research topics for primary school teachers

Research Topics & Ideas: Education

170+ Research Ideas To Fast-Track Your Project

If you’re just starting out exploring education-related topics for your dissertation, thesis or research project, you’ve come to the right place. In this post, we’ll help kickstart your research topic ideation process by providing a hearty list of research topics and ideas , including examples from actual dissertations and theses..

PS – This is just the start…

We know it’s exciting to run through a list of research topics, but please keep in mind that this list is just a starting point . To develop a suitable education-related research topic, you’ll need to identify a clear and convincing research gap , and a viable plan of action to fill that gap.

If this sounds foreign to you, check out our free research topic webinar that explores how to find and refine a high-quality research topic, from scratch. Alternatively, if you’d like hands-on help, consider our 1-on-1 coaching service .

Overview: Education Research Topics

• How to find a research topic (video)
• List of 50+ education-related research topics/ideas
• List of 120+ level-specific research topics 
• Examples of actual dissertation topics in education
• Tips to fast-track your topic ideation (video)
• Free Webinar : Topic Ideation 101
• Where to get extra help

Education-Related Research Topics & Ideas

Below you’ll find a list of education-related research topics and idea kickstarters. These are fairly broad and flexible to various contexts, so keep in mind that you will need to refine them a little. Nevertheless, they should inspire some ideas for your project.

• The impact of school funding on student achievement
• The effects of social and emotional learning on student well-being
• The effects of parental involvement on student behaviour
• The impact of teacher training on student learning
• The impact of classroom design on student learning
• The impact of poverty on education
• The use of student data to inform instruction
• The role of parental involvement in education
• The effects of mindfulness practices in the classroom
• The use of technology in the classroom
• The role of critical thinking in education
• The use of formative and summative assessments in the classroom
• The use of differentiated instruction in the classroom
• The use of gamification in education
• The effects of teacher burnout on student learning
• The impact of school leadership on student achievement
• The effects of teacher diversity on student outcomes
• The role of teacher collaboration in improving student outcomes
• The implementation of blended and online learning
• The effects of teacher accountability on student achievement
• The effects of standardized testing on student learning
• The effects of classroom management on student behaviour
• The effects of school culture on student achievement
• The use of student-centred learning in the classroom
• The impact of teacher-student relationships on student outcomes
• The achievement gap in minority and low-income students
• The use of culturally responsive teaching in the classroom
• The impact of teacher professional development on student learning
• The use of project-based learning in the classroom
• The effects of teacher expectations on student achievement
• The use of adaptive learning technology in the classroom
• The impact of teacher turnover on student learning
• The effects of teacher recruitment and retention on student learning
• The impact of early childhood education on later academic success
• The impact of parental involvement on student engagement
• The use of positive reinforcement in education
• The impact of school climate on student engagement
• The role of STEM education in preparing students for the workforce
• The effects of school choice on student achievement
• The use of technology in the form of online tutoring

Level-Specific Research Topics

Looking for research topics for a specific level of education? We’ve got you covered. Below you can find research topic ideas for primary, secondary and tertiary-level education contexts. Click the relevant level to view the respective list.

Research Topics: Pick An Education Level

Primary education.

• Investigating the effects of peer tutoring on academic achievement in primary school
• Exploring the benefits of mindfulness practices in primary school classrooms
• Examining the effects of different teaching strategies on primary school students’ problem-solving skills
• The use of storytelling as a teaching strategy in primary school literacy instruction
• The role of cultural diversity in promoting tolerance and understanding in primary schools
• The impact of character education programs on moral development in primary school students
• Investigating the use of technology in enhancing primary school mathematics education
• The impact of inclusive curriculum on promoting equity and diversity in primary schools
• The impact of outdoor education programs on environmental awareness in primary school students
• The influence of school climate on student motivation and engagement in primary schools
• Investigating the effects of early literacy interventions on reading comprehension in primary school students
• The impact of parental involvement in school decision-making processes on student achievement in primary schools
• Exploring the benefits of inclusive education for students with special needs in primary schools
• Investigating the effects of teacher-student feedback on academic motivation in primary schools
• The role of technology in developing digital literacy skills in primary school students
• Effective strategies for fostering a growth mindset in primary school students
• Investigating the role of parental support in reducing academic stress in primary school children
• The role of arts education in fostering creativity and self-expression in primary school students
• Examining the effects of early childhood education programs on primary school readiness
• Examining the effects of homework on primary school students’ academic performance
• The role of formative assessment in improving learning outcomes in primary school classrooms
• The impact of teacher-student relationships on academic outcomes in primary school
• Investigating the effects of classroom environment on student behavior and learning outcomes in primary schools
• Investigating the role of creativity and imagination in primary school curriculum
• The impact of nutrition and healthy eating programs on academic performance in primary schools
• The impact of social-emotional learning programs on primary school students’ well-being and academic performance
• The role of parental involvement in academic achievement of primary school children
• Examining the effects of classroom management strategies on student behavior in primary school
• The role of school leadership in creating a positive school climate Exploring the benefits of bilingual education in primary schools
• The effectiveness of project-based learning in developing critical thinking skills in primary school students
• The role of inquiry-based learning in fostering curiosity and critical thinking in primary school students
• The effects of class size on student engagement and achievement in primary schools
• Investigating the effects of recess and physical activity breaks on attention and learning in primary school
• Exploring the benefits of outdoor play in developing gross motor skills in primary school children
• The effects of educational field trips on knowledge retention in primary school students
• Examining the effects of inclusive classroom practices on students’ attitudes towards diversity in primary schools
• The impact of parental involvement in homework on primary school students’ academic achievement
• Investigating the effectiveness of different assessment methods in primary school classrooms
• The influence of physical activity and exercise on cognitive development in primary school children
• Exploring the benefits of cooperative learning in promoting social skills in primary school students

Secondary Education

• Investigating the effects of school discipline policies on student behavior and academic success in secondary education
• The role of social media in enhancing communication and collaboration among secondary school students
• The impact of school leadership on teacher effectiveness and student outcomes in secondary schools
• Investigating the effects of technology integration on teaching and learning in secondary education
• Exploring the benefits of interdisciplinary instruction in promoting critical thinking skills in secondary schools
• The impact of arts education on creativity and self-expression in secondary school students
• The effectiveness of flipped classrooms in promoting student learning in secondary education
• The role of career guidance programs in preparing secondary school students for future employment
• Investigating the effects of student-centered learning approaches on student autonomy and academic success in secondary schools
• The impact of socio-economic factors on educational attainment in secondary education
• Investigating the impact of project-based learning on student engagement and academic achievement in secondary schools
• Investigating the effects of multicultural education on cultural understanding and tolerance in secondary schools
• The influence of standardized testing on teaching practices and student learning in secondary education
• Investigating the effects of classroom management strategies on student behavior and academic engagement in secondary education
• The influence of teacher professional development on instructional practices and student outcomes in secondary schools
• The role of extracurricular activities in promoting holistic development and well-roundedness in secondary school students
• Investigating the effects of blended learning models on student engagement and achievement in secondary education
• The role of physical education in promoting physical health and well-being among secondary school students
• Investigating the effects of gender on academic achievement and career aspirations in secondary education
• Exploring the benefits of multicultural literature in promoting cultural awareness and empathy among secondary school students
• The impact of school counseling services on student mental health and well-being in secondary schools
• Exploring the benefits of vocational education and training in preparing secondary school students for the workforce
• The role of digital literacy in preparing secondary school students for the digital age
• The influence of parental involvement on academic success and well-being of secondary school students
• The impact of social-emotional learning programs on secondary school students’ well-being and academic success
• The role of character education in fostering ethical and responsible behavior in secondary school students
• Examining the effects of digital citizenship education on responsible and ethical technology use among secondary school students
• The impact of parental involvement in school decision-making processes on student outcomes in secondary schools
• The role of educational technology in promoting personalized learning experiences in secondary schools
• The impact of inclusive education on the social and academic outcomes of students with disabilities in secondary schools
• The influence of parental support on academic motivation and achievement in secondary education
• The role of school climate in promoting positive behavior and well-being among secondary school students
• Examining the effects of peer mentoring programs on academic achievement and social-emotional development in secondary schools
• Examining the effects of teacher-student relationships on student motivation and achievement in secondary schools
• Exploring the benefits of service-learning programs in promoting civic engagement among secondary school students
• The impact of educational policies on educational equity and access in secondary education
• Examining the effects of homework on academic achievement and student well-being in secondary education
• Investigating the effects of different assessment methods on student performance in secondary schools
• Examining the effects of single-sex education on academic performance and gender stereotypes in secondary schools
• The role of mentoring programs in supporting the transition from secondary to post-secondary education

Tertiary Education

• The role of student support services in promoting academic success and well-being in higher education
• The impact of internationalization initiatives on students’ intercultural competence and global perspectives in tertiary education
• Investigating the effects of active learning classrooms and learning spaces on student engagement and learning outcomes in tertiary education
• Exploring the benefits of service-learning experiences in fostering civic engagement and social responsibility in higher education
• The influence of learning communities and collaborative learning environments on student academic and social integration in higher education
• Exploring the benefits of undergraduate research experiences in fostering critical thinking and scientific inquiry skills
• Investigating the effects of academic advising and mentoring on student retention and degree completion in higher education
• The role of student engagement and involvement in co-curricular activities on holistic student development in higher education
• The impact of multicultural education on fostering cultural competence and diversity appreciation in higher education
• The role of internships and work-integrated learning experiences in enhancing students’ employability and career outcomes
• Examining the effects of assessment and feedback practices on student learning and academic achievement in tertiary education
• The influence of faculty professional development on instructional practices and student outcomes in tertiary education
• The influence of faculty-student relationships on student success and well-being in tertiary education
• The impact of college transition programs on students’ academic and social adjustment to higher education
• The impact of online learning platforms on student learning outcomes in higher education
• The impact of financial aid and scholarships on access and persistence in higher education
• The influence of student leadership and involvement in extracurricular activities on personal development and campus engagement
• Exploring the benefits of competency-based education in developing job-specific skills in tertiary students
• Examining the effects of flipped classroom models on student learning and retention in higher education
• Exploring the benefits of online collaboration and virtual team projects in developing teamwork skills in tertiary students
• Investigating the effects of diversity and inclusion initiatives on campus climate and student experiences in tertiary education
• The influence of study abroad programs on intercultural competence and global perspectives of college students
• Investigating the effects of peer mentoring and tutoring programs on student retention and academic performance in tertiary education
• Investigating the effectiveness of active learning strategies in promoting student engagement and achievement in tertiary education
• Investigating the effects of blended learning models and hybrid courses on student learning and satisfaction in higher education
• The role of digital literacy and information literacy skills in supporting student success in the digital age
• Investigating the effects of experiential learning opportunities on career readiness and employability of college students
• The impact of e-portfolios on student reflection, self-assessment, and showcasing of learning in higher education
• The role of technology in enhancing collaborative learning experiences in tertiary classrooms
• The impact of research opportunities on undergraduate student engagement and pursuit of advanced degrees
• Examining the effects of competency-based assessment on measuring student learning and achievement in tertiary education
• Examining the effects of interdisciplinary programs and courses on critical thinking and problem-solving skills in college students
• The role of inclusive education and accessibility in promoting equitable learning experiences for diverse student populations
• The role of career counseling and guidance in supporting students’ career decision-making in tertiary education
• The influence of faculty diversity and representation on student success and inclusive learning environments in higher education

Education-Related Dissertations & Theses

While the ideas we’ve presented above are a decent starting point for finding a research topic in education, they are fairly generic and non-specific. So, it helps to look at actual dissertations and theses in the education space to see how this all comes together in practice.

Below, we’ve included a selection of education-related research projects to help refine your thinking. These are actual dissertations and theses, written as part of Master’s and PhD-level programs, so they can provide some useful insight as to what a research topic looks like in practice.

• From Rural to Urban: Education Conditions of Migrant Children in China (Wang, 2019)
• Energy Renovation While Learning English: A Guidebook for Elementary ESL Teachers (Yang, 2019)
• A Reanalyses of Intercorrelational Matrices of Visual and Verbal Learners’ Abilities, Cognitive Styles, and Learning Preferences (Fox, 2020)
• A study of the elementary math program utilized by a mid-Missouri school district (Barabas, 2020)
• Instructor formative assessment practices in virtual learning environments : a posthumanist sociomaterial perspective (Burcks, 2019)
• Higher education students services: a qualitative study of two mid-size universities’ direct exchange programs (Kinde, 2020)
• Exploring editorial leadership : a qualitative study of scholastic journalism advisers teaching leadership in Missouri secondary schools (Lewis, 2020)
• Selling the virtual university: a multimodal discourse analysis of marketing for online learning (Ludwig, 2020)
• Advocacy and accountability in school counselling: assessing the use of data as related to professional self-efficacy (Matthews, 2020)
• The use of an application screening assessment as a predictor of teaching retention at a midwestern, K-12, public school district (Scarbrough, 2020)
• Core values driving sustained elite performance cultures (Beiner, 2020)
• Educative features of upper elementary Eureka math curriculum (Dwiggins, 2020)
• How female principals nurture adult learning opportunities in successful high schools with challenging student demographics (Woodward, 2020)
• The disproportionality of Black Males in Special Education: A Case Study Analysis of Educator Perceptions in a Southeastern Urban High School (McCrae, 2021)

As you can see, these research topics are a lot more focused than the generic topic ideas we presented earlier. So, in order for you to develop a high-quality research topic, you’ll need to get specific and laser-focused on a specific context with specific variables of interest.  In the video below, we explore some other important things you’ll need to consider when crafting your research topic.

Get 1-On-1 Help

If you’re still unsure about how to find a quality research topic within education, check out our Research Topic Kickstarter service, which is the perfect starting point for developing a unique, well-justified research topic.

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200+ List of Topics for Action Research in the Classroom

In the dynamic landscape of education, teachers are continually seeking innovative ways to enhance their teaching practices and improve student outcomes. Action research in the classroom is a powerful tool that allows educators to investigate and address specific challenges, leading to positive changes in teaching methods and learning experiences. 

Selecting the right topics from the list of topics for action research in the classroom is crucial for ensuring meaningful insights and improvements. In this blog post, we will explore the significance of action research in the classroom, the criteria for selecting impactful topics, and provide an extensive list of potential research areas.

Understanding: What is Action Research

Table of Contents

Action research is a reflective process that empowers teachers to systematically investigate and analyze their own teaching practices. Unlike traditional research, action research is conducted by educators within their own classrooms, emphasizing a collaborative and participatory approach. 

This method enables teachers to identify challenges, implement interventions, and assess the effectiveness of their actions.

How to Select Topics From List of Topics for Action Research in the Classroom

Choosing the right topic is the first step in the action research process. The selected topic should align with classroom goals, address students’ needs, be feasible to implement, and have the potential for positive impact. Teachers should consider the following criteria when selecting action research topics:

• Alignment with Classroom Goals and Objectives: The chosen topic should directly contribute to the overall goals and objectives of the classroom. Whether it’s improving student engagement, enhancing learning outcomes, or fostering a positive classroom environment, the topic should align with the broader educational context.
• Relevance to Students’ Needs and Challenges: Effective action research addresses the specific needs and challenges faced by students. Teachers should identify areas where students may be struggling or where improvement is needed, ensuring that the research directly impacts the learning experiences of the students.
• Feasibility and Practicality: The feasibility of the research is crucial. Teachers must choose topics that are practical to implement within the constraints of the classroom setting. This includes considering available resources, time constraints, and the level of support from school administrators.
• Potential for Positive Impact: The ultimate goal of action research is to bring about positive change. Teachers should carefully assess the potential impact of their research, aiming for improvements in teaching methods, student performance, or overall classroom dynamics.

