the first article in a new academic journal ( Rhetoric and Philosophy ) initiated an academic conversation that is still ongoing. To this day, Bitzer is credited for introducing the concept of exigency and for questioning how constraints — persons, events, objects, and relations –impinge on composing.

Furthermore, Bitzer deserves credit for introducing the notion that writing occurs in a sociocultural context–i.e., that there are rhetorical constraints that exist in the material world that shape how writers and speakers should respond to exigencies, situations.

However, in contemporary Writing Studies (as well as other academic disciplines), Bitzer’s argument that “Rhetorical discourse is called into existence by situation” (p. 9) has been disputed on theoretical and empirical grounds :

Empirical Grounds Bitzer’s model presumes that the writer or speaker lacks agency, that they are merely reactive to situations, that the situation determines whether or not something is translated to discourse/text or not. In contrast to this view, empirical research has found that writers and speakers bring their own agendas and desires to writing situations. When people enter a new rhetorical situation, they have aims/purposes, personalities, literacy histories, past experiences. All of those histories and more shape the their perception of the rhetorical situation, their invention, research, and reasoning processes. Rhetors experience an incessant flow of occasions and problems during their lives. And it is the rhetor who chooses to focus on any one particular rhetorical situation.
linguistic constraints
material constraints (e.g., timing, economics, governments, technology)
ideological constraints (especially gender, class, and race).

The Ecological Model

From the 1980s to 2000s, scholars from across disciplines (e.g., Rhetoric, Writing Studies, Gender Studies, and Philosophy) further problematized models of the rhetorical situation that

implied communication is a simple process of transmitting a message, information, from sender to receiver
portrayed rhetorical situations as “unique, unconnected with other situations” (Cooper, p. 367).
oversimplified ways interpretation is an act of imagination, a social construction.

By the close of the 20th century, thanks to postmodernism , constructivism , and feminism , the discipline of Writing Studies embraced a new theory of the rhetorical situation: the ecological model.

The ecological model conceptualizes the rhetorical situation as composed of a universe of variables that interact with one another, rhetors, and audiences. Thus, rather than conceptualizing the rhetorical situation as a one-to-one dialog between the writer and the writer’s audience, the ecological model attempts to conceptualize the rhetorical situation with greater complexity–i.e., as a milieu of rhetorical elements that occur in a multi-dimensional space.

First introduced to Writing Studies by Greg Myers (1985) and then developed by Marilyn Cooper (1986), the ecological model of the rhetorical situation assumes “writing is an activity through which a person is continually engaged with a variety of socially constituted systems” Cooper p. 367).

“The metaphor for writing suggested by the ecological model is that of a web, in which anything that affects one strand of the web vibrates throughout the whole” (Cooper p, 370).

Rather than debate either the situation invokes the rhetoric or the writer/speaker invokes the rhetoric, the ecological view assumes both the rhetor and the sociocultural context are in dialog, in co-creation with one another:

“all organisms–but especially human beings-are not simply the results but are also the causes of their own environments. . . . While it may be true that at some instant the environment poses a problem or challenge to the organism, in the process of response to that challenge the organism alters the terms of its relation to the outer world and recreates the relevant aspects of that world. The relation between organism and environment is not simply one of interaction of internal and external factors, but of a dialectical development of organism and milieu in response to each other. (Lewontin et al ., p. 275)

The Psychological Model

In psychology, the STEM community, and the learning sciences, investigators explore the role of mindset and personality on interpretation , creativity, and composing .

For example, research has found that people’s mindset about their competencies as writers and public speakers influence how they interact with rhetorical situations. People who hold a growth mindset about their potential as writers and communicators are more likely than people who hold a fixed mindset to engage in rhetorical analysis and rhetorical reasoning . Being preoccupied with negative thoughts when composing makes writing aversive.

Being intellectually open is crucial to putting aside one’s own perspective and living in the shoes of the Other . Being narrow minded about a topic undermines efforts at research, rhetorical analysis and rhetorical reasoning . Being able to engage in metacognition & self-regulation is crucial to successfully navigating rhetorical contexts. We all don’t know what we don’t know. That’s unavoidable, that’s human. However, openness , metacognition and regulation are needed to question how our own experiences and observations shape our interpretations, research methods , and knowledge claims.

So, on the Topic of the Rhetorical Situation, What’s Next?

Moving forward, as bots emerge, as Artificial Intelligence reaches consciousness, technorhetoricians are beginning to explore ways nonhuman elements enter the communication situation and assert agency.

Bitzer, Lloyd. (1968). “The Rhetorical Situation.” Philosophy and Rhetoric 1:1: 1-14.

Gendlin, Eugene T (1978). “Befindlichkeit: Heidegger and the philosophy of psychology” (PDF) . Review of Existential Psychology and Psychiatry . 16 (1–3): 43–71.

Lewontin, R. C., Steven Rose, and Leon J. Kamin. Not in Our Genes: Biology, Ideology, and Human Nature. New York: Pantheon Books, 1984.

Marilyn M. Cooper College English , Vol. 48, No. 4 (Apr., 1986), pp. 364-375

Myers, Greg. “The Social Construction of Two Biologists’ Proposals.” Written Communication 2 (1985): 219-45.

Vatz, Richard (1973). “The Myth of the Rhetorical Situation.” Philosophy & Rhetoric 6:3: 154-161.

Audience Awareness - How To Boost Clarity in Communications

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Occasion, Exigency, Kairos - How to Decode Meaning-Making Practices

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Joseph M. Moxley

If your text doesn’t appeal to your audience, then all is lost. Awareness of your audience (as well as purpose and context) is crucial to clarity in communications. Learn how...

Medium refer to the materials and tools Rhetors use to compose, archive, and convey messages. For 21st Century Writers, messages often have to be remediated in multiple media.

This article explores ‘perspective’ in interpretation, reasoning, and composition. It questions how a reader’s or writer’s background — personal experiences, cultural and academic influences, and their chosen viewpoint — shapes...

What is purpose? How does purpose shape the processes? When composing, how can I best identify and express my purpose?

Learn to analyze the register of a communication situation so you know when you need to code switch. Use register as a measure of audience awareness and clarity in communication....

“Text,” traditionally associated with printed materials, has evolved to encapsulate anything that conveys symbolic meaning – signifying that in the lens of modern semiotics, the world is a text. Texts...

Writers, Speakers, Knowledge Workers . . . are authors. They may also be called called actors, artists, creators, investigators, knowledge makers, researchers, rhetors, senders.

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Rhetorical Analysis Sample Essay

Harriet Clark

Ms. Rebecca Winter

13 Feb. 2015

Not Quite a Clean Sweep: Rhetorical Strategies in

Grose's "Cleaning: The Final Feminist Frontier”

A woman’s work is never done: many American women grow up with this saying and feel it to be true. 1 One such woman, author Jessica Grose, wrote “Cleaning: The Final Feminist Frontier,” published in 2013 in the New Republic, 2 and she argues that while the men recently started taking on more of the childcare and cooking, cleaning still falls unfairly on women. 3 Grose begins building her credibility with personal facts and reputable sources, citing convincing facts and statistics, and successfully employing emotional appeals; however, toward the end of the article, her attempts to appeal to readers’ emotions weaken her credibility and ultimately, her argument. 4

In her article, Grose first sets the stage by describing a specific scenario of house-cleaning with her husband after being shut in during Hurricane Sandy, and then she outlines the uneven distribution of cleaning work in her marriage and draws a comparison to the larger feminist issue of who does the cleaning in a relationship. Grose continues by discussing some of the reasons that men do not contribute to cleaning: the praise for a clean house goes to the woman; advertising and media praise men’s cooking and childcare, but not cleaning; and lastly, it is just not fun. Possible solutions to the problem, Grose suggests, include making a chart of who does which chores, dividing up tasks based on skill and ability, accepting a dirtier home, and making cleaning more fun with gadgets. 5

Throughout her piece, Grose uses many strong sources that strengthen her credibility and appeal to ethos, as well as build her argument. 6 These sources include, “sociologists Judith Treas and Tsui-o Tai,” “a 2008 study from the University of New Hampshire,” and “P&G North America Fabric Care Brand Manager, Matthew Krehbiel” (qtd. in Grose). 7 Citing these sources boosts Grose’s credibility by showing that she has done her homework and has provided facts and statistics, as well as expert opinions to support her claim. She also uses personal examples from her own home life to introduce and support the issue, which shows that she has a personal stake in and first-hand experience with the problem. 8

Adding to her ethos appeals, Grose uses strong appeals to logos, with many facts and statistics and logical progressions of ideas. 9 She points out facts about her marriage and the distribution of household chores: “My husband and I both work. We split midnight baby feedings ...but ... he will admit that he’s never cleaned the bathroom, that I do the dishes nine times out of ten, and that he barely knows how the washer and dryer work in the apartment we’ve lived in for over eight months.” 10 These facts introduce and support the idea that Grose does more household chores than her husband. Grose continues with many statistics:

[A]bout 55 percent of American mothers employed full time do some housework on an average day, while only 18 percent of employed fathers do. ... [W]orking women with children are still doing a week and a half more of “second shift” work each year than their male partners. ... Even in the famously gender-neutral Sweden, women do 45 minutes more housework a day than their male partners. 11

These statistics are a few of many that logically support her claim that it is a substantial and real problem that men do not do their fair share of the chores. The details and numbers build an appeal to logos and impress upon the reader that this is a problem worth discussing. 12

Along with strong logos appeals, Grose effectively makes appeals to pathos in the beginning and middle sections. 13 Her introduction is full of emotionally-charged words and phrases that create a sympathetic image; Grose notes that she “was eight months pregnant” and her husband found it difficult to “fight with a massively pregnant person.” 14 The image she evokes of the challenges and vulnerabilities of being so pregnant, as well as the high emotions a woman feels at that time effectively introduce the argument and its seriousness. Her goal is to make the reader feel sympathy for her. Adding to this idea are words and phrases such as, “insisted,” “argued,” “not fun,” “sucks” “headachey,” “be judged,” “be shunned” (Grose). All of these words evoke negative emotions about cleaning, which makes the reader sympathize with women who feel “judged” and shunned”—very negative feelings. Another feeling Grose reinforces with her word choice is the concept of fairness: “fair share,” “a week and a half more of ‘second shift’ work,” “more housework,” “more gendered and less frequent.” These words help establish the unfairness that exists when women do all of the cleaning, and they are an appeal to pathos, or the readers’ feelings of frustration and anger with injustice. 15

However, the end of the article lacks the same level of effectiveness in the appeals to ethos. 16 For example, Grose notes that when men do housework, they are considered to be “’enacting “small instances of gender heroism,” or ‘SIGH’s’—which, barf.” 17 The usage of the word “barf” is jarring to the reader; unprofessional and immature, it is a shift from the researched, intelligent voice she has established and the reader is less likely to take the author seriously. This damages the strength of her credibility and her argument. 18

Additionally, her last statement in the article refers to her husband in a way that weakens the argument. 19 While returning to the introduction’s hook in the conclusion is a frequently-used strategy, Grose chooses to return to her discussion of her husband in a humorous way: Grose discusses solutions, and says there is “a huge, untapped market ... for toilet-scrubbing iPods. I bet my husband would buy one.” 20 Returning to her own marriage and husband is an appeal to ethos or personal credibility, and while that works well in the introduction, in the conclusion, it lacks the strength and seriousness that the topic deserves and was given earlier in the article. 21

Though Grose begins the essay by effectively persuading her readers of the unfair distribution of home-maintenance cleaning labor, she loses her power in the end, where she most needs to drive home her argument. Readers can see the problem exists in both her marriage and throughout the world; however, her shift to humor and sarcasm makes the reader not take the problem as seriously in the end. 22 Grose could have more seriously driven home the point that a woman’s work could be done: by a man. 23

Works Cited

Grose, Jessica. “Cleaning: The Final Feminist Frontier.” New Republic. The New Republic, 19 Mar. 2013. Web. 28 Mar. 2014.

