comparative essay about holistic and partial thinking

The Impact of WeFuture’s ‘Challenge Your World’ Workshop in Amsterdam | Case Study

Holistic thinking: what it is, why it’s important, and how to do it.

• Holistic Thinking
• World Conservation

We humans like to simplify things. And that's a good thing, to begin with, because this characteristic protects us from too many stimuli, excessive demands and overload. We develop routines that help us cope with everyday life without having to expend a lot of thought and energy. We build a microcosm around ourselves, focusing on people and things in our immediate environment. We know our family and friends, our city and our work so well that we think we know how life works.

Sometimes, however, we find that things are not as simple as we would like to believe. Namely, when we encounter complex problems. Abruptly, we tend to realize that our individual view of the world can be one-sided. For example, we can feel quite uncomfortable when we realize that climate change is a real threat. Here, our microcosm with its usual solution patterns suddenly reaches its limits. We are faced with a problem that seems so complex and abstract that it can (and often does) make us feel overwhelmed.

But in this, there is creative power. In chaos lies the chance of creativity. Why? Because it forces us to step back from familiar perceptions. Because it allows us to see that our ‘individual’ world, to which we devote all our attention, is only a part of reality. And we see that we, as individuals, are a part of the whole of nature in its beauty. Changing our perspective from the individual details to the whole forms the basis for a way of thinking that aims to help solve problems in a more cohesive way: Holistic thinking.

What Is Holistic Thinking?

Holistic thinking means having a holistic approach by contemplating the bigger picture. "Holistic“ derives from the Greek word "holos", which stands for "whole" and "comprehensive". "Holistic" therefore, means "wholeness."

Aristotle, the famous Greek philosopher, has a quote that provides a great description of how the holistic way of thinking works: "The whole is more than the sum of its parts." To help explain the impact of this quote, let’s break the process down using a simple example:

• Collect all of the ‘parts’ of something - eg. building blocks.
• Sum them up by adding them together, ordering, and arranging them in a way that makes sense - eg. build up walls, create windows, and doors.
• After summing up the parts, we create a whole. - eg. a house
• However, the ‘whole’ (or in this case, the house) is more than that because we get more value and understanding through the ‘summing’ process. By adding these parts up together, we may now better understand: - Physical structures eg. the best way to build walls so they are insulated. - Scientific principles eg. balancing the weight of the house so gravity won't tear it down. - Human Impact eg. Once we move into the house, it becomes a home. We now have shelter, security, and an increased likelihood of survival.

By summing these parts, we have received so much more - the intangible assets like understanding, value, and meaning - about the whole that was not available to its parts alone. The holistic approach leads us to truly appreciate and comprehend the sum of parts, thus making it "more than".

How is Holistic Thinking Applied?

Holistic thinking can be applied to many systems; such as biological, social, mental, economic or spiritual systems.

It is a way of thinking that has been practiced by many indigenous people for many, many years - especially when it comes to health and wellness (an example of biological, mental, and spiritual systems). Whatsmore, some traditional health care systems that are rooted in holistic principles, such as the Ancient Indian Ayurveda and Amazonian Shamanism, are still practiced today!

One of the famous personalities associated with a holistic vision was Leonardo Da Vinci, the well-known Italian painter of the Mona Lisa, living in the Renaissance. He is admired by the world for his multidisciplinary approach to connecting logic and creativity. His holistic perspective of knowledge gathering was based on thinking beyond limits and resulted in iconic creative expression that has stood the test of time.

Holism was also the core of the worldview of another famous individual - Alexander von Humboldt, German naturalist and explorer. He didn’t see organisms, geological structures, weather phenomena, or human activities as detached; but as interacting entities of a larger complex system. He shaped the scientific perception of how everything is connected. Both Da Vinci and von Humboldt showed with their interdisciplinary approach how existing ideas and new concepts complement each other.

From ancient practices to famous personalities, the application and outcomes of holistic thinking is timeless. And this is most likely because this way of thinking stems from something bigger; Holism.

The Significance of Holism

“Holism (noun): the idea that the whole of something must be considered in order to understand its different parts” - Oxford Advanced American Dictionary

While clearly defined by man, Holism is by no means a thought construct of man. Nature exemplifies and dictates holism to us; every part needs the whole and the whole needs every part. Balance, cooperation, symbiosis and synergy defines life. From animate and inanimate nature to ecosystems, physiology of organisms to climate or social interactions - every single piece of a system affects the others and the whole.

This complexity becomes particularly clear when we consider the big challenges of today. The major challenges humanity is facing are on a global scale. If we look at climate change, for example, we often think of industry and mobility. The fires in the Amazon rainforest? The (majorly illegal) deforestation of the rainforest for the cultivation of palm oil or soy and loss of biodiversity? Corruption, the displacement of the local population or conflicts with indigenous groups? All of these aspects are also defined as climate change.

It’s not possible to break the world down into its components. Whether it is climate change, mass poverty or mass extinction – there are no simple solutions to global crises. Holistic thinking makes us realise the complexity of all of the issues we face. It aims to help us to identify different perspectives and needs. Furthermore, it helps us to develop and create long-term solutions for these global challenges. Creativity, interdisciplinarity, participation and collaboration are important prerequisites to try to achieve this.

The United Nations established a plan of action for sustainable development, known as the 2030 Agenda , and is an example of a holistic approach to multilateral sustainability policy. The agenda is based on the three dimensions model of sustainability: economy, society and the environment, which are interrelated. The Agenda is broken down into Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) , which are considered universal and apply equally to all countries when striving for a balance between the three dimensions.

Holistic thinking is the prerequisite to the 2030 Agenda and is a necessary consequence of the cooperation between all countries working towards the SDGs. It’s the key to tackling our global challenges.

WeFuture Global’s guide to holistic thinking

Many people have learned to solve a problem where it appears visibly and tangibly for everyone. While this approach may well lead to initial successes – these are not long-lasting, since the core of the problem is often hidden at first glance.

For example, In order to contribute to the fight against climate change by reducing carbon emissions, it makes sense to use the bicycle more often than a car. But, if we really want to make a difference, we should look further than just at one piece of the puzzle and adopt a holistic approach. This can be done in many ways, such as questioning our own consumption in all areas of life (not just with personal transportation), taking a look at the sustainable practices implemented on other sides of the globe, and increasing the pressure on businesses and politicians to implement sustainable practices, to name a few.

Looking at the details is not wrong – but it’s not enough either. Holistic thinking goes beyond, it means breaking free from your mindset. This requires awareness, consideration and communication. But how to put this into practice?

To assist our community in developing this important skill, we have developed the WeFuture Global guideline to help our community think holistically.

The WeFuture Global Guideline to Holistic Thinking

Step 1. awareness.

• First, take a step back from what you are doing.
• Change your perspective from detail-oriented to the whole.
• Define the exact problems / challenges.
• Define the overall objective / the end-goal.

Step 2. Consideration

• Consider and define the individual parts of the overall system.
• Look for recurring patterns and interfaces.
• See how the interfaces affect the overall objective.
• Define your role in the overall system.
• Search for the lever (area or action) with the greatest impact.

Step 3. Communication

• Showcase the importance of the single to all partners in the system.
• Facilitate and implement new and stronger relationships.

Holistic thinking is a continuous process of changing perspectives, brainstorming and critical questioning. By that, it forms the basis for decisions on concrete action and next steps.

It is of fundamental importance to identify the real problem first. It is worthwhile to pause and get an overall view: Look at the whole instead of single details, push comprehension instead of actionism and focus on strategic thinking instead of operational hectic. By looking closely at the interrelationships, the system's biggest levers can be identified. And only those will affect a real change. During the entire process, it is always important to critically question the solution statements and yourself.

Holistic World Conservation

The holistic approach makes us realize that we humans ourselves are a part of the whole. It not only makes each of us responsible but also empowers us to make a difference. Just like in a huge ecosystem, everyone and everything can understand that the overall result is bigger than individual contributions. Holistic thinking is the core of world conservation.

To solve interrelated problems, we need to work together. Individuals, civil society organizations and the private sector are indispensable for the success of world conservation as innovation can and does arise from the collaboration of these entities. If we want to change a system, we need to work on all levels. Therefore we need a strong network of symbiotic relationships, varying expertise and sector access. We need to identify the right problems, understand the connections, and each of us needs to be aware of our role in complex challenges.

Through the holistic thinking approach, we can lose the fear of complexity and be empowered to make a difference. By understanding that the whole is more than the sum of the parts, we can learn to look at problems differently and change perspectives, allowing us and our way of thinking to evolve. The holistic way of thinking can transform our lives as we question our attitudes and gain inspiration to break out of recurring patterns in our everyday life. And by collaborating with all members and groups within society, we can innovate sustainable solutions that contribute to impactful world conservation.

Be open to change. Strive for balance. Think beyond.

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Holistic Thinking: What It Is, Characteristics And Examples

There are various types of thinking, each of them fulfilling different functions, some of them being the following: inductive, deductive, creative, analytical, critical or holistic thinking, which we will talk about in more detail in this article.

Holistic thinking is an approach to perception and analysis of reality in an integral or global way, being considered a natural and very characteristic mode of thought for the human being, since it consists of making connections between various phenomena, carrying out an abstraction of ideas and also obtain a global vision of all the parts of a complex system.

In the realm of cognitive processes, holistic thinking emerges as a powerful and transformative mindset. This approach transcends conventional methods of problem-solving by considering the interconnectedness of various factors and embracing a comprehensive perspective.

In this article We will see what holistic thinking consists of as well as its influence within the field of psychology.

Table of Contents

What is holistic thinking?

Holistic thinking is a phenomenon that has aroused a lot of interest in recent years within the field of psychology. It is sometimes known as complex thinking or systems thinking.

It is an approach that, from certain theoretical conceptions, has been considered as a type of thinking opposite to the analytical type of thinking in which an analysis of a phenomenon or a system is made through its operation and the sum of its parts, a different method from holistic thinking as we will see later.

According to the Dictionary of the Royal Spanish Academy (RAE), the word ‘holistic’ (from the Greek word “ὅλος” hólos, which means ‘total’ in Spanish), belongs to or is related to “holism”, a philosophical doctrine of thought that is oriented towards the conception of reality as a whole different from the sum of the parts that compose it so an entity would be considered more than the sum of its parts.

This doctrine is linked to holistic psychology, an approach that encompasses the study of psychological phenomena through the analysis of a phenomenon, considering it as a complex entity in itself.

Therefore, holistic thinking could be defined as an approach to perception and analysis of the reality that surrounds the human being in an integral or global way being considered by many theorists as a natural and quite characteristic mode of thought for the human being, since it is capable of making connections between various phenomena, carrying out an abstraction of ideas and also obtaining a global vision of all the parts of a complex system.

