essay for hitler

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By: History.com Editors

Updated: October 17, 2023 | Original: November 9, 2009

The National Socialist German Workers’ Party, or Nazi Party, grew into a mass movement and ruled Germany through totalitarian means from 1933 to 1945 under the leadership of Adolf Hitler. Founded in 1919 as the German Workers’ Party, the group promoted German pride and anti-Semitism, and expressed dissatisfaction with the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, the 1919 peace settlement that ended World War I. Hitler joined the party the year it was founded and became its leader in 1921. In 1933, he became chancellor of Germany and his Nazi government soon assumed dictatorial powers. After Germany’s defeat in World War II, the Nazi Party was outlawed and many of its officials were convicted of war crimes related to the Holocaust.

Nazi Party Origins

In 1919, army veteran Adolf Hitler , frustrated by Germany’s defeat in World War I —which had left the nation economically depressed and politically unstable—joined a fledgling political organization called the German Workers’ Party.

Founded earlier that same year by a small group of men including locksmith Anton Drexler and journalist Karl Harrer, the party promoted German nationalism and anti-Semitism, and felt that the Treaty of Versailles , the peace settlement that ended the war, was extremely unjust to Germany by burdening it with reparations it could never pay.

Hitler soon emerged as a charismatic public speaker and began attracting new members with speeches blaming Jews and Marxists for Germany’s problems and espousing extreme nationalism and the concept of an Aryan “master race.” In July 1921, he assumed leadership of the organization , which by then had been renamed the Nationalist Socialist German Workers’ (abbreviated to Nazi) Party.

Did you know? Sales of Hitler's political autobiography “Mein Kampf,” sometimes referred to as the bible of the Nazi Party, made him a millionaire. From 1933 to 1945, free copies were given to every newlywed German couple. But after World War II, the publication of “Mein Kampf” in Germany became illegal.

Through the 1920s, Hitler gave speech after speech in which he stated that unemployment, rampant inflation, hunger and economic stagnation in postwar Germany would continue until there was a total revolution in German life. Most problems could be solved, he explained, if communists and Jews were driven from the nation. His fiery speeches swelled the ranks of the Nazi Party, especially among young, economically disadvantaged Germans.

Many dissatisfied former army officers in Munich also joined the Nazis, including Ernst Röhm , the man responsible for recruiting the Sturmabteilung (SA) “strong arm” squads that Hitler used to protect party meetings and attack opponents.

Beer Hall Putsch

In 1923, Hitler and his followers staged the Beer Hall Putsch in Munich, a failed takeover of the government in Bavaria, a state in southern Germany. Hitler had hoped that the “putsch,” or coup d’etat, would spark a larger revolution against the national government.

In the aftermath of the Beer Hall Putsch, Hitler was convicted of treason and sentenced to five years in prison but spent less than a year behind bars (during which time he dictated the first volume of Mein Kampf , or My Struggle, his political autobiography).

The publicity surrounding the Beer Hall Putsch and Hitler’s subsequent trial turned him into a national figure. After his release from prison, he set about rebuilding the Nazi Party and attempting to gain power through the election process.

Nazi Rise to Power

In 1929, Germany’s Weimar Republic entered a period of severe economic depression and widespread unemployment. The Nazis capitalized on the situation by criticizing the ruling government and began to win elections. In the July 1932 elections, they captured 230 out of 608 seats in the “ Reichstag ,” or German parliament.

In January 1933, Hitler was appointed German chancellor and his Nazi government soon came to control every aspect of German life. Under Nazi rule, all other political parties were banned.

In 1933, after coming to power, the Nazis established the Dachau concentration camp in Germany to detain political prisoners. Dachau evolved into a death camp where countless thousands of Jews died from malnutrition, disease and overwork—or were executed.

In addition to Jews, the camp’s prisoners included members of other groups Hitler considered unfit for the new Germany, including artists, intellectuals, Roma , the physically and mentally handicapped and homosexuals.

Nazi Foreign Policy

Once Hitler gained control of the government, he directed Nazi Germany’s foreign policy toward undoing the Treaty of Versailles and restoring Germany’s standing in the world. He railed against the treaty’s redrawn map of Europe and argued it denied Germany—Europe’s most populous state—“living space” for its growing population.

Although the Treaty of Versailles was explicitly based on the principle of the self-determination of peoples, he pointed out that it had separated Germans from Germans by creating such new postwar states as Austria and Czechoslovakia, where many Germans lived.

Germany Invades Poland

From the mid- to late 1930s, Hitler undermined the postwar international order step by step. He withdrew Germany from the League of Nations in 1933, rebuilt German armed forces beyond what was permitted by the Treaty of Versailles, reoccupied the German Rhineland in 1936, annexed Austria in 1938 and invaded Czechoslovakia in 1939 .

When Nazi Germany moved toward Poland, Great Britain and France countered further aggression by guaranteeing Polish security. Nevertheless, Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939, and Great Britain and France declared war on Germany. Six years of Nazi Party foreign policy had ignited World War II .

Nazis Fight to Dominate Europe

After conquering Poland, Hitler focused on defeating Britain and France. As the war expanded, the Nazi Party formed alliances with Japan and Italy in the Tripartite Pact of 1940, and honored its 1939 Nazi-Soviet Nonaggression Pact with the Soviet Union until 1941, when Germany launched a massive blitzkrieg invasion of the Soviet Union.

In the brutal fighting that followed, Nazi troops tried to realize the long-held goal of crushing the world’s major communist power. After the United States entered the war in 1941, Germany found itself fighting in North Africa, Italy, France, the Balkans and a counterattacking Soviet Union.

At the beginning of the war in 1939, Hitler and his Nazi Party were fighting to dominate Europe; five years later they were fighting to survive.

The Holocaust

When Hitler and the Nazis came to power in 1933, they instituted a series of measures aimed at persecuting Germany’s Jewish citizens. By late 1938, Jews were banned from most public places in Germany.

During the war, the Nazis’ anti-Jewish campaigns increased in scale and ferocity. In the invasion and occupation of Poland, German troops shot thousands of Polish Jews, confined many to ghettoes where they starved to death and began sending others to death camps in various parts of Poland, where they were either killed immediately or forced into slave labor.

In 1941, when Germany invaded the Soviet Union, Nazi death squads machine-gunned tens of thousands of Jews in the western regions of Soviet Russia.

In early 1942, at the Wannsee Conference near Berlin, the Nazi Party decided on the last phase of what it called the “ Final Solution ” of the “Jewish problem” and spelled out plans for the systematic murder of all European Jews in the Holocaust .

In 1942 and 1943, Jews in the western occupied countries including France and Belgium were deported by the thousands to the death camps mushrooming across Europe. In Poland, huge death camps such as Auschwitz began operating with ruthless efficiency.

The murder of Jews, communists, homosexuals, political prisoners and other people in German-occupied lands stopped only in last months of the war, as the German armies were retreating toward Berlin. By the time Hitler committed suicide in April 1945, some 6 million Jews had been killed.

Denazification

After the war ended in 1945, the Allies occupied Germany, outlawed the Nazi Party and worked to purge its influence from every aspect of German life. The party’s swastika flag quickly became a symbol of evil in modern postwar culture.

Although Hitler killed himself before he could be brought to justice, a number of Nazi officials were convicted of war crimes in the Nuremberg trials , which took place in Nuremberg, Germany, from 1945 to 1949.

The Nazi Party. Holocaust Encyclopedia . The Rise of the Nazi Party. College of Education, University of South Florida . Rise of the Nazi Party. Holocaust Memorial Day Trust .

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125 Hitler Essay Topics & Examples

This list contains the best essay topics and research questions about Adolf Hitler. With their help, you can explore Hitler’s rise to power, his dictatorship over Germany, and other interesting aspects. Feel free to choose among our history research topics about Hitler, questions for essays, and presentation titles.

🔝 Top 10 Essay Topics about Hitler

🏆 best hitler topic ideas & essay examples, 📌 interesting hitler essay topics, ❓ research questions about adolf hitler, 🔍 simple & easy hitler research topics, ✍️ hitler’s rise to power essay questions, ✅ hitler & nazi germany essay questions.