Article author's claim or purpose
Summary of the article's main point in the second paragraph (could also be in the introduction)
Third paragraph begins with a transition and topic sentence that reflects the first topic in the thesis
Quotes illustrate how the author uses appeals to ethos
Analysis explains how the quotes show the effective use of ethos as noted in the thesis
Transition and topic sentence about the second point from the thesis
Quote that illustrates appeals to logos
Analysis explains how the quotes show the effective use of logos, as noted in the thesis
Transition and topic sentence about the third point from the thesis
Quotes that illustrate appeals to pathos
Analysis explains how the quotes show the effective use of pathos, as noted in the thesis
Transition and topic sentence about fourth point from the thesis
Quote illustrates how the author uses appeal to ethos
Analysis explains how quote supports thesis
Transition and topic sentence about fourth point from thesis
Conclusion returns to the ideas in the thesis and further develops them
Last sentence returns to the hook in the introduction

Learn more about the " Rhetorical Analysis Graphic Organizer ."

Learn more about " Pathos, Logos, and Ethos ."

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10.2: Analyzing an Argument's Situation (Kairos, or the Rhetorical Situation)

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Media Alternative

Listen to an audio version of this page (9 min, 15 sec):

We will often begin our analysis of an argument by “situating” it. This means figuring out who the author is, what kind of text we are dealing with, who it is trying to persuade, and when and where it was written. The rhetorical situation (also called kairos ) is the combination of author, audience, context, purpose, constraints, and genre. It is the situation shaping the text, the situation to which the text responds.

Key Elements of the Rhetorical Situation

To fully understand an argument, experienced readers ask big-picture questions about the author , the audience they address, the context , the genre of the text, the purpose of the text, and the constraints that shape how it is written.

Who is the author? Where are they coming from? When reading a text , take a few minutes to research who the author is. Who are they, what kind of writing do they do, what organizations do they belong to, what is their reputation?

A middle-aged dark-skinned man with glasses and white hair sits at a table displaying his books.

Audience

In 7.2: Tailoring an Argument to an Audience , we discussed how to shape our own arguments with a particular audience in mind. We analyze an argument, we work backward to infer what the intended audience was. From there, we can also infer how the writer's sense of their audience shaped their choices as they wrote.

Who does it appear the author is trying to reach? How does the author address and imagine the audience?
Is the text aimed at a particular age, gender, cultural background, class, political orientation, or religion, for example? How is the text shaped to target this audience?
Does the text also seem to address a secondary audience?
Figuring out where the text was published, when it was published, what kind of text it is (speech, op-ed, article, song, etc.), and how it addresses readers can help provide clues to audience.
Who is likely to find the text important, relevant, or useful? Conversely, who is going to be alienated by the text? Reread the first page and consider what readers have to believe, value, or care about to get past it. Who is likely to set it aside based on something they see at the very beginning?
Consider style, tone, diction, and vocabulary. What do these tell you about the potential audience for the text? Examine the other authors and works referred to in the text (if there are footnotes or a Works Cited page, look at what is listed there. Just as you can learn a lot about a person by the people around them, you can learn a lot about a text from all the other texts it references). What does the author assume their readers know? What does the author assume about readers’ age, education, gender, location, or cultural values?

What is the author trying to achieve? What does the author want us to do, believe, or understand? All writing has a purpose. We write to bring awareness to a problem, make sense of an experience, call people to action, contribute to an area of knowledge, criticize or defend a position, redefine a concept, complain, clarify, challenge, document, create a beautiful story, and entertain (to name just a few purposes for writing).

As we analyze, we can ask ourselves what seems to be the question at issue. Why has the author written this text? What is the problem, dispute, or question being addressed? What motivated them to write, what do they hope to accomplish?

As we saw in 7.1: Deciding the Purpose of a Research-Based Argument , one way to classify arguments is according to the kind of question they set out to answer. If we determine that the argument we are analyzing is a definition , evaluation , causal , or proposal argument, we can look for common elements of that type of argument to help us understand the writer's choices and assess their effectiveness.

Context refers to situational influences that are specific to time, place, and occasion. When and where was the text written, and where is it intended to be read, seen, or heard? In her book Teaching Arguments, Jennifer Fletcher writes of "...the immediate social space and situation in which arguments must be made, including what's expected in terms of propriety or fitness for the occasion.”

What is the situation that prompted the writing of this text? What was going on at the time? Can you think of any social, political, or economic conditions that were particularly important?
What background information on the topic or associations with the topic would a reader of this time period likely have?
Part of the context is the “conversation” the text is part of. It’s unlikely the author is the first person to write on a particular topic. As Graff and Birkenstein point out, writers invariably add their voices to a larger conversation. How does the author respond to other texts? How does she enter the conversation (“Many authors have argued X, but as Smith shows, this position is flawed, and I will extend Smith’s critique by presenting data that shows…”) How does the author position herself in relation to other authors?
How does the knowledge of the text's original context influence our reading of it? How have circumstances changed since it was written?

Let's take an example: say we are analyzing an article on climate change, and we find that it doesn't try to prove that climate change is happening. Is it neglecting to address a counterargument? Is it making a bold choice to ignore likely objections? To answer, we would need to know in what decade the article was written. In the 1990s, when climate change was first widely publicized, many people doubted whether it was real. Now, in the 2020s, the negative effects of climate change are more prominently visible than before, and very few people deny that the earth is warming due to human influence. Global warming isn’t talked about like a scary monster that we can warn our children about at bedtime; now, global warming is a very real monster huffing and puffing at our front door. If we were commenting on a dated article on climate change by Glaiza Aquino, we might note something like "Aquino's choice not to address climate deniers' claims is bold for its time. She counts on others to dispel those claims and focuses instead on making an informed case for nuclear energy as the only way out of the crisis."

Genre

Genres are types of communication that have become routine and conventionalized. A poem, meme, lab report, op-ed, and magazine article are all examples of genres. Identifying the text’s genre can tell us a lot about audience, purpose, and context. We can ask ourselves, what kind of writing is this? Is this an academic argument? A Ted Talk? Is this a personal narrative essay that explores a momentous moment in the writer's life? Is this a literary analysis? A letter to the editor in a newspaper?

Genres give us clues about how we should read a text, what we can do with the text, and who the audience is. Consider the two images below.

A road sign with an image of a kangaroo.

The image below does not, by itself, give much guidance on how we should interpret it. But the image above is in a familiar genre – the road sign. Even if we have never seen a sign like this, we have a good idea of its purpose, intended audience, and meaning. Identifying a text’s genre will often reveal much about the rhetorical situation.

Attributions

Much of this text was adapted by Anna Mills from Reading, Writing, and Evaluating Argument by Chris Werry , Department of Rhetoric and Writing Studies, San Diego State University, licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 .
Portions of the text were written by Dylan Altman.

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How to Write the AP Lang Rhetorical Analysis Essay (With Example)

November 27, 2023

Feeling intimidated by the AP Lang Rhetorical Analysis Essay? We’re here to help demystify. Whether you’re cramming for the AP Lang exam right now or planning to take the test down the road, we’ve got crucial rubric information, helpful tips, and an essay example to prepare you for the big day. This post will cover 1) What is the AP Lang Rhetorical Analysis Essay? 2) AP Lang Rhetorical Analysis Rubric 3) AP Lang Rhetorical Analysis: Sample Prompt 4) AP Lang Rhetorical Analysis Essay Example 5)AP Lang Rhetorical Analysis Essay Example: Why It Works

What is the AP Lang Rhetorical Analysis Essay?

The AP Lang Rhetorical Analysis Essay is one of three essays included in the written portion of the AP English Exam. The full AP English Exam is 3 hours and 15 minutes long, with the first 60 minutes dedicated to multiple-choice questions. Once you complete the multiple-choice section, you move on to three equally weighted essays that ask you to synthesize, analyze, and interpret texts and develop well-reasoned arguments. The three essays include:

Synthesis essay: You’ll review various pieces of evidence and then write an essay that synthesizes (aka combines and interprets) the evidence and presents a clear argument. Read our write up on How to Write the AP Lang Synthesis Essay here.

Argumentative essay: You’ll take a stance on a specific topic and argue your case.

Rhetorical essay: You’ll read a provided passage, then analyze the author’s rhetorical choices and develop an argument that explains why the author made those rhetorical choices.

AP Lang Rhetorical Analysis Rubric

The AP Lang Rhetorical Analysis Essay is graded on just 3 rubric categories: Thesis, Evidence and Commentary, and Sophistication . At a glance, the rubric categories may seem vague, but AP exam graders are actually looking for very particular things in each category. We’ll break it down with dos and don’ts for each rubric category:

Thesis (0-1 point)

There’s nothing nebulous when it comes to grading AP Lang Rhetorical Analysis Essay thesis. You either have one or you don’t. Including a thesis gets you one point closer to a high score and leaving it out means you miss out on one crucial point. So, what makes a thesis that counts?