List of Topics for Action Research in the Classroom

• Impact of Mindfulness Practices on Student Focus
• The Effectiveness of Peer Tutoring in Mathematics
• Strategies for Encouraging Critical Thinking in History Classes
• Using Gamification to Enhance Learning in Science
• Investigating the Impact of Flexible Seating Arrangements
• Assessing the Benefits of Project-Based Learning in Language Arts
• The Influence of Classroom Decor on Student Motivation
• Examining the Use of Learning Stations for Differentiation
• Implementing Reflective Journals to Enhance Writing Skills
• Exploring the Impact of Flipped Classroom Models
• Analyzing the Effects of Homework on Student Performance
• The Role of Positive Reinforcement in Classroom Behavior
• Investigating the Impact of Classroom Libraries on Reading Proficiency
• Strategies for Fostering a Growth Mindset in Students
• Assessing the Benefits of Cross-Curricular Integration
• Using Technology to Enhance Vocabulary Acquisition
• The Impact of Outdoor Learning on Student Engagement
• Investigating the Relationship Between Attendance and Academic Success
• The Role of Parental Involvement in Homework Completion
• Assessing the Impact of Classroom Rituals on Community Building
• Strategies for Increasing Student Participation in Discussions
• Exploring the Influence of Classroom Lighting on Student Alertness
• Investigating the Impact of Daily Agendas on Time Management
• The Effectiveness of Socratic Seminars in Social Studies
• Analyzing the Use of Graphic Organizers for Concept Mapping
• Implementing Student-Led Conferences for Goal Setting
• Examining the Effects of Mind Mapping on Information Retention
• The Influence of Classroom Temperature on Academic Performance
• Investigating the Benefits of Cooperative Learning Strategies
• Strategies for Addressing Test Anxiety in Students
• Assessing the Impact of Positive Affirmations on Student Confidence
• The Use of Literature Circles to Enhance Reading Comprehension
• Exploring the Effects of Classroom Noise Levels on Concentration
• Investigating the Benefits of Cross-Grade Collaborations
• Analyzing the Impact of Goal Setting on Student Achievement
• Implementing Interactive Notebooks for Conceptual Understanding
• The Effectiveness of Response to Intervention (RTI) Programs
• Strategies for Integrating Social-Emotional Learning (SEL)
• Investigating the Impact of Classroom Discussions on Critical Thinking
• The Role of Brain Breaks in Enhancing Student Focus
• Assessing the Benefits of Inquiry-Based Learning in Science
• Exploring the Effects of Music on Studying and Retention
• Investigating the Use of Learning Contracts for Individualized Learning
• The Influence of Classroom Colors on Mood and Learning
• Strategies for Promoting Collaborative Problem-Solving
• Analyzing the Impact of Flexible Scheduling on Student Productivity
• The Effectiveness of Mindful Breathing Exercises on Stress Reduction
• Investigating the Benefits of Service Learning Projects
• The Role of Peer Assessment in Improving Writing Skills
• Exploring the Impact of Field Trips on Cultural Competency
• Assessing the Benefits of Personalized Learning Plans
• Strategies for Differentiating Instruction in Large Classrooms
• Investigating the Influence of Teacher-Student Relationships on Learning
• The Effectiveness of Vocabulary Games in Foreign Language Classes
• Analyzing the Impact of Classroom Discussions on Civic Engagement
• Implementing Goal-Setting Strategies for Test Preparation
• The Role of Classroom Celebrations in Building a Positive Environment
• Strategies for Enhancing Student Reflection and Metacognition
• Investigating the Effects of Positive Behavior Supports (PBS)
• The Influence of Classroom Humor on Student Engagement
• Assessing the Benefits of Student-Led Research Projects
• Exploring the Impact of Timed vs. Untimed Tests on Anxiety
• Investigating the Use of Educational Podcasts for Learning
• The Effectiveness of Debate Activities in Developing Persuasive Skills
• Analyzing the Impact of Mindful Walking Breaks on Concentration
• Strategies for Promoting Digital Citizenship in the Classroom
• The Role of Visualization Techniques in Mathematics Learning
• Assessing the Benefits of Classroom Agreements for Behavior
• Exploring the Effects of Goal-Setting in Physical Education
• Investigating the Influence of Classroom Seating Charts on Behavior
• The Effectiveness of Peer Editing in Improving Writing Skills
• Strategies for Integrating Cultural Competency in History Lessons
• Analyzing the Impact of Classroom Pets on Student Well-Being
• The Role of Morning Meetings in Building Classroom Community
• Investigating the Benefits of Using Learning Centers in Elementary Schools
• Exploring the Effects of Virtual Reality in Geography Education
• Assessing the Impact of Homework Choice on Student Motivation
• Strategies for Promoting Growth Mindset in Mathematics
• The Influence of Classroom Layout on Group Collaboration
• Investigating the Benefits of Mindful Listening Practices
• The Effectiveness of Using Real-World Examples in Science Lessons
• Analyzing the Impact of Student-Led Assessments on Accountability
• Exploring the Use of Learning Contracts for Student Responsibility
• Investigating the Benefits of Teaching Digital Literacy Skills
• Strategies for Implementing Peer Mentoring Programs
• The Role of Graphic Novels in Promoting Literacy
• Assessing the Impact of Flexible Grouping in Mathematics Classes
• The Effectiveness of Using Storytelling for Conceptual Understanding
• Investigating the Influence of Classroom Rituals on Attendance
• Exploring the Benefits of Mindfulness Practices in Physical Education
• Strategies for Integrating Social Justice Education in the Curriculum
• Analyzing the Impact of Goal-Setting on Homework Completion
• The Role of Classroom Mindfulness Activities in Stress Reduction
• Investigating the Benefits of Using Educational Apps for Vocabulary
• The Effectiveness of Using Drama in History Lessons
• Assessing the Impact of Classroom Routines on Time Management
• Exploring the Influence of Teacher-Student Rapport on Academic Achievement
• Strategies for Promoting Active Listening Skills in the Classroom
• Investigating the Benefits of Using Concept Mapping in Science
• The Role of Classroom Socratic Seminars in Developing Critical Thinking
• Assessing the Impact of Mindful Eating Practices on Student Focus
• Exploring the Effects of Flipped Learning in Physical Education
• Investigating the Benefits of Using Educational Games for Math Fluency
• The Effectiveness of Peer Assessment in Art Classes
• Strategies for Fostering Creativity in Science Education
• Analyzing the Impact of Morning Stretches on Student Alertness
• The Role of Classroom Discussions in Enhancing Social Studies Learning
• Investigating the Benefits of Using Augmented Reality in History Lessons
• Assessing the Impact of Growth Mindset Interventions on Test Anxiety
• Strategies for Incorporating Environmental Education in the Curriculum
• The Effectiveness of Using Conceptual Maps in Literature Analysis
• Exploring the Influence of Classroom Lighting on Reading Comprehension
• Investigating the Benefits of Using Learning Apps for Language Acquisition
• The Role of Classroom Experiments in Science Education
• Analyzing the Impact of Mindful Breathing Exercises on Test Performance
• Strategies for Promoting Collaborative Problem-Solving in Mathematics
• Assessing the Benefits of Mindfulness Practices in Physical Education
• Exploring the Effects of Flexible Seating on Student Collaboration
• Investigating the Influence of Homework Choice on Student Motivation
• The Effectiveness of Using Educational Podcasts for History Learning
• Strategies for Integrating Sustainability Education Across Subjects
• Analyzing the Impact of Mindful Writing Practices on Language Arts Skills
• The Role of Peer Teaching in Enhancing Understanding of Complex Concepts
• Investigating the Benefits of Using Digital Storytelling in Literature Classes
• The Effectiveness of Inquiry-Based Learning in Social Studies
• Assessing the Impact of Student-Led Book Clubs on Reading Engagement
• Strategies for Incorporating Financial Literacy in Mathematics Education
• Exploring the Influence of Classroom Decor on Science Interest
• Investigating the Benefits of Mindful Movement Breaks in the Classroom
• The Role of Reflection Journals in Developing Critical Thinking Skills
• Analyzing the Impact of Virtual Field Trips on Geography Learning
• Strategies for Promoting Inclusive Physical Education Practices
• Assessing the Benefits of Using Educational Board Games for Learning
• The Effectiveness of Mindfulness Practices in Foreign Language Classes
• Investigating the Influence of Classroom Rituals on Academic Rigor
• Exploring the Impact of Student-Led Conferences on Goal Setting
• The Role of Mindful Listening Practices in Improving Communication Skills
• Investigating the Benefits of Using Educational Apps for Science Exploration
• Analyzing the Effectiveness of Socratic Seminars in Philosophy Classes
• Strategies for Promoting Gender Equity in STEM Education
• Assessing the Impact of Classroom Celebrations on Student Well-Being
• The Effectiveness of Using Debate Activities in Language Arts
• Exploring the Influence of Positive Affirmations on Classroom Climate
• Investigating the Benefits of Using Concept Mapping in History Essays
• Strategies for Incorporating Media Literacy in Social Studies
• Analyzing the Impact of Mindful Reflection Practices on Homework Completion
• The Role of Peer Collaboration in Enhancing Artistic Skills
• Investigating the Benefits of Using Educational Apps for Vocabulary Acquisition
• The Effectiveness of Mindful Breathing Exercises in Test Preparation
• Assessing the Impact of Flipped Learning in Science Laboratories
• Strategies for Promoting Civic Engagement in Social Studies Classes
• Exploring the Influence of Outdoor Learning on Scientific Inquiry
• Investigating the Benefits of Using Learning Stations for Literature Analysis
• The Role of Mindful Movement in Improving Physical Education Experiences
• Analyzing the Effectiveness of Virtual Reality in Language Learning
• Strategies for Incorporating Global Perspectives in Geography Education
• Assessing the Impact of Mindful Coloring Activities on Stress Reduction
• The Effectiveness of Using Educational Games for History Review
• Investigating the Benefits of Mindful Breathing Exercises in Mathematics
• Exploring the Influence of Classroom Rituals on Study Habits
• The Role of Mindful Listening Practices in Enhancing Oral Communication
• Analyzing the Impact of Student-Led Workshops on Study Skills
• Strategies for Promoting Critical Media Literacy in Language Arts
• Assessing the Benefits of Mindfulness Practices in Physical Fitness
• The Effectiveness of Using Educational Apps for Music Appreciation
• Investigating the Influence of Classroom Decor on Artistic Expression
• Exploring the Impact of Mindful Eating Practices on Nutrition Awareness
• The Role of Peer Assessment in Improving Science Fair Projects
• Analyzing the Benefits of Mindful Breathing Exercises in History Classes
• Strategies for Promoting Teamwork in Physical Education
• Assessing the Impact of Classroom Celebrations on Cultural Understanding
• The Effectiveness of Using Conceptual Maps in Geography Education
• Investigating the Benefits of Mindful Movement Breaks in Mathematics
• The Role of Mindful Listening Practices in Improving Musical Skills
• Analyzing the Impact of Student-Led Discussions in Philosophy Classes
• Strategies for Incorporating Environmental Stewardship in Science Education
• Assessing the Benefits of Using Educational Games for Physical Fitness
• Exploring the Influence of Classroom Decor on Mathematical Interest
• Investigating the Effectiveness of Virtual Reality in Art Appreciation
• The Role of Mindful Movement in Enhancing Physical Education Experiences
• Strategies for Promoting Cultural Competency in Language Arts
• Analyzing the Impact of Mindful Breathing Exercises on Test Anxiety
• The Effectiveness of Using Educational Apps for Science Exploration
• Investigating the Benefits of Peer Teaching in Mathematics Classes
• Exploring the Influence of Classroom Rituals on Language Arts Skills
• Assessing the Impact of Mindful Coloring Activities on Creative Expression
• The Role of Mindful Listening Practices in Improving Public Speaking
• Investigating the Benefits of Using Learning Stations for History Learning
• The Effectiveness of Peer Assessment in Improving Writing Skills
• Strategies for Promoting Digital Literacy in Geography Education
• Analyzing the Impact of Mindful Eating Practices on Healthy Habits
• Assessing the Benefits of Using Educational Games for Social Studies
• The Effectiveness of Mindful Movement Breaks in Science Education
• Exploring the Influence of Classroom Decor on Writing Motivation
• Investigating the Role of Mindfulness Practices in Mathematics Anxiety
• Strategies for Incorporating Financial Literacy in Social Studies
• Analyzing the Benefits of Using Concept Mapping in Science Labs
• The Role of Mindful Breathing Exercises in Improving Music Education
• Exploring the Impact of Virtual Reality on Foreign Language Acquisition
• Assessing the Benefits of Mindful Movement Breaks in History Classes

Tips for Conducting Action Research in the Classroom

• Setting Clear Research Goals and Objectives: Clearly define the goals and objectives of the research to ensure a focused and purposeful investigation.
• Involving Stakeholders in the Research Process: Engage students, parents, and colleagues in the research process to gather diverse perspectives and insights.
• Collecting and Analyzing Relevant Data: Use a variety of data collection methods, such as surveys, observations, and assessments, to gather comprehensive and meaningful data.
• Reflecting on Findings and Adjusting Teaching Practices: Regularly reflect on the research findings and be open to adjusting teaching practices based on the insights gained from the research.

Case Studies or Examples

Highlighting successful action research projects provides inspiration and practical insights for teachers. 

Sharing case studies or examples of impactful research can demonstrate the positive outcomes and improvements that can result from well-conducted action research.

In conclusion, action research is a valuable tool for educators seeking to enhance their teaching practices and improve student outcomes. 

Selecting the right topics from a list of topics for action research in the classroom is crucial for the success of action research projects, and teachers should consider alignment with goals, relevance to students, feasibility, and potential impact. 

By exploring a diverse range of topics, teachers can embark on meaningful action research journeys, contributing to the continuous improvement of education.

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The Collection of Primary Education Research Topics Aimed To Stimulate Thought

Primary education research encompasses investigations into various aspects of early childhood learning and teaching. Often students find it difficult to create unique dissertation ideas for primary education research topics Therefore, the Research guardian comes as a saviour to help students create a strong foundation for their research journey.

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Starting with a clear research question for primary education dissertation topics and a solid understanding of the existing literature is not child’s play. Students have to face some major challenges that are mentioned below.