• Adolf Hitler’s Formative Years
• Hitler’s Lasting Impact and Legacy
• The Role of Women in Nazi Germany
• Social Factors Behind Hitler’s Rise to Power
• Media and Manipulation in Nazi Germany
• Origins and Impact of Hitler’s Genocidal Policies
• Hitler’s Ideological Beliefs of Racial Superiority
• Hitler’s Military Strategy: Tactics and Failures
• Psychological Perspectives on Hitler’s Mindset
• Opposition and Resistance to Hitler’s Regime
• The Rise of Hitler to Power It was this paramilitary formed by Hitler that would cause unrest later to tarnish the name of the communists leading to distrust of communism by the Germans and on the other hand rise of popularity […]
• Comparison of Gandhi’s and Hitler’s Leadership The primary direction of Gandhi’s political and social work was the fight against the nationalist movement of the British rule of India.
• Adolf Hitler’s Cultural Theories in “Mein Kampf” So, according to Adolf Hitler, the foreign Aryan spirit was the awakener of Japanese people hence the bore a culture that they did not create.
• “The End and the Beginning” and “Hitler’s First Photograph” Poems by Szymborska The particular imagery refers to the effects of the Second World War, the pushing of rubble, the collection of corpses, and miring in sofa springs and glass.
• Man and Monster: The Life of Adolf Hitler He was born to Alois Hitler, his father and Klara Hitler, his mother who was a third wife to Alois Hitler.
• Hitler’s Speech in Reaction to the Treaty of Versailles Hitler believed that the treaty of Versailles made Germany a colony to the outside world; he blamed it for the suppression of Germany’s workforce.
• Hitler’s Use of Propaganda and Fear-Mongering The establishment of the National Socialist German Worker’s Party led to the adoption of a properly coordinated propaganda campaign that would prepare the country for war.
• Hitler’s Rise to Power Henrich von Treitschke, a German logician argues that another reason that led to the rise of Hitler was the shame subjected to the background of Hitler as he described the conformity of the masses as […]
• World War 2 Leaders Comparison: Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler World War 2 remains one of the most significant and historically important events in the entire world because the United States of America, Japan, and the majority of European countries were involved in it.
• Hitler: A Study in Tyranny by Alan Bullock The subject of the book under study is the historic personality of Adolf Hitler, the person who managed to change the flow of the European history of the twentieth century, the person who caused the […]
• Adolf Hitler Psychotic State Brief history and family background of Adolf Hitler Adolf Hitler was certainly a disharmonious and destructive personality and, in order to define the main underpinnings and causes of his psychological disorders, family background and history […]
• Adolf Hitler’s Biography and Achievements Adolf Hitler was born in Austria in 1889; he became the ruler of Germany and one of the most reviled persons in history.
• Leadership Styles: Abraham Lincoln and Adolf Hitler The human qualities of a leader are in many ways more revealing regarding his or her success, the respect of the people, and the appreciation of descendants than education and professionalism.
• History of Hitler’s Nazi Propaganda According to Hitler, the German’s defeat in the First World War, the Bolshevik Revolution, German’s post war inflation, and the economic crisis of the year 1929 were accredited to International Jewry. Over time, the masses […]
• How Hitler Compares to Stalin Initially the post of General Secretary was not so powerful in the party; however, following the death Vladimir Lenin who had led the communist party from 1917, Stalin strengthened the opposition by eliminating opposition within […]
• “Mein Kampf” by Adolf Hitler After the death of his mother in 1907, Hitler moved to the city of Vienna, where he hoped to join the Art Academy.
• Franklin Roosevelt and Adolf Hitler: Leaders Ways This paper aims to reveal the cause of the problems faced by the United States and Germany as identified by their leaders in inaugural speeches and the ways Roosevelt and Hitler were planning to solve […]
• The Escape of Adolf Hitler: Discussion The third theory asserts the fact that upon realizing that the war was at its conclusion, the F hrer implemented a devious plan to escape right under the noses of the advancing Soviet forces.
• Newspaper Coverage of Adolf Hitler’s Death It marks the end of the era of the terrible events of the Holocaust, the seizure of Poland, the extermination of millions of people.
• Did Hitler Commit Suicide? The siege of Berlin by the Soviet soldiers marked the end of his rule. The confirmation of the teeth to be of the ruler proves he died in the bunker.
• Comparing the Operational Codes of Stalin and Hitler The model was developed in the middle of the twentieth century when the American government needed to evaluate the potential conduct of and choices made by Soviet leaders and political elites.
• Fascist Elements in Dictatorial Ideas of Mussolini and Hitler The ideological and political differences between the ideas of Mussolini and Hitler are nuanced. They lie in such government branches as ethnic and military issues.
• The Rise of Adolf Hitler: The World’s Most Renowned Tyrant Due to their great influence, he had the party saw the need to retain him and therefore took him back as the leader of the party a term which he had offered the party if […]
• The Role of Individuals in International Politics: Hitler and Stalin The focus of this dissertation will be on the personalities of the two leaders and their opinions on war and peace.
• Nietzsche’s Influence on Hitler and the Third Reich Nietzsche’s all-out assault on the entire Western Judeo-Christian cultural and philosophical tradition is one of the most important issues of the abandonment of the faith in progress through the submission of human reason that had […]
• Historical Event: Hitler in the World History Taking into consideration the fact that the World War II and its appalling events are still remembered and feared of, I would really want to interfere with nature and erase from the history the day […]
• Age of Dictators. Hitler’s Germany and Stalin’s Russia The status of the ‘ordinary’ worker was elevated and May Day became the ‘National Day of Labor’, a symbol of the national community where all workers, as well as their employers, would participate in a […]
• The Spanish Civil War, Franco vs. Hitler, Juan Pujol, Double Agents The war ended with the conquest of the revolutionaries and the dawning of the authoritarianism led by General Francisco Franco, a fascist.
• “Hitler and Stalin: Parallel Lives” and “East & West”: The Book and the Movie Comparison Alexei, Marie, and their young son are assigned a room in a multifamily apartment, and Marie is given a job in the wardrobe department of an army song-and-dance troupe.
• Dates of Hitler’s Life in a Diary Form Today, I became the Chancellor of Germany and it means that I am going to change the way other people see our country.
• Hitler’s Life: Five Dates From His Life I told the German people that they could no longer trust a government that sold out to the enemy at the end of the Great War. It is the only hope of the fatherland, the […]
• The Mind of a Monster in A. Hitler’s “Mein Kampf” The book was written by Adolf Hitler, who was the Nazi leader and the ruler of Germany during the period of the Holocaust.
• Adolf Hitler’s Treatment of Non-Germans His writings also indicate that his hate for non-Germans was due to the entrepreneurial nature of some of these non-Germans such as the Jews who were seen by Adolf Hitler as exploiters of the Germans.
• Hitler’s Actions and 8-Steps for Leading Change He further rallied his allies to convince the unstable Reichstag to pass the dictatorial Act that initiated the Nazi revolution. He could design and enforce his purpose to people with the help of his self-dramatizing […]
• “Hitler, Chamberlain and Appeasement” by Frank McDonough The term is widely used when referring to the foreign policy that defined the interaction between Neville Chamberlain of Britain and Adolf Hitler of German.
• The Reasons Behind the Rise of Hitler and the Nazis Socio-economic instability, tough ideology, and the active involvement of the media were the key drivers that allowed Hitler to convince people of the power that the Nazi idea carried.
• “Mein Kampf” a Historical Book by Adolf Hitler However, the book shows that even under the mask of one of the cruelest people in the world, there is a boy with his own dreams and intentions to have a happy life.
• Adolf Hitler in Arno Breker’s Sculpture In a piece of art, the artist presents the subject of his art to the intended audience from his point of view of the subject.
• “Joseph Goebbels” and “German Artists and Hitler’s Mind” The book is very informative for a reader willing to learn about art in Nazi Germany and covers the topic fully.
• Hitler’s and British Policies in World War II Britain was among the countries that did not welcome the idea of another war due to the bloodshed that had ensued in the World War I.
• The Aryan Race in “Mein Kampf” by Adolf Hitler The provided passage is taken from Mein Kampf, the most known work of Adolf Hitler, the infamous leader of the NSDAP since 1921 and the F hrer of Nazi Germany in 1934-1945.
• Adolf Hitler Life and Strategies This research paper critically analyses the life of Hitler as the president of Germany and the extent he went to conquer the whole world which he sought to do.
• Adolf Hitler’s Anti-Semitic “Final Solution” While the responsibility of Hitler and the Nazi top command in the mass killing of the Jews is unquestionable, there are disputes over the role that ordinary Germans played.
• Adolf Hitler and a History of the Holocaust Before going any further it is important to point out the kind of mindset that the German people had back then that made it easier for Hitler to convince them to join him in a […]
• Propaganda of Adolf Hitler and Jim Jones This is a scenario that has occurred with the Nazi, under the command of Adolf Hitler, and the story of Jim Jones, and the people who followed him in a quest to build an ideal […]
• WWII History: How Hitler Died From the onset of the war, Hitler proved to be a trustworthy leader. In the US, tests done on a part of the skull purported to be Hitler’s have given unconvincing results.
• Adolf Hitler: From Patriotism to Racism He was also forced to live and work in the city and it is was the cultural and social shock that he experienced as he transferred from the rural to the urban that changed the […]
• WW II and Hitler’s Army After the massive defeat and deaths of the German army in the war that took place in the eastern side, it was evident that the traditional groups of the army were no longer working as […]
• To What Extent did Hitler Rule Germany with Popular Consent? Hitler’s absolute hold on power was achieved in 1934 when he consolidated the office of the president and that of the chancellor in the person of “the Fuhrer and Reich Chancellor Adolf Hitler”.
• “The Blitzkrieg Myth: How Hitler and the Allies Misread The Strategic Realities of World War II” by John Mosier In order to present a clear picture of German participation in the war and the reasons, which provoked these people to fight and kill, it is necessary to concentrate on various sources and perspectives and […]
• The Art of Adolf Hitler He gives a reason that the present Germany is a result of the efforts of himself and partners in the nation’s struggle which offered art in Germany fresh incentives as well as environment for a […]
• The Leadership Styles of Grant and Hitler Second, Grant was a strategist who wanted the best out of himself and his soldiers while Hitler did not mind much about the well being of his soldiers and most of his strategies involved murder. […]
• The Burden of Hitler’s Legacy In his opinion, the Jews were to be blamed for Germany’s downfall in World War 1 and the subsequent peace treaty that was a source of embarrassment to the nation.
• German Resistance to Hitler The aim of the pact was to protect each other against any military attack and at the same time attack other countries such as Greece by the Italians, Libya by the Germans, Indo-china by the […]
• Adolf Hitler and Nationalism The war would also bring the downfall of the old European culture of kings and noblemen and their codes of honor”.[2] However, neither the number of casualties at the battlefields could reflect the actual devastation […]
• Saddam Hussein and Adolph Hitler As a man of a worldwide mind, he was determined to get his way at all mean to be an upstaired position.”He proved this in 1958 when he launched his political career by assassinating a […]
• Hitler’s Table Talk The involvement of priests in the affairs of the state provided important insights on some of the reasons that made Hitler to be ruthless in his table talk against Christians. As manifested in his table […]
• Schutzstaffel: Hitler’s Infamous Legions of Death In order to execute the roles of this group, any chosen member had to be of Germany origin and show loyalty to the party.
• Is Barrack Obama Like Hitler? According to his book, Obama on the other hand recognizes and desires to change the problems in the American functional government and state of politics. This has generated a lot of criticism and the continued […]
• Germany During Hitler’s Era The multi-polar international system continued to support the actions of leaders such as Hitler, even after the First World War Western powers allowed Germany to ream itself due to the fears posed by the international […]
• How and Why Was Adolf Hitler Able to Come to Power?
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• Did Adolf Hitler and the Nazis Treat the Jews Badly?
• How Did Adolf Hitler Gain and Maintain Power?
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• How Would the World Be Different in Adolf Hitler Never Existed?
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• Why the Jews Were Persecuted in Germany during Adolf Hitler’s Rule?
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• What Extent Did the Existence of the Third Reich Depend on Adolf Hitler?
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• Why Did Hitler Want So Badly to Proceed the Anschluss of Austria?
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• How Germans Tolerated Adolf Hitler after World War I?
• How Adolf Hitler Came to Be Published in the United States?
• Why Did the German Workers Stand by Adolf Hitler?
• What Were Adolf Hitler’s and the Nazi Party’s Ideas?
• Did Hitler Want a World Dominion or It Was Even Bigger Goal of His?
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Richard M. Langworth

Senior fellow, hillsdale college churchill project, writer and historian.

Churchill’s Hitler Essays: He Knew the Führer from the Start

15 april 2024 comments 0 comments.

Excerpt­ed from “The Three Lives of Churchill’s Hitler Essays,” writ­ten  for the  Hills­dale Col­lege Churchill Project . For the orig­i­nal arti­cle with end­notes, click here.  To sub­scribe to week­ly arti­cles from Hills­dale-Churchill,  click here , scroll to bot­tom, and enter your email in the box “Stay in touch with us.” We nev­er dis­close or sell your email address. It remains a rid­dle wrapped in a mys­tery inside an enigma.

The Hitler Essays:

“The Truth About Hitler,” The Strand Mag­a­zine , Novem­ber 1935, Cohen C481. “Hitler and His Choice,” Great Con­tem­po­raries (Lon­don and New York, 1937), Cohen A105. “This Age of Gov­ern­ment by Great Dic­ta­tors,” News of the World , 10 Octo­ber 1937, Cohen C535.7.

“Did Churchill ever admire Hitler?”

The ques­tion, per­plex­ing on its face, is nev­er­the­less some­times asked. Crit­ics have long quot­ed selec­tive­ly from Churchill to show he was “for Hitler before he was against him.”

For Bavar­i­an politi­cian  Franz Joseph Strauss , the proof was Churchill’s writ­ing: “We may yet live to see Hitler a gen­tler fig­ure in a hap­pi­er age.”

His­to­ri­an  Robert Rhodes James  said Churchill “sym­pa­thet­i­cal­ly” described Hitler’s “long, weary­ing bat­tle for the Ger­man heart.” In fact Churchill’s word was “wear­ing” not “weary­ing,” which was rather less sympathetic.

The sub­ject of those essays didn’t think Churchill was sym­pa­thet­ic at all. After read­ing “The Truth About Hitler” in 1935, an infu­ri­at­ed Führer instruct­ed his ambas­sador in Lon­don “to lodge a strong protest against ‘the per­son­al attack on the head of the Ger­man state.’”

Hitler as “Great Contemporary”

“The Truth About Hitler,” first of the Hitler essays, appeared in late 1935. Decid­ing to repub­lish it in his 1937 book  Great Con­tem­po­raries,  Churchill cour­te­ous­ly sub­mit­ted his text to  Sir Robert Van­sit­tart , Per­ma­nent Under­sec­re­tary at the For­eign Office. This was a care­ful choice, since Van­sit­tart had been some­what sup­port­ive of Churchill’s demands for rearmament.

But Van­sit­tart was on hol­i­day, so Churchill’s draft was read by  Clif­ford Nor­ton , who rec­om­mend­ed it not appear at all:

[I]t is hard­ly to be thought that this arti­cle would be at all palat­able to the pow­ers that be in Ger­many. In the present rather del­i­cate state of our rela­tions with that coun­try, when one does not know which way the cat will jump, it might there­fore be ques­tioned whether repub­li­ca­tion just now was advisable.