Make sure your thesis argues something about the author’s rhetorical choices. Making an argument means taking a risk and offering your own interpretation of the provided text. This is an argument that someone else might disagree with.
A good test to see if you have a thesis that makes an argument. In your head, add the phrase “I think that…” to the beginning of your thesis. If what follows doesn’t logically flow after that phrase (aka if what follows isn’t something you and only you think), it’s likely you’re not making an argument.
Avoid a thesis that merely restates the prompt.
Avoid a thesis that summarizes the text but does not make an argument.

Evidence and Commentary (0-4 points)

This rubric category is graded on a scale of 0-4 where 4 is the highest grade. Per the AP Lang Rhetorical Analysis rubric, to get a 4, you’ll want to:

Include lots of specific evidence from the text. There is no set golden number of quotes to include, but you’ll want to make sure you’re incorporating more than a couple pieces of evidence that support your argument about the author’s rhetorical choices.
Make sure you include more than one type of evidence, too. Let’s say you’re working on your essay and have gathered examples of alliteration to include as supporting evidence. That’s just one type of rhetorical choice, and it’s hard to make a credible argument if you’re only looking at one type of evidence. To fix that issue, reread the text again looking for patterns in word choice and syntax, meaningful figurative language and imagery, literary devices, and other rhetorical choices, looking for additional types of evidence to support your argument.
After you include evidence, offer your own interpretation and explain how this evidence proves the point you make in your thesis.
Don’t summarize or speak generally about the author and the text. Everything you write must be backed up with evidence.
Don’t let quotes speak for themselves. After every piece of evidence you include, make sure to explain your interpretation. Also, connect the evidence to your overarching argument.

Sophistication (0-1 point)

In this case, sophistication isn’t about how many fancy vocabulary words or how many semicolons you use. According to College Board , one point can be awarded to AP Lang Rhetorical Analysis essays that “demonstrate sophistication of thought and/or a complex understanding of the rhetorical situation” in any of these three ways:

Explaining the significance or relevance of the writer’s rhetorical choices.
Explaining the purpose or function of the passage’s complexities or tensions.
Employing a style that is consistently vivid and persuasive.

Note that you don’t have to achieve all three to earn your sophistication point. A good way to think of this rubric category is to consider it a bonus point that you can earn for going above and beyond in depth of analysis or by writing an especially persuasive, clear, and well-structured essay. In order to earn this point, you’ll need to first do a good job with your thesis, evidence, and commentary.

Focus on nailing an argumentative thesis and multiple types of evidence. Getting these fundamentals of your essay right will set you up for achieving depth of analysis.
Explain how each piece of evidence connects to your thesis.
Spend a minute outlining your essay before you begin to ensure your essay flows in a clear and cohesive way.
Steer clear of generalizations about the author or text.
Don’t include arguments you can’t prove with evidence from the text.
Avoid complex sentences and fancy vocabulary words unless you use them often. Long, clunky sentences with imprecisely used words are hard to follow.

AP Lang Rhetorical Analysis: Sample Prompt

The sample prompt below is published online by College Board and is a real example from the 2021 AP Exam. The prompt provides background context, essay instructions, and the text you need to analyze. For sake of space, we’ve included the text as an image you can click to read. After the prompt, we provide a sample high scoring essay and then explain why this AP Lang Rhetorical Analysis essay example works.

Suggested time—40 minutes.

(This question counts as one-third of the total essay section score.)

On February 27, 2013, while in office, former president Barack Obama delivered the following address dedicating the Rosa Parks statue in the National Statuary Hall of the United States Capitol building. Rosa Parks was an African American civil rights activist who was arrested in 1955 for refusing to give up her seat on a segregated bus in Montgomery, Alabama. Read the passage carefully. Write an essay that analyzes the rhetorical choices Obama makes to convey his message.

In your response you should do the following:

Respond to the prompt with a thesis that analyzes the writer’s rhetorical choices.
Select and use evidence to support your line of reasoning.
Explain how the evidence supports your line of reasoning.
Demonstrate an understanding of the rhetorical situation.
Use appropriate grammar and punctuation in communicating your argument.

AP Lang Rhetorical Analysis Essay Example

In his speech delivered in 2013 at the dedication of Rosa Park’s statue, President Barack Obama acknowledges everything that Parks’ activism made possible in the United States. Telling the story of Parks’ life and achievements, Obama highlights the fact that Parks was a regular person whose actions accomplished enormous change during the civil rights era. Through the use of diction that portrays Parks as quiet and demure, long lists that emphasize the extent of her impacts, and Biblical references, Obama suggests that all of us are capable of achieving greater good, just as Parks did.

Although it might be a surprising way to start to his dedication, Obama begins his speech by telling us who Parks was not: “Rosa Parks held no elected office. She possessed no fortune” he explains in lines 1-2. Later, when he tells the story of the bus driver who threatened to have Parks arrested when she refused to get off the bus, he explains that Parks “simply replied, ‘You may do that’” (lines 22-23). Right away, he establishes that Parks was a regular person who did not hold a seat of power. Her protest on the bus was not part of a larger plan, it was a simple response. By emphasizing that Parks was not powerful, wealthy, or loud spoken, he implies that Parks’ style of activism is an everyday practice that all of us can aspire to.

AP Lang Rhetorical Analysis Essay Example (Continued)

Even though Obama portrays Parks as a demure person whose protest came “simply” and naturally, he shows the importance of her activism through long lists of ripple effects. When Parks challenged her arrest, Obama explains, Martin Luther King, Jr. stood with her and “so did thousands of Montgomery, Alabama commuters” (lines 27-28). They began a boycott that included “teachers and laborers, clergy and domestics, through rain and cold and sweltering heat, day after day, week after week, month after month, walking miles if they had to…” (lines 28-31). In this section of the speech, Obama’s sentences grow longer and he uses lists to show that Parks’ small action impacted and inspired many others to fight for change. Further, listing out how many days, weeks, and months the boycott lasted shows how Parks’ single act of protest sparked a much longer push for change.

To further illustrate Parks’ impact, Obama incorporates Biblical references that emphasize the importance of “that single moment on the bus” (lines 57-58). In lines 33-35, Obama explains that Parks and the other protestors are “driven by a solemn determination to affirm their God-given dignity” and he also compares their victory to the fall the “ancient walls of Jericho” (line 43). By of including these Biblical references, Obama suggests that Parks’ action on the bus did more than correct personal or political wrongs; it also corrected moral and spiritual wrongs. Although Parks had no political power or fortune, she was able to restore a moral balance in our world.

Toward the end of the speech, Obama states that change happens “not mainly through the exploits of the famous and the powerful, but through the countless acts of often anonymous courage and kindness” (lines 78-81). Through carefully chosen diction that portrays her as a quiet, regular person and through lists and Biblical references that highlight the huge impacts of her action, Obama illustrates exactly this point. He wants us to see that, just like Parks, the small and meek can change the world for the better.

AP Lang Rhetorical Analysis Essay Example: Why It Works

We would give the AP Lang Rhetorical Analysis essay above a score of 6 out of 6 because it fully satisfies the essay’s 3 rubric categories: Thesis, Evidence and Commentary, and Sophistication . Let’s break down what this student did:

The thesis of this essay appears in the last line of the first paragraph:

“ Through the use of diction that portrays Parks as quiet and demure, long lists that emphasize the extent of her impacts, and Biblical references, Obama suggests that all of us are capable of achieving greater good, just as Parks did .”

This student’s thesis works because they make a clear argument about Obama’s rhetorical choices. They 1) list the rhetorical choices that will be analyzed in the rest of the essay (the italicized text above) and 2) include an argument someone else might disagree with (the bolded text above).

Evidence and Commentary:

This student includes substantial evidence and commentary. Things they do right, per the AP Lang Rhetorical Analysis rubric:

They include lots of specific evidence from the text in the form of quotes.
They incorporate 3 different types of evidence (diction, long lists, Biblical references).
After including evidence, they offer an interpretation of what the evidence means and explain how the evidence contributes to their overarching argument (aka their thesis).

Sophistication

This essay achieves sophistication according to the AP Lang Rhetorical Analysis essay rubric in a few key ways:

This student provides an introduction that flows naturally into the topic their essay will discuss. Before they get to their thesis, they tell us that Obama portrays Parks as a “regular person” setting up their main argument: Obama wants all regular people to aspire to do good in the world just as Rosa Parks did.
They organize evidence and commentary in a clear and cohesive way. Each body paragraph focuses on just one type of evidence.
They explain how their evidence is significant. In the final sentence of each body paragraph, they draw a connection back to the overarching argument presented in the thesis.
All their evidence supports the argument presented in their thesis. There is no extraneous evidence or misleading detail.
They consider nuances in the text. Rather than taking the text at face value, they consider what Obama’s rhetorical choices imply and offer their own unique interpretation of those implications.
In their final paragraph, they come full circle, reiterate their thesis, and explain what Obama’s rhetorical choices communicate to readers.
Their sentences are clear and easy to read. There are no grammar errors or misused words.

AP Lang Rhetorical Analysis Essay—More Resources

Looking for more tips to help your master your AP Lang Rhetorical Analysis Essay? Brush up on 20 Rhetorical Devices High School Students Should Know and read our Tips for Improving Reading Comprehension . If you’re ready to start studying for another part of the AP English Exam, find more expert tips in our How to Write the AP Lang Synthesis blog post.

Considering what other AP classes to take? Read up on the Hardest AP Classes .

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Christina Wood

Christina Wood holds a BA in Literature & Writing from UC San Diego, an MFA in Creative Writing from Washington University in St. Louis, and is currently a Doctoral Candidate in English at the University of Georgia, where she teaches creative writing and first-year composition courses. Christina has published fiction and nonfiction in numerous publications, including The Paris Review , McSweeney’s , Granta , Virginia Quarterly Review , The Sewanee Review , Mississippi Review , and Puerto del Sol , among others. Her story “The Astronaut” won the 2018 Shirley Jackson Award for short fiction and received a “Distinguished Stories” mention in the 2019 Best American Short Stories anthology.

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Rhetorical Analyses

A rhetorical analysis considers all elements of the rhetorical situation--the audience, purpose, medium, and context--within which a communication was generated and delivered in order to make an argument about that communication. A strong rhetorical analysis will not only describe and analyze the text, but will also evaluate it; that evaluation represents your argument.