The Complexity of Primary Education:

Primary education involves a mix of teaching methodologies, child psychology, curriculum design, and more. This complexity can make it challenging to formulate research questions for various primary education dissertation ideas that capture all relevant aspects.

a) Time and Resources:

Research takes time, and primary education research might require interactions with teachers, parents, and children. This can be time-consuming and might require resources that students might not readily have access to.

b) Language and Communication:

Expressing complex educational concepts in a clear and concise manner can be difficult, especially for students who are not native speakers of the language in which they are conducting research.

c) Narrowing Down a Topic:

The field of primary education is broad, and selecting a specific, manageable research topic can be difficult. Students need to find a balance between a topic that is not too broad and not too narrow.

d) Relevance and Originality:

Coming up with a research question that is both relevant to the field and original can be challenging. Many areas in primary education thesis topics have been extensively studied, so finding a unique angle is important.

e) Data Collection and Analysis:

Designing research studies that involve young children and collecting reliable data can be intricate. Analysing the data appropriately and drawing meaningful conclusions is equally demanding.

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Elementary Education Research Paper Topics

This comprehensive guide to elementary education research paper topics is designed to assist students and researchers in the field of education. The guide provides a wide array of topics divided into ten categories, each with ten unique topics, offering a diverse range of areas to explore in the field of elementary education. Additionally, the guide offers expert advice on how to choose a research topic and how to write an elementary education research paper. The final sections of the guide introduce iResearchNet’s professional writing services and encourage students to take advantage of these services for their research needs.

100 Elementary Education Research Paper Topics

Elementary education is a broad field with numerous areas to explore. Whether you’re interested in teaching methods, curriculum development, educational technology, or the social aspects of elementary education, there’s a research topic for you. Here, we present a comprehensive list of elementary education research paper topics, divided into ten categories. Each category contains ten unique topics, offering a diverse range of areas to explore in your research.

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1. Teaching Methods and Strategies

• The effectiveness of Montessori methods in elementary education.
• The role of play in learning in the early years.
• The impact of differentiated instruction on student achievement.
• The benefits and challenges of cooperative learning in the elementary classroom.
• The role of feedback in promoting student learning.
• The impact of teaching strategies on students’ motivation.
• The effectiveness of inquiry-based learning in science education.
• The role of storytelling in teaching literacy skills.
• The impact of technology on teaching and learning in the elementary classroom.
• The role of creativity in teaching and learning.

2. Curriculum and Instruction

• The impact of curriculum design on student learning.
• The role of interdisciplinary teaching in elementary education.
• The effectiveness of project-based learning in teaching science.
• The role of cultural relevance in curriculum design.
• The impact of standardized testing on curriculum and instruction.
• The role of critical thinking in the elementary curriculum.
• The effectiveness of integrating arts in the curriculum.
• The impact of curriculum alignment on student achievement.
• The role of experiential learning in the elementary curriculum.
• The challenges of teaching social studies in the elementary classroom.

3. Educational Technology

• The impact of digital technology on student learning.
• The role of educational games in teaching math.
• The effectiveness of using iPads in the classroom.
• The role of virtual reality in teaching science.
• The impact of technology on student engagement.
• The challenges of integrating technology in the classroom.
• The role of technology in promoting collaborative learning.
• The effectiveness of using technology in teaching reading skills.
• The impact of technology on teacher-student communication.
• The role of technology in personalized learning.

4. Social Aspects of Elementary Education

• The impact of classroom climate on student learning.
• The role of social-emotional learning in elementary education.
• The effectiveness of character education programs.
• The role of peer relationships in student learning.
• The impact of school culture on student achievement.
• The challenges of teaching diversity and inclusion in the elementary classroom.
• The role of student-teacher relationships in student learning.
• The effectiveness of anti-bullying programs in elementary schools.
• The impact of parental involvement on student achievement.
• The role of community partnerships in promoting student learning.

5. Special Education

• The effectiveness of inclusive education in the elementary classroom.
• The role of individualized education programs in supporting students with special needs.
• The impact of teacher training on the success of inclusive education.
• The challenges of teaching students with learning disabilities.
• The role of assistive technology in supporting students with special needs.
• The effectiveness of earlyintervention programs for students with special needs.
• The impact of classroom accommodations on the academic success of students with special needs.
• The role of collaboration between general and special education teachers.
• The effectiveness of behavior management strategies for students with emotional and behavioral disorders.
• The impact of special education policies on student outcomes.

6. Early Childhood Education

• The impact of early childhood education on academic success.
• The role of play in early childhood education.
• The effectiveness of early literacy programs.
• The role of parental involvement in early childhood education.
• The impact of early childhood education on social skills development.
• The challenges of teaching math in early childhood education.
• The role of creativity in early childhood education.
• The effectiveness of early intervention programs.
• The impact of early childhood education on cognitive development.
• The role of teacher-child relationships in early childhood education.

7. Educational Policies and Reforms

• The impact of No Child Left Behind on elementary education.
• The role of Common Core State Standards in curriculum development.
• The effectiveness of school choice policies.
• The role of educational policies in promoting equity in education.
• The impact of teacher evaluation policies on teaching and learning.
• The challenges of implementing educational reforms in elementary schools.
• The role of educational policies in promoting teacher quality.
• The effectiveness of policies aimed at reducing the achievement gap.
• The impact of educational funding policies on student achievement.
• The role of educational policies in promoting parental involvement.

8. Teacher Education and Professional Development

• The impact of teacher education programs on teacher effectiveness.
• The role of ongoing professional development in promoting teacher quality.
• The effectiveness of mentorship programs for novice teachers.
• The role of reflective practice in teacher professional development.
• The impact of teacher beliefs on teaching practices.
• The challenges of teaching in high-needs schools.
• The role of teacher collaboration in professional development.
• The effectiveness of teacher induction programs.
• The impact of teacher leadership on school improvement.
• The role of teacher autonomy in promoting job satisfaction.

9. Classroom Management

• The impact of classroom management strategies on student behavior.
• The role of positive reinforcement in promoting appropriate behavior.
• The effectiveness of classroom rules and procedures.
• The role of teacher-student relationships in classroom management.
• The impact of classroom environment on student learning.
• The challenges of managing disruptive behavior.
• The role of behavior management strategies in promoting a positive classroom climate.
• The effectiveness of conflict resolution strategies in the classroom.
• The impact of classroom management on student engagement.
• The role of classroom routines in promoting student responsibility.

10. Assessment and Evaluation

• The impact of formative assessment on student learning.
• The role of feedback in student assessment.
• The effectiveness of performance-based assessment.
• The role of self-assessment in promoting student learning.
• The impact of standardized testing on teaching and learning.
• The challenges of assessing student learning in diverse classrooms.
• The role of assessment in curriculum planning.
• The effectiveness of portfolio assessment.
• The impact of grading policies on student motivation.
• The role of assessment in identifying students at risk of academic failure.

This comprehensive list of elementary education research paper topics provides a wide range of areas to explore. Whether you’re interested in teaching methods, curriculum development, educational technology, or the social aspects of elementary education, there’s a research topic for you. Remember, the best research topic is one that you’re genuinely interested in and passionate about.

Elementary Education Research Guide

Elementary education, also known as primary education, is a crucial stage in the educational journey of a child. It is during these formative years that children acquire foundational skills in areas such as reading, writing, mathematics, science, and social studies. Additionally, they develop critical thinking skills, creativity, and social competencies that are essential for their overall growth and development.

Elementary education serves as the building block for all future learning. The experiences and knowledge gained during these years can significantly influence a child’s attitude towards learning, their academic success, and their lifelong learning habits. Therefore, it is essential to ensure that children receive quality education during these years.

Research in elementary education is of paramount importance. It helps educators, policymakers, and stakeholders understand the best practices, methodologies, and strategies to enhance learning outcomes in primary education. It also provides insights into the challenges faced in elementary education and how to address them effectively.

Elementary education research paper topics can span a wide range of areas, including teaching methods, learning styles, the impact of technology on learning, educational policies, classroom management, and many more. Choosing a research topic in this field requires careful consideration of various factors, including your interests, the relevance of the topic, and the availability of resources.

In the following sections, we provide a comprehensive list of elementary education research paper topics, expert advice on choosing a topic and writing a research paper, and information about iResearchNet’s professional writing services. Whether you are a student embarking on your first research project or a seasoned researcher looking for new areas to explore, this guide is designed to assist you in your research journey.

Choosing Elementary Education Research Paper Topics

Choosing a research topic is a critical step in the research process. The topic you select will guide your study, influence the complexity and relevance of your work, and determine how engaged you are throughout the process. In the field of elementary education, there are numerous intriguing topics that can be explored. Here are some expert tips to assist you in this process:

• Understanding Your Interests: The first step in choosing a research topic is to understand your interests. What areas of elementary education fascinate you the most? Are you interested in how teaching methods influence student learning, or are you more intrigued by the role of technology in the classroom? Reflecting on these questions can help you narrow down your options and choose a topic that truly engages you. Remember, research is a time-consuming process, and your interest in the topic will keep you motivated.
• Evaluating the Scope of the Topic: Once you have identified your areas of interest, the next step is to evaluate the scope of potential elementary education research paper topics. A good research topic should be neither too broad nor too narrow. If it’s too broad, you may struggle to cover all aspects of the topic effectively. If it’s too narrow, you may have difficulty finding enough information to support your research. Try to choose a topic that is specific enough to be manageable but broad enough to have sufficient resources.
• Assessing Available Resources and Data: Before finalizing a topic, it’s important to assess the available resources and data. Are there enough academic sources, such as books, journal articles, and reports, that you can use for your research? Is there accessible data that you can analyze if your research requires it? A preliminary review of literature and data can save you from choosing a topic with limited resources.
• Considering the Relevance and Applicability of the Topic: Another important factor to consider is the relevance and applicability of the topic. Is the topic relevant to current issues in elementary education? Can the findings of your research be applied in real-world settings? Choosing a relevant and applicable topic can increase the impact of your research and make it more interesting for your audience.
• Seeking Advice: Don’t hesitate to seek advice from your professors, peers, or other experts in the field. They can provide valuable insights, suggest resources, and help you refine your topic. Discussing your ideas with others can also help you see different perspectives and identify potential issues that you may not have considered.
• Flexibility: Finally, be flexible. Research is a dynamic process, and it’s okay to modify your topic as you delve deeper into your study. You may discover new aspects of the topic that are more interesting or find that some aspects are too challenging to explore due to constraints. Being flexible allows you to adapt your research to these changes and ensure that your study is both feasible and engaging.

Remember, choosing a research topic is not a decision to be taken lightly. It requires careful consideration and planning. However, with these expert tips, you can navigate this process more effectively and choose an elementary education research paper topic that not only meets your academic requirements but also fuels your passion for learning.

How to Write an Elementary Education Research Paper

Writing a research paper is a significant academic task that requires careful planning, thorough research, and meticulous writing. In the field of elementary education, this process can be particularly challenging due to the complexity and diversity of the field. However, with the right approach and strategies, you can write a compelling and insightful research paper. Here are some expert tips to guide you through this process:

• Understanding the Structure of a Research Paper: A typical research paper includes an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion. The introduction presents your research question and its significance. The literature review provides an overview of existing research related to your topic. The methodology explains how you conducted your research. The results section presents your findings, and the discussion interprets these findings in the context of your research question. Finally, the conclusion summarizes your research and suggests areas for future research.
• Developing a Strong Thesis Statement: Your thesis statement is the central argument of your research paper. It should be clear, concise, and debatable. A strong thesis statement guides your research and helps your readers understand the purpose of your paper.
• Conducting Thorough Research: Before you start writing, conduct a thorough review of the literature related to your topic. This will help you understand the current state of research in your area, identify gaps in the literature, and position your research within this context. Use academic databases to find relevant books, journal articles, and other resources. Remember to evaluate the credibility of your sources and take detailed notes to help you when writing.
• Writing and Revising Drafts: Start writing your research paper by creating an outline based on the structure of a research paper. This will help you organize your thoughts and ensure that you cover all necessary sections. Write a first draft without worrying too much about perfection. Focus on getting your ideas down first. Then, revise your draft to improve clarity, coherence, and argumentation. Make sure each paragraph has a clear topic sentence and supports your thesis statement.
• Proper Citation and Avoiding Plagiarism: Always cite your sources properly to give credit to the authors whose work you are building upon and to avoid plagiarism. Familiarize yourself with the citation style required by your institution or discipline, such as APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, or Harvard. There are many citation tools available online that can help you with this.
• Seeking Feedback: Don’t hesitate to seek feedback on your drafts from your professors, peers, or writing centers at your institution. They can provide valuable insights and help you improve your paper.
• Proofreading: Finally, proofread your paper to check for any grammatical errors, typos, or inconsistencies in formatting. A well-written, error-free paper makes a good impression on your readers and enhances the credibility of your research.
• Incorporating Elementary Education Concepts: When writing an elementary education research paper, it’s crucial to accurately incorporate elementary education concepts. Make sure you understand these concepts thoroughly and can explain them clearly in your paper. Use examples where appropriate to illustrate these concepts.
• Analyzing and Interpreting Data: If your research involves data analysis, be sure to explain your analysis process and interpret the results in a way that is understandable to your readers. Discuss the implications of your findings for the broader field of elementary education.
• Discussing Real-World Applications: Elementary education is a practical field with many real-world applications. Discuss how your research relates to these applications. This can make your research more interesting and relevant to your readers.

Remember, writing a research paper is a process that requires time, effort, and patience. Don’t rush through it.Take the time to plan your research, conduct thorough research, write carefully, and revise your work. With these expert tips, you can write an elementary education research paper that is insightful, well-structured, and contributes to the field of elementary education.

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Technology education in primary schools: addressing teachers’ perceptions, perceived barriers, and needs

• Open access
• Published: 30 April 2023
• Volume 34 , pages 485–503, ( 2024 )

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• Christina Ioanna Pappa   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5484-6528 1 ,
• Despoina Georgiou 2 &
• Daniel Pittich 1  

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In primary schools, the benefits of incorporating technology in curricula have been addressed by several studies; however, technology integration as experienced by teachers is often overlooked. Teachers’ lack of confidence teaching STEM and technology subjects, their lack of appropriate preparation along with unclear curricula frameworks in technology education, and the ambiguity of the definition of technology education have scarcely been discussed in the literature. This study explored teachers’ experiences with the current integration of technology and identified challenges to the integration of technology and areas where support is needed. Semi-structured interviews were used to collect data and were analyzed using content analysis. Content knowledge, proper training, and professional development programs on the integration of technology along with the need for clear and unanimous curricula standards have been perceived as important factors in the integration of technology education. Participants also acknowledged the need for the establishment of teaching communities wherein they can learn from one another. Our study discusses implications for research and practice and provides a knowledge base for the establishment of well-structured professional development courses based on teacher needs.

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Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Introduction

Although the impact of technology in all areas of society continues to increase, the subject of technology in general education is often not given sufficient attention or emphasis compared to other STEM subjects (i.e., science, technology, engineering, and mathematics), such as mathematics and science (Bozick et al., 2017 ; de Vries, 2019 ; Mammes et al., 2019 ). In the public mind, technology is often only related to computer science and aspects of the integration of technology into e-learning environments or the usage of online tools (Davies, 2011 ; Firat, 2017 ; Wender, 2004 ). In this study, we adopt the definition from Ropohl ( 2009 ) and the German word Technik (technical), which refers to technology as a tool developed by humans for a purpose or use, and more specifically to technology education as working and understanding about the function and design processes of artifacts (Firat, 2017 ; Ropohl, 1991 ). Defining technology and understanding the inconsistencies in definitions of technology are not without controversy in the literature (Rossouw et al., 2011 ). Several studies have discussed and emphasized the challenge in developing clearly stated curricula standards, along with appropriate teacher training and professional development programs (TPDs) to enhance the integration of technology in education (Blömeke et al., 2010 ; Keskin, 2017 ; Mammes et al., 2016 ; Rasinen et al., 2009 ). The discrepancies observed among curricula, teacher training, and TPDs may also influence teachers’ technology content knowledge and confidence in integrating technology-related subjects into their teaching practices (Mammes et al., 2012 ; Rohaan, 2009 ).