Furthermore, holistic thinking is a very practical type of thinking on a day-to-day basis, since makes it possible to solve many tasks , as it can be when building a system within any field, because even if we start with one part, we will be able to understand that it is part of a larger whole. Therefore, by carrying out holistic reasoning we will be able to find how we can connect that part that we have in mind with other parts so that their union can together form the system that we intend to form or build.

An example in which holistic thinking is applied It is the one that is applied when building a model. When we have in our hand one of the pieces of the model that we intend to build, we are aware that it is one of the elements that, together with others, form a larger structure, which is what the model that we want to assemble would be.

Therefore, this type of thinking will allow us to find how the pieces should fit together so that, being related or interconnected, little by little they will form larger and larger parts, until they form the complete structure of the model.

Understanding Holistic Thinking: Principles and Concepts

At its core, holistic thinking revolves around the recognition of interdependencies and interconnectedness within complex systems. Rather than viewing phenomena in isolation, holistic thinkers strive to understand the broader context and underlying patterns that shape reality. Key principles of holistic thinking include:

• Systems Thinking : Holistic thinkers approach problems and situations as interconnected systems, recognizing that changes in one part can have ripple effects across the entire system. They analyze relationships, feedback loops, and emergent properties to gain insights into the dynamics of complex phenomena.
• Contextual Understanding : Holistic thinking emphasizes the importance of considering the context in which events occur. Rather than focusing solely on individual elements or variables, holistic thinkers take into account environmental factors, historical influences, and cultural dynamics that shape the situation.
• Embracing Complexity : Holistic thinkers embrace the inherent complexity of reality, acknowledging that simplistic solutions may overlook essential nuances and interactions. They are comfortable navigating ambiguity and uncertainty, recognizing that holistic solutions often require iterative refinement and adaptation.

Characteristics of Holistic Thinking

1. interconnectedness.

Holistic thinking recognizes the intricate connections and relationships between different elements within a system. Rather than isolating individual components, holistic thinkers understand how they interact and influence one another.

2. Systems Perspective

Holistic thinkers adopt a systems perspective, viewing phenomena as part of larger, interconnected systems. They analyze feedback loops, emergent properties, and dynamic relationships to gain insights into the underlying structure and behavior of complex systems.

3. Contextual Understanding

Holistic thinking emphasizes the importance of considering the broader context in which events unfold. It takes into account environmental factors, historical influences, and cultural dynamics that shape the situation, recognizing that context significantly impacts outcomes.

4. Embracing Complexity

Holistic thinkers embrace the inherent complexity of reality, acknowledging that simplistic solutions may overlook essential nuances and interactions. They are comfortable navigating ambiguity and uncertainty, recognizing that holistic solutions often require iterative refinement and adaptation.

Examples of Holistic Thinking

1. environmental sustainability.

In addressing environmental challenges such as climate change, holistic thinking involves considering the interconnectedness of ecosystems, human activities, and planetary health. Solutions may involve interdisciplinary collaboration, policy changes, and community engagement to promote sustainability and resilience.

2. Healthcare

In healthcare, holistic thinking recognizes the interconnected nature of physical, mental, and social well-being. Instead of focusing solely on treating symptoms, holistic approaches consider the holistic health of individuals, incorporating lifestyle factors, social determinants, and cultural beliefs into treatment plans.

3. Education

Holistic thinking in education involves recognizing the diverse needs and strengths of students and fostering holistic development beyond academic achievement. It emphasizes the importance of social-emotional learning, creativity, critical thinking, and experiential learning to cultivate well-rounded individuals prepared for success in life.

4. Business and Management

In business and management, holistic thinking involves considering the broader impacts of organizational decisions on stakeholders, communities, and the environment. It encourages sustainable practices, ethical leadership, and stakeholder engagement to create value beyond financial profits.

Benefits of Holistic Thinking: Enhancing Problem-Solving and Creativity

The adoption of holistic thinking offers numerous benefits across various domains, including:

• Comprehensive Solutions : By considering multiple perspectives and dimensions, holistic thinking enables the development of comprehensive solutions that address underlying causes and systemic issues, rather than just treating symptoms.
• Innovative Insights : Holistic thinking fosters creativity and innovation by encouraging individuals to explore unconventional connections and novel approaches. It opens doors to new possibilities and breakthroughs by transcending conventional boundaries and paradigms.
• Effective Decision-Making : Holistic thinkers are equipped to make informed and effective decisions by weighing diverse factors and anticipating potential consequences. They take into account the long-term implications and ethical considerations of their choices, striving to achieve outcomes that align with broader goals and values.

Cultivating Holistic Thinking: Strategies and Practices

Cultivating holistic thinking requires intentionality and practice. Some strategies to develop this mindset include:

• Interdisciplinary Learning : Engage in interdisciplinary studies and expose yourself to diverse perspectives and disciplines to broaden your understanding of complex phenomena.
• Systems Mapping : Use visual tools such as mind maps or systems diagrams to map out relationships and interconnections within complex systems, facilitating holistic analysis and problem-solving.
• Reflective Practice : Regularly reflect on your assumptions, biases, and mental models to cultivate self-awareness and openness to alternative viewpoints.

Holistic thinking in Psychology

As we have seen, holistic thinking makes it possible to recognize the interconnection of a wide variety of factors that maintain some relationship through which they end up forming a series of patterns, larger objects and/or more complex systems.

Although holistic thinking has come to be considered the opposite of analytical thinking, because the former try to look at each of the parts as a whole while the second consists of analyzing each of the parts in isolation, the truth is that to carry out certain highly complex tasks we would need to carry out cognitive processing using both types of thinking, since we would need to understand the entire system or structure as a whole, as well as it would be necessary to analyze each of the parts that make up that whole.

In the field of psychology, A health or clinical psychologist can use holistic thinking to understand what the patient needs that he has in front of him, given his current state, which is what could have led him to seek help; and a type of analytical thinking can also help you to try to understand a series of factors related to the patient, their way of life or their closest relationships, among others, to try to find the possible relationship they could have with the problem. .

Therefore, the holistic way of thinking enables people to broaden their horizons, moving your focus away from the simple, in order to be able to understand more complex processes and systems, which may not be presently visible and require more work at the level of reasoning. Furthermore, this type of thinking requires going beyond simple conditioning, being aware that people are part of a more complex whole, making it necessary to analyze a series of interrelationships that affect each person.

It also offers the possibility of analyzing patterns, instead of analyzing each problem as something isolated or unique, thus putting the problems in context to be able to understand them in greater depth and, therefore, in more detail. To do this, it is necessary for a psychologist to try to analyze the origins, triggers and possible interdependencies of the problems with other factors to try to identify some type of pattern that could be behind the problems or difficulties that have brought each patient to consultation.

On the other hand, holistic psychology deals with seek to solve people’s difficulties or problems by analyzing their past the way of living the present and how they face the future**, also trying to analyze the possible interrelationships between each and every one of the stages that have passed throughout the life of each person, trying to study the individual in his set.

There are various schools of thought within the field of psychology that have adopted a type of holistic approach, among which the following should be highlighted: Gestalt psychology, social psychology and humanistic psychology.

The relationship between holistic thinking and analytical thinking

Now that we have seen what are some of the most common characteristics of people who have a greater tendency to use a holistic mode of thinking in their daily lives, instead of analytical thinking, it is worth mentioning that all people could use both types of thinking depending on the requirements of the task being carried out and what is intended to be achieved.

For example, the coach of a football team should have holistic thinking, since to win matches he must organize the entire team as a whole to carry out the tactical system and method of play that he has taught them; Although, on the other hand, he also needs to use analytical thinking to understand the state of fitness and mood of each of the players that make up the team, as well as their abilities to be able to assign each one the role that best fits their needs. aptitudes.

Holistic Thinking: Towards a More Connected and Sustainable Future

Holistic thinking represents a paradigm shift towards a more interconnected and sustainable approach to problem-solving and decision-making. By embracing the principles of systems thinking, contextual understanding, and complexity, individuals and organizations can unlock new opportunities for innovation, creativity, and positive change. As we navigate the complexities of the modern world, cultivating holistic thinking is essential for addressing global challenges and creating a more equitable and thriving society.

ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Analytic and holistic thinkers: differences in the dynamics of heart rate complexity when solving a cognitive task in field-dependent and field-independent conditions.

• 1 Laboratory of Neural Bases of Mind Named After V.B. Shvyrkov, Institute of Psychology of Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
• 2 Department of Psychophysiology, National Research University Nizhny Novgorod State University Named After N.I. Lobachevsky, Nizhny Novgorod, Russia
• 3 International Laboratory of Social Neurobiology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, National Research University Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia

Analytic and holistic thinking styles are known to be associated with individual differences in various aspects of behavior and brain activity. In this study, we tested a hypothesis that differences in thinking styles may also be manifested at the level of neuro-visceral coordination. Heart rate variability (HRV) was compared between analytic and holistic thinkers at rest, during a simple motor choice reaction time task and when solving cognitive choice reaction time tasks in conditions with varying instructions contrasting the role of the field when evaluating objects. Participants ( N = 52) with analytic and holistic thinking styles were equally successful at solving the cognitive tasks but response times were longer in the analytic group, compared to the holistic group. Heart rate complexity, as measured by sample entropy, was higher in the analytic group during the cognitive tasks but did not differ from the holistic group at rest or during the simple motor task. Analytic participants had longer response times and higher heart rate complexity when evaluating objects in relation to the field than when evaluating objects irrespective to the field. No difference in response times or heart rate complexity between tasks was observed in the holistic group. Our findings demonstrate that differences in individual behavior, including those related to holistic and analytic thinking styles, can be reflected not only in brain activity, as shown previously using fMRI and EEG methods, but also at the level of neuro-visceral coordination, as manifested in heart rate complexity.

Introduction

A theoretical model of analytic vs. holistic thinking was proposed by Nisbett et al. (2001) to explain cognitive differences observed between individuals from Eastern and Western cultures. Some key elements that distinguish analytic and holistic thinkers include their attention to relationships between objects and the field these objects belong to, understanding of causality, perception of changes and explanation of contradictions. In general, analytic thinkers tend to focus their attention on an object rather than the field it belongs to; explain causal relationships primarily via internal dispositions of an actor; perceive most objects as independent, often observing linear changes in them; and rely on formal logic approach to resolve contradictions by choosing one alternative over another. In contrast, holistic thinkers tend to pay more attention to the relationships between an object and the field; consider a greater amount of information and complex relationships between an actor and the surrounding situation when determining causality; perceive cyclical changes of elements and their interconnections with one another; and try to reconcile contradictions by looking for compromises when contradictory opposites exist. Although initially applied in cross-cultural studies, this model was also shown to differentiate thinking styles between individuals within cultures (e.g., Choi et al., 2007 ).