Description: What does this text look like? Where did you find the text? Who sponsored it? What are the rhetorical appeals? (i.e. calm music in the background of a commercial establishes pathos) When was it written?
Analysis: Why does the author incorporate these rhetorical appeals? (For example, why does the author incorporate calm music? What is the point of the pathos?) How would the reception of this text change if it were written today, as opposed to twenty years ago? What is left out of this text and why? Should there be more logos in the ad? Why?
Evaluation: Is the text effective? Is the text ethical? What might you change about this text to make it more persuasive?

Rhetoric Defined

Classically, "the art of persuasion".
"About using language purposefully, in order to get something done in the world" ("What is Rhetoric").
"Something that allows you to formulate ethical reading strategies [...] but also to invent your own responses to the world" ("What is Rhetoric").

Keywords and Concepts

Following are some basic terms and concepts (far from inclusive) that you should consider and use in a rhetorical analysis.

Rhetorical Situation

The rhetorical situation identifies the relationship among the elements of any communication--audience, author (rhetor), purpose, medium, context, and content.

Spectator, listeners, and/or readers of a performance, a speech, a reading, or printed material. Depending on the author's/writer's perception, an audience may be real (actually listening or reading), invoked (those to whom the writer explicitly writes) or imagined(those who the writer believes will read/hear her work) (Dept. of English)

Author/Rhetor/Speaker/Writer

The person or group of people who composed the text.

Purpose of the Author

The reason for communicating; the expected or intended outcome.

The delivery method, which varies by type of text:

Alphabetic Text (for example, written speech, newspaper editorial, essay, passage out of a novel, poetry)
Images (for example, TV commercials, advertisements in magazines or on websites)
Sound (for example, radio or TV commercials, a website advertisement, speeches)
Multimodal texts (YouTube videos, performances, digital stories)

The time, place, public conversations surrounding the text during its original generation and delivery; the text may also be analyzed within a different context such as how an historical text would be received by its audience today.

The main idea, thesis, opinion, or belief of an argument that the author must prove. The claim should be debatable and answer the question, "What's the point?"

The statements given to back up the claim. These can take the form of facts, data, personal experience, expert opinion, evidence from other texts or sources, emotional appeals, or other means. The more reliable and comprehensive the support, the more likely the audience is to accept the claim.

The connection, often unstated and assumed, between the claim and the supporting reason(s), or support. The warrant is the assumption that makes the claim seem plausible. More specifically, warrants are the beliefs, values, inferences and/or experiences that the writers/speakers assume they share with the audience. If the audience doesn't share the writers'/speakers' assumptions within the text, the argument will not be effective.

Rhetorical Triangle

The elements of the rhetorical situation interact with and influence one another. In learning to write an analysis, it is thus helpful to think about the relationship among these elements within the rhetorical triangle. By doing this, writers will be able to better understand how the elements of each text come together (often overlap) to make an argument or persuade an audience.

The authority or credibility of the author. Can refer to any of the following: the actual character of the speaker/writer, the character of the writer as it is presented in a text, or as a series of ground rules/customs, which are negotiated between speaker, audience, and specific traditions or locations. The speaker must convince the audience of their credibility through the language they use and through the delivery, or embodied performance, of their speech.

Did you analyze ethos enough in your essay?

Have you looked at what experiences or claims to authority qualify this author to speak or write?
Have you considered the credibility and moral character of the writer/speaker?
Have you considered the design or appearance of the text you are analyzing? Does it look professional? What can you say about the author based on the appearance of the text alone?

Emotional appeals to the audience to evoke feelings of pity, sympathy, tenderness, or sorrow. The speaker may also want the audience to feel anger, fear, courage, love, happiness, sadness, etc.

Have you analyzed pathos enough in your essay?

Have you considered how the author appeals to the emotions of the reader/viewer?
How does the author establish a bond with his audience?
How might the author change his strategy if he was trying to establish a bond with a different audience?
Have you considered your own personal reaction to the background music of this advertisement?
What kinds of feelings do the colors that the author uses provoke?
What other images in the text provoke an emotional response? Why would the author include these images?

In classical rhetoric, logos is the means of persuasion by demonstration of the truth, real or apparent, the reasons or supporting information used to support a claim, the use of logic or reason to make an argument. Logos can include citing facts and statistics, historical events, and other forms of fact based evidence.

Do you analyze logos enough in your essay?

How does the author back up his argument in this text? Does he incorporate facts, statistics, or numbers?
Have you considered how logical the author's argument is?
Are the claims this author is making realistic?
Does the author consider alternative arguments?

The right time to speak or write; advantageous, exact, or critical time; a window of time during which action is most effective. (Ex. Martin Luther King Jr.'s "I Have a dream speech was delivered at the right moment in history—in the heat of civil rights debates.)

Literally, stasis is "a stand" or a "resting place" in an argument where opponents agree on what the issue is but disagree on what to do about it. The skilled rhetor is able to move the argument away from stasis. (Ex. Rhetor A asserts that abortion is murder. Rhetor B asserts that abortion is not murder. This is the point of stasis. The argument cannot rest here indefinitely. One of these rhetors must get the argument beyond the issue of murder.)

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Rhetorical Situation: Definition, Examples & FAQs

While the term 'rhetoric' often carries a negative connotation linked with politics and manipulation, it's essentially a versatile tool. We encounter rhetoric everywhere—in TV ads, on our phones, and in everyday conversations. Understanding it can enhance your ability to decipher messages and communicate effectively.

Rhetoric is simply the art of using language to achieve a purpose, whether it's persuasion, information, or entertainment. In this article, our aim is to equip you with numerous examples to effortlessly recognize rhetorical situations. So, let's jump right in!

What is a Rhetorical Situation

Now that we've brushed aside the mystique surrounding rhetoric, let our essay writer delve into the rhetorical situation definition.

A rhetorical situation occurs when there's a convergence of three key elements: the audience, the context, and the message. It's like a perfect storm where these factors interact to shape the communication process.

Firstly, there's the audience—the individuals who will receive and interpret the message. Their beliefs, values, and expectations play a crucial role in how they perceive and respond to communication.

Next, we have the context—the environment or circumstances in which the communication occurs. This includes factors such as the time, place, and social, cultural, and historical background.

Lastly, there's the message itself—the content being communicated. Whether it's a speech, an advertisement, or a piece of writing, the message is crafted to achieve a specific purpose and elicit a particular response from the audience within the given context.

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Elements of a Rhetorical Situation

Now that we've grasped the essence of rhetorical situations let's break it down further by examining its individual components—the elements that shape and define a good rhetorical analysis essay example .

These elements include:

Audience : The people who will receive and interpret the message. Understanding their demographics, values, beliefs, and attitudes is crucial for tailoring the message effectively.
Context : The setting or circumstances in which the communication occurs. This encompasses factors such as time, place, social dynamics, cultural background, and historical context.
Message : The content being communicated. This includes the language used, the tone, the style, and the medium through which it is conveyed.
Purpose : The goal or objective behind the communication. Whether it's to persuade, inform, entertain, or inspire action, clarifying the purpose helps in crafting a compelling message.
Medium : The channel or platform through which the message is conveyed. This could be spoken words, written text, images, videos, or even non-verbal cues like gestures or facial expressions. The choice of medium influences how the message is received and interpreted by the audience.
Constraints : These are factors that limit or shape the communication process, such as time constraints, available resources, cultural norms, and legal or ethical considerations. Recognizing and navigating these constraints is essential for effective communication.

Rhetorical Appeals

Next, let's look into the concept of rhetorical appeals, which are fundamental tools used to persuade audiences in rhetorical situations. This rhetorical situation triangle was first identified by the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle and is still relevant in communication today. There are three main appeals:

Ethos : Ethos refers to the credibility, trustworthiness, and authority of the speaker or source. Establishing ethos involves demonstrating expertise, sincerity, and goodwill towards the audience. People are more likely to be persuaded by someone they perceive as credible and trustworthy.
Pathos : Pathos appeals to the emotions and feelings of the audience. By evoking emotions such as sympathy, fear, anger, or joy, speakers can create a strong emotional connection with their audience. Emotional appeals can be powerful motivators for action and can deeply influence people's attitudes and behavior.
Logos : Logos involves using logic, reasoning, and evidence to support an argument. This appeal relies on facts, statistics, examples, and logical reasoning to persuade the audience. By presenting a well-structured and logical argument, speakers can appeal to the audience's intellect and rationality.

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10 Rhetorical Situation Examples in Literature

In this section, we'll explore 10 rhetorical situations examples in literature, showcasing how authors skillfully employ the devices and appeals to convey their messages and engage their audiences. And if you've been assigned to write a paper, you can always order essay from our expert writers for deeper analysis.

'Brave New World' by Aldous Huxley

Huxley's dystopian novel presents a future society where individuality and free will are sacrificed for stability and conformity. Through the character of Bernard Marx and his rebellion against the oppressive regime, Huxley critiques the dangers of technological advancement and the dehumanizing effects of a consumerist culture.

Audience : Originally targeted at readers of dystopian fiction and those concerned with societal trends in the early 20th century, 'Brave New World' now appeals to a broader audience intrigued by themes of control, individuality, and technology.
Context : Written amidst post-World War I uncertainties and fears of totalitarianism, Aldous Huxley's novel reflects concerns about unchecked scientific progress and societal conformity.
Message : Huxley's novel serves as a cautionary tale, warning against sacrificing individuality and freedom for stability and conformity. It critiques the dehumanizing effects of consumerism, genetic engineering, and the suppression of free will.
Purpose : The novel aims to provoke reflection on societal values and priorities, challenging readers to consider the ethical implications of scientific advancement and the importance of preserving individuality and freedom.
Medium : Presented as a novel of speculative fiction, 'Brave New World' employs vivid imagery, intricate world-building, and thought-provoking dialogue to immerse readers in its dystopian society.
Constraints : Huxley navigated societal norms, censorship, and publishing expectations while crafting 'Brave New World.' The novel's publication in 1932 amidst social and political tensions likely influenced its portrayal of a dystopian future grappling with the consequences of scientific advancement.

'The Lord of the Rings' by J.R.R. Tolkien

Tolkien's epic fantasy saga follows the quest to destroy the One Ring and defeat the dark lord Sauron. Through richly imagined world-building and themes of heroism, friendship, and sacrifice, Tolkien explores the timeless struggle between good and evil.