It is evident that STEM integration is highly related to teachers’ perceived competence, as well as their valuation of and readiness to teach STEM subjects (Margot & Kettler, 2019 ). Teachers who do not feel confident about their STEM content knowledge or are uncertain about the implementation processes necessary to successfully teach STEM courses may find it difficult to integrate STEM and technology-related topics into their classrooms (Margot & Kettler, 2019 ; McMullin & Reeve, 2014 ). The integration of technology-related topics in the classroom is often considered more complicated compared to science and mathematics because teachers are uncertain about the nature and aims of technology education (Çengel et al., 2019 ; Gibson, 2009 ; Suwarma & Kumano, 2019 ; Wang et al., 2011 ). To successfully promote technology education, establish common curriculum standards, and qualify and support in-service and pre-service teacher professional development efforts, it is first essential to investigate the current status quo of the integration of technology, explore teachers’ readiness to teach technology, and identify the challenges of and needs for supporting the integration of technology. In detail, our study explores primary school teachers’ technology-related integration practices, sheds light on the value of technology education as perceived by primary school teachers, and identifies perceived challenges and needs for support to establish evidence-based solutions to promote and enhance in-service and pre-service teachers’ technology education and teaching practices.

Theoretical background

• Technology education

The influence of technology is steadily increasing and has become relevant in all areas of our society, including education (Mammes, 2014 ; Mammes et al., 2019 ). However, the subject of technology in general education is often not given sufficient attention or emphasis, especially compared to other STEM subjects such as mathematics and science (Bozick et al., 2017 ; de Vries, 2019 ). Technology is frequently related only to informatics, computer science, digital tools (Davies, 2011 ; Firat, 2017 ; Wender, 2004 ), and sometimes engineering because the aims and the implementation processes of these subjects cannot be easily distinguished from one another (Boeve-de Pauw et al., 2020 ; Rossouw et al., 2011 ).

As past studies have revealed, the integration of technology is essential for the following reasons. A lack of adequate technology education in childhood may result in students’ lack of self-confidence when dealing with technology, which in turn may create adults who are not capable of functioning and contributing to the development of a technology-driven society (Jakobs & Ziefle, 2010 ; Mammes et al., 2016 ). Additionally, the integration of technology during primary school level is considered the most effective time to counteract gender roles and motivational differences in STEM subjects (Mammes et al., 2016 ; Wright et al., 2018 ). At this age, children’s understanding of social role assignments arise, and therefore, actions should be taken to avoid solidifying stereotypical beliefs that girls are not technologically capable before they enter the secondary schooling (Blümer, 2019 ).

This study adopts the definition of technology used by one of the most fundamental research of Ropohl ( 2009 ) and the German word Technik , which is defined as the material and the operational framework of artifacts and their usage, emphasizing the role of technology as a tool developed by humans for a purpose or use. In this study, technology education, also called technical education, is defined as the technological processes related to the function and design processes of artifacts, as well as the solutions for identified technological problems in social and cultural contexts (Firat, 2017 ; Ropohl, 1991 ). Thereby, the integration of technology does not refer to e-learning or online tools but to the integration of technology-related topics in teaching practice, such as the function of everyday electrical appliances, for example a toaster, or a mixer.

As past studies have stated, there is a discrepancy between the aims and understanding of technology education that can also be reflected in curriculum, not only among different countries but also between different provinces within one country (Keskin, 2017 ; Mammes et al., 2016 ; Rasinen et al., 2009 ). In a few countries, such as New Zealand and Sweden, technology education has its own place in the curriculum as a primary subject (Milne, 2013 ; Sultan et al., 2020 ), but in other countries, technology education is only briefly mentioned as a subtopic of a science-related subject, such as physics (Rasinen et al., 2009 ). The absence of standardized frameworks for defining, structuring, and establishing the goals of technology education in primary schools contributes to the difficulties faced in integrating and implementing technology in the classroom (Rasinen et al., 2009 ; Wammes et al., 2022 ). Such discrepancies are particularly pertinent in several European countries, such as Germany, Austria, Estonia, and Finland, where we observed a lack of unified curriculum frameworks related to the aims, integration, and implementation in instruction of technology education (Rasinen et al., 2009 ).

For instance, in Germany, there are no statewide educational standards, and each state has its own curriculum—meaning that the scope, standards, and time devoted to technology education may differ even among the schools within the same state (Koch et al., 2019 ; Mammes et al., 2012 , 2016 ). The lack of a unified curriculum along with the lack of attention given to technology education can be easily understood, as technology is often included as a subtopic of the subject “general science,” which differs in each state (Koch et al., 2019 ; Mammes et al., 2016 ). The lack of clearly defined objectives and inconsistent implementation processes, along with discrepancies in the curriculum across different states in Germany, has also led to inconsistencies in teacher-training efforts related to the subject of technology (Blömeke et al., 2010 ; KMK, 2008 ). For example, in the state of Bavaria, where the current study was conducted, technology-related topics are not compulsory in pre-service teachers’ education—instead, they are elective and included under the broader subject of “natural sciences and technology” (Blömeke et al., 2010 ). Thus, pre-service teachers’ content knowledge about technology education depends mainly on their subject selection.

The inconsistencies among the curriculum and the lack of a unified teacher-training program may have a negative impact on teachers’ competence and confidence when they are asked to integrate technology into their teaching practice (Mammes et al., 2012 ; Möller et al., 1996 ; Rohaan, 2009 ). To promote students’ positive attitudes and enhance their personal skills (e.g., problem-solving, critical thinking, design and construction skills) toward technology education, it is essential for teachers to have a clear understanding of technology and to feel confident in their own abilities to teach the subject (Davies, 2000 ; De Vries, 2000 ).

Teachers’ perceptions of the integration of technology education

Research and literature on technology education in primary schools is a growing field of interest, which is often viewed only in the context of STEM and not technology education. This is mainly because of the inconsistencies observed among the curriculum and the lack of teacher-training programs targeting primary school teachers’ technology-oriented professional development. Technology and STEM integration is significantly related to teachers’ training, along with teachers’ perceptions of their competences, abilities, and readiness to teach technology subjects (Margot & Kettler, 2019 ). Teachers’ perceived competences could influence their readiness to engage with and integrate technology-oriented subjects in their teaching curriculum (Bell, 2016 ; Margot & Kettler, 2019 ). Teachers’ perceptions of the importance of STEM play a significant role in their own professional development as STEM-educated teachers (Bell, 2016 ) and largely affects their intention to implement technology-related subjects into their curriculum (Margot & Kettler, 2019 ; McMullin & Reeve, 2014 ). Additionally, teachers perceived that STEM and technology integration could influence and support their students’ development, enhancing students’ critical thinking processes about current and future issues, as well as their scientific literacy and learning outcomes (Gibson, 2009 ; Margot & Kettler, 2019 ).

Several studies have reported that teachers do not feel confident about their content knowledge related to STEM subjects and face challenges when they need to implement and work with technological equipment in their schools (Landwehr et al., 2021 ; Möller, 2010 ; Rohaan, 2009 ; Yu et al., 2021 ). This finding was also evident in a recent study from Suwarma and Kumano ( 2019 ), where teachers perceived the integration of science and mathematics as less challenging and complicated than the integration of engineering and technology. In comparison to other subjects, teachers often do not clearly understand the nature of technology education, and it is, therefore, challenging to integrate technology related-topics into their teaching practices (Çengel et al., 2019 ; Gibson, 2009 ; Wang et al., 2011 ).

The review by Margot and Kettler ( 2019 ) classified potential barriers in STEM integration according to six categories—namely, pedagogical barriers, curricular challenges, structural challenges, student concerns, assessment concerns, and teacher supports. To overcome the pedagogical challenges, teachers need to support a shift to student-led instruction environments, which can be demanding given the heterogeneity in students’ cognitive abilities observed in most classrooms (Margot & Kettler, 2019 ; Park et al., 2017 ). Curricular and structural challenges refer to the inflexibility of students’ schedules and curricular plans, along with the lack of financial support and technology resources in schools (Margot & Kettler, 2019 ). Several studies have reported that the broad and undefined curriculum standards are often perceived by teachers as some of the main challenges in integrating technology subjects in their classrooms (Chikasanda et al., 2011 ; Yu et al., 2021 ).

Teachers’ concerns about assessment refer to the lack of quality assessment processes, planning time, and content knowledge about STEM-related topics (Hammack & Ivey, 2019 ; Margot & Kettler, 2019 ). The study by Hammack and Ivey ( 2019 ) reported that teachers perceived that their lack of pre-and in-service training affected their background knowledge in technology; additionally, teaching processes were identified as the most important challenges that must be addressed in facilitating engineering and technology education. To support teachers’ efforts to develop and enhance their content knowledge in technology research, the implementation of structured and clear curriculum frameworks with specific problem-based tasks that can be easily implemented in classrooms has been recommended (Mammes et al., 2012 ; Rohaan, 2009 ). In addition, professional trainings and opportunities for further learning to enhance teachers’ competencies in technology may significantly affect teachers’ confidence in STEM and technology integration (Mammes et al., 2012 ; Margot & Kettler, 2019 ; Rohaan, 2009 ). Teachers’ professional development efforts may prove especially valuable in improving teachers’ motivation and confidence in teaching and integrating engineering and technology activities into their classroom instruction (Thibaut et al., 2019 ; Yoon et al., 2018 ).

Present study

The importance of the development of both teachers’ and students’ technological skills and engagement in technology education has already been discussed in teacher-education research (e.g., Boeve-de Pauw et al., 2020 ; Rossouw et al., 2011 ; Sherman et al., 2010 ; Wright et al., 2018 ). However, technology-related topics and professional development efforts are not yet being properly introduced in pre- and in-service teacher education (Blömeke et al., 2010 ; Bozick et al., 2017 ; Mammes et al., 2016 ). To successfully promote technology education, establish curriculum standards, and properly train in- and pre-service teachers, it is important to first identify the extent to which technology education is taught, the current problems and perceived barriers in the integration of technology practices, and how competent and confident teachers feel regarding the integration of technology.

Acknowledging the lack of research in this field and aiming to hear teachers’ voices, this study aimed to shed light on primary school teachers’ technology-related implementation practices and valuation of technology education, as well as perceived challenges and areas where support is needed. We sought to explore teachers’ needs and perceptions of technology education to provide evidence-based solutions that support the technology education of in- and pre-service teachers and, in the long term, enhance teachers’ and students’ technological skills and engagement in technology education. Hence, the following research questions are addressed:

What are primary school teachers’ perceptions about the value of, their competencies in, and the support they receive when teaching technology-related subjects?

What is the current integration of technology-related subjects in primary schools, and what are the challenges/barriers primary school teachers face when teaching technology-related subjects?

Research design

This study utilized an exploratory qualitative methodology to investigate primary school teachers’ perspectives on the integration of technology-related subjects, an area that had not been fully explored in previous research. A combination of deductive and inductive analysis was implemented, with deductive codes used as a starting point and then modified, expanded, or refined based on the inductive insights gained from the data. The main codes were generated based on previous research on teachers’ perceptions of STEM subjects (Margot & Kettler, 2019 ), and additional codes were generated based on the data and participants’ answers. This holistic approach allowed for the analysis of the data considering both established concepts and emerging themes to gain a comprehensive understanding of the research phenomenon, capturing both known and unknown aspects (Brenner, 2006 ; Korstjens & Moser, 2018 ; Schreier, 2012 ).

Semi-structured interviews were conducted to support the research approach, as they provided a balanced and flexible way to adapt interview questions based on participants’ responses, delve deeper into specific areas of interest, and explore new emerging themes or ideas that may not have been anticipated in advance (Brenner, 2006 ; Schreier, 2012 ). The interviews were conducted face-to-face with teachers from different primary schools in Germany, who were selected through purposive sampling. The interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim, allowing for a thorough and accurate analysis of the data.

Participants

The participants for this study were 21 public primary school teachers working in the state of Bavaria, Germany. The sample consisted of 19 female and two male teachers (see Table 1 ). The participants’ average teaching experience was 7.5 years ( M Years of experience  = 7.50, SD Years of experience  = 5.60). Ten participants were under 30 years old, seven participants were between 30 and 40 years old, three participants were between the ages of 41 and 50 years, and one participant was above 50 years old. In keeping with ethical guidelines, we used codes and pseudonyms to protect the privacy and anonymity of the participants. All participants were recruited via their public email addresses and participated voluntarily in the study. Additionally, they received an invitation email and provided their consent to participate and be recorded in an online interview study.

The semi-structured interviews consisted of four parts (Kallio et al., 2016 ). In the first part, participants were asked about their perceptions regarding the importance of technology integration in their lessons (e.g., “How important is it for you to integrate technology-related topics into your teaching?”). The second part focused on their perceived competencies in integrating technology topics in their lessons (e.g., “How competent do you feel in your ability to integrate technology-related topics into your teaching?”). The third part focused on their current level of integration of technology topics (e.g., “To what extent have you integrated technology-related topics into your teaching in the past year?”) and their perceived barriers to technology integration (e.g., “Which barriers do you think exist in terms of technology integration?”). Finally, participants were asked about their perceptions regarding the support they receive and aspects that could influence perceived support for technology integration (e.g., “To what extent do you feel supported when it comes to technology integration?”).

The semi-structured interviews followed a formal interview protocol, but the four interviewers were able to ask follow-up questions when needed to obtain further details from the participants. Expert feedback was obtained from seven researchers in the field of technology education on the initial interview protocol; after the interview protocol was adapted, two think-aloud sessions with primary school teachers were conducted with two primary school teachers in order to refine the questions. The interviews were conducted in German in July 2021 and lasted from 20 to 30 min each.

Data analysis

Content analysis was used to examine the interviews (Schreier, 2012 ). The analysis was conducted using the MAXQDA Software 2022. Concept- and data-driven strategies were used to create the coding frame (Schreier, 2012 ). Based on the literature and existing theories (Margot & Kettler, 2019 ) about the perceptions of teachers regarding technology integration, the coders defined the main categories. After reading and evaluating all interviews, additional categories were included in the main coding frame (see Table 2 ).

The interviews were transcribed verbatim (McLellan et al., 2003 ). To ensure the credibility of the study, two coders used the same coding frame to analyze the interviews, independently of each other (Korstjens & Moser, 2018 ). To verify the presence of categories and ensure the trustworthiness of the coding, the second coder reviewed and recoded 20% of the transcripts (O’Connor & Joffe, 2020 ). The results revealed that there was excellent agreement between the two raters (K = 0.82 [95% CI, 0.300 to 0.886], p  < 0.02) (McHugh, 2012 ; O’Connor & Joffe, 2020 ).