Differences in cognitive performance between holistic and analytic individuals have been demonstrated across various tasks involving attention ( Ji et al., 2000 ; Masuda and Nisbett, 2001 ), categorization ( Choi et al., 1997 ; Ji et al., 2001 ; Norenzayan et al., 2002 ), causal attribution ( Norenzayan et al., 2002 ), tolerance of contradiction ( Peng and Nisbett, 1999 ), etc. These differences are reflected in problem solving strategies and brain activity of analytic and holistic thinkers. EEG and fMRI studies reported differences in brain activity related to thinking styles during cognitive tasks ( Apanovich et al., 2021 ) and in socio-emotional contexts ( Baranski and Petrusic, 1999 ; Haun et al., 2006 ; Winawer et al., 2007 ; Tan et al., 2008 ; Apanovich et al., 2018 ; Huang et al., 2019 ; Hsieh et al., 2020 ). Psychophysiological processes that occur outside the brain are not always considered in cognitive studies but there is substantial evidence demonstrating that neuro-visceral coordination plays an important role in the organization and regulation of individual behavior ( Bakhchina et al., 2018 ; Forte et al., 2019 ). We have come across only one study reporting results on visceral dynamics observed in analytic and holistic individuals, which included analyses of respiration and heart rate ( Bacha-Trams et al., 2018 ). In the current work, we aim to compare heart rate variability (HRV) and complexity between holistic and analytic individuals to test whether differences in cognitive performance and brain activity shown in many previous studies are manifested in neuro-visceral processes. On the one hand, it will provide an opportunity to consider physiological bases of analytic and holistic thinking wider shedding light on visceral peculiarities of individuals with different cognitive styles. On the other hand, it will assist in the development of the embodiment theory that views cognition as a whole organism process with the body playing an important role in decision-making and other cognitive activities ( Macedonia, 2019 ).

Heart rate variability (HRV) reflects the dynamics in the time intervals between adjacent heartbeats that are in coherence with the functioning of the entire body. It is widely accepted that the source of HRV originates in the regulation of transport of resources through the body in order to adapt an organism’s functioning to external challenges by achieving optimal performance ratio. From the physiological perspective, the primary origin of HRV is related to the activity of the autonomic nervous system through its sympathetic and parasympathetic parts ( Thayer and Lane, 2009 ). Various cortical areas in the brain contribute to the regulation of heart rate (e.g., see review in Smith et al., 2017 ) and changes in HRV indexes during cognitive and socioemotional tasks are shown to correlate with some aspects of task performance ( Kemp et al., 2010 ; Arutyunova et al., 2020 ; Hilgarter et al., 2021 ). Therefore, the analysis of HRV has become a popular non-invasive tool in psychophysiological studies ( Laborde et al., 2017 ). In our previous work, addressing the problem of brain-heart interactions from the positions of the system-evolutionary theory, we proposed a model explaining HRV in relation to neuronal processes involved in the orchestration of an organism’s behavior ( Bakhchina et al., 2018 ).

The system-evolutionary theory ( Shvyrkov, 1990 ; Aleksandrov, 2006 ), building upon the foundations of P.K. Anokhin’s theory of functional systems ( Anokhin, 1974 ), proposes that morphologically different components of the brain and the rest of the body comprise functional systems in order to achieve a positive result, i.e., adaptive organism-environment relations. A functional system is understood as a dynamic organization of activity of neurons and other cells across different anatomical localizations which provides the achievement of an adaptive result for the whole organism. Each novel way of adaptive organism-environment interaction has a potential to underlie the formation of a new functional system in the process of learning. Subsequent actualization of this new functional system underlies execution of the corresponding behavioral act in order to achieve the adaptive interaction with the environment. In this way, HRV originates in the cooperation of the heart with the other components of actualized functional systems, including neuronal groups. Variable changes in heart rate are viewed as a result of heart coordination with changes in the sets of activated neurons distributed across the cerebral cortex and subcortical structures and specialized in relation to particular behavior. Our previous studies ( Bakhchina et al., 2018 ; Arutyunova et al., 2020 ) demonstrate that, out of existing and widely used HRV indexes, non-linear metrics, such as entropy measures, most accurately reflect changes in behavior and cognitive performance. Other authors also reported that non-linear HRV metrics (e.g., entropy and fractal dimension) are more informative for the studies of behavior than statistical and frequency measures of HRV ( Pham et al., 2021 ). In accordance with the system-evolutionary theory, entropy measures of HRV reflect the system characteristics of individual experience actualized in current behavior. Behavior acquired at earlier stages of development is more automated and intuitively implemented than newly formed behavior, and vice versa behavior acquired at later stages of development is more differentiated and detailed than earlier acquired behavior. Values of heart rate complexity observed during newer behavior are expected to be higher ( Bakhchina et al., 2018 ; Arutyunova et al., 2020 ). Thus, comparative analyses of HRV entropy measures can be used to reconstruct the relative level of differentiation of the individual experience actualized during problem-solving. Reflecting the complexity of neuro-visceral coordination, heart rate entropy allows us to test the hypotheses about the systems orchestration of behavior in individuals with analytic and holistic thinking.

In this work, we compared heart rate complexity between groups of participants with holistic and analytic thinking styles during performance of holistic (field-dependent) and analytic (field-independent) tasks. Based on the assumption that functional systems are comprised by different components of the brain and the rest of the body, our hypothesis was that cognitive and behavioral specificity of analytic and holistic thinking styles is not only manifested in brain activity but reflects the system organization of individual experience at the level of the whole organism. More specifically, we hypothesized that there are differences in heart rate complexity between analytic and holistic thinkers when solving cognitive tasks and these differences are related to their task performance. We expected analytic individuals to be faster and more successful at solving tasks in a field-independent condition and holistic individuals to be faster and more successful in a field-dependent condition. We hypothesized that the cognitive effort and the system complexity of current behavior would be manifested in neuro-visceral activity so that higher HRV complexity would correspond to performance in the tasks that are harder for individuals: field-dependent tasks for analytic thinkers and field-independent tasks for holistic thinkers.

Materials and Methods

Ethics statement.

All of the participants gave written informed consent to take part in the study after receiving an explanation of the procedures.

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. The Ethics Committee of Institute of Psychology of Russian Academy of Sciences (Moscow) approved the experimental protocols and the specific consent procedure used in this study and assessed it as safe for the participants’ psychic and physical health. All of the participants were paid for their participation (500 rubles).

Participants

We studied 52 healthy participants (25 women; 18–34 years old: M = 21.2, SD = 4.34). All participants were Russian citizens speaking Russian as their native language. None of them reported any history of neurological or psychiatric disorders. All participants had either normal or corrected-to-normal vision. One participant was excluded from the analyses due to corrupted ECG recordings. The holistic and analytic groups were formed on the basis of participants’ answers to the items of AHS questionnaire (see below). It was not possible to calculate AHS scores for 5 of the participants because they used the option “difficult to answer” too often. Finally, the electrophysiological data of 46 participants were included into the analyses.

Experimental Procedure

Experimental design and procedures are illustrated in Figure 1 .

Figure 1. Experimental design and procedure. Prior to the experiment, participants ( N = 52) filled an Analysis-Holism Scale (AHS) questionnaire and were divided into two groups: those with scores higher than median for the sample comprised the holistic group and the rest comprised the analytic group. ECG was recorded at rest (5 min, while sitting down with closed eyes without moving), during a simple motor task (2 min), and in the process of solving four blocks of cognitive tasks (5 min per each block). Cognitive tasks included presentation of two square frames (fields) containing lines (objects), sizes of which varied; participants were asked to compare objects either in relation to their fields (H-tasks) or irrespective of the fields (A-tasks). Response times, success rates and the dynamics of HRV indexes (av-RR, SDNN and SampEn) were compared between the two groups of participants.

ECG was recorded in 6 stages: at rest (5 min, while sitting down with closed eyes without moving), during a simple motor task involving familiarizing with keys to be used in the following experimental sessions (2 min), and in the process of four experimental sessions (5 min per session, two blocks of analytic tasks and two blocks of holistic tasks).

Four experimental sessions included solving tasks in two analytic and two holistic conditions. Analytic tasks were constructed to allow successive stages in the process of searching for a solution; holistic tasks could only be solved in one stage, simultaneously ( Apanovich et al., 2020 ). It is also shown that people with analytic and holistic thinking have different attention focus signatures: the former have higher scores in tasks that require abstraction from the context (i.e., background, or field), whereas the latter are more successful when the background is necessary as a part of attention focus ( Kitayama et al., 2003 ). The same framed-line test principle ( Kitayama et al., 2003 ) had been fruitfully employed previously in psychological and psychophysiological research ( Hedden et al., 2008 ). We selected this type of tasks because it constitutes a simple behavioral model which allows to manipulate the use of the field while evaluating objects as one of the basic features contrasting analytic and holistic thinking.

In all tasks, participants were presented with two frames of different sizes which contained vertical lines. A screenshot example of one of the experimental tasks is presented in Figure 1 . The first line was presented 900 ms after the “Attention” signal (a white cross on a dark background) and the second line was presented in a random interval in the range from 700 to 900 ms after the first line. After two successively presented images, a participant was prompted to respond, whether one of the aspects within the two images was similar or different. The response was provided by pressing one of two keys (left or right - counterbalanced between tasks). The criterion for similarity/difference was determined in the instruction: in the analytic condition, participants were asked to compare the absolute length of lines, ignoring the frames, whereas in the holistic condition, participants compared lengths of the lines relative to the frames. Presentation order of analytic and holistic tasks was counterbalanced between participants. Thus, the main factor which induced subjective differences in analytic and holistic tasks between these experimental conditions was the instruction: an object was evaluated either in relation to the field or independently of the field.

After reading the instructions, an experimenter started a training trial and asked the participants whether presented figures were similar or different according to the principle indicated in the instructions (analytic or holistic). The experiment began only after the participant understood the instructions and correctly performed the training task.

Response times (RT) were analyzed for three conditions: simple motor trial, blocks of holistic and analytic tasks. Medians and between-subject variances were also calculated for all of the parameters.

Rest, or baseline, condition was viewed as a situation when an individual was not acquiring a new skill. A simple motor task was used, firstly, to control the response rate with the right and left hands, and, secondly, it was used as a “neutral” condition which did not involve thinking styles. Analytic and holistic tasks are considered as situations of operating and developing thinking styles based on prior individual experience.

Classification of the Participants Into the Analytic and Holistic Groups

All the participants filled the Analysis-Holism Scale (AHS) questionnaire prior to the experiment.