Audience : The immediate audience was readers of fantasy literature. However, it now captivates those who enjoy epic tales of adventure, heroism, and the battle between good and evil.
Context : Written post-World War II, 'The Lord of the Rings' reflects J.R.R. Tolkien's experiences, love of mythology, and medieval literature.
Message : Tolkien's epic explores timeless themes like courage, friendship, and the fight against tyranny through characters like Frodo and Aragorn.
Purpose : The trilogy transports readers to Middle-earth, imparting moral and philosophical insights about good and evil, perseverance, and friendship.
Medium : Presented as a trilogy, it uses vivid descriptions and rich characters to immerse readers in its fantastical world.
Constraints : Tolkien navigated genre expectations and his desire for a cohesive mythology, influenced by post-war themes of heroism and resilience.

'Frankenstein' by Mary Shelley

Shelley's Gothic masterpiece delves into themes of ambition, morality, and the consequences of scientific discovery. Through the tragic figure of Victor Frankenstein and his creation, Shelley explores the rhetorical situation through the boundaries of humanity and the dangers of playing god.

Audience : Initially for fans of Gothic and Romantic literature, 'Frankenstein' now attracts a wider audience interested in its exploration of morality and the consequences of science.
Context : Written in the early 19th century, Mary Shelley's 'Frankenstein' emerged amid scientific progress and societal worries about its ethical impact. Shelley's personal experiences and Romantic influences also shaped the novel.
Message : 'Frankenstein' warns against ambition without ethics, using Victor Frankenstein's story to explore themes of isolation and responsibility.
Purpose : Shelley's novel prompts thought on the ethical challenges of scientific advancement and human creation. It urges reflection on empathy and accountability.
Medium : Presented as a Gothic tale, it uses vivid descriptions and moral complexity to immerse readers in its story of horror.
Constraints : Shelley faced societal and personal challenges while writing, influenced by gender roles and Romantic ideals.

'Pride and Prejudice' by Jane Austen

Austen's timeless romance follows the tumultuous courtship between Elizabeth Bennet and Mr. Darcy amidst the social conventions and class hierarchies of Regency-era England. Through witty dialogue and sharp social commentary, Austen examines themes of love, marriage, and the importance of self-awareness.

Audience : 'Pride and Prejudice' attracts a broad audience fascinated by its exploration of love and societal norms.
Context : Written during the Regency era, it reflects the social norms and gender roles of the time.
Message : Critiques class and gender expectations while celebrating love and individual agency through the story of Elizabeth Bennet and Mr. Darcy.
Purpose : Austen's novel entertains while challenging societal norms, urging readers to reflect on their attitudes and behavior.
Medium : Presented as a novel of manners, 'Pride and Prejudice' uses wit and irony to portray Regency England.
Constraints : Austen faced societal and publishing constraints while crafting the novel.

'The Odyssey' by Homer

Homer's epic poem follows the journey of the Greek hero Odysseus as he attempts to return home after the Trojan War. Through themes of heroism, temptation, and perseverance, there are a few examples of a rhetorical situation where Homer explores the complexities of human nature and the importance of personal growth and resilience.

Audience : Originally, it was composed for an oral audience in ancient Greece. Now, 'The Odyssey' appeals to readers of epic poetry and mythology across cultures and time periods.
Context : Composed during the Greek Dark Ages, drawing on oral traditions and myths to recount the adventures of the hero Odysseus as he journeys home from the Trojan War.
Message : It serves as a timeless exploration of the hero's journey and the challenges of returning home. Through Odysseus' trials and tribulations, Homer explores themes of resilience, perseverance, and the consequences of hubris.
Purpose : Homer's epic aims to entertain and inspire audiences with its tales of adventure, heroism, and divine intervention while also imparting moral lessons about the virtues of courage, hospitality, and loyalty.
Medium : Presented as an epic poem, the novel employs vivid imagery, heroic language, and rhythmic verse to transport listeners and readers to the mythical world of ancient Greece.
Constraints : Homer drew on traditional myths and oral storytelling conventions, as well as the poetic forms and techniques of his time. Additionally, the poem reflects the cultural values and beliefs of ancient Greek society, including its reverence for gods and heroes.

'The Scarlet Letter' by Nathaniel Hawthorne

Hawthorne's novel explores the consequences of sin, guilt, and redemption in Puritanical New England. Through the character of Hester Prynne and her public shaming for adultery, Hawthorne critiques the harsh judgmentalism of society while probing the complexities of human nature.

Audience : Originally for mid-19th-century American lit readers, 'The Scarlet Letter' now attracts a wide audience interested in guilt, sin, and redemption.
Context : Set in Puritanical New England during the 17th century, Nathaniel Hawthorne's 'The Scarlet Letter' reflects his family's link to the Salem witch trials and his views on 19th-century America.
Message : Explores morality, sin, and human nature through Hester Prynne's public shaming for adultery, highlighting guilt, redemption, and societal judgment hypocrisy.
Purpose : Hawthorne's novel aims to challenge moral assumptions and societal norms, urging reflection on sin, forgiveness, and compassion by portraying judgment's consequences and promoting empathy.
Medium : 'The Scarlet Letter' is presented as historical fiction and uses vivid descriptions, psychological depth, and moral ambiguity to immerse readers in Puritan New England.
Constraints : While writing, Hawthorne dealt with societal morality, religion, gender roles, and literary conventions of his time.

'Fahrenheit 451' by Ray Bradbury

Bradbury's dystopian novel includes rhetorical situation examples where books are banned and 'firemen' burn any found. Through the protagonist Guy Montag's awakening to the power of literature and his rebellion against censorship, Bradbury critiques the dangers of ignorance, conformity, and the suppression of knowledge.

Audience : The novel is mostly appreciated by those interested in themes of censorship, knowledge, and individuality.
Context : Written during the Cold War era and amidst growing concerns about censorship and conformity in American society, it reflects anxieties about the suppression of ideas and the erosion of intellectual freedom.
Message : The novel serves as a powerful warning against the dangers of censorship, ignorance, and the manipulation of information.
Purpose : Bradbury's novel aims to provoke thought and reflection on the value of literature, the dangers of censorship, and the role of technology in shaping society. By presenting a dystopian vision of the future, Bradbury challenges readers to consider the consequences of apathy and conformity.
Medium : Presented as a novel of speculative fiction, it employs vivid imagery, allegorical storytelling, and thought-provoking dialogue to immerse readers in its dystopian world.
Constraints : While crafting 'Fahrenheit 451,' Bradbury navigated societal concerns about censorship and conformity, as well as the expectations of the science fiction genre and the publishing industry of his time.

'The Grapes of Wrath' by John Steinbeck

Steinbeck's novel follows the Joad family as they journey from Oklahoma to California during the Great Depression. Through their experiences of poverty, exploitation, and displacement, Steinbeck critiques the social injustices of the era while championing the resilience and dignity of the human spirit.

Audience : The Grapes of Wrath' speaks to those interested in fairness, financial struggles, and human resilience.
Context : Set during the Great Depression and the Dust Bowl migration, Steinbeck's novel reflects the challenges of American farmers and workers in a time of economic hardship and change.
Message : 'The Grapes of Wrath' criticizes economic injustice, corporate greed, and mistreatment of the working class through the Joad family's journey, highlighting themes of dignity, unity, and hope for a better life.
Purpose : Steinbeck aims to raise awareness of migrant workers' struggles and inspire empathy for the marginalized, urging readers to confront societal flaws and advocate for change.
Medium : Presented realistically, the novel uses vivid descriptions, authentic dialogue, and symbolism to transport readers to the Great Depression era.
Constraints : Steinbeck faced pressure for realism, social critique, and narrative structure, along with concerns about censorship and political fallout while writing the novel.

'Beloved' by Toni Morrison

Morrison's novel is full of rhetorical situations examples where he delves into the trauma of slavery and its lasting effects on individuals and communities. Through the character of Sethe, a former slave haunted by the ghost of her daughter, Morrison examines themes of memory, identity, and the search for freedom and redemption.

Audience : The novel attracts a broad audience intrigued by themes of history, trauma, and slavery's legacy.
Context : 'Beloved' emerges from America's slavery history, reflecting her experiences and observations on race, identity, and memory.
Message : It powerfully explores slavery's legacy through Sethe's haunting past, touching on trauma, memory, and identity.
Purpose : Morrison aims to spotlight overlooked African American stories, giving voice to the silenced and challenging readers to confront slavery's truths.
Medium : Through literary fiction, 'Beloved' employs lyrical prose and symbolism, immersing readers in its exploration of memory and redemption.
Constraints : Morrison balanced societal expectations on race, gender, and representation alongside her artistic vision amidst ongoing debates on race and identity.

'The Canterbury Tales' by Geoffrey Chaucer

Chaucer's collection of stories follows a group of pilgrims on their journey to the shrine of Thomas Becket in Canterbury. Through the diverse cast of characters and their tales, Chaucer offers a panoramic view of medieval English society while exploring themes of love, morality, and social hierarchy.

Audience : 'The Canterbury Tales' originally catered to medieval audiences but now appeals to readers interested in literature, history, and social commentary across different periods.
Context : Set in medieval England, Geoffrey Chaucer's work mirrors the religious, political, and economic landscape of the time.
Message : Through a range of characters and their stories, 'The Canterbury Tales' delves into human nature, morality, and society, exploring themes such as love, betrayal, and greed.
Purpose : Chaucer's intention is to entertain, educate, and critique the flaws and contradictions of medieval society, prompting readers to reflect on their own beliefs.
Medium : Presented as a collection of narratives, 'The Canterbury Tales' utilizes poetry, prose, and satire to captivate readers and convey its profound themes.
Constraints : Chaucer faced challenges, including meeting patronage expectations, adhering to medieval literary norms, and writing in Middle English, potentially contending with the political and religious sensitivities of the era.

5 Examples of Rhetorical Situations in Everyday Life

Now, shifting away from the literature discussion, let's analyze 5 real-life examples of rhetoric. And if you're interested in exploring an illustration essay further, we've got a whole separate article dedicated to it, so be sure to give that a read too!

Corporate Apology

In 2017, United Airlines faced public backlash after a video of a passenger being forcibly removed from an overbooked flight went viral. The CEO, Oscar Munoz, issued a public apology, employing rhetorical strategies such as acknowledging the incident, expressing remorse, and outlining steps for improvement to regain public trust.

Audience : The general public, including passengers, potential customers, shareholders, and stakeholders.
Context : United Airlines faced public backlash after a video of a passenger being forcibly removed from an overbooked flight went viral.
Message : Acknowledgment of the incident, expression of remorse, and outlining steps for improvement to regain public trust.
Purpose : To address the negative public perception, restore confidence in the airline's reputation, and mitigate the damage caused by the incident.
Medium : The CEO, Oscar Munoz, issued the apology through a public statement, likely distributed via press releases, social media platforms, and news conferences.
Constraints : The apology must strike a balance between accepting responsibility for the incident, expressing genuine remorse, and outlining concrete actions to prevent similar occurrences in the future, all while maintaining the company's professional image and credibility.