Churchill agreed to cer­tain dele­tions which would “take the sting out of the arti­cle,” but said he “would cut out noth­ing” that he wouldn’t say “on pub­lic plat­forms.” This did not pre­vent him from restor­ing some of his dele­tions in anoth­er news­pa­per arti­cle. (Read on.)

It has been ques­tioned why Churchill made room in his book for Hitler. Was he more opti­mistic than he should have been about the Führer?  Perhaps—or as Mar­tin Gilbert often quipped, “per­haps not.” Hitler was a pop­u­lar sub­ject for writ­ers in the mid-1930s. Germany’s rear­ma­ment and inten­tions were mount­ing con­cerns. Yet, like all three of his Hitler essays, Churchill had lit­tle to say that was positive.

Churchill’s textual changes

What part of his 1935 arti­cle did Churchill alter in Great Con­tem­po­raries ? What did the For­eign Office per­suade him to “soft­en”? Bib­li­og­a­ra­pher Ronald Cohen came to my aid with a line-by-line dig­i­tal com­par­i­son of the “The Truth About Hitler” and the Great Con­tem­po­raries chap­ter. A Word doc­u­ment con­tain­ing the 1935 text, show­ing 1937 dele­tions in strike-throughs and high­lights, is avail­able to read­ers via email .

This exer­cise was worth the trou­ble because it answered many ques­tions. It shows that Churchill bare­ly changed his sen­ti­ments between 1935 and 1937. His dele­tions main­ly involve events well known in 1935 that were old news in 1937. His view of the Führer remained consistent.

Minor alterations

There was only one sig­nif­i­cant dele­tion in the ear­ly part of the  Great Con­tem­po­raries  chap­ter. That was Churchill’s 1935 asser­tion that his­to­ry would “deter­mine whether [Hitler] will rank in Val­hal­la with  Per­i­cles , with  Augus­tus  and with  Wash­ing­ton , or wel­ter in the infer­no of human scorn with  Atti­la  and  Tamer­lane .”

It is not clear what if any­thing the For­eign Office saw wrong with that. Churchill may have pulled it as a ges­ture of com­pli­ance. Or maybe, by 1937, he had decid­ed that Hitler wouldn’t rank with Washington….

Nor were those words gone for long. On 10 Octo­ber 1937, six days after pub­lish­ing  Great Con­tem­po­raries,  they reap­peared. This was in Churchill’s third Hitler arti­cle, “This Age of Gov­ern­ment by Great Dic­ta­tors,” for News of the World. For good mea­sure, he wrote of Hitler’s “guilt of blood” and “wicked” methods.

Was this third essay a defi­ance of the For­eign Office? ​Or was it sim­ply writ­ten because Churchill was too good a writer to omit a mem­o­rable line? What­ev­er the rea­son, it does not mate­ri­al­ly change ​his opin­ion of Hitler.

Oth­er ear­ly changes to the 1935 text were almost all for read­abil­i­ty or cur­ren­cy. A minor dele­tion was his ref­er­ence to  Hein­rich Brün­ing , the anti-Hitler Chan­cel­lor of Weimer Ger­many in 1930-32. In his orig­i­nal  Strand  arti­cle, Churchill wrote that the Nazis “even drove the patri­ot­ic Brün­ing, under threat of mur­der, from Ger­man soil.”

Safe in Amer­i­ca, Brün­ing became a pro­fes­sor of gov­ern­ment at Har­vard, where he con­tin­ued to warn of Ger­man and Sovi­et expan­sion­ism. In 1937 Churchill asked him to proof­read his  Great Con­tem­po­raries Hitler chap­ter. Brüning’s only com­ment was, “I admire very much your descrip­tion of the feel­ings of the Ger­man peo­ple in these four­teen years after the War and the char­ac­ter­is­tics of the British pol­i­cy at that time.”

The major deletion

Not appar­ent until Ronald Cohen’s tex­tu­al com­par­i­son was a long pas­sage at the end of the 1935 Strand  arti­cle removed from  Great Con­tem­po­raries.  It described the  “Night of the Long Knives”  in 1934, when Hitler purged  Ernst Röhm  and the  Sturmabteilung (SA). This appears in no edi­tion of the book, nor the Churchill Col­lect­ed Essays . 

This pas­sage did not appear in Churchill’s third arti­cle, “Gov­ern­ment of Great Dic­ta­tors.”  It may well have been con­sid­ered provoca­tive by the For­eign Office, albeit dat­ed. Read­ers must judge for them­selves. Since it is oth­er­wise inac­ces­si­ble, we repro­duced it in full on the Churchill Project web­site . Here are excerpts.

From “Government of Great Dictators”

[On 30 June 1934] many hun­dreds of men and some women were put to death in Ger­many with­out law, with­out accu­sa­tion, with­out tri­al. These per­sons rep­re­sent­ed many vari­eties of life and thought of Ger­many. There were Nazis and anti-Nazis. There were Gen­er­als and Com­mu­nists; there were Jews, Protes­tants, and Catholics. Some were rich and some were poor; some were young and some were old; some were famous and some were hum­ble. But all had one thing in com­mon, name­ly, that they were deemed to be obnox­ious or obstruc­tive to the Hitler regime. There­fore, they were blot­ted out.

The his­to­ry of the world is full of grue­some, squalid episodes of this kind, from the butcheries of ancient Rome and the num­ber­less mas­sacres which have stained the his­to­ry of Asia down to the “smellings out” of the Zulu and Hot­ten­tot witch doc­tors . But in all its ups and downs mankind has always recoiled in hor­ror from such events…

Adolf Hitler took upon him­self the full respon­si­bil­i­ty…. But the astound­ing thing is that the great Ger­man peo­ple, edu­cat­ed, sci­en­tif­ic, philo­soph­i­cal, roman­tic, the peo­ple of the Christ­mas tree, the peo­ple of Goethe and Schiller, of Bach and Beethoven, Heine, Leib­nitz, Kant and a hun­dred oth­er great names, have not only not resent­ed this hor­ri­ble blood-bath, but have endorsed it and acclaimed its author with the hon­ours not only of a sov­er­eign but almost of a god….

Can we real­ly believe that a hier­ar­chy and soci­ety built upon such deeds can be entrust­ed with the pos­ses­sion of the most prodi­gious mil­i­tary machin­ery yet planned among men? Can we believe that by such pow­ers the world may regain “the joy, the peace and glo­ry of mankind”? The answer, if answer there be, oth­er than the most appalling neg­a­tive, is con­tained in that mys­tery called HITLER.

The Hitler essays in retrospect

Churchill’s views plain­ly under­went no sig­nif­i­cant change dur­ing the two years span­ning his three Hitler essays. If his orig­i­nal descrip­tion of the Röhm purge dis­ap­peared, it did not affect the tenor of what he left in.

There is some­thing about those excised pas­sages that arrests the eye today. Because on 7 Octo­ber 2023, much the same thing hap­pened in Israel.

“All man­ner of peo­ple” were killed by mur­der­ers who “caught them in the streets, shot them in their beds, shot the wife who threw her­self before her hus­band…. Sin­is­ter vol­leys suc­ceed­ed each oth­er through a long morn­ing, after­noon and night.”

And again mankind recoiled in hor­ror. The only dif­fer­ence seems to be that in 1934 Ger­many, “rela­tions who ven­tured to inquire for the miss­ing father, broth­er or son received, after a con­sid­er­able inter­val, a small urn con­tain­ing cre­mat­ed ash­es.” In 2023, the bar­bar­ians didn’t both­er to do that.

Further reading

“Win­ston Churchill on Peace with Hitler,” 2023.

“Did Hitler Autho­rize the Flight of Rudolf Hess?” 2023.

“Hitler’s Sput­ter­ing Aus­tri­an Anschluss:  Oppor­tu­ni­ty Missed?” 2020.

“The Myth that Churchill Admired Hitler,” 2017.

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Why did women vote for Hitler? Long-forgotten essays hold some answers

Ph.D. student, Florida State University

Professor of Criminology and Criminal Justice, Florida State University

Dorothy and Jonathan Rintels Professor of Holocaust Studies, Florida State University

Disclosure statement

Sarah R. Warren received funding for a portion of this work from the Florida State University Center for Undergraduate Research and Academic Engagement.

Daniel Maier-Katkin receives funding from National Science Fondation, U.S. Department of Justice, U.S. Department of State

Nathan Stoltzfus does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

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The rise of Hitler and the Nazi Party in the 1930s came on the back of votes from millions of ordinary Germans – both men and women.

But aside from a few high-profile figures, such as concentration camp guard Irma Grese and “concentration camp murderess” Ilse Koch , little is known about the everyday women who embraced the National Socialist German Workers’ Party, known more commonly as the Nazi Party. What little data we do have on ordinary Nazi women has been largely underused, forgotten or ignored. It has left us with a half-formed understanding of the rise of the Nazi movement, one that is almost exclusively focused on male party members.

And yet more than 30 essays on the subject “Why I became a Nazi” written by German women in 1934 have been lying fallow in the archives of the Hoover Institution in Palo Alto for decades. These essays were only unearthed three years ago when three Florida State University professors arranged to have them transcribed and translated. They have since been made available digitally , but have not received widespread attention.

Not all Cabaret

As scholars of Holocaust studies , crimes against humanity and political behavior , we believe the accounts of these women give an insight into the role of women in the rise of the Nazi party. They also point to the extent to which women’s attitudes on feminism differed after the Great War – a time when women were making gains in independence, education, economic opportunity and sexual freedom.

The German women’s movement had been among the most powerful and significant in the world for half a century before the Nazis came to power in 1933. Top-quality high schools for girls had existed since the 1870s, and German universities were opened to women at the beginning of the 20th century. Many German women became teachers, lawyers, doctors, journalists and novelists. In 1919, German women got the vote . By 1933, women, of whom there were millions more than men – Berlin had 1,116 women for every 1,000 men – voted in roughly the same percentages as men for Hitler and National Socialist candidates.

‘Everyone was everyone’s enemy’

The essays unearthed at the Hoover Institution give an insight as to why some of them did.

Dissatisfaction with the attitudes of the Weimar era, the period between the end of World War I and Hitler’s rise to power, is clear in the women’s writing. Most of the essay writers express distaste with some aspect of the political system. One calls women’s voting rights “a disadvantage for Germany,” while another describes the political climate as “haywire,” and “everyone was everyone’s enemy.” Margarethe Schrimpff, a 54-year-old woman living just outside of Berlin, describes her experience:

“I attended the meetings of all … parties, from the communists to the nationalists; at one of the democratic meetings in Friedenau [Berlin], where the former Colonial Minister, a Jew by the name of Dernburg, was speaking, I experienced the following: this Jew had the audacity to say, among other things: ‘What are the Germans actually capable of; maybe breeding rabbits.’ "Dear readers, do not think that the heavily represented stronger sex jumped up and told this Jew where to go. Far from it. Not one man made a sound, they stayed dead quiet. However, a miserable, frail little woman from the so-called ‘weaker sex’ raised her hand and forcefully rejected the Jew’s brazen remarks; he had in the meantime allegedly disappeared to attend another meeting.”

These essays were originally collected by an assistant professor at Columbia University, Theodore Abel, who organized an essay contest with generous prizes with the cooperation of the Nazi Propaganda Ministry. Of nearly 650 essays, roughly 30 were written by women, and Abel set them aside, explaining in a footnote that he intended to examine them separately. But he never did. The men’s essays formed the basis for his book, “ Why Hitler Came To Power ,” published in 1938, which remains an important source in the global discourse about the Nazi rise to power.