The results are presented according to the research questions. First, we describe the current integration of technology education in primary schools, along with teachers’ perceptions about the challenges faced when integrating technology into their teaching practice. We also explore primary school teachers’ perceptions of the value of technology, their perceived competencies, and the potential reasoning attached to the importance of technology integration. In the last results section, we present the teachers’ needs for support in the integration of technology into their lessons.

Primary School Teachers’ Perceptions Regarding Values, Competencies, and Support Received in the Integration of Technology

Value of integrating technology.

Several aspects were addressed by the teachers regarding the value of the integration of technology in primary schools. After carefully reading the interview transcripts, five subcategories were identified: the everyday usage of technology, the need for technology in the future, students’ early contact with technology, existing gender stereotypes regarding technology, and the lack of technology in curriculum.

Nearly all interviewees (20 out of 21) discussed the importance of the integration of technology in primary schools. Seven primary school teachers expressed that the integration of technology is essential because of its everyday usage and presence in our lives. Diana said: “I think it’s becoming more and more important for children, because technology plays a major role everywhere in our everyday lives and it’s a shame if you use it all the time with different appliances, but I don’t really know what’s behind it and how it all works.”

Five interviewees discussed the value of the integration of technology and its importance in the future. Daniel mentioned: “Because I think that’s the future, our whole life will be based even more on technology, and if the children don’t learn that early on, I’d be afraid that they’ll just lose the connection a little bit.” The aspect of early contact with the topic of technology was also addressed by three other participants. For example, Eva said: “I think that the earlier the students are confronted with such technical aspects and processes, the sooner this inhibition towards the subject decreases…if they are confronted with it and come into contact with it at an early stage.” Three other interviewees added comments regarding the future need for technology and aspects of existing gender stereotypes. Natalie noted:

Because I simply believe that we will need people later on who work and research in these areas and are interested in them. And I think at least I see it as my job to open this window for the children and to make it appealing to them and perhaps also to take away the fear of such technical topics, where many also hesitate. Or, as they say, it’s always a girl–boy issue…these gender-specific narratives…that is always so stereotypically…as a teacher I think is important to somehow break that up, so that the girls simply have the confidence that they can also be good in technology topics….

Additionally, three teachers highlighted the presence of technology both in our current and future everyday lives in contrast to the lack of the integration of technology in the primary school curriculum. Nina expressed the following: “Because our world is becoming more and more technology based, I think it’s hard to ignore technology now and although it’s so essential in everyday life, there is still lack of frameworks, knowledge, and integration in schools and in the education system….”

Teachers’ perceived competencies in integrating technology into their teaching practice

Regarding teachers’ perceived competencies in integrating technology-related topics into their lessons, the following eight categories were identified regarding the reasons for their lack of perceived competence: lack of knowledge, inhibitions about their competencies, lack of studying technology subjects during their teacher education, lack of time, complexity of the topic, their own school time experience, lack of teaching experience, and lack of interest (see Fig.  1 ). Additionally, two further categories were identified as reasons for the teachers’ higher perceived competencies: their own motivation and their previous studies.

Primary School Teachers’ Reasons For Their Low Perceived Competence Regarding the Integration of Technology

Fifteen interviewees expressed that they did not feel competent integrating technology topics, and 14 said they felt this way due to a lack of knowledge regarding the subject. For example, Diana said: “Because I have the feeling that I have a rather superficial knowledge of most technological things, and when it really goes into depth, even to explain why or how an appliance is designed or function in detail, I lack the knowledge.” Two other aspects that were often mentioned by the participants were their inhibitions about their competencies (six participants) and the lack of technology-related subjects studied during their own education (five participants). Eva mentioned the following: “So, I would just attribute it a little bit to my own studies and the not much training, so to speak, and since I haven’t learned very much about it in a didactic way, how I can teach it to the children.” Another teacher, Stela, added: “Many feel so insecure and therefore do not want to pass this on to the children…when I am already unconfident myself, then I can’t teach the topic to the children either….”

Additionally, four interviewees explained that a lack of time and their own school experience may also influence their competence in integrating technology. For instance, Natalie stated: “In practice it fails because you have no time to invest to educate myself to teach this subject…and I think because I have never experienced this technology lesson myself…” Three other interviewees mentioned their lack of teaching experience and of interest in technology-related topics. Laura said: “Because so far it’s definitely not an area that has greatly interested me. And at the end of the day, it’s the same for me as it is for the children, I like to learn what I’m interested in.”

However, six female participants stated that they did feel relatively competent in integrating technology topics into their lessons. Five of them expressed that their perceived competence could be attributed to their own motivation about the subject. For example, Anna mentioned: “I think once I understand that, I put my heart into it and then I’m competent to bring it to the students.” Another interviewee, Petra, added: “Because I me myself find technology-related topics most interesting and exciting, I can also discuss them in depth with the children.” Additionally, two teachers expressed that technology was a part of their own studies and therefore they felt competent integrating this subject into their lessons.

Teachers’ perceived support in the integration of technology education

We identified four categories of aspects influencing primary school teachers’ perceived support in the integration of technology: materials and equipment, extra personnel, the addition of technology topics into their studies, as well as the addition of technology topics to the curricula. Regarding possible types of support, two categories were determined based on teachers’ answers: external providers, as well as colleagues and the teaching community. The majority of the primary school teachers (15 out of 21) expressed that they did not feel supported in integrating technology-related topics into their lessons. Five teachers mentioned that they felt supported, while one interviewee indicated that she did not know where or from whom to ask for support.

According to the participants, the following could influence their perceived support: the materials and equipment available to plan their lessons (four participants), having a second teacher in the classroom when including hands-on activities (two participants), and the inclusion of technology topics in their studies and in the curriculum (two participants). For instance, Diana said: “So now in general through my studies and so in school and based on the schoolbook, I honestly don’t feel great support there” Another interviewee, Elisa, added:

Also, from the schoolbooks and the curriculum, we are also not necessarily supported, because technology subjects do not occupy a large area. You don’t really have the time, because there are so many topics that you have to teach that you can’t really deal with technology topics for longer periods.

Regarding the parties that could provide support, 11 teachers said that they mostly receive support through external providers, such as professional development programs. Stela expressed: “So, in the last few years it’s been getting better, because there are also external providers approaching the schools… We have also continued to network with further trainings and professional development programs.” Nine participants mentioned that they could ask and get support from their colleagues and teaching community. For example, Kate said: “But I’m sure that there are also people in the community who are a bit more technologically competent and have more know-how, and that I can ask them about it.”

Primary school teachers’ perceptions of the current integration of and barriers to technology education

Current integration.

The primary school teachers indicated four reasons for the low technology integration in their teaching practices: the pandemic, the broad curriculum, time, and safety concerns while working with technology related tasks. Seventeen interviewees expressed that during the last year, the level of integration of technology subjects was relatively low. Eleven teachers mentioned that one of the reasons for the low level of technology integration was the pandemic necessitating distance or virtual education. Additionally, seven teachers noted that the reason for low technology integration is the broad and undefined curriculum standards. For example, Maria said: “It is such a difficult thing, because in the curriculum it doesn’t say exactly what and which topics have to be dealt with, but rather which areas should be covered.” Paul added: “We have always postponed it, because it is unfortunately only a small part of the curriculum.”

Two interviewees also mentioned the unclear curriculum teaching time frames for the subject. Maria noted: “The curriculum is always designed for two years, so in the first and second grade, you should have worked through these six areas, but of course there are areas that take a longer period of time and areas that take a shorter period of time, so how intensively you deal with them varies from teacher to teacher.” Furthermore, two teachers noted safety concerns while working with technology related tasks, such as usage of tools and cables, electricity safety rules etc. Lena mentioned the following: “In general, safety is an important aspect in technology lessons, because somehow there are also possible dangers.” Nevertheless, four teachers said that during the last year, the level of technology integration in their classrooms was relatively high.

Existing Barriers

The participants mentioned several existing barriers to the integration of technology in primary schools. After carefully reading the transcripts, the perceived barriers were identified, and 14 subcategories were determined (see Fig.  2 ). Primary school teachers noted that the most perceived barrier was the lack of materials and school equipment (16 participants), the lack of knowledge regarding technology related topics (nine participants), safety aspects (eight participants), time restrictions (eight participants), and students’ heterogeneity (seven participants). Regarding the lack of materials and safety concerns, Diana mentioned the following: “For any hands-on approach…it’s also often difficult that really the whole class does that and where the materials come from and what can you really do with the kids, what’s safe…there are things I don’t dare do because, I’m alone with twenty children and I think it’s too dangerous…” Another interviewee, Laura, emphasized the lack of teachers’ knowledge and training in technology education:

I believe we lack the foundation and the necessary training…So I think I’m like a lot of teachers out there, who aren’t that familiar with technology and therefore always deal with it quickly, or just take the things you have in the book and do it in good conscience, but ultimately don’t have a deeper understanding of it.

Primary School Teachers’ Perceived Barriers Regarding the Integration of Technology

The primary school teachers also considered the following to be barriers: the size of the classrooms (five participants), the broad curriculum (four participants), teachers’ own inhibitions and lack of confidence regarding technology (four participants), the size of the teaching rooms (three participants), their own interest and educational background (one participant). The issues of time constraints and difficulties regarding the curriculum were addressed by Paul: “We only have very limited time, because our curriculum has many different areas, many of which are social.” Another interviewee, Laura, emphasized the perceived inhibitions and lack of teachers’ confidence about the subject of technology: “I think the case with many teachers is that with the topics that they themselves don’t understand so well or they’re simply not so confident, they don’t focus on them on their teaching…because they could impart students’ correct knowledge…”

This study mapped the status quo of technology integration in primary schools, shedding light on primary school teachers’ perceptions about the value of, barriers to, and received support in integrating technology-related topics into their lessons. Our findings indicated that primary school teachers place importance on the integration of technology-related subjects in their teaching. However, they mentioned that the level of technology integration, especially during the last year, was relatively low.

Overall teachers’ responses reflected five main categories about the value of technology integration in primary schools. In line with previous studies regarding teachers’ perceptions of STEM (Gibson, 2009 ; Margot & Kettler, 2019 ), most participants mentioned the everyday usage of and future need for technology as important reasons for technology integration. Additionally, children’s early contact with technology and existing gender stereotypes were included among the five most prevalent reasons to value technology integration. Similar results were found in past studies, wherein teachers mentioned the importance of technology in counteracting gender stereotypes and motivational differences in STEM (Blümer, 2019 ; Mammes et al., 2016 ; Wright et al., 2018 ). Teachers also referred to the lack of technology-related topics in curricula despite their importance in students’ current and future everyday life.

An important finding of this study relates to low technology integration, which depends upon a lack of standard and clear curriculum frameworks, as well as the challenge of the undefined teaching time of the technology related topics in curricula. Lack of time, unclear curricula, and the challenge that technology-related topics are often included within the subject of “general science” are important reasons behind lower technology integration in schools (Koch et al., 2019 ; Mammes et al., 2016 ; Rasinen et al., 2009 ).

The discrepancies observed among the curricula and the lack of technology-oriented pre-service teacher training efforts across Germany (Blömeke et al., 2010 ; KMK, 2008 ; Mammes et al., 2016 ) were reflected in the primary school teachers’ answers about their perceived competencies in technology integration. In detail, five teachers stated that during their studies, they did not have any technology-related subjects; furthermore, most teachers (14 out of 21) mentioned that they do not feel competent integrating technology-related topics into their teaching because they lack the necessary content knowledge and do not feel confident enough with their abilities. Similar results were reported in previous research, where findings revealed that technology integration is perceived as unclear and more challenging compared to science and mathematics (Gibson, 2009 ; Suwarma & Kumano, 2019 ; Wang et al., 2011 ). It is evident that lack of knowledge, clarity, and training may impact teachers’ competence and confidence in technology integration (Mammes et al., 2012 ; Möller et al., 1996 ; Rohaan, 2009 ; Thibaut et al., 2019 ; Yoon et al., 2018 ). Our findings revealed that teachers’ motivation for professional development, along with their pre-service training, were the main factors associated with high competence levels in technology integration.

As other studies have suggested, it is crucial for teachers to receive support from school structures, policies, and training efforts in order to feel motivated and to further develop their professional technology-related skills (Georgiou et al., 2020 ). Our findings showed that most teachers do not feel supported (15 out of 21), and they expressed the need for further support at the school level, such as the supply of the necessary materials and tools, along with the need for extra teaching staff. Aside from materials and resources, our participants mentioned the need for change in curricula in line with previous literature on STEM integration (Margot & Kettler, 2019 ), the inclusion of technology-related topics in pre-and in-service teacher training curricula, as well as the need for collaboration with their colleagues and the creation of teaching communities.

In addition to our findings on teachers’ need for support, our participants mentioned several barriers to the integration of technology. Consistent with the existing literature on STEM integration (Chikasanda et al., 2011 ; Margot & Kettler, 2019 ; Park et al., 2017 ; Yu et al., 2021 ), most teachers referred to a lack of resources—namely, materials and school equipment (16 participants), lack of content knowledge (nine participants), time constraints (eight participants), and students’ heterogeneity (seven participants). Our participants also referred to students’ safety while working with tools and electricity (eight participants), the size of the classroom (five participants), the broad curriculum (four participants), and their self-inhibitions regarding technology (four participants).

Implications and future directions

This study is one of the few studies to explore and identify primary school teachers’ perceptions when teaching technology-related subjects. Our results revealed four key factors for fostering the integration of technology —namely, the enhancement of primary school teachers’ technology content knowledge, the improvement of these teachers’ confidence in teaching technology, the need for further technology-oriented professional development courses, and the need to incorporate technology-oriented curriculum standards. Our study contributes to the scarce literature in technology education in primary schools by establishing a knowledge base for teachers’ needs about the integration of technology, which could benefit both research and practice in technology education.

Regarding the practical implications, future efforts on professional development programs could include activities to foster teachers’ technology content knowledge by introducing practical workshops with hands-on activities to increase teachers’ confidence and reduce their safety inhibitions while working with technology. For instance, clarity in technology curricula aims along with suggestions for the necessary teaching time and material development for technology-related activities could support teachers and simplify their efforts on technology integration in their teaching practices. Additionally, school and state representatives should reflect on teachers’ needs for clear curriculum frameworks with concrete aims and implementation processes. School and state representatives must acknowledge the need for school equipment and materials to support teachers in properly integrating technology-related lessons in primary schools. Our findings could also encourage school principals to organize school intern trainings and technology-related activities to address teachers’ need for support and foster collaboration among colleagues. A dedicated space with the necessary materials for technology activities could also be established in schools to promote and support teachers’ efforts in the integration of technology.

Based on the findings of this study, we are currently developing a professional development course to enhance the integration of technology in German primary schools. Our future research and the professional development course aim to help bridge the gap between theory and practice in this field by supporting concrete curriculum aims and incorporating hands-on activities with concrete implementation strategies and lesson concepts. We have built upon the knowledge base provided by this study and aim to motivate, prepare, and support teachers during the development and integration of technology lessons in primary schools.