Choi and colleagues ( Choi et al., 2007 ) developed the AHS questionnaire to measure key differences in individuals’ thinking styles and showed that AHS scores correlated with holistic and analytic patterns of performance in cognitive tasks. They also highlighted that individuals’ thinking styles vary not only across cultures but also within the same cultures. AHS score characterizes individual thinking styles on a continuum between analytic and holistic poles so that some individuals are closer to one of the poles while others score around the middle combining more or less features of both. AHS is based on a four-component model of cognition proposed by Nisbett et al. (2001) . The questionnaire had been translated and adapted on a sample of Russian participants in 2014–2017 ( Apanovich et al., 2017 ) and was effectively used in our studies, including analysis of EEG ( Apanovich et al., 2016 ; Apanovich et al., 2018 ) and tasks performance ( Apanovich et al., 2020 ). In our work, we studied analytic and holistic thinking styles within one culture, but, as mentioned above, the AHS can be used to measure both cross-cultural and within-cultural differences ( Choi et al., 2007 ).

The AHS questionnaire consists of 24 statements. Participants were asked to rank whether they agree or disagree with each of the statements on a 7-step Likert scale (from 1 = “completely disagree” to 7 = “completely agree,” with 4 = “difficult to answer” in the middle). The test provides a total score of analytic-holistic thinking, and four subscores of the individual components of the analytic-holistic thinking type. The detailed description of the subscales can be found in Choi et al. (2007) . The highest score for each scale represents a holistic pole, and the lowest–the analytic pole. Participants who responded “difficult to answer” 6 or more times were excluded from subsequent analyses ( N = 5).

The internal consistency reliability (Cronbach’s alpha coefficient) of the AHS in our study was 0.696.

On the basis of AHS scores (Med = 113, Min = 86, Max = 148, 25% = 106, 75% = 123), the participants were divided into two groups with a cut-off at the median value for all participants so that we had a holistic group and an analytic group, containing 23 participants each.

ECG Acquisition

ECG was recorded using monopolar surface silver chloride electrode in the medial part of the thorax. The electrode had conductive adhesive hydrogel for better signal conductivity. The sampling frequency ECG was 250 Hz with 0.1--70 Hz band-pass range and 50 Hz notch filter. Encefalan EEGR--19/26 for ECG recording was used. 1

Heart Rate Variability Analyses

For HRV analyses, we used SampEn as an index of complexity, SDNN as an index of variation, and averaged RR-intervals as an index of mean frequency of the heart rate. It is accepted that heart rate complexity measured with non-linear algorithms can correlate with statistical measures of HRV, such as SDNN, but these correlations are not linear ( Acharya et al., 2006 ). Such modes of heart activity exist when variability is the same, but complexity is different, and vice versa. Heart rate complexity and variability reflect different aspects of temporal dynamics: for example, SDNN is a statistical measure of HRV which is modulated by breathing, or respiratory arrhythmia, while SampEn is an index of heart rate complexity which is independent of respiratory arrhythmia ( Richman and Moorman, 2000 ). Thus, SampEn and SDNN are both HRV indexes partly complementing each other when describing heart activity in relation to behavior.

ECG processing, RR-intervals detection and HRV calculations were made using open-sourced python library neurokit 2 0.1 ( Makowski et al., 2021 ).

Raw ECG signal data obtained for experimental periods (rest, simple motor task, two blocks of analytic tasks and two blocks of holistic tasks) underwent signal preprocessing. It was detrended to remove the linear trend and mean value from the signal. After detrending, it was filtered using a Butterworth band-pass filter with a gain of 1 and frequency range between 5 and 40 Hz to remove the baseline drift, white noise, and any motion artifacts. In the resulting ECG, R-peak detection was based on the Pan and Tomkins algorithm ( Pan and Tompkins, 1985 ).

Acquired sequences of RR-intervals were pre-processed before proceeding to the analyses with the aim to select sequences that were free from artifacts. Sequences with abnormal beats and any artifacts (ectopic beats, motion artifacts, and coughs) were excluded from the analyses. Sequences containing RR-intervals that did not satisfy the condition (1) were excluded from the analyses.

Heart rate complexity was described using sample entropy (SampEn) as a set of measures of system irregularity reporting on similarity in time series. SampEn can be applied to relatively short and noisy data; it is largely independent of the length of time series, displays relative consistency under circumstances and has been widely used in physiological studies with different signals analyses ( Richman and Moorman, 2000 ). SampEn (m,r,N) is precisely the negative natural logarithm of the conditional probability that two vectors that are similar for m points remain similar at the next point, where self-matches are not included in calculating the probability (2).

The parameter N is the length of the time series, m is the length of vectors to be compared, and r is the tolerance for accepting matches. A is the number of pairs of vectors (x) for m points that satisfy the condition d[xm(i), xm(j)] ≤ r, and B is the number of pairs of vectors (x) for (m+1) points that satisfy the condition d[xm(i), xm(j)] ≤ r. Thus, a low value of SampEn reflects a high degree of regularity. SampEn values are largely independent of the time series length and display immunity to signal noise. The length of the analyzed time series was within the range 200–400 RR-intervals. The parameters m and r were fixed: m = 2, r = 0.2 × SDNN (SDNN—standard deviation of RR-intervals distributions).

Additionally, the time domain indexes of HRV (mean (av-RR, ms) and standard deviation (SDNN, ms) of RR-intervals) were calculated to characterize the average level and general variance of heart rate dynamics.

Statistical Data Analyses

Statistical analyses were performed using IBM SPSS 17.0 software and open-sourced python SciPy library. 2 Distributions were tested for normality using Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests. Where distributions were not different from the normal distribution, parametric statistics was applied: t -tests for independent samples for between groups comparisons and paired samples t -tests for comparisons within subjects. Where distributions differed from the normal distribution, non-parametric tests were used: Mann-Whitney U test, to compare between groups, and Wilcoxon signed-rank and Friedman tests, to compare conditions within subjects. Cohen’s d was calculated as an estimate of effect size for parametric tests. Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient was computed for analyses of relationships between AHS scores, behavioral metrics and HRV indexes. We used an alpha level of 0.05 for all statistical tests.

Behavioral Performance in Holistic and Analytic Tasks

Response times.

Response times (RTs) were averaged after excluding RT values exceeding two standard deviation units in either direction. RTs for each subject were distributed normally (Kolmogorov-Smirnov test). No difference from the normal distribution was observed for RTs in the entire sample or in separate groups of analytic and holistic participants.

RTs were compared between the analytic and holistic groups when they were solving tasks in analytic and holistic conditions. The results are presented in Figure 2A (in addition, see Supplementary Table 1 ). In general, when comparing RTs for the entire sample, analytic tasks ( M = 778, SD = 201) were shown to require longer solution time than holistic tasks ( M = 718, SD = 182) during the first presentation [paired samples t -test, t (51) = 2.35, p = 0.02]; however, solution time did not differ between the two types of tasks ( M = 667, SD = 179 for analytic tasks; M = 640, SD = 165 for holistic tasks) during the second presentation [paired samples t -test, t (51) = 1.66, p = 0.10].

Figure 2. Task performance in analytic and holistic groups. Distribution shapes, median values (dashed lines) and quartiles (dotted lines) are shown for response time (ms) (A) and success rate (B) in analytic and holistic tasks. Analytic participants solved the cognitive tasks slower than holistic participants. No difference in success rate was observed. T -tests for independent samples, * p < 0.05; # - paired samples t -tests, # p < 0.05.

Holistic participants solved all tasks faster than analytic participants (first block of holistic tasks: M = 781, SD = 182 for analytic participants, M = 651, SD = 132 for holistic participants, t (45) = 2.78, p = 0.01, d = 0.83; second block of holistic tasks: M = 688, SD = 146 for analytic participants, M = 570; SD = 120 for holistic participants, t (45) = 3.00, p = 0.01, d = 0.44; first block of analytic tasks: M = 844, SD = 200 for analytic participants, M = 719, SD = 202 for holistic participants, t (45) = 2.11, p = 0.05, d = 0.37; second block of analytic tasks: M = 716, SD = 191 for analytic participants, M = 601, SD = 144 for holistic participants, t (45) = 2.31, p = 0.05; d = 0.34). As can be seen from the effect sizes, this was more pronounced for the holistic tasks.

In addition, tasks were always solved faster during the second presentation, as compared to the first presentation in the whole sample [analytic tasks: M = 778, SD = 201 for the first presentation, M = 667, SD = 179 for the second presentation, t (51) = 5.29, p < 0.001; holistic tasks: M = 718, SD = 182 for the first presentation, M = 640, SD = 165 for the second presentation, t (51) = 5.27, p < 0.001] as well as separately in analytic [analytic tasks: M = 844, SD = 200 for the first presentation, M = 716; SD = 191 for the second presentation, t (23) = 4.90, p < 0.001; holistic tasks: M = 781, SD = 182 for the first presentation; M = 688, SD = 146 for the second presentation, t (23) = 3.74, p < 0.001] and holistic [analytic tasks: M = 719, SD = 202 for the first presentation, M = 601, SD = 144 for the second presentation, t (22) = 3.55, p < 0.001; holistic tasks: M = 651, SD = 132 for the first presentation, M = 570; SD = 120 for the second presentation, t (22) = 4.17, p < 0.001] groups.

Results of correlational analysis (see Table 1 ) showed reliable negative linear relationships between AHS scores and response times across all tasks, including the simple motor task and cognitive (analytic and holistic) tasks.

Table 1. Spearman’s rank correlation coefficients for relationships between behavioral metrics (response time (ms), success rate), HRV indexes (av-RR, SDNN and SampEn) at different stages of the experiment and subjects AHS scores (* p < 0.05).

Success Rate

The results are presented in Figure 2B (in addition, see Supplementary Table 2 ). No difference was found between analytic and holistic groups in the percent of correct solutions [first block of holistic tasks: M = 85.4, SD = 12.6 for analytic participants, M = 90.8, SD = 5.5 for holistic participants, t (45) = –0.41, p = 0.67; first block of analytic tasks: M = 66.7, SD = 23.9 for analytic participants, M = 67.2, SD = 23.0 for holistic participants, t (45) = –0.06, p = 0.94; second block of holistic tasks: M = 90.4, SD = 7.6 for analytic participants, M = 92.4, SD = 4.4 for holistic participants, t (45) = –1.05, p = 0.29; second block of analytic tasks: M = 72.0, SD = 21.4 for analytic participants, M = 77.3, SD = 20.0 for holistic participants, t (45) = –0.86, p = 0.38].