Summarizing Abel’s findings, historian Ian Kershaw wrote in his book on Hitler’s rise to power that they showed that the “appeal of Hitler and his movement was not based on any distinctive doctrine.” He concluded that almost a third of the men were attracted by the indivisible “national community” – Volksgemeinschaft – ideology of the Nazis, and a similar proportion were swayed by nationalist, super-patriotic and German-romantic notions. In only about an eighth of the cases was anti-Semitism the prime ideological concern, although two-thirds of the essays revealed some form of dislike of Jews. Almost a fifth were motivated by the Hitler cult alone, attracted by the man himself, but the essays reveal differences between men and women in the reason for the enthrallment with the Nazi leader.

The cult of Hitler

For men, the cult of personality appears to center around Hitler as a strong leader charging toward a Germany which defined itself by those it excluded. It’s not surprising that women, on the cusp of exclusion themselves, were less captivated by this component of Nazism. Rather, the women’s essays tend to refer to religious imagery and sentiment conflating piety with the Hitler cult. The women appear to be moved more by Nazism’s proposed solutions to problems such as poverty rather than the supposed grandeur of Nazi ideology in the abstract.

In her essay, Helene Radtke, a 38-year-old wife of a German soldier, describes her “divine duty to forget about all my household chores and to perform my service to my homeland.”

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Agnes Molster-Surm, a housewife and private tutor, calls Hitler her “God-given Führer and savior, Adolf Hitler, for Germany’s honor, Germany’s fortune and Germany’s freedom!”

Another woman replaced the star on her Christmas tree with a photograph of Hitler surrounded by a halo of candles. These men and women shared the message of National Socialism as if it was gospel and refer to new party members as “converts.” One such woman describes early efforts to “convert” her family to Nazism as falling “on stony soil and not even the slightest little green sapling of understanding sprouted.” She was later “converted” through conversations with her mailman.

The essays do not only serve as historical curios, but as a warning as to how ordinary people can be attracted to extremist ideology at a time of social distress. Similar language has been used to describe the current political climate in the United States and other countries. Perhaps, as some do today , these women believed all their society’s ills could be solved by the restoration of their nation to a perceived state of former glory, no matter the cost.

• Adolf Hitler
• German history
• Weimar Republic

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Essay on Hitler

Students are often asked to write an essay on Hitler in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Hitler

Introduction.

Adolf Hitler, born in Austria in 1889, was a significant figure in world history. He is known as the leader of Nazi Germany from 1934 to 1945.

Rise to Power

Hitler’s rise to power began in the early 1930s. He became the Chancellor of Germany in 1933, and later the dictator in 1934.

World War II

Under Hitler’s leadership, Germany started World War II in 1939. He aimed to establish a new order based on absolute Nazi German hegemony.

End of Hitler

Hitler’s aggressive policies and expansionist ideology are often seen as the causes of the start of World War II. He died by suicide in his bunker in Berlin on 30 April 1945.

250 Words Essay on Hitler

Early life and rise to power.

Adolf Hitler, born in Braunau am Inn, Austria, in 1889, was a controversial figure who rose to power as Germany’s dictator in 1933. Hitler’s early life was marked by struggle and failure, which shaped his extremist ideologies and charismatic leadership style. His political career began post World War I, when he joined the German Workers’ Party, later rebranded as the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (Nazi Party).

Hitler’s Ideology and the Holocaust

Hitler’s ideology was a toxic blend of anti-Semitism, Aryan racial superiority, and totalitarianism. His extremist views led to the Holocaust, the genocide of six million Jews, which stands as a stark reminder of the destructive potential of hate and bigotry. Hitler’s Mein Kampf, a manifesto outlining his political ideology and plans for Germany, became a cornerstone of the Nazi regime.

World War II and Hitler’s Downfall

Hitler’s aggressive foreign policies and expansionist ideology were significant causes of World War II. His invasion of Poland in 1939 triggered the war, and his militaristic tactics resulted in the occupation of several European countries. However, the tide turned against Hitler after the failed invasion of the Soviet Union and the entry of the United States into the war. In 1945, with Allied forces closing in, Hitler died by suicide in his bunker in Berlin.

This brief overview of Hitler’s life and impact underscores the dangers of unchecked power, extremist ideologies, and the manipulation of public sentiment, lessons that remain pertinent today.

500 Words Essay on Hitler

Adolf Hitler, a name synonymous with tyranny and destruction, was the Führer and Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945. His policies precipitated World War II and the Holocaust, leading to the genocide of six million Jews. Hitler’s actions and ideology, steeped in anti-Semitism, xenophobia, and Aryan supremacy, have left an indelible scar on human history.

Early Life and Political Inception

Born on April 20, 1889, in Braunau am Inn, Austria, Hitler’s early life was marked by conflict and hardship. His father, a stern and volatile man, was often at odds with Hitler’s artistic aspirations. Hitler moved to Munich in 1913, and his life took a decisive turn with the outbreak of World War I, where he served with distinction. Post-war Germany, laden with the punitive Treaty of Versailles, was fertile ground for Hitler’s extremist views. He joined the German Workers’ Party in 1919, which later evolved into the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (Nazi Party), and he became its leader in 1921.

Hitler’s charisma, coupled with his fervent nationalism and anti-Semitic rhetoric, resonated with the economically distressed and politically disillusioned Germans. His failed coup attempt in 1923, known as the Beer Hall Putsch, led to his imprisonment, during which he wrote ‘Mein Kampf’, outlining his political ideology and future plans for Germany. Released in 1924, Hitler methodically rebuilt the Nazi Party and by 1933, he was appointed Chancellor of Germany.

Hitler’s Regime

Once in power, Hitler swiftly dismantled Germany’s democratic institutions, establishing a totalitarian regime. The Reichstag fire in 1933 provided him the pretext to enact the Enabling Act, granting him dictatorial powers. Hitler pursued aggressive foreign policies, defying the Treaty of Versailles, and initiated World War II with the invasion of Poland in 1939.

The Holocaust

Hitler’s most abhorrent act was the systematic genocide of six million Jews during the Holocaust. His virulent anti-Semitism, articulated in ‘Mein Kampf’, became state policy with the implementation of the “Final Solution” – the extermination of the Jewish people.

Downfall and Legacy

Hitler’s downfall began with the disastrous decision to invade the Soviet Union in 1941. By 1945, Allied forces had overrun Germany. Facing imminent defeat, Hitler died by suicide in his bunker in Berlin on April 30, 1945. His legacy, a testament to the destructive potential of totalitarian regimes and extremist ideologies, serves as a stark reminder of humanity’s darkest hour.

Adolf Hitler, a man whose name evokes images of horror and devastation, changed the course of the 20th century. His reign of terror serves as a grim reminder of the catastrophic consequences of unchecked power, racial hatred, and ideological extremism. As we reflect on Hitler’s life and actions, it is incumbent upon us to ensure that the lessons of history are not forgotten, and such atrocities are never repeated.

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Hitler’s Final Reflections on Race and International Relations (1945)

• Nazi Germany (1933-1945)
• Transnational Connections
• Source (24/24)

During the final months of the Second World War and in the last weeks before he committed suicide, Adolf Hitler (1889-1945), with the help of his private secretary, Martin Bormann (1900-1945), prepared his final written thoughts and testaments. These excerpts from those final writings reveal Hitler’s reflections on race and international relations at a time when it was clear Germany could not win the war it started six years earlier. After the war, the Swiss banker and right-wing extremist François Genoud came into possession of the Bormann documents in an unexplained manner and published them initially in English and French. The German text was published in 1981 with an essay by British historian Hugh Trevor-Roper and an afterword by former French High Commissioner for Germany André François-Poncet. Some historians question the authenticity of these documents.

In the first excerpt, Hitler takes stock of Europe’s imperial projects over the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. He argues that Britain and France should have focused on their own states, rather than have embarked on financially burdensome projects of colonial expansion. Hitler had always looked beyond Germany to study examples of “race.” He declares in the second excerpt that Germany’s failures are easy to identify: the German people lacked commitment to maintaining a “pure race”; and, they had failed to eliminate the so-called Jewish problem, which meant the problems of antisemitism would persist. The third excerpt reveals Hitler’s final frustration: his fascist ally and partner, Mussolini and Italy. The failures of the Italians during the war were Hitler’s greatest nuisance. Without the Italians, Hitler argues, the National Socialists could have incited revolutions across Africa and the Mediterranean. These excerpts point to an important and understudied factor that informed Hitler’s and the Nazis’ worldview: Hitler frequently looked beyond Europe to inform his racial thinking, to understand the place of Germany in a longer history of the world, and to conceive of Germany’s future as a global power.

A glance at history, both ancient and modern, will show that overseas enterprises have always in the long run impoverished those who undertook them. They have all, in the end, been exhausted by their efforts; and, in the inevitable nature of things, they have all succumbed to forces to which either they have themselves given birth or which they have themselves re-awakened. What better example of this than the Greeks?

What was true for the ancient Greeks remains equally true for all Europeans in modern times. To prosper, a people must concentrate its efforts on its own country. A scrutiny of any reasonably long period of history will reveal facts which confirm the truth of this contention.

Spain, France and Britain have all enfeebled, devitalized and drained themselves in these vain colonial enterprises. The continents to which Spain and Britain gave birth, which they created piece by piece, have today acquired a completely independent way of life and a completely egoistical outlook. Even so, they are but artificial worlds, with neither a soul, a culture nor a civilization of their own; and, judged from that point of view, they are nothing more than excrescences.

It is, of course, possible to make out a case for the success achieved in peopling continents which before had been empty. The United States and Australia afford good examples. Success, certainly – but only on the material side. They are artificial edifices, bodies without age, of which it is impossible to say whether they are still in a state of infancy or whether they have already been touched by senility. In those continents which were inhabited, failure has been even more marked. In them, the white races have imposed their will by force, and the influence they have had on the native inhabitants has been negligible; the Hindus have remained Hindus, the Chinese have remained Chinese, and the Moslems are still Moslems. There have been no profound transformations, and such changes as have occurred are less marked in the religious field, notwithstanding the tremendous efforts of the Christian missionaries, than in any other. There have been a few odd conversions the sincerity of which are open to considerable doubt – except, perhaps, in the case of a few simpletons and mentally deficients. The white races did, of course, give some things to the natives, and they were the worst gifts that they could possibly have made, those plagues of our own modern world – materialism, fanaticism, alcoholism and syphilis.

There is, then, no danger in the circumstances that anti-semitism will disappear, for it is the Jews themselves who add fuel to its flames and see that it is kept well stoked. Before the opposition to it can disappear, the malady itself must disappear. And from that point of view, you can rely on the Jews: as long as they survive, anti-semitism will never fade.

In saying this, I promise you I am quite free of all racial hatred. It is, in any case, undesirable that one race should mix with other races. Except for a few gratuitous successes, which I am prepared to admit, systematic cross-breeding has never produced good results. Its desire to remain racially pure is a proof of the vitality and good health of a race. Pride in one’s own race – and that does not imply contempt for other races – is also a normal and healthy sentiment. I have never regarded the Chinese or the Japanese as being inferior to ourselves. They belong to ancient civilizations, and I admit freely that their past history is superior to our own. They have the right to be proud of their past, just as we have the right to be proud of the civilization to which we belong. Indeed, I believe the more steadfast the Chinese and Japanese remain in their pride of race, the easier I shall find it to get on with them.

This pride of race is a quality which the German, fundamentally, does not possess.