Limitations

While this study presents important findings, there are some limitations that need to be addressed. Our study focused on primary school teachers’ perceptions and experiences with technology use in Bavarian schools, which may limit the generalizability of our findings due to differences in curricula among all German states (Mammes et al., 2016 ). However, our aim, as in other qualitative studies (e.g.,Georgiou et al., 2023 ), was not to generalize our findings to a larger population but to provide a rich and contextualized understanding of primary school teachers’ perceptions and experiences with technology integration.

We followed a constructivist approach that values individual perspectives and experiences in shaping these perceptions (Creswell & Poth, 2016 ). Nonetheless, to address this limitation, we purposively selected a diverse group of primary school teachers and used rigorous data analysis methods to ensure the trustworthiness of our results. Given the exploratory nature of our study, future research could aim to replicate our findings with more diverse samples of primary school teachers from different regions to explore potential similarities and differences.

In summary, the current study explored primary school teachers’ technology-related implementation practices, perceived value of technology education, and perceived challenges and support needs. Our findings highlighted the essential determinants for the integration of technology—namely, teachers’ technology content knowledge, confidence, need for training, and need for clarity in curriculum standards. This study builds the knowledge base necessary to promote future efforts to successfully standardize curricula frameworks and to develop and implement technology-oriented professional development programs for pre-and in-service primary school teachers.

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Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the TÜV SÜD Stiftung. We are grateful for all the teachers participated in our study and we would like to thank our research team and students for the support during the data collection.

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Pappa, C.I., Georgiou, D. & Pittich, D. Technology education in primary schools: addressing teachers’ perceptions, perceived barriers, and needs. Int J Technol Des Educ 34 , 485–503 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10798-023-09828-8

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Getting First Graders Started With Research

Teaching academically honest research skills helps first graders learn how to collect, organize, and interpret information.

Earlier in my career, I was told two facts that I thought to be false: First graders can’t do research, because they aren’t old enough; and if facts are needed for a nonfiction text, the students can just make them up. Teachers I knew went along with this misinformation, as it seemed to make teaching and learning easier. I always felt differently, and now—having returned to teaching first grade 14 years after beginning my career with that age group—I wanted to prove that first graders can and should learn how to research. 

A lot has changed over the years. Not only has the science of reading given teachers a much better understanding of how to teach reading skills , but we now exist in a culture abundant in information and misinformation. It’s imperative that we teach academically honest research skills to students as early as possible. 

Use a Familiar Resource, and Pair it with a Planned Unit

How soon do you start research in first grade? Certainly not at the start of the year with the summer lapse in skills and knowledge and when new students aren’t yet able to read. By December of this school year, skills had either been recovered or established sufficiently that I thought we could launch into research. This also purposely coincided with a unit of writing on nonfiction—the perfect pairing.

The research needed an age-related focus to make it manageable, so I chose animals. I thought about taking an even safer route and have one whole class topic that we researched together, so that students could compare notes and skills. I referred back to my days working in inquiry-based curriculums (like the International Baccalaureate Primary Years Program) and had students choose which animal to study. Our school librarian recommended that we use Epic because the service has an abundance of excellent nonfiction animal texts of different levels.

Teach the Basics for Organized Research 

I began with a conversation about academic honesty and why we don’t just copy information from books. We can’t say this is our knowledge if we do this; it belongs to the author. Instead, we read and learn. Then, we state what we learned in our own words. Once this concept is understood, I model how to do this by creating a basic step-by-step flowchart taught to me by my wife—a longtime first-grade and kindergarten teacher and firm believer in research skills.

• Read one sentence at a time.
• Turn the book over or the iPad around.
• Think about what you have learned. Can you remember the fact? Is the fact useful? Is it even a fact?
• If the answer is no, reread the sentence or move onto the next one.
• If the answer is yes, write the fact in your own words. Don’t worry about spelling. There are new, complex vocabulary words, so use your sounding-out/stretching-out strategies just like you would any other word. Write a whole sentence on a sticky note.
• Place the sticky note in your graphic organizer. Think about which section it goes in. If you aren’t sure, place it in the “other facts” section.

The key to collecting notes is the challenging skill of categorizing them. I created a graphic organizer that reflected the length and sections of the exemplar nonfiction text from our assessment materials for the writing unit. This meant it had five pages: an introduction, “what” the animal looks like, “where” the animal lives, “how” the animal behaved, and a last page for “other facts” that could become a general conclusion.

Our district’s literacy expert advised me not to hand out my premade graphic organizer too soon in this process because writing notes and categorizing are two different skills. This was my intention, but I forgot the good advice and handed out the organizer right away. This meant dedicating time for examining and organizing notes in each combined writing and reading lesson. A lot of one-on-one feedback was needed for some students, while others flourished and could do this work independently. The result was that the research had a built-in extension for those students who were already confident readers.

Focus on What Students Need to Practice 

Research is an essential academic skill but one that needs to be tackled gradually. I insisted that my students use whole sentences rather than words or phrases because they’re at the stage of understanding what a complete sentence is and need regular practice. In this work, there’s no mention of citation language and vetting sources; in the past, I’ve introduced those concepts to students in fourth grade and used them regularly with my fifth-grade students. Finding texts that span the reading skill range of a first-grade class is a big enough task. 

For some of the key shared scientific vocabulary around science concepts, such as animal groups (mammals, etc.) or eating habits (carnivore, etc.), I created class word lists, having first sounded out the words with the class and then asked students to attempt spelling them in their writing.

The Power of Research Can Facilitate Student Growth 

I was delighted with the results of the research project. In one and a half weeks, every student had a graphic organizer with relevant notes, and many students had numerous notes. With my fourth- and fifth-grade students, I noticed that one of the biggest difficulties for them was taking notes and writing them in a way that showed a logical sequence. Therefore, we concluded our research by numbering the notes in each section to create a sequential order. 

This activity took three lessons and also worked for my first graders. These organized notes created an internal structure that made the next step in the writing process, creating a first draft of their nonfiction teaching books, so much easier. 

The overall result was that first graders were able to truly grasp the power of research and gathering accurate facts. I proved that young children can do this, especially when they work with topics that already fascinate them. Their love of learning motivated them to read higher-level and more sophisticated texts than they or I would normally pick, further proving how interest motivates readers to embrace complexity.

21 Action Research Examples (In Education)

Action research is an example of qualitative research . It refers to a wide range of evaluative or investigative methods designed to analyze professional practices and take action for improvement.

Commonly used in education, those practices could be related to instructional methods, classroom practices, or school organizational matters.

The creation of action research is attributed to Kurt Lewin , a German-American psychologist also considered to be the father of social psychology.

Gillis and Jackson (2002) offer a very concise definition of action research: “systematic collection and analysis of data for the purpose of taking action and making change” (p.264).

The methods of action research in education include:

• conducting in-class observations
• taking field notes
• surveying or interviewing teachers, administrators, or parents
• using audio and video recordings.

The goal is to identify problematic issues, test possible solutions, or simply carry-out continuous improvement.

There are several steps in action research : identify a problem, design a plan to resolve, implement the plan, evaluate effectiveness, reflect on results, make necessary adjustment and repeat the process.

Action Research Examples

• Digital literacy assessment and training: The school’s IT department conducts a survey on students’ digital literacy skills. Based on the results, a tailored training program is designed for different age groups.
• Library resources utilization study: The school librarian tracks the frequency and type of books checked out by students. The data is then used to curate a more relevant collection and organize reading programs.
• Extracurricular activities and student well-being: A team of teachers and counselors assess the impact of extracurricular activities on student mental health through surveys and interviews. Adjustments are made based on findings.
• Parent-teacher communication channels: The school evaluates the effectiveness of current communication tools (e.g., newsletters, apps) between teachers and parents. Feedback is used to implement a more streamlined system.
• Homework load evaluation: Teachers across grade levels assess the amount and effectiveness of homework given. Adjustments are made to ensure a balance between academic rigor and student well-being.
• Classroom environment and learning: A group of teachers collaborates to study the impact of classroom layouts and decorations on student engagement and comprehension. Changes are made based on the findings.
• Student feedback on curriculum content: High school students are surveyed about the relevance and applicability of their current curriculum. The feedback is then used to make necessary curriculum adjustments.
• Teacher mentoring and support: New teachers are paired with experienced mentors. Both parties provide feedback on the effectiveness of the mentoring program, leading to continuous improvements.
• Assessment of school transportation: The school board evaluates the efficiency and safety of school buses through surveys with students and parents. Necessary changes are implemented based on the results.
• Cultural sensitivity training: After conducting a survey on students’ cultural backgrounds and experiences, the school organizes workshops for teachers to promote a more inclusive classroom environment.
• Environmental initiatives and student involvement: The school’s eco-club assesses the school’s carbon footprint and waste management. They then collaborate with the administration to implement greener practices and raise environmental awareness.
• Working with parents through research: A school’s admin staff conduct focus group sessions with parents to identify top concerns.Those concerns will then be addressed and another session conducted at the end of the school year.
• Peer teaching observations and improvements: Kindergarten teachers observe other teachers handling class transition techniques to share best practices.
• PTA surveys and resultant action: The PTA of a district conducts a survey of members regarding their satisfaction with remote learning classes.The results will be presented to the school board for further action.
• Recording and reflecting: A school administrator takes video recordings of playground behavior and then plays them for the teachers. The teachers work together to formulate a list of 10 playground safety guidelines.
• Pre/post testing of interventions: A school board conducts a district wide evaluation of a STEM program by conducting a pre/post-test of students’ skills in computer programming.
• Focus groups of practitioners : The professional development needs of teachers are determined from structured focus group sessions with teachers and admin.
• School lunch research and intervention: A nutrition expert is hired to evaluate and improve the quality of school lunches.
• School nurse systematic checklist and improvements: The school nurse implements a bathroom cleaning checklist to monitor cleanliness after the results of a recent teacher survey revealed several issues.
• Wearable technologies for pedagogical improvements; Students wear accelerometers attached to their hips to gain a baseline measure of physical activity.The results will identify if any issues exist.
• School counselor reflective practice : The school counselor conducts a student survey on antisocial behavior and then plans a series of workshops for both teachers and parents.

Detailed Examples

1. cooperation and leadership.

A science teacher has noticed that her 9 th grade students do not cooperate with each other when doing group projects. There is a lot of arguing and battles over whose ideas will be followed.

So, she decides to implement a simple action research project on the matter. First, she conducts a structured observation of the students’ behavior during meetings. She also has the students respond to a short questionnaire regarding their notions of leadership.

She then designs a two-week course on group dynamics and leadership styles. The course involves learning about leadership concepts and practices . In another element of the short course, students randomly select a leadership style and then engage in a role-play with other students.

At the end of the two weeks, she has the students work on a group project and conducts the same structured observation as before. She also gives the students a slightly different questionnaire on leadership as it relates to the group.

She plans to analyze the results and present the findings at a teachers’ meeting at the end of the term.

2. Professional Development Needs

Two high-school teachers have been selected to participate in a 1-year project in a third-world country. The project goal is to improve the classroom effectiveness of local teachers. 

The two teachers arrive in the country and begin to plan their action research. First, they decide to conduct a survey of teachers in the nearby communities of the school they are assigned to.

The survey will assess their professional development needs by directly asking the teachers and administrators. After collecting the surveys, they analyze the results by grouping the teachers based on subject matter.

They discover that history and social science teachers would like professional development on integrating smartboards into classroom instruction. Math teachers would like to attend workshops on project-based learning, while chemistry teachers feel that they need equipment more than training.

The two teachers then get started on finding the necessary training experts for the workshops and applying for equipment grants for the science teachers.

3. Playground Accidents

The school nurse has noticed a lot of students coming in after having mild accidents on the playground. She’s not sure if this is just her perception or if there really is an unusual increase this year.  So, she starts pulling data from the records over the last two years. She chooses the months carefully and only selects data from the first three months of each school year.

She creates a chart to make the data more easily understood. Sure enough, there seems to have been a dramatic increase in accidents this year compared to the same period of time from the previous two years.

She shows the data to the principal and teachers at the next meeting. They all agree that a field observation of the playground is needed.

Those observations reveal that the kids are not having accidents on the playground equipment as originally suspected. It turns out that the kids are tripping on the new sod that was installed over the summer.

They examine the sod and observe small gaps between the slabs. Each gap is approximately 1.5 inches wide and nearly two inches deep. The kids are tripping on this gap as they run.

They then discuss possible solutions.

4. Differentiated Learning

Trying to use the same content, methods, and processes for all students is a recipe for failure. This is why modifying each lesson to be flexible is highly recommended. Differentiated learning allows the teacher to adjust their teaching strategy based on all the different personalities and learning styles they see in their classroom.

Of course, differentiated learning should undergo the same rigorous assessment that all teaching techniques go through. So, a third-grade social science teacher asks his students to take a simple quiz on the industrial revolution. Then, he applies differentiated learning to the lesson.

By creating several different learning stations in his classroom, he gives his students a chance to learn about the industrial revolution in a way that captures their interests. The different stations contain: short videos, fact cards, PowerPoints, mini-chapters, and role-plays.

At the end of the lesson, students get to choose how they demonstrate their knowledge. They can take a test, construct a PPT, give an oral presentation, or conduct a simulated TV interview with different characters.

During this last phase of the lesson, the teacher is able to assess if they demonstrate the necessary knowledge and have achieved the defined learning outcomes. This analysis will allow him to make further adjustments to future lessons.

5. Healthy Habits Program

While looking at obesity rates of students, the school board of a large city is shocked by the dramatic increase in the weight of their students over the last five years. After consulting with three companies that specialize in student physical health, they offer the companies an opportunity to prove their value.

So, the board randomly assigns each company to a group of schools. Starting in the next academic year, each company will implement their healthy habits program in 5 middle schools.

Preliminary data is collected at each school at the beginning of the school year. Each and every student is weighed, their resting heart rate, blood pressure and cholesterol are also measured.

After analyzing the data, it is found that the schools assigned to each of the three companies are relatively similar on all of these measures.

At the end of the year, data for students at each school will be collected again. A simple comparison of pre- and post-program measurements will be conducted. The company with the best outcomes will be selected to implement their program city-wide.

Action research is a great way to collect data on a specific issue, implement a change, and then evaluate the effects of that change. It is perhaps the most practical of all types of primary research .

Most likely, the results will be mixed. Some aspects of the change were effective, while other elements were not. That’s okay. This just means that additional modifications to the change plan need to be made, which is usually quite easy to do.

There are many methods that can be utilized, such as surveys, field observations , and program evaluations.

The beauty of action research is based in its utility and flexibility. Just about anyone in a school setting is capable of conducting action research and the information can be incredibly useful.

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Dave Cornell (PhD)

Dr. Cornell has worked in education for more than 20 years. His work has involved designing teacher certification for Trinity College in London and in-service training for state governments in the United States. He has trained kindergarten teachers in 8 countries and helped businessmen and women open baby centers and kindergartens in 3 countries.