Environmental Activism

Environmental activist Greta Thunberg's speeches and activism serve as examples of rhetorical situations in real life aimed at raising awareness about climate change. Her addresses at international forums, such as the United Nations Climate Action Summit in 2019, employ rhetorical devices such as repetition and urgency to urge global leaders to take immediate action against climate change.

Audience : Global leaders, activists, and the public.
Context : Greta Thunberg's activism targets climate change awareness and urgent action.
Message : Urgency for immediate climate action, using repetition and urgency.
Purpose : Mobilize leaders and inspire action against climate change.
Medium : Speeches at international forums, social media, and public appearances.
Constraints : Maintain credibility and navigate political sensitivities.

Product Launch Events

Apple's product launch events, such as the unveiling of new iPhones, are meticulously crafted rhetorical situations designed to generate excitement and anticipation among consumers. Through keynote presentations delivered by company executives, Apple utilizes persuasive language, product demonstrations, and testimonials to showcase the features and benefits of its latest innovations.

Audience : Consumers, tech enthusiasts, investors, and media outlets.
Context : Apple's product launch events aim to generate excitement and anticipation for new products, particularly iPhones.
Message : Highlight the features and benefits of new innovations through persuasive language, product demonstrations, and testimonials.
Purpose : Generate consumer interest, drive sales, and maintain Apple's brand image as an innovator.
Medium : Keynote presentations delivered by Apple executives, supported by multimedia presentations and live demonstrations.
Constraints : Ensure that the presentations effectively communicate the value proposition of the new products while maintaining secrecy about unreleased products to preserve anticipation and surprise.

Presidential Debates

Presidential debates serve as prominent rhetorical situations during election cycles. The 2020 United States presidential debates between Donald Trump and Joe Biden featured exchanges of arguments, rebuttals, and appeals to voters. Candidates utilized rhetorical strategies such as framing, persuasion techniques, and nonverbal communication to convey their policies and positions effectively to the electorate.

Audience : Voters, undecided voters, political analysts, and the media.
Context : The 2020 United States presidential debates between Donald Trump and Joe Biden were pivotal events in the election cycle, providing a platform for candidates to present their policies and engage in discourse.
Message : Candidates used rhetorical strategies such as framing, persuasion techniques, and nonverbal communication to convey their policies and positions effectively.
Purpose : To sway voter opinions, clarify policy stances, and demonstrate leadership qualities to the electorate.
Medium : Televised debates with millions of viewers, supplemented by social media coverage and analysis.
Constraints : Candidates must navigate the debate format, adhere to time limits, and effectively address moderator questions while maintaining composure and projecting confidence.

Legal Trials and Courtroom Arguments

Courtroom trials involve intense rhetorical situations where lawyers aim to persuade judges and juries of their client's innocence or guilt. An example is the O.J. Simpson trial in 1995, where defense attorney Johnnie Cochran utilized rhetorical strategies such as repetition ('If it doesn't fit, you must acquit') and emotional appeals to cast doubt on the prosecution's case and secure a favorable outcome for his client.

Audience : Judges, jury members, legal professionals, and the public.
Context : The O.J. Simpson trial in 1995 was a high-profile case where the defense aimed to persuade the court of Simpson's innocence in the murders of Nicole Brown Simpson and Ronald Goldman.
Message : Defense attorney Johnnie Cochran utilized rhetorical strategies, including repetition and emotional appeals, to cast doubt on the prosecution's case and secure a favorable outcome for his client.
Purpose : To persuade the jury of Simpson's innocence by undermining the prosecution's evidence and creating reasonable doubt.
Medium : Courtroom proceedings, media coverage, and public discourse.
Constraints : Adhering to legal procedures, presenting evidence, and maintaining professionalism while effectively conveying the defense's argument.

Wrapping Up

As we wrap up this article, we hope you're now feeling like a pro at spotting and dissecting rhetorical situation examples. And, if this article did the trick for you, why not skip the hassle and pay for essay online ? With our service, you're practically guaranteed top-notch grades!

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What is a Rhetorical Situation?

Which behavior is most clearly a response to a rhetorical situation, what is an example of a rhetorical situation.

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is a seasoned educational writer focusing on scholarship guidance, research papers, and various forms of academic essays including reflective and narrative essays. His expertise also extends to detailed case studies. A scholar with a background in English Literature and Education, Daniel’s work on EssayPro blog aims to support students in achieving academic excellence and securing scholarships. His hobbies include reading classic literature and participating in academic forums.

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What is a Rhetorical Situation? (Definition, Examples, Rules)

What is a rhetorical situation? How does it work? We’ve all heard of things being “rhetorical,” although do we completely understand them? Learn more about a rhetorical situation in this short guide.

What is a rhetorical situation?

A piece of writing or a speech is influenced by its creator’s background, beliefs, interests, and values. Readers interpret the text or speech by considering the circumstances out of which it arises.

The rhetorical situation offers an understanding of how readers and writers relate to each other through the written or spoken medium. It helps writers produce more effective text that meets its intended goals. It allows readers to determine the context in which the writing took place and what the text aims to do.

Let’s look at the rhetorical situation in more detail and use examples for a better grasp of the model.

How do you find the rhetorical situation?

The rhetorical situation is made up of components that impact the development and reception of the text. The components are:

2. Exigence

3. Audience

The author is the individual who creates the text. Readers of the text will consider the author’s authority or experience in the subject on which he/she has written. They will also look at the values the author holds with regard to the subject, and factors that affect the author’s perspectives on the subject.

The exigence describes the urgent need that the author wants to address through the text. The author knows why he/she wants to express certain points and how those points will impact his/her audience.

The audience refers to the people the text aims to persuade, inform, or entertain. Individuals other than the intended recipients of the text are also included in the text’s audience.

Purpose

The purpose describes the aims of the text. Does the writer aim to inform, persuade, or entertain his/her audience? Readers that engage with the text think about the writer’s motivations to create the text and the goals of that text.

Context

The context is made up of all the factors that influence the meaning of the text. The types of context are:

Physical context

The physical settings of authors affect the texts they create. For example, some writers may find they’re able to produce more effective text in bustling coffee shops while others may prefer the solitude of libraries. The specific places in which readers receive the text affect how they respond to the text.

For example, those commuting by train may read a pamphlet in a more leisurely way, which will affect how they feel about its contents. If the same pamphlet were to be handed to them while they were walking, they may engage with it differently.

Social context

The social environment of writers and readers affects how they create and receive a text. Writers and readers belonging to similar communities are more likely to communicate effectively with one another compared to writers or readers belonging to different communities.

Writers may not need to provide a detailed background on a topic when presenting to groups already familiar with the topic. Supporters of a political party will not expect a columnist supporting the rival party to provide a nuanced or unbiased account of a key poll issue.

Cultural context

A documentary set in the sixties will connect more easily with viewers who are intimately familiar with the social behaviors and speech of that era. Millennials may find it hard to understand the colloquial speech and slang of earlier generations.

Readers based in India may find it easier to follow a news article on the issue of dowry deaths than counterparts in the west, where the dowry system has never existed.

The topic is the piece of communication, whether that occurs verbally or in writing.

What is an example of a rhetorical situation?

You’re surrounded by rhetoric . It’s in YouTube videos, newspaper ads, television commercials, billboards, political speeches, literary essays, songs, and graphic novels, to name some.

The examples below highlight the components of the rhetorical situation.

1. Archbishop of Canterbury Justin Welby delivered the funeral eulogy for Queen Elizabeth II.

The exigence is that it is customary to publicly reflect on a Head of State’s life and achievements
The audience comprises the British public and people from all over the world
The purpose is to highlight the Queen’s life of public service
In the west, it is customary to conduct a eulogy to pay tribute to someone who has died
The topic is the sermon the archbishop delivered at the Queen’s funeral at Westminster Abbey

2. Inaugural address by President Joseph Biden.

The exigence is that it is customary for the elected President of the United States to deliver an inaugural address
The audience is Americans although the inaugural address is shown on all international news channels
The purpose is to share the President’s vision for America and promise to the American people
The inaugural address is part of the customary ceremony to mark the commencement of a new four-year term of the President of the United States.
The topic is the inaugural speech by the President.

Use rhetorical analysis to shape messages and gain a detailed understanding of content

Breaking down the rhetorical situation is helpful for writers, speakers, and content creators. A rhetorical analysis of content is useful to identify the improvements needed to make it more appealing to its audience and meet its goals. As a reader, rhetorical analysis is a tool to effectively understand, critique, or enjoy different types of content. Use this model today to enhance your writing and interpretation skills.

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Fact checked: Content is rigorously reviewed by a team of qualified and experienced fact checkers. Fact checkers review articles for factual accuracy, relevance, and timeliness. Learn more.

About the author

Dalia Y.: Dalia is an English Major and linguistics expert with an additional degree in Psychology. Dalia has featured articles on Forbes, Inc, Fast Company, Grammarly, and many more. She covers English, ESL, and all things grammar on GrammarBrain.