Our Italian ally has been a source of embarrassment to us everywhere. It was this alliance, for instance, which prevented us from pursuing a revolutionary policy in North Africa. In the nature of things, this territory was becoming an Italian preserve and it was as such that the Duce laid claim to it. Has we been on our own, we could have emancipated the Moslem countries dominated by France; and that would have had enormous repercussions in the Near East, dominated by Britain, and in Egypt. But with our fortunes linked with those of the Italians, the pursuit of such a policy was not possible. All Islam vibrated at the news of our victories. The Egyptians, the Irakis and the whole of the Near East were all ready to rise in revolt. Just think what we could have done to help them, even to incite them as would have been both our duty and in our own interest! But the presence of the Italians at our side paralysed us; it created a feeling of malaise among our Islamic friends, who inevitably saw in us accomplices, willing or unwilling, of their oppressors. For the Italians in these parts of the world are more bitterly hated, of course, than either the British or the French. The memories of the barbarous reprisals taken against the Senussi are still vivid. Then again the ridiculous pretensions of the Duce to be regarded as The Sword of Islam evokes the same sneering chuckle now as it did before the war. This title, which is fitting for Mahomed and a great conqueror like Omar, Mussolini caused to be conferred on himself by a few wretched brutes whom he had either bribed or terrorized into doing so. We had a great chance of pursuing a splendid policy with regard to Islam. But we missed the bus, as we missed it on several other occasions, thanks to our loyalty to the Italian alliance!

Source: The Testament of Adolf Hitler: The Hitler-Bormann Documents February-April 1945 , ed. Francois Genoud. London: Icon Books, 1962 pp. 43-44, 52-53, and 70-71.

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Adolf Hitler, Essay Example

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Adolf Hitler is a name, which instills terror into human beings now, 65 years after Fuehrer’s mysterious death. As defined by BBC Historic Figures, Hitler, “ military and political leader of Germany 1933 – 1945, launched World War Two and bears responsibility for the deaths of millions, including six million Jewish people in the Nazi genocide.” Born to become an artist, this man eventually turned into the curse of the 20 st century. These days, looking back at the deeds of German Nazi Party leader, one can only wonder how one man could bring so much evil and terror into being. Whether he was a madman, a fanatic, a genius or a living embodiment of devil is still to ask. It is obvious, however, that his triumph was not due to who he was solely, but rather to how the circumstances were, since, as Conrad Adenauer once said, “history is the sum total of the things that could have been avoided.”

Adolf Hitler was born in Austria in 1889, in the family of a customs official. Having failed to succeed as an artist in Vienna, young man moved to Munich in 1913. As the World War I broke out, he enlisted in the German army, where he was injured and consequently decorated. He became the leader of the Nazi Party in 1921. Hitler’s interest number one had always been an establishment of a pure race of German people through a policy of nationalism, anti-Semitism, anti-capitalism and anti-communism.

“Against a background of economic depression and political turmoil, the Nazis grew stronger and in the 1932 elections became the largest party in the German parliament.” (BBC Histroy) In 1933, Hitler was elected as a chancellor of a coalition government. He took his chance immediately, established himself as a dictator and started off with instituting the anti-Jewish laws. The course of action he took implied the process of German militarization and territorial expansion that eventually resulted into World War Two, started in 1939 by Hitler’s commanding his armies to enter Poland. He eventually committed suicide in 1945, just before Germany lost the war, in order to avoid capture by Soviet forces.

“The world has come to know Adolph Hitler for his insatiable greed for power, his ruthlessness, cruelty and utter lack of feeling, his contempt for established institutions and his lack of moral restraints.” (Langer) The question is not, however, whether he was a madman or not, but rather is what influenced his psychological development to make him what he was. Hitler’s early life, when his basic mentality and mindset were obviously formed, is believed to have the most profound impact on his adult character.

“Freud’s earliest and greatest contribution to psychiatry in particular and to an understanding of human conduct in general was his discovery of the importance of the first years of a child’s life in shaping his future character.” (Langer) It is, however, questionable whether Freud’s theory of psychosexual development can be applied when discussing Hitler’s case. Attempting to relate Hitler’s behavior to a diversity of unproven sexual oddities attributed to future dictator seems far-fetched.

It is true, nevertheless, that during early years, when a child’s view of life is still immature, there is a serious threat of misinterpreting the nature of the world around him. The intellect of a child is not enough adequate to comprehend the complex requirements of society he is supposed to meet, as well as a perplexing experience to which he is constantly exposed. As a result, the child’s personality may turn out to be composed of wrong ideas about the world he lives in.

Close analyses of Hitler’s personal statements and the available information about his background, family in particular, allows for an assumption that Hitler’s ill nature was indeed formed at very young age. His view of reality was deeply affected by family issues. Even though he claims himself to be growing up in a normal middle class family, with “father a faithful civil servant, the mother devoting herself to the cares of the household and looking after her children with eternally the same loving care”, the actual state of affairs appears to be somewhat different (Hitler, 1925). Hitler seems to conceal very carefully his true family environment. Nowhere else in the whole book any of his family members are mentioned. Never did he as well refer to any of his brothers or sisters to his associate, with the only exception of his half-sister, Angela. His mentions of own beloved mother are met not quite more often.

Why would he be so secretive about own family if, as he claimed in statement quoted above, living in a perfectly friendly and peaceful environment? The explanation is provided by third person descriptions of the low class family life, he declares to be witnessing personally for many times in his life, that are included in ‘Mein Kampf’.  For instance, he writes: “Among the five children there is a boy, let us say, of three… When the parents fight almost daily, their brutality leaves nothing to the imagination; then the results of such visual education must slowly but inevitably become apparent to the little one. Those who are not familiar with such conditions can hardly imagine the results, especially when the mutual differences express themselves in the form of brutal attacks on the part of the father towards the mother or to assaults due to drunkenness. The poor little boy at the age of six, senses things which would make even a grown-up person shudder…” (Mein Kampf) Many more references to hard family conditions are present in his writings. And even though he rejects to be a full participant of those scenes, one may assume Hitler is in fact describing his personal experience, which aroused revulsion and resentment in his early childhood.

Relationship with his father turned him into a rebellious young man. Instead of providing an image of a reliable, balanced, socially-adjusted and outstanding individual, which the little boy could perceive as a guiding model, Hitler’s father proved to be full of inconsistency. “As a child Hitler must have felt this lack very keenly for throughout his later life we find him searching for a strong masculine figure whom he can respect and emulate.” (Langer) In contrast, Hitler’s mother is believed to be an extremely respectable woman. There are numerous evidences that show there was an exceptional attachment between herself and Adolph, which is no surprise, since she obviously supplied her little son with all the love and care she had to give.

The great amount of love provided to him by his mother and the unattractive character of his father contributed to dynamic development of Hitler’s complexes. Naturally, he became more and more needy for the warmth his mother gave him and more and more aggressive towards his useless father.  The later was viewed by Hitler as intruder and could possible provoke Adolf’s ultimate desire for “pure race”. It is also quite possible that all the affection and love he had once felt for his mother became instinctively relocated to Germany after her untimely death.

Naturally, Hitler was no less influenced by social forces as a young man, than he was by family issues as being a child. For young Hitler, German Nationalism became an obsession as an alternative way to rebel against his father. The later served the Austrian government, greatly respected his position and the society he lived in, and tended to require that all others, including his own son, were doing same way.  The majority of people who lived alongside the German-Austrian border regarded themselves as German-Austrian citizens, but Hitler, in contrast, declared devotion only to Germany. Provoked by desire to disobey own father, Hitler refused to comply with the Austrian Monarchy.

The development of anti-Semitism is ascribed to his Vienna period. Historians still argue about the reasons that provoked such a fatal hatred to the entire race. Hitler was probably influenced by anti-Semitism moods widespread in Vienna. The extensive propaganda against Jews, popularized among Austrian citizens, turned possibly indifferent or even sympathetic Adolf into a hawkish racist. Hitler described Jews as disgraceful and corrupt human beings accountable for most of society’s problems. Whether he truly supported general believes, or simply adjusted own attitudes to be better accepted among peers, is an open question.

He led a passive, pathetic, beggarly life at Vienna, “in which activity was held at the lowest level consistent with survival. He seemed to enjoy being dirty and even filthy in his appearance and personal cleanliness.”(Stein) After all, he finally found his proper place in German army during World War I.  Hitler’s political and religious extremism at last began to fully absorb him while his short military service. He proved himself to be a courageous soldier, and also learned strategy and warfare tactics firsthand. Outraged by Germany’s surrender and the political outcomes of war, Hitler decided to become active in politics, and that is when the world was changed for good.

Apparently, Hitler’s awkward manner, nervous temperament and antisocial behavior were provoked by environment he was growing up in. His views of life and people were maturing under brutal guidance of his father. His emotional instability, aggressiveness and violence as a child and teenager, however, appear to be the innate characteristics of his personality, rather than acquired traits that were produced under the influence of given circumstances. His unhappy childhood eventually shaped an unstable human being who lived in a world of pure fancy.  However, if not for his inborn cruelty and for the way the history had played out, Hitler would probably have just been a one more miserable teenager from a dysfunctional family.

It is clear now that some exceptional traits of Hitler’s personality were formed during his childhood years. In what exact way did they however influence him? If applying Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development to Adolf Hitler, one can observe where he failed as a personality and what were the psychological development gaps that eventually caused him to become the man he was. Hitler who had a troublesome childhood failed on the very first stages of psychological growth.  According to Erikson, on each stage of development people go through a conflict that serves as a turning point in personality formation. “These conflicts are centered on either developing a psychological quality or failing to develop that quality. During these times, the potential for personal growth is high, but so is the potential for failure.” (About.com). Thus, Hitler obviously failed on first and second stages (Trust vs. Mistrust and Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt correspondingly), which provoked fear and developed in him a belief that the world is unpredictable and changeable, as well as a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt. Hitler seems to be failing on almost all of the following stages, since one failure negatively affects the success when facing the subsequent conflict. Hitler however appeared to be having a strong identity and sense of self, which contradicts the theory. Fuehrer’s triumph over this or that conflict probably depended on the current stage of his political career development and social interaction he was going through.

Social Learning Theory explains how a personality is formed through the observation of society. Albert Bandura stated: “Most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action.” (About.com) It can, therefore, be assumed that Hitler’s cruelty was provoked by the observation of his father’s brutality. The fact that Hitler failed to alter his behavior through the observation of his mother as well fits the theory, since it specifies that learning does not automatically cause a change in behavior. The theory does not, however, clarify why a person chooses to change or not to change own behavior, and what knowledge leads to transformation.

Therefore, Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development seems to be the most suitable when talking about Adolf Hitler. Being based on person’s ability to resolve various psychological conflicts, it provides more sufficient explanation for the complexity and contradictoriness of Hitler’s nature. His failure on first stages resulted into increasing number of complexes, growing into feeling of superiority.

Hitler’s personality is, however, too extraordinary to be fully explained by one single theory; some of his behaviors seem to contradict all theories at once. Despite being a bad-tempered, violent, anti-social person, he eventually developed into a charismatic, outstanding leader and brilliant strategist. Tragically, “it was not only Hitler, the madman, who created German madness, but German madness which created Hitler. Having created him as its spokesman and leader, it has been carried along by his momentum, perhaps far beyond the point where it was originally prepared to go.” (Langer) It is always important to remember that Hitler, in spite of the chaos that he was responsible for, failed monumentally in all his major intentions, leaving, however, such a profound track in the history of 20 st century that his personality is to be studied for centuries to come.

Works Cited

About.com. Psychology Theories. Retrieved April 10, 2010, from http://psychology.about.com/od/psychology101/u/psychology-theories.htm

BBC. Historic Figures: Adolf Hitler . Retrieved April 10, 2010, from  http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/hitler_adolf.shtml

Hitler, A. (1925). Mein Kampf .

Langer, Walter C. A Psychological Profile of Adolph Hitler. His Life and Legend.   Retrieved April 10, 2010, from http://www.ess.uwe.ac.uk/documents/osstitle.htm

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About Adolf Hitler

Born: April 20, 1889, Braunau am Inn

Died: April 30, 1945

Cause of death: Suicide

Spouse: Eva Braun

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Adolf hitler essay.