• Dave Cornell (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/dave-cornell-phd/ 25 Positive Punishment Examples
• Dave Cornell (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/dave-cornell-phd/ 25 Dissociation Examples (Psychology)
• Dave Cornell (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/dave-cornell-phd/ 15 Zone of Proximal Development Examples
• Dave Cornell (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/dave-cornell-phd/ Perception Checking: 15 Examples and Definition

Chris Drew (PhD)

This article was peer-reviewed and edited by Chris Drew (PhD). The review process on Helpful Professor involves having a PhD level expert fact check, edit, and contribute to articles. Reviewers ensure all content reflects expert academic consensus and is backed up with reference to academic studies. Dr. Drew has published over 20 academic articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education and holds a PhD in Education from ACU.

• Chris Drew (PhD) #molongui-disabled-link 25 Positive Punishment Examples
• Chris Drew (PhD) #molongui-disabled-link 25 Dissociation Examples (Psychology)
• Chris Drew (PhD) #molongui-disabled-link 15 Zone of Proximal Development Examples
• Chris Drew (PhD) #molongui-disabled-link Perception Checking: 15 Examples and Definition

2 thoughts on “21 Action Research Examples (In Education)”

Where can I capture this article in a better user-friendly format, since I would like to provide it to my students in a Qualitative Methods course at the University of Prince Edward Island? It is a good article, however, it is visually disjointed in its current format. Thanks, Dr. Frank T. Lavandier

Hi Dr. Lavandier,

I’ve emailed you a word doc copy that you can use and edit with your class.

Best, Chris.

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110+ Exceptional Education Research Topics Ideas

Topics for education research usually comprise school research topics, research problems in education, qualitative research topics in education, and concept paper topics about education to mention a few.

If you’re looking for research titles about education,  you’re reading the right post! This article contains 110 of the best education research topics that will come in handy when you need to choose one for your research. From sample research topics in education, to research titles examples for high school students about education – we have it all.

Educational Research Topics

Research title examples for college students, quantitative research titles about education, topics related to education for thesis, research titles about school issues, ph.d. research titles in education, elementary education research topics, research title examples about online class, research titles about modular learning, examples of research questions in education, special education research titles.

The best research titles about education must be done through the detailed process of exploring previous works and improving personal knowledge.

Here are some good research topics in education to consider.

What Are Good Research Topics Related to Education?

• The role of Covid-19 in reinvigorating online learning
• The growth of cognitive abilities through leisure experiences
• The merits of group study in education
• Merits and demerits of traditional learning methods
• The impact of homework on traditional and modern education
• Student underdevelopment as a result of larger class volumes
• Advantages of digital textbooks in learning
• The struggle of older generations in computer education
• The standards of learning  in the various academic levels
• Bullying and its effects on educational and mental health
• Exceptional education tutors: Is the need for higher pay justifiable?

The following examples of research titles about education for college students are ideal for a project that will take a long duration to complete. Here are some education topics for research that you can consider for your degree.

• Modern classroom difficulties of students and teachers
• Strategies to reform the learning difficulties within schools
• The rising cost of tuition and its burden on middle-class parents
• The concept of creativity among public schools and how it can be harnessed
• Major difficulties experienced in academic staff training
• Evaluating the learning cultures of college students
• Use of scientific development techniques in student learning
• Research of skill development in high school and college students
• Modern grading methods in underdeveloped institutions
• Dissertations and the difficulties surrounding their completion
• Integration of new gender categories in personalized learning

These research topics about education require a direct quantitative analysis and study of major ideas and arguments. They often contain general statistics and figures to back up regular research. Some of such research topics in education include:

• The relationship between poor education and increased academic fees
• Creating a social link between homeschool and traditional schoolgoers
• The relationship between teacher satisfaction and student performance
• The divide between public and private school performance
• The merits of parental involvement in students’ cognitive growth.
• A study on child welfare and its impact on educational development
• The relationship between academic performance and economic growth
• Urbanization in rural areas and its contribution to institutional growth
• The relationship between students and professors in dissertation writing
• The link between debt accumulation and student loans
• Boarding schools and regular schools: The role these two school types play in cognitive development

Educational-related topics used for a thesis normally require a wide aspect of study and enough educational materials.  Here are some education research topics you can use for write my thesis .

• The difficulties of bilingual education in private universities
• Homework and its impact on learning processes in college education
• Dissertation topic selection: Key aspects and research obligations
• Social media research topics and their educational functions
• A detailed educational review of student learning via virtual reality techniques
• Ethnicities in universities and their participation in group activities
• The modern approach to self-studying for college students
• Developing time management skills in modern education
• Guidelines for teacher development in advanced educational institutions
• The need for religious education in boarding schools
• A measure of cognitive development using digital learning methods

A research title about school issues focuses on activities surrounding the school environment and its effects on students, teachers, parents, and education in general. Below are some sample research titles in education, relating to school issues.

• Learning English in bilingual schools
• A study of teachers’ role as parent figures on school grounds
• Addressing the increased use of illegal substances and their effects in schools
• The benefits of after-class activities for foreign students
• Assessing student and teacher relationships
• A study of the best methods to implement safety rules in school
• Major obstacles in meeting school schedules using boarding students as a case study
• The need for counseling in public and private schools: Which is greater?
• Academic volunteering in understaffed public schools
• Modern techniques for curbing school violence among college students
• The advantages and disadvantages of teacher unions in schools

As you create your proposed list of research topics in education, consider scientific journals for referencing purposes. Here are some Ph.D. research titles for education.

• The modern methods of academic research writing
• The role of colleges in advanced mental care
• The merits and demerits of Ph.D. studies in Europe and Africa
• Interpersonal relationships between students and professors in advanced institutions
• A review of community colleges: merits and demerits
• Assessing racism in academic ethnic minorities
• The psychological changes of students in higher education
• The questionable standards of student loan provisions
• The merits of personalized teaching techniques in colleges
• The wage gap between private and public university teachers
• Teacher responsibilities in private universities versus public universities

The research topics in elementary education in 2023 are very different from the elementary education research topics from five or ten years ago. This creates interesting grounds for different research titles for elementary education.

Here are some elementary education title research ideas.

• Assessing quick computer literacy among elementary school pupils.
• The role of video games in childhood brain development
• Male vs female role models in early education periods
• The advantages of digital textbooks in elementary schools
• The impact of modern curriculums on elementary education
• Lack of proper school grooming is a cause of violence.
• Should elementary school children be taught about LGBTQ?
• A review of the need for sexual education in elementary schools
• The effects of emotional dependence in early childhood learners.
• The need for constant technology supervision of elementary school students
• Advantages of computer-guided education in elementary schools

Here are some research title examples for students taking online classes.

• The academic difficulties experienced by online students.
• A study of decreased attention in online classes
• The upsides and downsides of online education
• The rising fees of online and traditional education in universities
• A detailed study on the necessity of college internships
• The need to provide college scholarships based on environmental achievements
• How online education terminates university fraternities and sororities.
• The role of academic supervisors in career selection
• Why interactive assignments improved learning capabilities during the pandemic
• Merits of education in online learning environments
• Why online lessons are the least effective for some college students

The modular learning approach focuses primarily on learning outcomes. Here are some examples of research titles about modular learning.

• Modular learning and the role of teachers in its execution
• Teaching techniques of religious institutions
• Potential risks of accelerated learning
• Modular learning on students’ future performances
• The general overview of modular learning amongst students
• The modern Advantages and disadvantages of inclusive classes
• Observing student developments in modular learning
• Music therapy for fostering modular learning techniques
• The creation of a personalized curriculum for students.
• Applications of modular learning both in home-schooling?
• The benefits of modular learning towards creating a more holistic educational system

These research title examples about education answer important questions and they can also be argumentative essay topics .

Here are some titles of research about education questions.

• What impacts do learning approaches provide for students?
• How can schools manage their increasing gender differences?
• What fosters the provision of learning needs?
• What are the best educational recruitment methods?
• How can cognitive development improve education?
• How can you assess the moral growth of institutions?
• What are the primary causes of educational differences in geographical locations?
• How can institutions address increasing mental health needs?
• Why is early intervention essential in students with mental health setbacks?
• What are the characteristics of mental health deterioration among students?
• What techniques are acceptable in regulating the violence of students in institutions

Some of the research title examples about education include:

• How do schools create more personalized learning methods?
• Evaluating mental health setbacks during education
• The impact of modern technology on special education
• The cognitive improvements via specialized learning in dyslexic children
• The psychological link between dyslexia and bullying in high school
• Impact of social isolation in special education classes
• The difficulties in providing specialized learning environments
• A study of orphan students with disabilities and their aptitudes for learning
• How special classes improve the self-esteem of disabled students.
• How to use modern teaching techniques in unique learning environments.
• A study of the application of digital games to autistic learning

Final words about education research topics

We have provided some reliable examples of a research topic about education you can use for write my thesis . You can use these research titles in education to cultivate your ideas, create inspiration, or for online research. Remember always to select a topic that you’re naturally passionate about and do diligent research, and reach out to our professional writing services if you need any help.

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Our aim is to improve primary education outcomes for children. we fund research and interventions that help to understand the factors affecting educational opportunity and identify how educational disadvantage can be addressed..

Our work in primary education research (ages 4-11) explores the acquisition of skills and capabilities, such as oral language and communication, literacy and numeracy skills, digital and transferable skills and social and emotional development.

We also fund research designed to improve the quality of teaching and learning. This includes exploration of different pedological approaches, the shape and role of assessment and the nature of school effectiveness and improvement. We want to help address the shortage of teachers through funding research that examines the factors affecting recruitment, retention and professional development.

Educational disadvantage is a theme across all our work. We want to understand the prevalence of different forms of disadvantage faced by children at risk of falling behind in their learning or being locked into trajectories of low achievement.

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Our report by Ed Baines showed that school breaktimes are as much as an hour shorter than two decades ago, meaning that children are missing out on valuable opportunities to make friends, develop social skills and exercise. These findings have inspired campaigns for minimum breaktimes in schools, and greater focus from the Education Endowment Foundation on the links between breaktimes and learning.

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The Nuffield Early Language Intervention has been offered to state-funded English schools with Reception classes at no cost by the Department for Education, in response to disruption to schooling caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. This well-evidenced programme continues to play a key role in supporting children’s oral language skills and narrowing attainment gaps.

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Education | 2021 – 2021

Experiences of education among minority ethnic groups in Northern Ireland

Education | 2025 – 2026 New

Investigating performance across Key Stage 2 maths topics

Education | 2024 – 2026 New

Exploring academic selection and grammar schools in Northern Ireland

Education | 2024 – 2026

Pupil school mobility: types, pathways and implications for education

Developing a classroom intervention to improve conversation skills, vocabulary for reading: the power of words.

Welfare | 2023 – 2025 New

Juvenile onset rheumatic diseases: education, vocational readiness, & employment

Education | 2023 – 2025 In progress

What has ‘Free School Meals’ measured and what are the implications?

Education | 2023 – 2026

Rethinking special educational needs

Purposeful and effective practical work in primary school science.

Education | 2023 – 2024 In progress

The impact of additional learning needs identification in Wales

Education | 2023 – 2023

Cost of living crisis: the impact on schools

Do same language subtitles help children learn to read, latest in primary education.

news | 03/11/2022

Anxiety levels among headteachers more than doubled at pandemic peak

news | 07/03/2022

Two-thirds of English primary schools now using NELI

news | 02/03/2022

To what extent does grammar teaching help children learn to write?

news | 30/11/2021

Unprecedented cuts to education spending over the last decade

news | 02/09/2021

School leaders highlight how curriculum has been adapted to support pupils in COVID-19 learning recovery

news | 14/07/2021

School leaders want government to address surge in pupil COVID-related anxiety

news | 09/07/2021

New study compares pupil performance across UK nations and reveals different results from established international PISA tests

news | 13/05/2021

Every state school with reception pupils can now apply to receive the Nuffield Early Language Intervention

impact | 04/2021

Study of school breaktimes inspires campaigners, policy makers and researchers

news | 27/04/2021

62,000 reception-age children in England to take part in Nuffield Early Language Intervention

news | 25/03/2021

Composite classes can boost pupil attainment

news | 07/03/2021

Two thirds of parents concerned about lost learning – and want policies to promote children’s well-being as well as to catch up on education

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Our research shows children produce better pieces of writing by hand. But they need keyboard skills too

Anabela Malpique , Edith Cowan University ; Deborah Pino Pasternak , University of Canberra , and Susan Ledger , University of Newcastle

Andrew Tate’s extreme views about women are infiltrating Australian schools. We need a zero-tolerance response

Stephanie Wescott , Monash University and Steven Roberts , Monash University

4 things our schools should do now to help prevent gender-based violence

Giselle Natassia Woodley , Edith Cowan University ; Sarah Vrankovich , RMIT University , and Sharyn Burns , Curtin University

‘Make me a sandwich’: our survey’s disturbing picture of how some boys treat their teachers

Samantha Schulz , University of Adelaide

Online schooling is not just for lockdowns. Could it work for your child?

Brendon Hyndman , Charles Sturt University and Vaughan Cruickshank , University of Tasmania

‘Listening is the most important part’: 9 things students with disability and their families want teachers to know

Melissa Cain , Australian Catholic University and Melissa Fanshawe , University of Southern Queensland

Our research suggests eating an unhealthy breakfast could have a similar effect on your child’s school day as having nothing at all

Andrew J. Martin , UNSW Sydney ; Emma Burns , Macquarie University ; Joel Pearson , UNSW Sydney ; Keiko C.P. Bostwick , UNSW Sydney , and Roger Kennett , UNSW Sydney

Our research has found a way to help the teacher shortage and boost student learning

Jenny Gore , University of Newcastle and Drew Miller , University of Newcastle

It’s common to ‘stream’ maths classes. But grouping students by ability can lead to ‘massive disadvantage’

Elena Prieto-Rodriguez , University of Newcastle

We have a new way of looking at data that shows what’s working for Indigenous school kids and what isn’t

Peter Anderson , Griffith University ; Kerrie Mengersen , Queensland University of Technology ; Owen Forbes , Queensland University of Technology , and Zane M. Diamond , Monash University

How do we solve the maths teacher shortage? We can start by training more existing teachers to teach maths

Ian Gordon , The University of Melbourne ; Mary P. Coupland , University of Technology Sydney , and Merrilyn Goos , University of the Sunshine Coast

How can schools make sure gifted students get the help they need?

Maria Nicholas , Deakin University ; Andrew Skourdoumbis , Deakin University , and Ondine Bradbury , Monash University

‘I have been ground down’: about 50% of Australian principals and other school leaders are thinking of quitting

Paul Kidson , Australian Catholic University ; Herb Marsh , Australian Catholic University , and Theresa Dicke , Australian Catholic University

‘Why can’t I wear a dress?’ What schools can learn from preschools about supporting trans children

Cris Townley , Western Sydney University

Homeless mothers in England spend up to £300 per month on buses to get their children to school

Katherine Brickell , King's College London and Mel Nowicki , Oxford Brookes University

When do kids learn to read? How do you know if your child is falling behind?

Tina Daniel , Australian Catholic University and Signy Wegener , Australian Catholic University

It’s Book Week but your child is too anxious to take part. 5 expert tips to save the day

Frances Doyle , Western Sydney University

England’s plan to introduce east Asia-style maths textbooks widely rejected by primary schools

Rachel Marks , University of Brighton

Should your summer-born child start school later? Here’s what the research says

Maxime Perrott , University of Bristol ; Ioanna Bakopoulou , University of Bristol , and Liz Washbrook , University of Bristol

First Nations students are engaged in primary school but face racism and limited opportunities to learn Indigenous languages

Jessa Rogers , Queensland University of Technology ; Kate E. Williams , Queensland University of Technology , and Kristin R. Laurens , Queensland University of Technology

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Choose Your Test

Sat / act prep online guides and tips, 113 great research paper topics.