Analysis of task performance within groups showed the following results. Participants were less successful at solving analytic tasks than holistic tasks at the first [ M = 67.2, SD = 22.4 for analytic tasks, M = 87.8, SD = 9.9 for holistic tasks, t (50) = –6.30, p < 0.001] and second [ M = 74.9, SD = 19.8 for analytic tasks, M = 91.4, SD = 6.5 for holistic tasks, t (50) = –5.91, p < 0.001] presentations. These results were also observed separately in analytic [first presentation: M = 66.7, SD = 23.9 for analytic tasks, M = 85.4, SD = 12.6 for holistic tasks, t (23) = –3.72, p < 0.001; second presentation: M = 72.0, SD = 21.4 for analytic tasks, M = 90.4, SD = 7.6 for holistic tasks, t (22) = –4.09, p < 0.001] and holistic [first presentation: M = 67.2, SD = 23.0 for analytic tasks, M = 90.8, SD = 5.5 for holistic tasks, t (21) = –4.76, p < 0.001; and second presentation: M = 77.3, SD = 20.0 for analytic tasks, M = 92.4, SD = 4.4 for holistic tasks, t (21) = –3.66, p < 0.001] groups.

Success rate of the entire sample significantly increased in the second block of tasks compared with the first block of tasks in both analytic [ M = 67.2, SD = 22.4 for the first presentation, M = 74.9, SD = 19.8 for the second presentation, t (51) = –3.51, p < 0.001] and holistic [ M = 87.8, SD = 9.9 for the first presentation, M = 91.4, SD = 6.5 for the second presentation, t (49) = –3.27, p < 0.001] conditions, probably reflecting the learning effect. However, in the analytic group, this temporal dynamics was significant only for holistic («nonspecific») tasks [ M = 85.4, SD = 12.6 for the first presentation; M = 90.4, SD = 7.6 for the second presentation, t (22) = –2.42, p = 0.02] while no significant shift was observed for analytic tasks [ M = 66.7, SD = 23.9 for the first presentation; M = 72.0, SD = 21.4 for the second presentation, t (23) = –1.73, p = 0.09]. Similarly, in the holistic group, significant dynamics in success rate was observed in analytic («nonspecific») tasks [ M = 67.2, SD = 23.0 for the first presentation, M = 77.3; SD = 20.0 for the second presentation, t (22) = –2.74, p = 0.01], with only a tendency observed for holistic tasks [ M = 90.8, SD = 5.5 for the first presentation, M = 92.4, SD = 4.4 for the second presentation, t (21) = –1.88, p = 0.07].

No correlation was observed between AHS score and success rate (see Table 1 ).

Comparing Heart Rate Variability Indexes Between Holistic and Analytic Groups

We compared HRV indexes (SampEn, SDNN, av-RR) between holistic and analytic groups in four conditions: baseline, simple motor task, analytic and holistic blocks of experimental tasks. The results are presented in Figure 3 (in addition, see Supplementary Table 3 ).

Figure 3. HRV dynamics in analytic and holistic groups. Distribution shapes, median values (dashed lines) and quartiles (dotted lines) are shown for av-RR, SDNN and SampEn estimates. No significant difference between the groups was found in av-RR or SDNN values for baseline, motor task or either type of the cognitive tasks. Higher values of SampEn were observed in the analytic group, as compared with the holistic group, in both analytic and holistic types of tasks. No difference in SampEn was observed between analytic and holistic groups in the baseline or during the motor task. SampEn was increasing from the rest (baseline) condition to the experimental tasks in both groups. SDNN was decreasing from the rest (baseline) condition to the experimental tasks in the analytic group of participants, and their SampEn was higher during solving holistic tasks, as compared to analytic tasks. Mann-Whitney U test, * p < 0.05; Wilcoxon test, # p < 0.05; Friedman test, & p < 0.05 (color of & reflects the group of analysis).

Higher values of SampEn were observed in analytic participants, as compared with holistic participants, in both analytic (Mann-Whitney test, U = 186, p = 0.04) and holistic (Mann-Whitney test, U = 177, p = 0.02) tasks. No difference in SampEn was observed between analytic and holistic groups in the baseline condition (Mann-Whitney test, U = 196, p = 0.20) or during the simple motor task (Mann-Whitney test, U = 240, p = 0.38). No significant difference between the groups was found in SDNN values for any of the four conditions: baseline (Mann-Whitney test, U = 224, p = 0.43), simple motor task (Mann-Whitney test, U = 243, p = 0.41), analytic tasks (Mann-Whitney test, U = 255, p = 0.42) or holistic tasks (Mann-Whitney test, U = 243, p = 0.32). No difference between the groups was observed in the length of RR-intervals (av-RR) for baseline (Mann-Whitney test, U = 200, p = 0.23), simple motor task (Mann-Whitney test, U = 239, p = 0.38), analytic tasks (Mann-Whitney test, U = 215, p = 0.14) or holistic tasks (Mann-Whitney test, U = 221, p = 0.17).

In addition, we further compared the HRV indexes between the subgroups of participants with the highest analytic scores (AHS score below 75% of the threshold of the sample distribution, N = 18) and highest holistic scores (AHS score above 25% of the threshold of the sample distribution, N = 17). Despite the smaller sample sizes, this contrast replicated the findings shown for the entire sample. Higher values of SampEn were observed in participants with high analytic scores, as compared with participants with high holistic scores, in both types of tasks: analytic (Mann-Whitney test, U = 95, p = 0.02) and holistic (Mann-Whitney test, U = 98, p = 0.03). SampEn did not differ between the subgroups in the baseline condition (Mann-Whitney test, U = 117, p = 0.35) or during the simple motor task (Mann-Whitney test, U = 115, p = 0.16). No difference between the subgroups was observed in SDNN values for the baseline (Mann-Whitney test, U = 124, p = 0.45), simple motor task (Mann-Whitney test, U = 138, p = 0.42), analytic tasks (Mann-Whitney test, U = 143, p = 0.37), or holistic tasks (Mann-Whitney test, U = 151, p = 0.48). No difference was found in av-RR values: baseline (Mann-Whitney test, U = 117, p = 0.35), simple motor task (Mann-Whitney test, U = 142, p = 0.47), analytic tasks (Mann-Whitney test, U = 126, p = 0.19), and holistic tasks (Mann-Whitney test, U = 126, p = 0.19).

Results of correlational analysis (see Table 1 ) showed reliable negative linear relationships between AHS score and SampEn values in analytic and holistic tasks. No correlation was found between AHS score and other HRV indexes (SDNN and av-RR).

Dynamics of Heart Rate Variability Indexes Within Analytic and Holistic Groups During the Experiment

We studied the dynamics of HRV indexes in analytic and holistic groups during four experimental conditions: rest, simple motor task, holistic and analytic tasks. HRV indexes were compared across the above conditions using Friedman test followed by pairwise comparisons using Wilcoxon test. These results are presented in Figure 3 .

Dynamics of Heart Rate Variability Indexes in the Analytic Group

Significant difference in SampEn values was shown between analytic and holistic tasks (Wilcoxon test, T = 72, p = 0.04). In general, SampEn was increasing from the rest condition to experimental tasks (Friedman test, Q = 11.35, p = 0.01), with the highest values observed during the holistic tasks.

SDNN dynamics was also significant: the index values decreased from the rest condition to experimental tasks (Friedman test, Q = 10.42, p = 0.02), which may be accounted for by light fatigue participants developed during the experiment. However, no difference was observed between the analytic and holistic tasks (Wilcoxon test, T = 95, p = 0.19).

No trend was found for av-RR (Friedman test, Q = 0.71, p = 0.87) and no difference in av-RR was shown between the analytic and holistic tasks (Wilcoxon test, T = 136, p = 0.95).

Dynamics of Heart Rate Variability Indexes in the Holistic Group

SampEn was increasing from the rest condition to the experimental tasks in the holistic group (Friedman test, Q = 8.54, p = 0.04). No difference was found between the analytic and holistic tasks (Wilcoxon test, T = 126, p = 0.72).

SDNN dynamics was not significant between the experimental conditions (Friedman test, Q = 0.97, p = 0.58); and no difference was observed between the analytic and holistic tasks (Wilcoxon test, T = 112, p = 0.42).

No difference was shown for av-RR dynamics between the experimental conditions (Friedman test, Q = 0.49, p = 0.92) or between the analytic and holistic tasks (Wilcoxon test, T = 96, p = 0.20).

In this study, we tested the hypothesis that cognitive and behavioral specificity of analytic and holistic thinking styles is manifested in the dynamics of neuro-visceral processes, reflecting the system organization of individual experience. Our results have shown differences in behavioral performance and heart rate complexity between analytic and holistic thinkers when solving cognitive tasks designed to contrast analytic and holistic conditions, i.e., instructing to focus on either an object itself or the same object in relation to the field it is presented with. More specifically, longer response times and higher heart rate complexity values were observed in the analytic group compared with the holistic group, with no difference in the number of correct solutions between the groups.

As mentioned above, analytic participants tended to solve all tasks, in both holistic and analytic conditions, slower than holistic participants; and this difference in response times was more prominent for holistic tasks. Both groups were equally successful at solving the tasks and delivered similar numbers of correct responses. These results on task performance reflect the fact that holistic and analytic individuals use different behavioral and problem-solving strategies, which had been described previously ( Norenzayan et al., 2002 ; Choi et al., 2007 ). As mentioned in the introduction, one of the key features of holistic thinking is a propensity to evaluate events and objects in relation to the context and pay attention to various links between them and the environment. In contrast, analytic individuals tend to consider events and objects as separate and invariant in time, primarily changing according to their own rules, rather than due to interaction with the environment ( Nisbett, 2003 ). In our tasks, holistic participants may have relied on the relationship between the objects (lines) and their fields (frames) which helped them to make comparative judgments faster in both conditions, when the field was part of the instruction and when it was not. In contrast, analytic thinkers used pre-set criteria to select individual objects in the environment and evaluate them independently. In other words, while holistic thinkers tended to classify objects on the basis of their general relationship to the field, analytic thinkers were inclined to rely on categorization rules and formal logic, evaluating given objects separate from their context. Due to no difference in success rate but slower response times in analytic participants, it may be suggested that the tasks used in our study were harder for them to solve, and more so in the holistic condition.