Adolf Hitler, the dictator of Germany, proponent of Nazism, and perpetrator of the Holocaust, was born on April 20, 1889, in the Austrian town of Braunau near the German border. His father, Alois, was a customs official, and his mother, Klara, was a gentlewoman. Hitler did not finish his secondary education and moved to Vienna at the age of 18 to study art and architecture.

He was unsuccessful in getting admission and stayed in Vienna until 1913, doing menial jobs. Hitler developed a rabid nationalism and simultaneously showed deep anti-Semitism. He was influenced by anti-Jew writer Lanz von Liebenfels (1874–1954). The right-wing Austrian politician and mayor of Vienna Karl Lueger (1844–1910), along with Georg Ritter von Schönerer (1842–1921), an advocate of pan-Germanism, also shaped Hitler’s violent hatred of the Jews.

He enlisted in the German army during World War I. Hitler returned to Munich in 1919 with five medals and the prestigious German Iron Cross (twice) for his bold service as dispatch runner. The war had rescued him from the frustration of civilian life and inculcated in his mind a strong like of discipline and authoritarianism. He had also developed a deep hatred of left-wing politics, and it was no coincidence that his anti-Semitism developed along with his political beliefs, as many of the advocates of socialism and communism were Jews.

The army employed Hitler as a political officer, and he freely gave vent to his feelings in the charged atmosphere following the humiliating Versailles Treaty of June 28, 1919. The treaty signed by the German politicians was a peace dictated by others, and German humiliation was complete. Hitler was to report the activities of the Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (DAP, German Workers’ Party), and he soon found that the party ideals of extreme nationalism and anti-Semitism were in line with his own beliefs. With his excellent skill of delivery, Hitler impressed the members and joined the DAP. Thus, the political career of Hitler began in September 1919. He was soon placed in charge of propaganda and recruited fellow soldiers from the army who had also been disillusioned with the Treaty of Versailles.

All the blame for Germany’s woes was put on the Jews, communists, and inefficient political leadership of the Weimar Republic. Hitler made the symbol of the party the swastika (symbolizing victory for the Aryan race) with a red background (symbolizing the social idea) and enclosed in a white circle (symbolizing the national idea). Hitler changed the name of the DAP to the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (NSDAP, Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei), Nazi for short. As chairperson of the party, Hitler was addressed as the führer (leader).

The Weimar Republic received a severe blow in January 1923, when France and Belgium occupied the Ruhr industrial area and brought the German economy to a standstill. Hitler tried to exploit the situation with the Beer Hall Putsch of November in Bavaria, but the coup failed and the führer was imprisoned. During his period of incarceration, he wrote Mein Kampf (My struggle). The memoir-cum-doctrinal Nazi guide book spelled out an agenda for an expanded Germany inhabited by a pure Aryan race and excluding Jews and other unwanted people.

Hitler was biding his time and realized that he could attain power through the ballot box. The collapse of the New York Stock Market on October 23, 1929, and the consequent worldwide Great Depression affected the German economy. The unemployment figure rose from 1.30 million to nearly 4 million by the end of 1930. Hitler exploited the deteriorating economic situation. He had assured the top industrialists, by issuing a pamphlet entitled The Road to Resurgence, that the Nazi Party was not against the wealthy. His promise of suppression of trade unionism and building up of the army was music to the ears of big industrialists. His technique of propaganda and rabble-rousing speeches appealed to the workers. The political elite began to accept him because of his emphasis on legality. In the 1932 elections Hitler’s party was the strongest in Germany, with 40 percent of the votes. The Reich president, Paul von Hindenburg (1847–1934), was persuaded by conservative leaders and Nazi supporters to appoint Hitler chancellor in January 1933.

Nazi political opponents were subdued by mass demonstrations in favor of Hitler and terrorized by the brown-shirted SA, the Sturmabteilung (storm troopers), and the black-uniformed ss, the Schutzstaffel (security echelon). In March an act that granted dictatorial power to Hitler was passed. After four months all political parties were banned save the Nazi Party, and the common form of greeting became “Heil Hitler” with an outstretched right arm. A ministry of propaganda was instituted under Joseph Goebbels (1897–1945). On June 30, 1934, Hitler carried out a purge in the Nazi Party by murdering his opponents in the “night of the long knives.” With the death of Hindenburg in August, Hitler, with the title of führer, was the supreme leader of Germany. The legal system was virtually nonexistent, and the Geheime Staatspolizei (the Gestapo, the secret state police), formed by Hermann Göring (1893–1946), threw the anti-Nazis into concentration camps. A rearmament and public housing program were initiated.

The economy revived, and the unemployment figures went down. Germany became 83 percent self-sufficient in agriculture by fixing farm prices and wages, banning the sale of farms of less than 312 acres, and reclaiming uncultivated lands. Industrial recovery was achieved by the Four-Year Plans of 1933 and 1936. The ministry of economics distributed raw materials and regulated prices, imports, and exports. Hitler’s popularity soared, while Germany had been transformed into an authoritarian state.

Hitler struck against the Jews, which culminated in the Nazis’ sending them into gas chambers and concentration camps during World War II. The Nuremberg laws of September 1935 denied the Jews citizenship and the right to marry non-Jews. Hitler’s policies led to large-scale Jewish migration to different parts of the world. The November 1938 pogrom against the Jews resulted in massacre, looting of property, the forcing of Jews to wear yellow stars of David so that they could be identified, and resettlement in ghettos.

Hitler posed as a defender of peace and a crusader against Bolshevism. The leadership of Britain and France appeased Hitler because to them Joseph Stalin (1879–1953) was a greater menace. With consummate skill Hitler began to scrap the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles and to follow the policy of Lebensraum in an eastward direction. Hitler withdrew from the Geneva Disarmament Conference as well as from the League of Nations in October 1933. He denounced the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles and introduced conscription in March 1934.

The next year Germany began expanding its armed forces and its navy in flagrant violation of the military clauses of the Treaty of Versailles. In March 1936, Hitler occupied the demilitarized Rhineland. Italy and Japan, with the same agenda of ultra-nationalism, militarism, and aggressive foreign policy, became close allies of Germany. The three countries signed pacts for furthering their aims. The Rome-Berlin Axis was established between Benito Mussolini (1883–1945) and Hitler in October 1936, and the following month Germany signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan, which Italy joined in 1937.

Both Hitler and Mussolini supported General Francisco Franco (1892–1975) in the Spanish civil war against the republicans. Continuing his policy of lebensraum, Hitler turned his attention toward Austria, which was German in tradition and language. There had already been a putsch in 1934 for Anschluss (annexation). In March 1938 the Nazi army marched in and annexed Austria.

The republic of Czechoslovakia, with its minority population of 3.25 million Sudeten Germans, was next on the agenda. Great Britain and France followed a policy of appeasement toward Hitler. They thought wrongly that Hitler would remain satisfied, but it was not so. At the Munich Conference of September 29, 1938, Czechoslovakia was dismembered, and the Sudeten area was handed over to Germany. In March 1939, the country was occupied by Hitler.

Feverish diplomatic activity, signing of alliances, and mobilization of armed forces were undertaken by the European powers. Hitler in his ingenuity and deviousness began to realize his aim. He signed a military alliance, the “Pact of Steel,” with Mussolini in May 1939. Hitler’s diplomacy reached its apogee when he signed the nonaggression pact with Russia on August 23, 1939. He could then turn his attention toward Poland, notwithstanding the fact that Great Britain and Poland had signed a treaty of mutual assistance on August 25, 1939.

The free city of Danzig and the Polish Corridor, dividing eastern Prussia from Germany, were seen as an affront to the Germans. World War II began on April 1, 1939, after Nazi Germany’s invasion of Poland. Two days afterward Great Britain and France declared war against Germany. Appeasement had been a failure.

For about two years, the juggernaut of Hitler’s Wehrmacht (armed forces) incorporated Poland, Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands, and Belgium. The fall of France on June 22, 1940, was another triumph for Hitler. Flushed with success, Hitler began to commit the blunder of attacking the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941. Four days after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941 (December 8 in Japan), Hitler declared war on the United States.

The balance tilted in favor of the Allied powers, and the Axis of Germany, Italy, and Japan faced defeats. Hitler had lost battles in Russia and North Africa. He helped Mussolini set up a government after the Allied invasion of Sicily in 1943, but the Allied army reached Rome in June 1944. The Normandy invasion was launched on June 6. The Red Army of Russia was advancing from the east, and Hitler was ensconced in Berlin. Surrounded by the Soviet troops, Hitler committed suicide in the Führerbunker on April 30, 1945. On May 8 the German forces surrendered unconditionally at Rheims in France. The “thousand years Reich” had lasted for 12 years.

Bibliography:

• Bullock, Alan. Hitler and Stalin: Parallel Lives. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1991;
• Burleigh, M. The Third Reich: A New History. New York: Hill and Wang, 2000;
• Evans, Richard J. The Coming of the Third Reich. London: Allen Lane, 2003;
• The Third Reich in Power, 1933–1939. New York: Penguin, 2005;
• Fuchs, Thomas. A Concise Biography of Adolf Hitler. New York: The Berkley Group, 1990;
• Giblin, James Cross. The Life and Death of Adolf Hitler. New York: Clarion Books, 2003;
• Hitler, Adolf. Mein Kampf. New York: Reynal and Hitchcock, 1940;
• Kershaw, Ian. Hitler: Nemesis, 1936–1945. New York: Norton, 2000; Paxton, Robert O. The Anatomy of Fascism. London: Penguin, 2005;
• Roberts, Jeremy. Adolf Hitler: A Study in Hate. New York: Rosen, 2001;
• Stalcup, Brenda, ed. Adolf Hitler. Farmington Hills MI: Greenhaven Press, 2000.

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The Holocaust was the systematic, state-sponsored persecution and murder of six million European Jews by the Nazi German regime and its allies and collaborators. The Holocaust was an evolving process that took place throughout Europe between 1933 and 1945.

Antisemitism was at the foundation of the Holocaust. Antisemitism, the hatred of or prejudice against Jews, was a basic tenet of Nazi ideology. This prejudice was also widespread throughout Europe.

Nazi Germany’s persecution of Jews evolved and became increasingly more radical between 1933 and 1945. This radicalization culminated in the mass murder of six million Jews.

During World War II, Nazi Germany and its allies and collaborators killed nearly two out of every three European Jews using deadly living conditions, brutal mistreatment, mass shootings and gassings, and specially designed killing centers.

• Final Solution
• Third Reich
• World War II

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The Holocaust (1933–1945) was the systematic, state-sponsored persecution and murder of six million European Jews by the Nazi German regime and its allies and collaborators. 1 In addition to perpetrating the Holocaust, Nazi Germany also persecuted and murdered millions of other victims .  

What was the Holocaust? 

The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum defines the years of the Holocaust as 1933–1945. The Holocaust era began in January 1933 when Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party came to power in Germany. It ended in May 1945, when the Allied Powers defeated Nazi Germany in World War II. The Holocaust is also sometimes referred to as “the Shoah,” the Hebrew word for “catastrophe.”

By the end of the Holocaust, the Nazi German regime and their allies and collaborators had murdered six million European Jews. 

Why did the Nazis target Jews?

The Nazis targeted Jews because the Nazis were radically antisemitic. This means that they were prejudiced against and hated Jews. In fact, antisemitism was a basic tenet of their ideology and at the foundation of their worldview. 

The Nazis falsely accused Jews of causing Germany’s social, economic, political, and cultural problems. In particular, they blamed them for Germany’s defeat in World War I (1914–1918). Some Germans were receptive to these Nazi claims. Anger over the loss of the war and the economic and political crises that followed contributed to increasing antisemitism in German society. The instability of Germany under the Weimar Republic (1918–1933), the fear of communism , and the economic shocks of the Great Depression also made many Germans more open to Nazi ideas, including antisemitism.