Core lessons

Abstract Noun
Accusative Case
Active Sentence
Alliteration
Adjective Clause
Adjective Phrase
Adverbial Clause
Appositive Phrase
Body Paragraph
Compound Adjective
Complex Sentence
Compound Words
Compound Predicate
Common Noun
Comparative Adjective
Comparative and Superlative
Compound Noun
Compound Subject
Compound Sentence
Copular Verb
Collective Noun
Colloquialism
Conciseness
Conditional
Concrete Noun
Conjunction
Conjugation
Conditional Sentence
Comma Splice
Correlative Conjunction
Coordinating Conjunction
Coordinate Adjective
Cumulative Adjective
Dative Case
Declarative Statement
Direct Object Pronoun
Direct Object
Dangling Modifier
Demonstrative Pronoun
Demonstrative Adjective
Direct Characterization
Definite Article
Doublespeak
Equivocation Fallacy
Future Perfect Progressive
Future Simple
Future Perfect Continuous
Future Perfect
First Conditional
Gerund Phrase
Genitive Case
Helping Verb
Irregular Adjective
Irregular Verb
Imperative Sentence
Indefinite Article
Intransitive Verb
Introductory Phrase
Indefinite Pronoun
Indirect Characterization
Interrogative Sentence
Intensive Pronoun
Inanimate Object
Indefinite Tense
Infinitive Phrase
Interjection
Intensifier
Indicative Mood
Juxtaposition
Linking Verb
Misplaced Modifier
Nominative Case
Noun Adjective
Object Pronoun
Object Complement
Order of Adjectives
Parallelism
Prepositional Phrase
Past Simple Tense
Past Continuous Tense
Past Perfect Tense
Past Progressive Tense
Present Simple Tense
Present Perfect Tense
Personal Pronoun
Personification
Persuasive Writing
Parallel Structure
Phrasal Verb
Predicate Adjective
Predicate Nominative
Phonetic Language
Plural Noun
Punctuation
Punctuation Marks
Preposition
Preposition of Place
Parts of Speech
Possessive Adjective
Possessive Determiner
Possessive Case
Possessive Noun
Proper Adjective
Proper Noun
Present Participle
Quotation Marks
Relative Pronoun
Reflexive Pronoun
Reciprocal Pronoun
Subordinating Conjunction
Simple Future Tense
Stative Verb
Subjunctive
Subject Complement
Subject of a Sentence
Sentence Variety
Second Conditional
Superlative Adjective
Slash Symbol
Topic Sentence
Types of Nouns
Types of Sentences
Uncountable Noun
Vowels and Consonants

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Example 1: “I Have a Dream” Speech

A lot of what was covered above may still seem abstract and complicated. To illustrate how diverse kinds of texts have their own rhetorical situations, consider the following examples.

First, consider Dr. Martin Luther King’s famous “I Have a Dream” speech. Because this speech is famous, it should be very easy to identify the basic elements of its particular rhetorical situation.

The text in question is a 17-minute speech written and delivered by Dr. King. The basic medium of the text was an oral speech that was broadcast by both loudspeakers at the event and over radio and television. Dr. King drew on years of training as a minister and public speaker to deliver the speech. He also drew on his extensive education and the tumultuous history of racial prejudices and civil rights in the US. Audiences at the time either heard his speech in person or over radio or television broadcasts. Part of the speech near the end was improvised around the repeated phrase “I have a dream.”

Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. was the most iconic leader of the American Civil Rights Movement in the 1950s and 1960s. He was an African-American Baptist minister and prominent civil rights activist who campaigned to end segregation and racial discrimination. He gained inspiration from Howard Thurman and Mahatma Gandhi, and he drew extensively from a deep, rich cultural tradition of African-American Christian spiritualism.

The audiences for “I Have a Dream” are extraordinarily varied. In one sense, the audience consisted of the 200,000 or so people who listened to Dr. King in person. But Dr. King also overtly appealed to lawmakers and citizens everywhere in America at the time of his speech. There were also millions of people who heard his speech over radio and television at the time. And many more millions people since 1963 have heard recordings of the speech in video, audio, or digital form.

Dr. King’s immediate purposes appear to have been to convince Americans across the country to embrace racial equality and to further strengthen the resolve of those already involved in the Civil Rights Movement. Audiences’ purposes are not as easily summarized. Some at the time may have sought to be inspired by Dr. King. Opponents to racial equality who heard his speech may have listened for the purpose of seeking to find ways to further argue against racial equality. Audiences since then may have used the speech to educate or to advocate for other social justice issues.

The initial setting for the speech was on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, DC on August 28, 1963. The immediate community and conversation for the speech was the ongoing Civil Rights Movement that had gained particular momentum with the 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott, which Dr. King helped direct. But the enduring nature of Dr. King’s speech has broadened the setting to include many countries and many people who have since read or listened to his speech. Certainly, people listening to his speech for the first time today in America are experiencing a different mix of cultural attitudes toward race than as present in America in 1963.

Other Analysis

Dr. King’s speech is an example of a rhetorical situation that is much bigger than its initial text and audience. Not many rhetorical situations are as far reaching in scope as Dr. King’s “I Have a Dream” speech. The following example of a research paper may be more identifiable to students reading this resource.

Rhetorical Analysis Essay

Rhetorical Analysis Essay Outline

Crafting an Effective Rhetorical Analysis Essay Outline - Free Samples!

10 min read

What Is Rhetorical Analysis Essay?

A rhetorical analysis essay is a type of analytical essay that examines how an author uses language and persuasion to get their message across.

It involves analyzing speeches or essays to understand how authors use strategies within the rhetorical triangle to influence their intended audience. These techniques usually involve logical appeal, moral argument, and vivid imagery that appeals to the listener.

Key Elements to Analyze

In a rhetorical analysis essay, you would be analyzing the text keeping these key rhetorical concepts in mind:

Ethos: This concerns the credibility of the author or speaker.
Logos: This focuses on the logical aspects of the argument.
Pathos: Pathos explores the emotional appeal of the discourse.
Style and Tone: This involves analyzing the author's writing style and the overall tone of the text.

These elements provide a structured approach to rhetorical analysis, revealing how effective communication is achieved.

Why Create a Rhetorical Analysis Essay Outline?

Writing a rhetorical analysis essay requires a writer to draft a structured piece of writing. This essay type is one of the most challenging tasks students are assigned to do for their academics.

Apart from conducting a strong analysis, a rhetorical analysis essay depends on how perfectly the essay outline is drafted.

An outline organizes the raw information and makes it understandable for the readers. It serves as your compass, ensuring you stay on course throughout the rhetoric essay. It helps you structure your ideas and arguments, adding clarity to your essay writing process.

Moreover, an outline works as a checklist for your essay. It assures you that nothing important is missed in the content.

Components of a Rhetorical Analysis Outline

Now that we've explored why creating an essay outline is essential, it's important to explore the different components of a rhetorical analysis outline.

Here’s a detailed rhetorical analysis essay outline:

Each element plays a crucial role in crafting a well-structured and persuasive analysis, so let's explore them in detail:

Introduction

The introduction of your rhetorical analysis essay serves as the gateway to your analysis. It's where you captivate your reader's interest, provide essential background information, and present your thesis statement.

Here are the elements typically included in an introduction paragraph:

Hook The " hook " is a sentence or two designed to grab the reader's attention. It could be a thought-provoking quote, a surprising fact, or a compelling question. The purpose is to make your reader interested in what you're about to discuss—how an author uses rhetorical devices.
Background Information After the hook, provide some context. Here, you briefly introduce the text you're analyzing, the author or speaker, and the overall topic. It's like giving your reader a map to navigate through your analysis.
Thesis Statement The thesis statement is the main argument, your "claim." This concise sentence outlines what you'll be analyzing and what your main points will be. Your thesis should tell the reader what to expect in your analysis.

The body of your essay is where you dissect the author's persuasive techniques and reveal their impact on the audience. It contains sections dedicated to each rhetorical strategy you're examining.

In these sections, you'll explain the strategies, provide evidence from the text, and offer your insightful analysis of their effectiveness.

Section for Each Rhetorical Strategy

In the body paragraphs, you'll have sections dedicated to each rhetorical strategy you're analyzing. These sections each will focus on a different aspect of the text. For each strategy, you'll do three things:

Explanation of the Strategy Start by explaining what the rhetorical technique is. Define it clearly for your reader. This is like providing a dictionary definition.
Examples from the Text Next, provide examples from the text you're analyzing. These are specific quotes or passages where the author or speaker uses the strategy you're discussing. It's like showing your reader the evidence.
Analysis of the Effectiveness Finally, analyze how effective the strategy is. This is where you dive deep into the text and explain how and why the strategy persuades the audience.

The conclusion should leave your readers with a sense of closure and a clear understanding of your analysis.

You don't introduce new information or arguments in this section; instead, you tie everything together. Here are the three essential elements of an impactful essay conclusion:

Restate Thesis Start by restating your thesis to remind readers of your main argument. Repeating your main argument clearly helps the reader tie in all they have read in your essay.
Summarize Main Points Summarize the main points from each section of your analysis. This serves as a reminder of the highlights of your arguments made throughout the essay.
Final Thoughts Conclude by sharing your thoughts on how the author's strategies affect the audience and the text's broader importance. Encourage readers to consider these strategies' impact and the text's relevance.

This structure in your rhetorical analysis outline ensures that your analysis is clear, well-organized, and persuasive. Each component plays a crucial role in guiding your reader through your analysis.

Steps to Create a Rhetorical Analysis Essay Outline

Creating an essay outline is a crucial step in organizing your thoughts and effectively analyzing a piece of rhetoric. Here are the steps to craft an outline for a rhetorical analysis essay:

Step 1 - Choose the Text

Select the piece of rhetoric that you will be analyzing. It could be a speech, a written essay, an advertisement, a political campaign, or any other form of communication.

Step 2 - Identify Rhetorical Devices and Rhetorical Appeals

Look for rhetorical devices such as metaphor, simile, analogy, hyperbole, and alliteration. Analyze how these devices contribute to the message. Identify any repetition, parallelism, or rhetorical questions used in the text.

Moreover, look for common rhetorical appeals i,e., ethos, pathos, and logos.

Step 3 - Analyze Appeals and Strategies in Each Section

For each argument, dedicate a body paragraph that will analyze how the author/speaker uses ethos, pathos, and logos.

Note the specific rhetorical devices used in each section and their impact.

Step 4 - Consider the Effect on the Audience

While outlining the last body paragraph, add points that analyze how the appeals are intended to affect the audience.

Consider whether the author/speaker is trying to persuade, inform, entertain, or provoke a specific emotional response. Include specific examples and quotations from the text to support your analysis.

Step 5 - Filter Out Extra Information

It's important to know what parts of the arguments should be included and which should be filtered out.

After having a sketch of the introduction and body paragraphs, remove any information that might feel irrelevant.

Step 6 - Conclude and Summarize

For the ending, make sure to restate your thesis statement. Include points that directly support your arguments and sum up your analysis.

These steps help you plan your essay for a well-structured, clear, and cohesive essay.

Here's a sample rhetorical analysis essay outline template that analyzes ethos, pathos and logos :

Here’s a practice outline:

Rhetorical Analysis Essay Outline Fill In The Blanks

Rhetorical Analysis Essay Outline Examples

Here are some rhetorical analysis essay outline pdf that you can use as reference outlines:

Rhetorical Analysis Essay Outline Ethos Pathos Logos

Rhetorical Analysis Essay Outline Ap Lang

Visual Rhetorical Analysis Essay Outline

Comparative Rhetorical Analysis Essay Outline

Rhetorical Analysis Essay Introduction Outline

Need more help getting started? Check out these expert rhetorical analysis essay examples to get inspired!