In line with the behavioral performance, we have shown that analytic individuals had significantly higher heart rate complexity, as measured by SampEn, than holistic individuals while solving both analytic and holistic experimental tasks. This difference between the groups was related to the temporal dynamics observed in analytic individuals, whose heart rate complexity significantly increased from the rest condition toward the experimental tasks and was higher during the tasks with holistic conditions compared to the tasks with analytic conditions. In the group of holistic individuals, heart rate complexity showed similar dynamics, but no difference was observed between the tasks with holistic and analytic conditions. These results on differences in heart rate complexity are consistent with our previous EEG data recorded while individuals were solving the same experimental tasks: we had shown that analytic thinkers had higher variability of P300 component of ERP than holistic thinkers ( Apanovich et al., 2021 ). In another study, fMRI was performed while individuals were watching a film depicting socioemotional interactions: it was shown that holistic thinkers had significant inter-subject correlations in more extensive cortical areas than analytic thinkers, suggesting that they perceived the content of the film in a more similar fashion ( Bacha-Trams et al., 2018 ). In addition, the authors found that participants’ eye gaze patterns were more uniform/correlated in the group of holistic thinkers compared to analytic thinkers; and higher variation in breathing rate was observed in the analytic group while no difference was detected between the two groups in averaged heart rate frequency. These results and our findings indicate that individuals with holistic thinking style tend to display less variation in behavioral and psychophysiological measures, both in the brain and in visceral activity, while engaging in problem-solving and other activities.

It is important to note that neither our work, nor the study by Bacha-Trams et al. (2018) mentioned above, found differences in averaged inter-beat intervals. This measure reflects more general and intensive changes in physiological energy levels. Standard deviation of RR-intervals (SDNN) decreased in the group of analytic participants throughout the experiment. Such SDNN dynamics in combination with constant averaged heart rate is usually related to a decrease in individual energy levels due to experiencing light fatigue ( Boneva et al., 2007 ; Iizuka et al., 2020 ). This is also supported by the fact that analytic participants solved the tasks slower, suggesting higher cognitive effort. No difference between analytic and holistic groups in SDNN values indicate a similar general level of the autonomic nervous system activity. SDNN and SampEn metrics reflect different aspects of HRV and differences in their dynamics can be observed for certain modes of activity: for example, a decrease in general variation of the time sequence of RR-intervals can simultaneously be accompanied by an increase in non-stationarity of their internal structure. Therefore, we suggest that the difference in heart rate complexity observed between analytic and holistic thinkers is related to higher levels of neuro-visceral integration, i.e., activity of neuronal groups in the cortex involved in regulation of the heart rate related to behavior ( Smith et al., 2017 ; Bakhchina et al., 2018 ).

Cognitive tasks, especially attention tests, are often used in the studies of neuronal structures involved in the regulation of heart rate ( Napadow et al., 2008 ; Lane et al., 2009 ). As a result, the current models of neuro-visceral coordination demonstrate correlations between brain activity in various cortical and subcortical regions with HRV dynamics and cognitive processes ( Smith et al., 2017 ). In particular, positive correlations are shown between neuronal activity in the cingulate cortex, cognitive performance and nonlinear characteristics of HRV along with directly proportional relationships between cingulate cortex morphology (thickness, cell density) and characteristics of HRV at rest ( Winkelmann et al., 2017 ). Thus, the difference in heart rate complexity observed between analytic and holistic thinkers can also be considered in the framework of organization of physiological activity in the brain and the rest of the body as a foundation of behavioral performance.

As described in the Introduction, one of the key differences between analytic and holistic thinkers is their attentional focus on either separate objects or contextual relationships between objects. For example, holistic strategies are often characterized as involving the global precedence effect, i.e., when the global-level properties are prioritized in cognitive processing compared to the local properties ( Wagemans et al., 2012 ). The difference in heart rate complexity between analytic and holistic thinkers observed in our study can be interpreted in terms of using different cognitive strategies. At the same time analytic vs. holistic thinking is a wider concept which is used as a psychological meta-category ( Masuda and Nisbett, 2001 ; Kitayama et al., 2003 ) describing two different ways of organization of individual experience ( Apanovich et al., 2018 ). Thus, analytic vs. holistic thinking includes many local attentional and perceptual specificities that, being considered separately, also correlate with non-linear HRV metrics ( Forte et al., 2019 ). As an illustrative example, it had been shown previously in the studies contrasting individuals with different political views that, on average, conservatives are more likely to use holistic types of classification based on relationships between objects, whereas liberals more frequently use analytical taxonomic classification of objects ( Amodio et al., 2007 ; Talhelm et al., 2015 ); at the same time greater liberalism is associated with higher gray matter volume in the anterior cingulate cortex, whereas greater conservatism is associated with higher volume in the right amygdala ( Kanai et al., 2011 ). Cingulate cortex and amygdala are shown to be the two key sources of HRV across cortical structures due to their morphological and functional relations with the main centers of the autonomic nerve system in the brainstem ( Smith et al., 2017 ). Therefore, even such aspect of cognitive activity as political judgment can be reflected in HRV. In line with the above, autonomic changes representing sympathetic activity and measured by skin conductance during viewing of threatening images were shown to be more pronounced in conservatives ( Oxley et al., 2008 ).

From the perspective of the system-evolutionary theory, HRV originates in cooperation of the heart with the other components of actualized functional systems, including neuronal groups, activity of which underlies behavior at the level of the whole organism. In this view, non-linear changes in heart rate dynamics reflect coordination of heart activity with changes in the sets of activated neurons distributed across the brain and supporting current behavior. From this perspective, the results of our study may be used to speculate about possible differences in the structure of individual experience between analytic and holistic thinkers. While solving analytic and holistic tasks during the experiment, our participants were learning new behavior. In the holistic group, heart rate complexity was lower and more constant because the task was easier for them to solve, which was reflected in faster response times, and their learning processes involved more recombination of existing elements of experience rather than creating new elements (e.g., see Aleksandrov, 2006 ; Kuzina and Alexandrov, 2017 ). In analytic thinkers, the learning process involved a more extended creation of new elements and their addition into the structure of individual experience, which required more resources and their regulation. Thus, higher heart rate complexity and longer response times, especially in holistic tasks, reflect more intense learning processes in analytic individuals.

In all comparisons of response times, the tasks were solved faster at the second presentation compared to the first presentation, which points to the general effect of learning. Interestingly, along with faster responses during the second presentation, success rate increased selectively only in holistic tasks for analytic participants and only in analytic tasks for holistic participants. This task specific dynamics of success rate suggests that during our experiment holistic thinkers were learning to better solve analytic tasks and analytic thinkers were improving at solving holistic tasks. At the same time, the increase in heart rate complexity was less pronounced in the holistic group and its values during experimental tasks were closer to the rest condition, as compared with the analytic group. This is consistent with our assumptions that different system mechanisms may underlie seemingly similar learning dynamics, and that differences in the structure of experience are manifested in heart rate complexity.

Overall, our findings demonstrate that differences in individuals’ behavior, including those related to holistic and analytic thinking styles, can be reflected not only in brain activity, as it had been shown previously in other studies using fMRI and EEG, but can also be observed at the level of neuro-visceral activity as manifested in heart rate complexity. Our results support the hypothesis about differences in neuro-visceral coordination supporting behavior while solving cognitive tasks between analytic and holistic individuals and that it may vary across tasks and conditions. The holistic (systemic) approach to achieving a deeper understanding of analytic and holistic thinking requires further investigation into the nature of psychophysiological organization of behavior in analytic and holistic thinkers.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/ Supplementary Material , further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author/s.

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee of Institute of Psychology of Russian Academy of Sciences (Moscow). The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author Contributions

AB performed the experiments, analyzed, interpreted the data, contributed reagents, materials, analysis tools or data, and wrote the manuscript. VA performed the experiments, analyzed, and interpreted the data. KA conceived, designed the experiments, performed the experiments, analyzed, interpreted the data, and wrote the manuscript. YA conceived, designed the experiments, analyzed, and interpreted the data. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

This study was supported by the International Laboratory of Social Neurobiology ICN HSE, RF Government grant, ag. no. 075-15-2019-1930.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Aramyan Erik A. for help with data collection and data analysis.

Supplementary Material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.762225/full#supplementary-material

• ^ http://medicom-mtd.com/
• ^ https://www.scipy.org/

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Keywords : analytic thinking, holistic thinking, visual discrimination, reaction time, heart rate variability, complexity, entropy analyses, system-evolutionary theory

Citation: Bakhchina AV, Apanovich VV, Arutyunova KR and Alexandrov YI (2021) Analytic and Holistic Thinkers: Differences in the Dynamics of Heart Rate Complexity When Solving a Cognitive Task in Field-Dependent and Field-Independent Conditions. Front. Psychol. 12:762225. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.762225

Received: 21 August 2021; Accepted: 04 November 2021; Published: 26 November 2021.

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Copyright © 2021 Bakhchina, Apanovich, Arutyunova and Alexandrov. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Anastasiia V. Bakhchina, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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What Is Holism?

How psychologists use holism to understand behavior

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Amy Morin, LCSW, is a psychotherapist and international bestselling author. Her books, including "13 Things Mentally Strong People Don't Do," have been translated into more than 40 languages. Her TEDx talk,  "The Secret of Becoming Mentally Strong," is one of the most viewed talks of all time.

Verywell / Laura Porter

• In Psychology

In psychology, holism is an approach to understanding the human mind and behavior that focuses on looking at things as a whole. It is often contrasted with reductionism , which instead tries to break things down into their smallest parts. This approach suggests that we can only understand the parts when we view them in relation to the whole.

Overview of Holism

In terms of psychology, the holistic view suggests that it is important to view the mind as a unit, rather than trying to break it down into its individual parts. Each individual part plays its own important role, but it also works within an integrated system.

The basic principle of holism is that people are more than simply the sum of their parts. In order to understand how people think, the holistic perspective stresses that you need to do more than simply focus on how each individual component functions in isolation. Instead, psychologists who take this approach believe that it is more important to look at how all the parts work together.

Holism in Psychology

As an approach to understanding systems, holism is used in psychology as well as in other areas including medicine, philosophy, ecology, and economics. One key phrase that summarizes the key idea behind the holistic approach is that “the whole is more than the sum of its parts.”

The field of holistic medicine, for example, focuses on treating all aspects of a person's health including physical symptoms, psychological factors, and societal influences.  

In order to understand why people do the things they do and think the way they think, holism proposes that it is necessary to look at the entire person. Rather than focus on just one aspect of the problem, it is necessary to recognize that various factors interact and influence each other.

One reason why it is so important to consider the entire being is that the whole may possess emergent properties . These are qualities or characteristics that are present in the whole but cannot be observed by looking at the individual pieces.  

Consider the human brain, for example. The brain contains millions of neurons , but just looking at each individual neuron will not tell you what the brain can do. It is only by looking at the brain holistically, by looking at how all the pieces work together, that you can see how messages are transmitted, how memories are stored, and how decisions are made.

Even looking at other aspects of the brain such as the individual structures does not really tell the whole story. It is only when taking a more holistic approach that we are truly able to appreciate how all the pieces work together.

In fact, one of the earliest debates in the field of neurology centered on whether the brain was homogeneous and could not be broken down further (holism) or whether certain functions were localized in specific cortical areas (reductionism).

Today, researchers recognize that certain parts of the brain act in specific ways, but these individual parts interact and work together to create and influence different functions.