However, the Nazis did not invent antisemitism. Antisemitism is an old and widespread prejudice that has taken many forms throughout history. In Europe, it dates back to ancient times. In the Middle Ages (500–1400), prejudices against Jews were primarily based in early Christian belief and thought, particularly the myth that Jews were responsible for the death of Jesus. Suspicion and discrimination rooted in religious prejudices continued in early modern Europe (1400–1800). At that time, leaders in much of Christian Europe isolated Jews from most aspects of economic, social, and political life. This exclusion contributed to stereotypes of Jews as outsiders. As Europe became more secular, many places lifted most legal restrictions on Jews. This, however, did not mean the end of antisemitism. In addition to religious antisemitism, other types of antisemitism took hold in Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries. These new forms included economic, nationalist, and racial antisemitism. In the 19th century, antisemites falsely claimed that Jews were responsible for many social and political ills in modern, industrial society. Theories of race, eugenics , and Social Darwinism falsely justified these hatreds. Nazi prejudice against Jews drew upon all of these elements, but especially racial antisemitism . Racial antisemitism is the discriminatory idea that Jews are a separate and inferior race. 

Where did the Holocaust take place?

The Holocaust was a Nazi German initiative that took place throughout German- and Axis-controlled Europe. It affected nearly all of Europe’s Jewish population, which in 1933 numbered 9 million people. 

The Holocaust began in Germany after Adolf Hitler was appointed chancellor in January 1933. Almost immediately, the Nazi German regime (which called itself the Third Reich ) excluded Jews from German economic, political, social, and cultural life. Throughout the 1930s, the regime increasingly pressured Jews to emigrate. 

But the Nazi persecution of Jews spread beyond Germany. Throughout the 1930s, Nazi Germany pursued an aggressive foreign policy . This culminated in World War II, which began in Europe in 1939. Prewar and wartime territorial expansion eventually brought millions more Jewish people under German control. 

Nazi Germany’s territorial expansion began in 1938–1939. During this time, Germany annexed neighboring Austria and the Sudetenland and occupied the Czech lands. On September 1, 1939, Nazi Germany began World War II (1939–1945) by attacking Poland . Over the next two years, Germany invaded and occupied much of Europe, including western parts of the Soviet Union . Nazi Germany further extended its control by forming alliances with the governments of Italy , Hungary , Romania , and Bulgaria . It also created puppet states in Slovakia and Croatia. Together these countries made up the European members of the Axis alliance , which also included Japan. 

By 1942—as a result of annexations, invasions, occupations, and alliances—Nazi Germany controlled most of Europe and parts of North Africa. Nazi control brought harsh policies and ultimately mass murder to Jewish civilians across Europe. 

The Nazis and their allies and collaborators murdered six million Jews.

Geography of the Holocaust

How did Nazi Germany and its allies and collaborators persecute Jewish people? 

Between 1933 and 1945, Nazi Germany and its allies and collaborators implemented a wide range of anti-Jewish policies and measures. These policies varied from place to place. Thus, not all Jews experienced the Holocaust in the same way. But in all instances, millions of people were persecuted simply because they were identified as Jewish. 

Throughout German-controlled and aligned territories, the persecution of Jews took a variety of forms:

• Legal discrimination in the form of antisemitic laws . These included the Nuremberg Race Laws and numerous other discriminatory laws.
• Various forms of public identification and exclusion. These included antisemitic propaganda , boycotts of Jewish-owned businesses , public humiliation , and obligatory markings (such as the Jewish star badge worn as an armband or on clothing). 
• Organized violence. The most notable example is Kristallnacht . There were also isolated incidents and other pogroms (violent riots).
• Physical Displacement. Perpetrators used forced emigration, resettlement, expulsion, deportation, and ghettoization to physically displace Jewish individuals and communities.
• Internment. Perpetrators interned Jews in overcrowded ghettos , concentration camps , and forced-labor camps, where many died from starvation, disease, and other inhumane conditions.
• Widespread theft and plunder. The confiscation of Jews’ property, personal belongings, and valuables was a key part of the Holocaust. 
• Forced labor . Jews had to perform forced labor in service of the Axis war effort or for the enrichment of Nazi organizations, the military, and/or private businesses. 

Many Jews died as a result of these policies. But before 1941, the systematic mass murder of all Jews was not Nazi policy. Beginning in 1941, however, Nazi leaders decided to implement the mass murder of Europe’s Jews. They referred to this plan as the “Final Solution to the Jewish Question.” 

What was the “Final Solution to the Jewish Question”?

The Nazi “Final Solution to the Jewish Question” (“ Endlösung der Judenfrage ”) was the deliberate and systematic mass murder of European Jews. It was the last stage of the Holocaust and took place from 1941 to 1945. Though many Jews were killed before the "Final Solution" began, the vast majority of Jewish victims were murdered during this period.

Mass Shootings

The Nazi German regime perpetrated mass shootings of civilians on a scale never seen before. After Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, German units began to carry out mass shootings of local Jews. At first, these units targeted Jewish men of military age. But by August 1941, they had started massacring entire Jewish communities. These massacres were often conducted in broad daylight and in full view and earshot of local residents. 

Mass shooting operations took place in more than 1,500 cities, towns, and villages across eastern Europe. German units tasked with murdering the local Jewish population moved throughout the region committing horrific massacres. Typically, these units would enter a town and round up the Jewish civilians. They would then take the Jewish residents to the outskirts of the town. Next, they would force them to dig a mass grave or take them to mass graves prepared in advance. Finally, German forces and/or local auxiliary units would shoot all of the men, women, and children into these pits. Sometimes, these massacres involved the use of specially designed mobile gas vans. Perpetrators would use these vans to suffocate victims with carbon monoxide exhaust.

Germans also carried out mass shootings at killing sites in occupied eastern Europe. Typically these were located near large cities. These sites included Fort IX in Kovno (Kaunas), the Rumbula and Bikernieki Forests in Riga , and Maly Trostenets near Minsk . At these killing sites, Germans and local collaborators murdered tens of thousands of Jews from the Kovno, Riga, and Minsk ghettos. They also shot tens of thousands of German, Austrian, and Czech Jews at these killing sites. At Maly Trostenets, thousands of victims were also murdered in gas vans.

The German units that perpetrated the mass shootings in eastern Europe included Einsatzgruppen (special task forces of the SS and police), Order Police battalions, and Waffen-SS units. The German military ( Wehrmacht ) provided logistical support and manpower. Some Wehrmacht units also carried out massacres. In many places, local auxiliary units working with the SS and police participated in the mass shootings. These auxiliary units were made up of local civilian, military, and police officials.

As many as 2 million Jews were murdered in mass shootings or gas vans in territories seized from Soviet forces. 

Killing Centers

German authorities, with the help of their allies and collaborators, transported Jews from across Europe to these killing centers. They disguised their intentions by calling the transports to the killing centers “resettlement actions” or “evacuation transports.” In English, they are often referred to as “deportations.” Most of these deportations took place by train. In order to efficiently transport Jews to the killing centers, German authorities used the extensive European railroad system , as well as other means of transportation. In many cases the railcars on the trains were freight cars; in other instances they were passenger cars. 

The conditions on deportation transports were horrific. German and collaborating local authorities forced Jews of all ages into overcrowded railcars. They often had to stand, sometimes for days, until the train reached its destination. The perpetrators deprived them of food, water, bathrooms, heat, and medical care. Jews frequently died en route from the inhumane conditions.

The vast majority of Jews deported to killing centers were gassed almost immediately after their arrival. Some Jews whom German officials believed to be healthy and strong enough were selected for forced labor. 

My mother ran over to me and grabbed me by the shoulders, and she told me "Leibele, I'm not going to see you no more. Take care of your brother."  — Leo Schneiderman  describing arrival at Auschwitz, selection, and separation from his family

At all five killing centers, German officials forced some Jewish prisoners to assist in the killing process. Among other tasks, these prisoners had to sort through victims’ belongings and remove victims’ bodies from the gas chambers. Special units disposed of the millions of corpses through mass burial, in burning pits, or by burning them in large, specially designed crematoria .

Nearly 2.7 million Jewish men, women, and children were murdered at the five killing centers. 

What were ghettos and why did German authorities create them during the Holocaust? 

Ghettos were areas of cities or towns where German occupiers forced Jews to live in overcrowded and unsanitary conditions. German authorities often enclosed these areas by building walls or other barriers. Guards prevented Jews from leaving without permission. Some ghettos existed for years, but others existed only for months, weeks, or even days as holding sites prior to deportation or murder. 

German officials first created ghettos in 1939–1940 in German-occupied Poland. The two largest were located in the occupied Polish cities of Warsaw and Lodz (Łódź). Beginning in June 1941, German officials also established them in newly conquered territories in eastern Europe following the German attack on the Soviet Union. German authorities and their allies and collaborators also established ghettos in other parts of Europe. Notably, in 1944, German and Hungarian authorities created temporary ghettos to centralize and control Jews prior to their deportation from Hungary. 

The Purpose of the Ghettos

German authorities originally established the ghettos to isolate and control the large local Jewish populations in occupied eastern Europe. Initially, they concentrated Jewish residents from within a city and the surrounding area or region. However, beginning in 1941, German officials also deported Jews from other parts of Europe (including Germany) to some of these ghettos. 

Jewish forced labor became a central feature of life in many ghettos. In theory, it was supposed to help pay for the administration of the ghetto as well as support the German war effort. Sometimes, factories and workshops were established nearby in order to exploit the imprisoned Jews for forced labor. The labor was often manual and grueling. 

Life in the Ghettos

Jews in the ghettos sought to maintain a sense of dignity and community. Schools, libraries, communal welfare services, and religious institutions provided some measure of connection among residents. Attempts to document life in the ghettos, such as the Oneg Shabbat archive and clandestine photography, are powerful examples of spiritual resistance . Many ghettos also had underground movements that carried out armed resistance. The most famous of these is the Warsaw ghetto uprising in 1943.    

Liquidating the Ghettos

Beginning in 1941–1942, Germans and their allies and collaborators murdered ghetto residents en masse and dissolved ghetto administrative structures. They called this process “liquidation.” It was part of the “Final Solution to the Jewish Question.” The majority of Jews in the ghettos were murdered either in mass shootings at nearby killing sites or after deportation to killing centers. Most of the killing centers were deliberately located near the large ghettos of German-occupied Poland or on easily-accessible railway routes. 

Who was responsible for carrying out the Holocaust and the Final Solution?

Many people were responsible for carrying out the Holocaust and the Final Solution. 

At the highest level, Adolf Hitler inspired, ordered, approved, and supported the genocide of Europe’s Jews. However, Hitler did not act alone. Nor did he lay out an exact plan for the implementation of the Final Solution. Other Nazi leaders were the ones who directly coordinated, planned, and implemented the mass murder. Among them were Hermann Göring , Heinrich Himmler , Reinhard Heydrich , and Adolf Eichmann . 

However, millions of Germans and other Europeans participated in the Holocaust. Without their involvement, the genocide of the Jewish people in Europe would not have been possible. Nazi leaders relied upon German institutions and organizations; other Axis powers; local bureaucracies and institutions; and individuals. 

German Institutions, Organizations, and Individuals

As members of these institutions, countless German soldiers , policemen , civil servants , lawyers, judges , businessmen , engineers, and doctors and nurses chose to implement the regime’s policies. Ordinary Germans also participated in the Holocaust in a variety of ways. Some Germans cheered as Jews were beaten or humiliated. Others denounced Jews for disobeying racist laws and regulations. Many Germans bought, took, or looted their Jewish neighbors' belongings and property. These Germans’ participation in the Holocaust was motivated by enthusiasm, careerism, fear, greed, self-interest, antisemitism, and political ideals, among other factors. 