In conclusion, you've got the tools and examples you need to ace your rhetorical analysis essay. The steps we've gone through provide a strong starting point for your academic journey into analyzing persuasive writing.

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COMMENTS

How to Write a Rhetorical Analysis
A rhetorical analysis is a type of essay that looks at a text in terms of rhetoric. This means it is less concerned with what the author is saying than with how they say it: their goals, techniques, and appeals to the audience. A rhetorical analysis is structured similarly to other essays: an introduction presenting the thesis, a body analyzing ...
10 Rhetorical Situation Examples (2024)
Rhetorical Situation Examples. 1. Steve Jobs Stanford Speech (2005) In 2005, Steve Jobs delivered the commencement address at Stanford University, sharing personal stories of his life and career. The speech, titled "Connecting the Dots," has since become iconic, offering lessons on life, work, and following one's passion.
How to Write a Rhetorical Analysis Essay-Examples & Template
Rhetorical appeal #2: Pathos. The purpose of Pathos-driven rhetoric is to appeal to the reader's emotions. A common example of pathos as a rhetorical means is adverts by charities that try to make you donate money to a "good cause". To evoke the intended emotions in the reader, an author may use passionate language, tell personal stories ...
How to Write a Great Rhetorical Analysis Essay: With Examples
Name the author of the text and the title of their work followed by the date in parentheses. Use a verb to describe what the author does, e.g. "implies," "asserts," or "claims". Briefly summarize the text in your own words. Mention the persuasive techniques used by the rhetor and its effect.
Rhetorical Situation: Definition and Examples
Every rhetorical situation happens in a specific setting within a specific context, and are all constrained by the time and environment in which they occur. Time, as in a specific moment in history, forms the zeitgeist of an era. Language is directly affected by both historical influence and the assumptions brought to bear by the current ...
How to Write a Rhetorical Analysis: 6 Steps and an Outline for Your
5. State your thesis. Now that you've completed your analysis of the material, try to summarize it into one clear, concise thesis statement that will form the foundation of your essay. Your thesis statement should summarize: 1) the argument or purpose of the speaker; 2) the methods the speaker uses; and 3) the effectiveness of those methods ...
Chapter 10: The Rhetorical Situation
It ends with an example of a rhetorical situation, with a brief discussion of each of its parts. Rhetorical Exigence: Michael Brown and Barack Obama. The exigence is the defect of the status quo. It is a problem we live with that has become acute; it is an emergency that is other than it should be. Rhetorical exigences can be modified through ...
How to write a rhetorical analysis [4 steps]
Step 1: Plan and prepare. With a rhetorical analysis, you don't choose concepts in advance and apply them to a specific text or piece of content. Rather, you'll have to analyze the text to identify the separate components and plan and prepare your analysis accordingly. Here, it might be helpful to use the SOAPSTone technique to identify the ...
What is the Rhetorical Situation?
Bitzer's theory of the rhetorical situation affirms the tenets of positivism: (1) An objective reality exists independent of humans that can be discerned by humans. (2) There is a direct relationship between situation and discourse-i.e., that specific situations call for specific responses. In contrast, rhetorical theory, postmodernism ...
How to Write a Rhetorical Analysis
A rhetorical analysis essay is a type of essay where you examine how authors or speakers use words, phrases, and other techniques to influence or persuade their audience. This type of essay focuses on analyzing the strategies used by the writer or speaker to achieve their purpose, whether it's to inform, persuade, entertain, or provoke.
20+ Best Rhetorical Analysis Essay Example & Sample Papers
This article will find some examples that will help you with your rhetorical analysis essay writing effortlessly. On This Page. 1. Good Rhetorical Analysis Essay Example. 2. Rhetorical Analysis Essay Example AP Lang 2023. 3. Rhetorical Analysis Essay Examples for Students. 4.
Rhetorical Analysis Sample Essay
Rhetorical Analysis Sample Essay. Harriet Clark. Ms. Rebecca Winter. CWC 101. 13 Feb. 2015. Not Quite a Clean Sweep: Rhetorical Strategies in. Grose's "Cleaning: The Final Feminist Frontier". A woman's work is never done: many American women grow up with this saying and feel it to be true. 1 One such woman, author Jessica Grose, wrote ...
10.2: Analyzing an Argument's Situation (Kairos, or the Rhetorical
It is the situation shaping the text, the situation to which the text responds. Key Elements of the Rhetorical Situation To fully understand an argument, experienced readers ask big-picture questions about the author , the audience they address, the context , the genre of the text, the purpose of the text, and the constraints that shape how it ...
How to Write the AP Lang Rhetorical Analysis Essay (With Example)
The AP Lang Rhetorical Analysis Essay is one of three essays included in the written portion of the AP English Exam. The full AP English Exam is 3 hours and 15 minutes long, with the first 60 minutes dedicated to multiple-choice questions. Once you complete the multiple-choice section, you move on to three equally weighted essays that ask you ...
Example 2
Example 2: Research Paper for a High School or College Class. One of the most common rhetorical situations that people reading this will face or have faced is a research paper for some sort of class. Consider the following fictional example of the rhetorical situation surrounding a research paper written by a 19-year-old female university ...
Rhetorical Analyses
A rhetorical analysis considers all elements of the rhetorical situation--the audience, purpose, medium, and context--within which a communication was generated and delivered in order to make an argument about that communication. A strong rhetorical analysis will not only describe and analyze the text, but will also evaluate it; that evaluation ...
3.4 What is the Rhetorical Situation?
A key component of rhetorical analysis involves thinking carefully about the rhetorical situation of a text. You can think of the rhetorical situation as the context or set of circumstances out of which a text arises. Any time anyone is trying to make an argument, one is doing so out of a particular context, one that influences and shapes the ...
Elements of Rhetorical Situations
Each individual rhetorical situation shares five basic elements with all other rhetorical situations: A text (i.e., an actual instance or piece of communication) An author (i.e., someone who uses communication) An audience (i.e., a recipient of communication) Purposes (i.e., the varied reasons both authors and audiences communicate) A setting ...
Rhetorical Situation Examples in Literature and Real-Life
Through themes of heroism, temptation, and perseverance, there are a few examples of a rhetorical situation where Homer explores the complexities of human nature and the importance of personal growth and resilience. Audience: Originally, it was composed for an oral audience in ancient Greece.
Rhetorical Situations
Writing instructors and many other professionals who study language use the phrase "rhetorical situation.". This term refers to any set of circumstances that involves at least one person using some sort of communication to modify the perspective of at least one other person. But many people are unfamiliar with the word "rhetoric.".
What is a Rhetorical Situation? (Definition, Examples, Rules)
What is an example of a rhetorical situation? You're surrounded by rhetoric. It's in YouTube videos, newspaper ads, television commercials, billboards, political speeches, literary essays, songs, and graphic novels, to name some. The examples below highlight the components of the rhetorical situation. 1.
Example 1
Example 1: "I Have a Dream" Speech. A lot of what was covered above may still seem abstract and complicated. To illustrate how diverse kinds of texts have their own rhetorical situations, consider the following examples. First, consider Dr. Martin Luther King's famous "I Have a Dream" speech. Because this speech is famous, it should ...
Rhetorical Analysis Essay Outline With Templates & Tips
Rhetorical Situation Analysis A. Author 1. Author's credibility and background 2. Influences or experiences that shaped the author's rhetoric ... Here's a sample rhetorical analysis essay outline template that analyzes ethos, pathos and logos: I. Introduction - A. Hook: [Insert attention-grabbing opening, e.g., a relevant quote or question] ...

10 Rhetorical Situation Examples

Rhetorical Elements

Rhetorical Situation Examples

2. J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter (1997)

3. Malala Yousafzai’s UN Speech (2012)

4. Al Gore’s An Inconvenient Truth (2006)

5. Greta Thunberg’s UN Speech (2019)

6. Facebook (2004-Now)

7. MLK’s I Have a Dream Speech (1963)

8. Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet (1590s)

9. Churchill’s We Shall Fight on the Beaches (1944)

10. The US Declaration of Independence (1776)

3. Audience

Rhetorical Devices (Aristotle)

1. Logos (Appeal to Logic)

2. Ethos (Appeal to Credibility)

3. Pathos (Appeal to Emotions)

4. Telos (Purpose)

5. Kairos (Timing)

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How to Write a Rhetorical Analysis Essay–Examples & Template

What is a Rhetorical Analysis Essay?

Key Rhetorical Concepts

Rhetorical Appeals

Rhetorical appeal #2: Pathos

Rhetorical appeal #3: Logos

Text and Context

Claims, Supports, and Warrants

What are the Five Rhetorical Situations?

Rhetorical situations can be classified into the following five categories:

Rhetorical Analysis Essay Outline

Analyzing the Text

Rhetorical Analysis Introduction

Doing the Rhetorical Analysis

Rhetorical Analysis Conclusion

Frequently Asked Questions about Rhetorical Analysis Essays

What is the correct rhetorical analysis essay format?

What is the “rhetorical triangle”?

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What Is a Rhetorical Analysis and How to Write a Great One

Helly Douglas

What is a Rhetorical Analysis Essay?

Rhetorical Strategy 1: Ethos

Rhetorical Strategy 2: Pathos

Rhetorical Strategy 3: Logos

1: What is the Rhetorical Situation?

2: Who is the Author?

3: Who is it Written For?

4: What is the Central Idea?

5: How is it Structured?

6: What Form is Used?

7: Is the Rhetoric Effective?

1: Introduction

3: Conclusion

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What is a Rhetorical Situation?

The History of Rhetoric

Fast Facts: Aristotle's Five Core Concepts of Rhetoric

Elements of a Rhetorical Situation

The Audience

Chapter 10: The Rhetorical Situation

Written Assignments

Part 1: Defining the Rhetorical Situation

Key Aspects of Rhetorical Situations

A Rhetorical Situation is not a “Context” …

Rhetorical Response/Rhetorical Audience

Exigence, Audience, and Constraints

Responses to Rhetorical Situations

Part 2: Analysis of a Rhetorical Situation

Rhetorical Exigence: Michael Brown and Barack Obama

Context: 13th by Ava DuVernay

Rhetorical Audience: George H.W. Bush v. Michael Dukakis

Rhetorical Constraints: Parody and Satire

Rhetorical Situation: The Challenger Address

Part 3: Rhetorical Ecologies

Writing as Rhetorical Situation and Rhetorical Ecology

Examples of Rhetorical Ecologies: The Amen Break