Uses for Holism

When looking at questions in psychology, researchers might take a holistic approach by considering how different factors work together and interact to influence the entire person. At the broadest level, holism would look at every single influence that might impact behavior or functioning.

A humanistic psychologist, for example, might consider an individual's environment (including where they live and work), their social connections (including friends, family, and co-workers), their background (including childhood experiences and educational level), and physical health (including current wellness and stress levels).

The goal of this level of analysis is to be able to not only consider how each of these variables might impact overall well-being but to also see how these factors interact and influence one another.

In other cases, holism might be a bit more focused. Social psychologists, for example, strive to understand how and why groups behave as they do. Sometimes groups react differently than individuals do, so looking at group behavior more holistically allows research to assess emergent properties that might be present.

Benefits of Holism

Just like the reductionist approach to psychology, holism has both advantages and disadvantages. For example, holism can be helpful at times when looking at the big picture allows the psychologist to see things they might have otherwise missed. In other cases, however, focusing on the whole might cause them to overlook some of the finer details.

Some of the key benefits of this perspective include:

It Incorporates Many Factors

One of the big advantages of the holistic approach is that it allows researchers to assess multiple factors that might contribute to a psychological problem. Rather than simply focusing on one small part of an issue, researchers can instead look at all of the elements that may play a role.

This approach can ultimately help them find solutions that address all of the contributing internal and external factors that might be influencing the health of an individual. This is sometimes more effective than addressing smaller components individually.

By looking at people holistically, health care providers can address all of the many factors that might affect how a person is feeling, including their mind, their body, and their environment.

It Looks at the Big Picture

When researching a topic, it's frequently helpful to step back and look at the big picture. Reductionism tends to focus solely on the trees, but holism allows psychologists to view the entire forest. This can be true of both the research and treatment of mental health issues.

When trying to help a client with symptoms of a psychiatric condition, for example, looking at the patient holistically allows mental health professionals to see all of the factors that affect the patient’s daily life, and also how the patient interacts with their environment. Using this type of approach, therapists are often better able to address individual symptoms.

Human behavior is complex, so explaining it often requires an approach that is able to account for this complexity. Holism allows researchers to provide a fully inclusive answer to difficult questions about how people think, feel, and behave.

Drawbacks of Holism

While holism has a number of key advantages, there are also some important drawbacks to consider. Some of these include:

It Tends to Be Non-Specific

When trying to solve a problem, it is often important to focus on a particular aspect of the issue in order to come up with a solution. Holism tends to be more generalized, which can sometimes make precision more difficult. Scientists, in particular, must be able to focus their research on clearly defined variables and hypotheses.

Looking at something too broadly can make it difficult to conduct tests using the scientific method, largely due to the fact that it incorporates so many varied factors and influences.

It Can Be Overly Complex

Because holism is so all-inclusive, it can make scientific investigations very challenging and complex. There may be many different variables to account for, as well as a plethora of potential interactions. This can make this approach unwieldy at times.

Examples of Holism

There are a number of examples in the field of psychology of how holism can be used to view the human mind and behavior. The early schools of thought, structuralism and functionalism , are good examples of reductionist and holistic views.

Structuralism focused on breaking down elements of behavior into their smallest possible components (reductionism), whereas functionalism focused on looking at things as a whole and considering the actual purpose and function of behaviors (holism).

Throughout history, there have been other perspectives and branches of psychology that have also taken a holistic approach.

Gestalt Psychology

Gestalt psychology is a school of thought that is rooted in holism. The Gestalt psychologists not only believed that human behavior needed to be viewed as a whole; they also worked to understand how the human mind itself uses a holistic approach to make sense of the world.

The Gestalt laws of perceptual organization , demonstrate that the ways in which individual items relate to one another can influence how we see them. When similar items are viewed together, the law of similarity, for example, suggests that people will perceive them as components of a whole.

This approach can also be applied to the treatment of mental health problems. Gestalt therapy is a person-centered approach to treatment that emerged from the Gestalt school of thought. Rather than breaking down aspects of a person's past to understand their current problem, this approach to therapy looks at all aspects of the individual's life in the here and now.

Humanistic Psychology

Humanistic psychology is a branch of psychology that emerged in the 1950s partially as a response to behaviorism. Where behaviorism had taken a reductionist approach to explain human behavior, humanist thinkers are more interested in looking at behavior holistically.

This approach to psychology looks at all of the factors that contribute to how people think and act, as well as how all of these different components interact.

Abraham Maslow’s famous hierarchy of needs is one example of a humanistic theory that takes a holistic look at human motivation. This theory doesn't focus on any single aspect of motivation. Instead, it incorporates many aspects including environmental, social, and emotional influences.

Social Psychology

Social psychology tends to take a holistic approach since it considers individuals in their social context. In particular, this branch of psychology looks at how group behavior is often different than individual behavior, which is a good example of emergent properties and the sum being more than its parts.

Holism vs. Reductionism

One way to look at how holism and reductionism are used is to observe how these approaches might be applied when studying a specific psychological problem.

Imagine that researchers are interested in learning more about depression .

• A researcher using the holistic approach might instead focus on understanding how different contributing factors might interact, such as examining how thought patterns, social relationships, and neurotransmitter levels influence a person’s depression levels.
• A scientist using the reductionist approach might look at a highly specific factor that influences depression, such as neurotransmitter levels in the brain.

A Word From Verywell

Much of the appeal of holism lies in its ability to incorporate all of the elements that make us who we are. People are infinitely complex and varied, and holism is able to address all of the external and internal factors that influence our past, present, and future.

Different areas of psychology often tend to focus on either one approach or the other. While reductionism and holism are often pitted against one another, they both serve an important role in helping researchers better understand human psychology.

Michaelson V, Pickett W, King N, Davison C. Testing the theory of holism: A study of family systems and adolescent health .  Prev Med Rep . 2016;4:313–319. doi:10.1016/j.pmedr.2016.07.002

Freeman J. Towards a definition of holism .  Br J Gen Pract . 2005;55(511):154–155.

APA Dictionary of Psychology. Humanistic perspective .

APA Dictionary of Psychology. Gestalt psychology .

Goodwin, CJ. A History of Modern Psychology, 5th Edition. New York: Wiley.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Holistic Thinking: 3 Best Ways And Examples To Think Holistically

• Updated June 2, 2022

Holistic thinking or systems thinking, refers to a way of thinking in which a person can see the big picture. They can see patterns and concepts that oversee the details, which may be missed by people who think more analytically.

The interconnectedness of all things is apparent to the holistic thinker. Rather than thinking analytically or in specifics, the holistic approach involves noticing and taking into account patterns and hints representing a more extensive system of occurrence in a given situation.

According to  Oxford Languages , the philosophical definition of holism is:  ‘the theory that parts of a whole are in intimate interconnection, such that they cannot exist independently of the whole, or cannot be understood without reference to the whole, which is thus regarded as greater than the sum of its parts. Holism is often applied to mental states, language, and ecology.’

Oxford Languages also offer a medical definition of holism:  ‘the treating of the whole person, taking mental and social factors into account, rather than just the physical symptoms of a disease.’

Holistic thinking requires that you give attention to contexts and relationships in any given situation. It considers the interplay of various elements within a situation that can influence that situation’s outcome.

For example, the holistic thinker will notice that a group meeting that’s not going well may have something to do with the relationship between team member X and member Y, rather than the group’s capabilities as a whole. 

Holistic thinking looks at the background elements of a situation, understanding events regarding the context in which they’re taking place. The opposite of holistic thinking is analytic thinking, in which a larger system of occurrence is broken down into details and investigated as separate or distinct from the whole. 

Analytic thinking credits individuals and specifics for the outcomes of events, while holistic thinking gives credit to the interconnectedness of all elements or aspects of the event. Analytic thinkers look at the foreground of the events taking place but tend to disregard or overlook the frame or context. 

Examples of holistic thinking

Holistic thinkers see the whole picture or the big picture. In business, the term ‘holistic thinking’ may sometimes be used interchangeably with ‘systems thinking.’

TechTarget defines systems thinking as ‘a holistic approach to analysis that focuses on how a system’s constituent parts interrelate and how systems work overtime and within the context of larger systems.’

Holistic medicine and systems thinking

To better understand how holistic thinking works, consider holistic medicine.

Holistic-minded medical practitioners consider the relationship between a patient’s mind, body, and spirit when addressing illness. They look for ways to improve on overall life balance.

Instead of solely providing medicine for a patient’s ailments or condition (specific thinking), holistic doctors or practitioners would investigate several other aspects of the patient’s life and lifestyle to eradicate health problems that are arising. They consider both internal and external forces that may be causing health issues.

Rather than relying on pharmaceuticals alone to treat an issue, holistic doctors would advise, spend time explaining as well as encourage the patient to consciously look after all aspects of their health through a life balance, which includes, exercise, diet, sleep , and sufficient rest and relaxation, especially in cases where the patient’s issues stem from prolonged stress , poor nutrition, or lack of regular physical movement.

Linear Thought Process

Contrary to holistic thinking, the linear thought process involves step-by-step thinking.

People who utilize linear thought processes, solve problems with a definite beginning point, follow specific related steps, and arrive at their solutions after the procedure. Their line of thinking flows sequentially and straightforwardly.

Linear thinkers are regarded as left-brained, this is because the left side of the brain is in charge of processing thoughts through logical and analytical methods. They rely on rules and patterns and uphold uniformity or consistency. As analytic thinkers, they constantly seek data and existing solutions to similar problems before moving into action.

Why is holistic thinking important? 

The blind men and the elephant.

There’s an old Indian parable, popularized in the modern-day by American poet John Godfrey Saxe, about six blind men introduced to an elephant. Without the use of sight, they must rely on their sense of touch to understand what is standing in front of them. We’ve included the poem below to help you better understand the importance of holistic thinking.

The Blind Men and the Elephant – John Godfrey Saxe

It was six men of Indostan, to learning much inclined, who went to see the elephant (Though all of them were blind), that each by observation, might satisfy his mind.

The first approached the elephant, and, happening to fall, against his broad and sturdy side, at once began to bawl: “God bless me! but the elephant, is nothing but a wall!”

The second feeling of the tusk, cried: “Ho! what have we here, so very round and smooth and sharp? To me tis mighty clear, this wonder of an elephant, is very like a spear!”

The third approached the animal, and, happening to take, the squirming trunk within his hands, “I see,” quoth he, the elephant is very like a snake!”

The fourth reached out his eager hand, and felt about the knee: “What most this wondrous beast is like, is mighty plain,” quoth he; “Tis clear enough the elephant is very like a tree.”

The fifth, who chanced to touch the ear, Said; “E’en the blindest man can tell what this resembles most; Deny the fact who can, This marvel of an elephant, is very like a fan!”