Non-German Governments and Institutions

Nazi Germany did not perpetrate the Holocaust alone. It relied on the help of its allies and collaborators. In this context, “allies” refers to Axis countries officially allied with Nazi Germany. “Collaborators” refers to regimes and organizations that cooperated with German authorities in an official or semi-official capacity. Nazi Germany’s allies and collaborators included:

• The European Axis Powers and other collaborationist regimes (such as Vichy France ). These governments passed their own antisemitic legislation and cooperated with German goals.
• German-backed local bureaucracies, especially local police forces. These organizations helped round up, intern, and deport Jews even in countries not allied with Germany, such as the Netherlands .
• Local auxiliary units made up of military and police officials and civilians. These German-backed units participated in massacres of Jews in eastern Europe (often voluntarily). 

The terms “allies” and “collaborators” can also refer to individuals affiliated with these governments and organizations.

Individuals across Europe 

Throughout Europe, individuals who had no governmental or institutional affiliation and did not directly participate in murdering Jews also contributed to the Holocaust. 

One of the deadliest things that neighbors, acquaintances, colleagues, and even friends could do was denounce Jews to Nazi German authorities. An unknown number chose to do so. They revealed Jews’ hiding places, unmasked false Christian identities, and otherwise identified Jews to Nazi officials. In doing so, they brought about their deaths. These individuals’ motivations were wide-ranging: fear, self-interest, greed, revenge, antisemitism, and political and ideological beliefs.

Individuals also profited from the Holocaust. Non-Jews sometimes moved into Jews’ homes, took over Jewish-owned businesses, and stole Jews’ possessions and valuables. This was part of the widespread theft and plunder that accompanied the genocide. 

Most often individuals contributed to the Holocaust through inaction and indifference to the plight of their Jewish neighbors. Sometimes these individuals are called bystanders . 

Who were the other victims of Nazi persecution and mass murder?

The Holocaust specifically refers to the systematic, state-sponsored persecution and murder of six million Jews. However, there were also millions of other victims of Nazi persecution and murder . In the 1930s, the regime targeted a variety of alleged domestic enemies within German society. As the Nazis extended their reach during World War II, millions of other Europeans were also subjected to Nazi brutality. 

The Nazis classified Jews as the priority “enemy.” However, they also targeted other groups as threats to the health, unity, and security of the German people. The first group targeted by the Nazi regime consisted of political opponents . These included officials and members of other political parties and trade union activists. Political opponents also included people simply suspected of opposing or criticizing the Nazi regime. Political enemies were the first to be incarcerated in Nazi concentration camps . Jehovah’s Witnesses were also incarcerated in prisons and concentration camps. They were arrested because they refused to swear loyalty to the government or serve in the German military.

The Nazi regime also targeted Germans whose activities were deemed harmful to German society. These included men accused of homosexuality , persons accused of being professional or habitual criminals, and so-called asocials (such as people identified as vagabonds, beggars, prostitutes, pimps, and alcoholics). Tens of thousands of these victims were incarcerated in prisons and concentration camps. The regime also forcibly sterilized and persecuted Afro-Germans . 

People with disabilities were also victimized by the Nazi regime. Before World War II, Germans considered to have supposedly unhealthy hereditary conditions were forcibly sterilized. Once the war began, Nazi policy radicalized. People with disabilities, especially those living in institutions, were considered both a genetic and a financial burden on Germany. These people were targeted for murder in the so-called Euthanasia Program .

The Nazi regime employed extreme measures against groups considered to be racial, civilizational, or ideological enemies. This included Roma (Gypsies) , Poles (especially the Polish intelligentsia and elites), Soviet officials , and Soviet prisoners of war . The Nazis perpetrated mass murder against these groups.

How did the Holocaust end? 

But liberation did not bring closure. Many Holocaust survivors faced ongoing threats of violent antisemitism and displacement as they sought to build new lives. Many had lost family members, while others searched for years to locate missing parents, children, and siblings.

How did some Jews survive the Holocaust? 

Despite Nazi Germany’s efforts to murder all the Jews of Europe, some Jews survived the Holocaust. Survival took a variety of forms. But, in every case, survival was only possible because of an extraordinary confluence of circumstances, choices, help from others (both Jewish and non-Jewish), and sheer luck. 

Survival outside of German-Controlled Europe 

Some Jews survived the Holocaust by escaping German-controlled Europe. Before World War II began, hundreds of thousands of Jews emigrated from Nazi Germany despite significant immigration barriers. Those who immigrated to the United States, Great Britain, and other areas that remained beyond German control were safe from Nazi violence. Even after World War II began, some Jews managed to escape German-controlled Europe. For example, approximately 200,000 Polish Jews fled the German occupation of Poland. These Jews survived the war under harsh conditions after Soviet authorities deported them further east into the interior of the Soviet Union.

Survival in German-Controlled Europe

A smaller number of Jews survived inside German-controlled Europe. They often did so with the help of rescuers. Rescue efforts ranged from the isolated actions of individuals to organized networks, both small and large. Throughout Europe, there were non-Jews who took grave risks to help their Jewish neighbors, friends, and strangers survive. For example, they found hiding places for Jews, procured false papers that offered protective Christian identities, or provided them with food and supplies. Other Jews survived as members of partisan resistance movements . Finally, some Jews managed, against enormous odds, to survive imprisonment in concentration camps, ghettos, and even killing centers. 

In the aftermath of the Holocaust, those Jews who survived were often confronted with the traumatic reality of having lost their entire families and communities. Some were able to go home and chose to rebuild their lives in Europe. Many others were afraid to do so because of postwar violence and antisemitism . In the immediate postwar period, those who could not or would not return home often found themselves living in displaced persons camps . There, many had to wait years before they were able to immigrate to new homes.

In the aftermath of the Holocaust, the world has struggled to come to terms with the horrors of the genocide, to remember the victims, and to hold perpetrators responsible . These important efforts remain ongoing.

Series: After the Holocaust

Liberation of Nazi Camps

The Aftermath of the Holocaust: Effects on Survivors

Displaced Persons

About Life after the Holocaust

Postwar Trials

What is Genocide?

Genocide timeline, series: the holocaust.

"Final Solution": Overview

Forced Labor: An Overview

Mass Shootings of Jews during the Holocaust

Gassing Operations

Deportations to Killing Centers

Killing Centers: An Overview

Switch series, critical thinking questions.

What can we learn from the massive size and scope of the Holocaust?

Across Europe, the Nazis found countless willing helpers who collaborated or were complicit in their crimes. What motives and pressures led so many individuals to persecute, to murder, or to abandon their fellow human beings?

Were there warning signs of what was to come before the Nazis came to power in 1933? Before the start of mass killing in 1941?

In this context, “allies” refers to Axis countries officially allied with Nazi Germany. “Collaborators” refers to regimes and organizations that cooperated with German authorities in an official or semi-official capacity. These German-backed collaborators included some local police forces, bureaucracies, and paramilitary units. The terms “allies” and “collaborators” can also refer to individuals affiliated with these governments and organizations.

Thank you for supporting our work

We would like to thank Crown Family Philanthropies and the Abe and Ida Cooper Foundation for supporting the ongoing work to create content and resources for the Holocaust Encyclopedia. View the list of all donors .

Home — Essay Samples — History — Adolf Hitler — World War II and Adolf Hitler

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‘Hitler and the Nazis’ Review: Building a Case for Alarm

Joe Berlinger’s six-part documentary for Netflix asks whether we should see our future in Germany’s past.

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By Mike Hale

Hitler’s project: “Making Germany great again.” The Nazis’ characterization of criticism from the media: “Fake news.” Hitler’s mountain retreat in Berchtesgaden: “It’s sort of like Hitler’s Mar-a-Lago, if you will.”

Donald Trump’s name is not mentioned in the six episodes of “Hitler and the Nazis: Evil on Trial,” a new historical documentary series on Netflix. But it dances just beneath the surface, and occasionally, as in the examples above, the production’s cadre of scholars, popular historians and biographers can barely stop themselves from giving the game away.

The series was directed by the veteran documentarian Joe Berlinger (“Paradise Lost,” “Metallica: Some Kind of Monster”), who has a production deal with Netflix and has given it popular true-crime shows like “Jeffrey Epstein: Filthy Rich” and the “Conversations With a Killer” series.

In promotional material, Berlinger explains his decision to step up from true crime to total war and genocide: “This is the right time to retell this story for a younger generation as a cautionary tale,” he says, adding, “In America, we are in the midst of our own reckoning with democracy, with authoritarianism knocking at the door and a rise in antisemitism.” In other words, you can’t make a documentary about Germany in the 1930s and ’40s without holding the United States of the 2010s and ’20s in your mind.

To that end, Berlinger has made a deluxe version of the sort of history of Hitler, the Third Reich and the Holocaust that for years has been a staple of American cable television. The information is not new, but the resources available to Berlinger are reflected in the abundance of material he deploys across nearly six and a half hours: archival film, most of it meticulously colorized for the series, and audio; staged recreations with a sprawling cast of actors; and the copious roster of interviewees.

A new telling of an old story requires a twist, of course, and Berlinger has several. The American journalist William L. Shirer serves as the series’s unofficial narrator, despite having died in 1993 — an A.I. recreation of his voice recites passages from his many books about the period, and occasionally his actual voice is heard in excerpts from radio broadcasts. He is also represented onscreen by an actor in scenes recreating the series’s other primary framing device, the first Nuremberg trials in 1945.

Testimony from the trials is used to fill in the show’s accounts of political machinations, war making and mass killing. And the presentation of the trials is the most striking example of a visual style Berlinger employs throughout the series: sliding smoothly back and forth between elaborately staged recreations and real colorized footage, so that you need to pay attention to know whether you are looking at Hermann Goering or the actor playing Hermann Goering (Gabor Sotonyi). Berlinger is going for a seamless dramatic effect, and if it doesn’t always work as drama, it holds your attention.

Even the interviews are theatrical, shot on a darkened stage with blood-red curtains framing a ladder and what looks like a rough brick wall. It is unclear what the set dressing is meant to represent, but it might reflect Berlinger’s demonstrated tendency toward a kind of hushed sensationalism in the service of storytelling. That impulse comes through more clearly in some of the recreation, such as a scene of Jewish captives being shot at Babi Yar, or in the way the actor silently playing Hitler, Karoly Kozma, has been directed to play many of his scenes as if he were mid-seizure.

Much of the familiar material of a World War II documentary is missing or mentioned in passing, with events on the western front getting cursory attention. Berlinger is concerned with the development of Hitler’s psychology and worldview, and that takes the series on a track from the frustrations of his youth in Austria to his rise in 1930s Germany, and from there to the eastern front, the Soviet Union and the concentration camps in Germany and Poland.

The focus is on how the personal drives the political, and you can’t watch “Evil on Trial” without considering how Berlinger’s and his colleagues’ feelings about Trump and the hard right in the contemporary United States might have affected what they chose to emphasize in their portrait of Hitler and Nazi Germany.

But the unspoken case they build is comprehensive. We are shown Hitler tapping into the emotions stirred by a nation’s loss of power; playing to people who feel economically exploited and alienated from a liberal, urban culture; and uniting moderate and radical conservatives in fear of the far left. We see him demanding absolute loyalty and pitting subordinates against one another in battles for his favor. We see an absence of empathy and an inability to admit defeat. Shirer chimes in: “I began to comprehend it did not matter so much what he said, but how he said it. In such an atmosphere, every lie pronounced is accepted as high truth itself.”

Whether you find the case persuasive or not is probably beside the point, since the most salient feature of our current political landscape is that most Americans appear to have already made up their minds about he who — in the case of “Evil on Trial,” anyway — must not be named.

Mike Hale is a television critic for The Times. He also writes about online video, film and media. More about Mike Hale

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