The sixth no sooner had begun, about the beast to grope, than, seizing on the swinging tail, that fell within his scope, “I see,” quothe he, “the elephant is very like a rope!”

And so these men of Indostan, disputed loud and long, each in his own opinion, exceeding stiff and strong, Though each was partly in the right, and all were in the wrong!

So, oft in theologic wars, the disputants, I ween, tread on in utter ignorance, of what each other mean, and prate about the elephant, not one of them has seen!

A lesson on perspective

Saxe’s poetic rendering of this ancient parable on perspective offers valuable insight into the importance of holistic thinking.

The holistic approach recognizes and emphasizes that an individual standpoint cannot see the whole picture, and therefore can not attain an objective view of an event. Events must be viewed in their larger context to be fully understood and make effective decisions.

The importance of holistic thinking in business organizations

Holistic thinking, or ‘systems thinking,’ offers a range of benefits to businesses. Taking a holistic culture within your operations and strategies benefits your business by:  

1. Empowering employees

In a holistic business approach, all employees get a chance to express themselves.

Each employee is encouraged to share their views and insights, which broadens each team member’s perspective and encourages a big picture mentality. Further, when employees feel heard and acknowledged, workplace morale increases, which in turn elicits business growth.  

2. Gaining fresh insight and perspective

Businesses grow when each employee is clear about their individual and group goals.

Taking a holistic thinkers approach means that fresh perspectives and potential risks are brought to the surface, instead of being swept under the rug had the business not considered such a broad range of opinions and viewpoints.

For example, your marketing team has a great idea about a social media campaign based on current events. The sales team agrees with the idea, envisioning greater traffic and lead generation, thus greater conversions.

However, the PR manager may have the insight to understand that the current event that the previous two departments want to profit from may be controversial, too soon, or will give the company a bad reputation.

Therefore, it would be better for the company’s reputation to take a different approach. By incorporating varying perspectives, the business, as a whole, can revisit the idea and figure out a more public-friendly approach.

An example of such a situation would be riding on the current wave of social injustice. While it’s great that companies stand up to support issues within society, many consumers are beginning to understand that showing support for these initiatives increases profit.

Therefore, a company may only be showing support in ads or on social media for the sole purpose of improving its reputation and boosting its profits.

Instead, a holistic-minded team would understand that it would be far more appropriate to show real support, such as changing internal processes and procedures to create real cultural change within the company to address the injustice. Rather than simply adding a banner or visual scenes to their Facebook profile picture and hoping for the best.

How to think holistically

If you’re running a business and you’re just starting out, or you’ve been in operation for years but want to improve your success rate, then holistic thinking may be just what you need. If you want to utilize systems thinking in your business decisions, strategies, and campaigns, consider the following tips:

1. Keep your overall goals and objectives in mind

Thinking holistically involves delegating authority among team members to take care of specific needs and issues, but at the same time make sure that everyone keeps the big picture in mind. With a degree of focus on the big picture at all times, you’re likely to notice subtle patterns and systems that can inform your decision-making process and increase your chances of yielding positive results.

2. Accurately identify the problem

Instead of following the first solution that comes to mind when your business is facing an issue, thinking holistically involves taking a moment to step back and understanding what the actual problem is.

It’s tempting to take action as soon as you get a spark of inspiration, but if the problem you’re so eager to begin solving isn’t the actual problem, your efforts will have been in vain.

3. Notice patterns and connections

The ability to observe patterns and interconnections means you have the big picture mentality or you have the ability to implement systems thinking. In business, it helps to bring your attention and awareness to patterns across all departments and strategies.

For example, instead of seeing a failure and considering it to be exclusive to one strategy, consider the big picture – how similar failures have occurred in the past, what else may have contributed to that failure, and what the difference is between your failures and your success regarding all aspects of your approach.

This takes into account so many different aspects of the business that linear thinking or a narrow focus may completely miss. Thinking holistically allows you to implement strategy formation to solve the problem once and for all across multiple departments.

Big picture or holistic thinking doesn’t ignore the specifics; it incorporates them. It doesn’t allocate blame or responsibility on an individual idea, person, or concept but rather considers how everything is connected and seeks to identify that connection.

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Introduction to Holism

• First Online: 23 August 2017

Cite this chapter

• Valerie Michaelson 4 , 5 ,
• Nathan King 5 &
• William Pickett 5  

Part of the book series: SpringerBriefs in Well-Being and Quality of Life Research ((BRIEFSWELLBEING))

In this first chapter of this small book, we introduce the theory of holism in simple terms. We revisit its historic roots, including insights from Indigenous approaches to health and wellness, and then we discuss the more recent re-emergence of holism in ideas and debates in the field of health promotion, including those that involve children. This theoretical framework lays the foundation for the main purpose of this book, which is very simple and practical: to apply basic principles of holism to many aspects of the health of children.

When we try to pick out anything by itself we find it hitched to everything else in the Universe. —John Muir I think it means that it is … beneficial to look at health all at once … like in school … if we take health we would probably do a couple of classes on nutrition and a couple on safety and then some on exercise and that kind of thing. But we never really look at everything all at once …. —Focus group participant

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Michaelson, V., King, N., Pickett, W. (2018). Introduction to Holism. In: Holistic Health in Children: Conceptualization, Assessment and Potential. SpringerBriefs in Well-Being and Quality of Life Research. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-64831-6_1

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Holistic Perspective and Philosophical Reflection

Weeks 1 & 2: Lesson

MELC-based Weeks 1 & 2

Lesson Proper (What’s new?)

Introduction

Philosophy, which etymologically means “love of wisdom,” is the study of the elemental nature and theories of reason (logic), knowledge (epistemology), ethics/morality/values (axiology), and first principles of everything (metaphysics). Using “correct” reasoning (alternatively known as “logic”), philosophy attempts to answer the fundamental, abstract, general, and most often than not, controversial or dilemmatic problems. Generally, there are no single, specific and definitive answers to philosophical questions.

Doing Philosophy (Philosophizing)

Philosophical study can either be an individual intellectual or a collective pursuit. As an individual intellectual pursuit, philosophers use analytic thought processes to test ideas, analyze beliefs, and/or resolve conflicts. On the other hand, as a collective pursuit, individuals and groups employ methodological insights to deal with controversial issues and moral dilemmas about societal problems (such as, same-sex marriage, divorce, abortion, euthanasia, capital punishment). Whatever the pursuit an individual or group might have, either in an individual or on a collective level (and both), philosophizing is prescriptively and normatively bound by reason and morality in arriving at the truth – and ultimately, wisdom. Thus, individuals and peoples, in general, could apply at all levels and in each moment of his/their life/lives a personal or collective philosophy of life.

Holistic Perspective versus Partial Viewpoint

         In doing philosophy, philosophizing, or inquiring philosophically, there are two (2) general perspectives. First, holistic perspective refers to a viewpoint that consists of closely knitted individual parts that make up the whole of a situation prior to arriving at or in making any conclusion. Example of a holistic perspective is weighing both sides of two opposing parties’ arguments and evidences before making a judgment, generalization, or conclusion. Second, partial perspective denotes a point of view that is composed of individual parts of only a particular, but not, entire context. Example of a partial perspective is considering only one-sided, particular claim/s. Generally, philosophical dialogues, discussions, and related conversations utilize the multi-argumentative (pros and cons), unprejudicial and unbiased holistic perspective/s as it, theoretically, exhaustively anchor any conclusions and generalizations as to the “whole of a matter.” Thus, the philosophical exercise of using holistic approach, viewpoint or perspective can further develop in an individual the philosophical robustness of moral, critical- and logical-mindedness in many, if not most, various life’s situations.

Value of Philosophizing

Philosophizing – or more practically stated, doing philosophy – means delighting oneself to realize one’s full potential when unleashing the importance philosophy has in getting a holistic perspective in life. When you reflect on your concrete experiences, you might use a philosophical lens to see “small and far objects” better and in magnified way. To utilize holistic view most, if not all, of the times, a person should acquire and use the various philosophical (e.g., analytical, interpretative) and related (e.g., communicative) skills when understanding the whole aspects of a situation, problem or issue.

Philosophical Reflection

Philosophical reflection, or simply philosophizing, is an intellectual process where an individual becomes simultaneously deeply engrossed with himself/herself while holistically evaluating his/her intention, decision, and situation prior to making an action. As an individual habitually develops this philosophical discipline of deep reflection on a regular basis, he/she in turn arrives at a deeper meaningful understanding of himself/herself when searching for facts, truth, and wisdom. 

Having in mind the philosophical process of reflecting as part of daily living, he or she becomes more better attuned with his/her own personhood (such as, personal convictions, local context, moral experiences, reflectiveness and consistency in his/her actions). Aside from knowing and then examining oneself, the fruits of philosophizing or philosophical reflection starts but does not end within oneself, but the self becomes one with others in meaning-making and action-taking.

A few concrete examples on how philosophical reflection results to self-knowledge could be gleaned from the following: (a) learning from your previous mistakes or from the mistakes of other people so as not to repeat doing the same mistakes; (b) using a holistic perspective when choosing from a variety of options before deciding, acting, generalizing, or making any conclusion.

Summary/Generalization (What a student learned so far?)

         Philosophy comes from 2 Greek terms with the literal meaning of “love (of)” plus “wisdom;” hence, a philosopher is a person who is a lover of wisdom. The major branches of philosophy are logic, epistemology, axiology, and metaphysics. You will learn more about the detailed treatments of these branches in higher-level, specialized philosophy courses in a university setting. To approach a problem or query in a philosophical way, an individual has to keep in mind that there is no single answer or solution to a particular question that is truly “philosophical in nature.”

         For most individuals who are enthusiasts in learning and engaging in philosophy, it is much of an individual intellectual pursuit. Equivocally, individuals or groups can philosophically interact about societal situations in a collective way. Whatever pursuit people might have, it is best to guard oneself with the right mindset, at the right time, and with the right people. Furthermore, when doing philosophy, or simply philosophizing, a holistic view is the preferred, relevant and significant perspective as it avoids the multifaceted pitfalls of impartiality in dealing with issues, problems, dilemmas, and controversies in philosophy and life, in general.

         The importance of philosophizing emanates within oneself and from the wisdom of people who endeavored to see the truth. As you put your interest in seeing things from a holistic perspective, coupled with the necessary philosophical skills, you can then muster to your advantage well-thought of decisions and actions in any particular situation, Experiencing the value of philosophy is thus through habitual philosophical reflection, which further develops in an individual’s ever-replenishing self-knowledge and consequent benefits (such as, becoming more prudent in deciding over matter of urgency, seeing the big picture so as not to be misled by hasty generalizations, and so forth).

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