General Education

One of the hardest parts of writing a research paper can be just finding a good topic to write about. Fortunately we've done the hard work for you and have compiled a list of 113 interesting research paper topics. They've been organized into ten categories and cover a wide range of subjects so you can easily find the best topic for you.

In addition to the list of good research topics, we've included advice on what makes a good research paper topic and how you can use your topic to start writing a great paper.

What Makes a Good Research Paper Topic?

Not all research paper topics are created equal, and you want to make sure you choose a great topic before you start writing. Below are the three most important factors to consider to make sure you choose the best research paper topics.

#1: It's Something You're Interested In

A paper is always easier to write if you're interested in the topic, and you'll be more motivated to do in-depth research and write a paper that really covers the entire subject. Even if a certain research paper topic is getting a lot of buzz right now or other people seem interested in writing about it, don't feel tempted to make it your topic unless you genuinely have some sort of interest in it as well.

#2: There's Enough Information to Write a Paper

Even if you come up with the absolute best research paper topic and you're so excited to write about it, you won't be able to produce a good paper if there isn't enough research about the topic. This can happen for very specific or specialized topics, as well as topics that are too new to have enough research done on them at the moment. Easy research paper topics will always be topics with enough information to write a full-length paper.

Trying to write a research paper on a topic that doesn't have much research on it is incredibly hard, so before you decide on a topic, do a bit of preliminary searching and make sure you'll have all the information you need to write your paper.

#3: It Fits Your Teacher's Guidelines

Don't get so carried away looking at lists of research paper topics that you forget any requirements or restrictions your teacher may have put on research topic ideas. If you're writing a research paper on a health-related topic, deciding to write about the impact of rap on the music scene probably won't be allowed, but there may be some sort of leeway. For example, if you're really interested in current events but your teacher wants you to write a research paper on a history topic, you may be able to choose a topic that fits both categories, like exploring the relationship between the US and North Korea. No matter what, always get your research paper topic approved by your teacher first before you begin writing.

113 Good Research Paper Topics

Below are 113 good research topics to help you get you started on your paper. We've organized them into ten categories to make it easier to find the type of research paper topics you're looking for.

Arts/Culture

• Discuss the main differences in art from the Italian Renaissance and the Northern Renaissance .
• Analyze the impact a famous artist had on the world.
• How is sexism portrayed in different types of media (music, film, video games, etc.)? Has the amount/type of sexism changed over the years?
• How has the music of slaves brought over from Africa shaped modern American music?
• How has rap music evolved in the past decade?
• How has the portrayal of minorities in the media changed?

Current Events

• What have been the impacts of China's one child policy?
• How have the goals of feminists changed over the decades?
• How has the Trump presidency changed international relations?
• Analyze the history of the relationship between the United States and North Korea.
• What factors contributed to the current decline in the rate of unemployment?
• What have been the impacts of states which have increased their minimum wage?
• How do US immigration laws compare to immigration laws of other countries?
• How have the US's immigration laws changed in the past few years/decades?
• How has the Black Lives Matter movement affected discussions and view about racism in the US?
• What impact has the Affordable Care Act had on healthcare in the US?
• What factors contributed to the UK deciding to leave the EU (Brexit)?
• What factors contributed to China becoming an economic power?
• Discuss the history of Bitcoin or other cryptocurrencies  (some of which tokenize the S&P 500 Index on the blockchain) .
• Do students in schools that eliminate grades do better in college and their careers?
• Do students from wealthier backgrounds score higher on standardized tests?
• Do students who receive free meals at school get higher grades compared to when they weren't receiving a free meal?
• Do students who attend charter schools score higher on standardized tests than students in public schools?
• Do students learn better in same-sex classrooms?
• How does giving each student access to an iPad or laptop affect their studies?
• What are the benefits and drawbacks of the Montessori Method ?
• Do children who attend preschool do better in school later on?
• What was the impact of the No Child Left Behind act?
• How does the US education system compare to education systems in other countries?
• What impact does mandatory physical education classes have on students' health?
• Which methods are most effective at reducing bullying in schools?
• Do homeschoolers who attend college do as well as students who attended traditional schools?
• Does offering tenure increase or decrease quality of teaching?
• How does college debt affect future life choices of students?
• Should graduate students be able to form unions?

• What are different ways to lower gun-related deaths in the US?
• How and why have divorce rates changed over time?
• Is affirmative action still necessary in education and/or the workplace?
• Should physician-assisted suicide be legal?
• How has stem cell research impacted the medical field?
• How can human trafficking be reduced in the United States/world?
• Should people be able to donate organs in exchange for money?
• Which types of juvenile punishment have proven most effective at preventing future crimes?
• Has the increase in US airport security made passengers safer?
• Analyze the immigration policies of certain countries and how they are similar and different from one another.
• Several states have legalized recreational marijuana. What positive and negative impacts have they experienced as a result?
• Do tariffs increase the number of domestic jobs?
• Which prison reforms have proven most effective?
• Should governments be able to censor certain information on the internet?
• Which methods/programs have been most effective at reducing teen pregnancy?
• What are the benefits and drawbacks of the Keto diet?
• How effective are different exercise regimes for losing weight and maintaining weight loss?
• How do the healthcare plans of various countries differ from each other?
• What are the most effective ways to treat depression ?
• What are the pros and cons of genetically modified foods?
• Which methods are most effective for improving memory?
• What can be done to lower healthcare costs in the US?
• What factors contributed to the current opioid crisis?
• Analyze the history and impact of the HIV/AIDS epidemic .
• Are low-carbohydrate or low-fat diets more effective for weight loss?
• How much exercise should the average adult be getting each week?
• Which methods are most effective to get parents to vaccinate their children?
• What are the pros and cons of clean needle programs?
• How does stress affect the body?
• Discuss the history of the conflict between Israel and the Palestinians.
• What were the causes and effects of the Salem Witch Trials?
• Who was responsible for the Iran-Contra situation?
• How has New Orleans and the government's response to natural disasters changed since Hurricane Katrina?
• What events led to the fall of the Roman Empire?
• What were the impacts of British rule in India ?
• Was the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki necessary?
• What were the successes and failures of the women's suffrage movement in the United States?
• What were the causes of the Civil War?
• How did Abraham Lincoln's assassination impact the country and reconstruction after the Civil War?
• Which factors contributed to the colonies winning the American Revolution?
• What caused Hitler's rise to power?
• Discuss how a specific invention impacted history.
• What led to Cleopatra's fall as ruler of Egypt?
• How has Japan changed and evolved over the centuries?
• What were the causes of the Rwandan genocide ?

• Why did Martin Luther decide to split with the Catholic Church?
• Analyze the history and impact of a well-known cult (Jonestown, Manson family, etc.)
• How did the sexual abuse scandal impact how people view the Catholic Church?
• How has the Catholic church's power changed over the past decades/centuries?
• What are the causes behind the rise in atheism/ agnosticism in the United States?
• What were the influences in Siddhartha's life resulted in him becoming the Buddha?
• How has media portrayal of Islam/Muslims changed since September 11th?

Science/Environment

• How has the earth's climate changed in the past few decades?
• How has the use and elimination of DDT affected bird populations in the US?
• Analyze how the number and severity of natural disasters have increased in the past few decades.
• Analyze deforestation rates in a certain area or globally over a period of time.
• How have past oil spills changed regulations and cleanup methods?
• How has the Flint water crisis changed water regulation safety?
• What are the pros and cons of fracking?
• What impact has the Paris Climate Agreement had so far?
• What have NASA's biggest successes and failures been?
• How can we improve access to clean water around the world?
• Does ecotourism actually have a positive impact on the environment?
• Should the US rely on nuclear energy more?
• What can be done to save amphibian species currently at risk of extinction?
• What impact has climate change had on coral reefs?
• How are black holes created?
• Are teens who spend more time on social media more likely to suffer anxiety and/or depression?
• How will the loss of net neutrality affect internet users?
• Analyze the history and progress of self-driving vehicles.
• How has the use of drones changed surveillance and warfare methods?
• Has social media made people more or less connected?
• What progress has currently been made with artificial intelligence ?
• Do smartphones increase or decrease workplace productivity?
• What are the most effective ways to use technology in the classroom?
• How is Google search affecting our intelligence?
• When is the best age for a child to begin owning a smartphone?
• Has frequent texting reduced teen literacy rates?

How to Write a Great Research Paper

Even great research paper topics won't give you a great research paper if you don't hone your topic before and during the writing process. Follow these three tips to turn good research paper topics into great papers.

#1: Figure Out Your Thesis Early

Before you start writing a single word of your paper, you first need to know what your thesis will be. Your thesis is a statement that explains what you intend to prove/show in your paper. Every sentence in your research paper will relate back to your thesis, so you don't want to start writing without it!

As some examples, if you're writing a research paper on if students learn better in same-sex classrooms, your thesis might be "Research has shown that elementary-age students in same-sex classrooms score higher on standardized tests and report feeling more comfortable in the classroom."

If you're writing a paper on the causes of the Civil War, your thesis might be "While the dispute between the North and South over slavery is the most well-known cause of the Civil War, other key causes include differences in the economies of the North and South, states' rights, and territorial expansion."

#2: Back Every Statement Up With Research

Remember, this is a research paper you're writing, so you'll need to use lots of research to make your points. Every statement you give must be backed up with research, properly cited the way your teacher requested. You're allowed to include opinions of your own, but they must also be supported by the research you give.

#3: Do Your Research Before You Begin Writing

You don't want to start writing your research paper and then learn that there isn't enough research to back up the points you're making, or, even worse, that the research contradicts the points you're trying to make!

Get most of your research on your good research topics done before you begin writing. Then use the research you've collected to create a rough outline of what your paper will cover and the key points you're going to make. This will help keep your paper clear and organized, and it'll ensure you have enough research to produce a strong paper.

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Action Research: First-Year Primary School Science Teachers’ Conceptions on and Enactment of Science Inquiry in Singapore

• Soo Chiang James Long 1 &
• Yejun Bae   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5082-0969 1  

Asia-Pacific Science Education volume  4 , Article number:  2 ( 2018 ) Cite this article

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This action research project examines first year science teachers’ conceptions of scientific inquiry and their challenges in implementing inquiry-based lessons. Classroom observations and interviews represent two first-year primary school science teachers’ conceptions of science as inquiry. Because the current educational landscape emphasizes inquiry-based learning as a foundation of science education, teacher-training in Singapore focuses on augmenting the quality of inquiry-based science lessons. Through a mandatory reduced workload, first-year primary school science teachers can focus on transitioning from being student teachers to full-time teachers. A video of each teacher’s lesson was analysed using the EQUIP (Electronic Quality of Inquiry Protocol) instrument. Data analysis of the interviews involved a process of a priori coding based on the essential features of inquiry as well as grounded theory to expose the challenges the teachers faced in their enactment of inquiry-based instruction. Findings suggest that the two first-year teachers formed conceptions of inquiry through their teacher training programs. The teachers revealed three key considerations that affected their practice of inquiry: (1) assessment demands, (2) lack of resources and (3) lack of time to plan and to teach inquiry lessons. Findings in this action research project provide salient implications for other Asian countries which need to improve in-service teacher professional development programs in order to successfully enactment inquiry-based instruction.

Along with twenty-first Century Competencies, Critical and Inventive Thinking , the Singapore Ministry Of Education (MOE) has strongly supported student-centered or inquiry-based instruction for the sake of deepening students’ science learning through three aspects: knowledge, skills and processes, and ethics and attitudes (Liew, 2013 ). As early as 2001, the Science Syllabus foregrounded the importance of science as inquiry, declaring “The primary science syllabus aims to provide pupils with opportunities to develop skills, habits of mind, and attitudes toward learning science” (Ministry of Education (MOE), Singapore, 2004a , p.4). In 2008, science as inquiry was reemphasized in the science curriculum framework. In the syllabus document, it stated that “central to the curriculum framework is the inculcation of the spirit of scientific inquiry” (MOE, 2008a, p.1).

Beginning primary school science teachers, who entered the profession over the past eight years, in Singapore were expected to uniquely teach science based on the intended inquiry-based curriculum. Even though the Ministry put emphasis on intensive inquiry-based approaches, there is little evidence that the ministry’s new policy efforts support new teachers’ inquiry-based practices in their classrooms (Kim, Tan, & Talaue, 2013 ). This research project was conducted by the Centre for Research in Pedagogy and Practice which pointed out a predominance of teacher-centered instructional practices (Hogan & Gopinathan, 2008 ) in classrooms. Science teachers’ content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge in science also lagged behind that of teachers teaching mathematics.

Science as inquiry attained a renewed prominence in 2008 when inquiry was identified and adopted by Singapore MOE as a center of the science curriculum framework. Hence, the beginning science teachers in primary schools since 2008 constituted the first waves of educators who went through teacher training systems that focused on adopting the latest science syllabi (MOE, 2008a; Ministry of Education (MOE), Singapore, 2014a ). Those teachers were considered and expected to become “the leader of inquiry in the science classroom” (Ministry of Education (MOE), Singapore, 2014a , p.2) because they were trained by inquiry-approaches during their teacher preparatory course. They were also expected to create a learning environment where students will nurture their sense of inquiry by negotiating different ideas.

The National Institute of Education (NIE) is the sole teacher training college in Singapore, centrally controlled by the government, and the teacher preparatory course at National Institute of Education has been constantly adapting and responding to these national shifts. The first syllabi were changed in 2008 to feature a 20% reduction in content across the board in order to enable teachers to use more engaging teaching and learning approaches (Ministry of Education (MOE), Singapore, 2014b ). This demonstrates understanding and appreciation from the curriculum planners that student-centric approaches such as , inquiry-based instruction requires more time for students to learn science. The extra time freed up supports teachers’ attempts to increase students’ engagement of self-generative questions, claims, and evidence (Roth, Tobin, & Ritchie, 2008 ).

The period since 2008 also signifies greater support given to beginning teachers with the introduction of the Structured Mentoring Programme (SMP), which was supposed to be implemented across all schools (Ministry of Education (MOE), Singapore, 2006 ). With these changes in the teacher support programs, beginning primary teachers get better support in implementing classroom management strategies, and pedagogical supports such as lesson planning and questioning skills.

Teachers in Singapore have similar responsibilities as teachers in other OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) countries, classified into three broad areas: (1) teaching, (2) maintaining classroom discipline, and (3) administrative tasks (OECD, 2014 ). However, Singapore teachers spend more time on administrative tasks and classroom management. In essence, in order to enhance beginning teachers’ inquiry-based or student-centered instructional practices, they need to spend more time for improving teaching practices instead of spending time on administrative tasks or classroom management (Boon & Kong, 2008 ). Since the beginning teachers from 2008 were trained with the most recent syllabi, and coupled with the 20% reduction in workload for them, they will be able to spend more time on curriculum development, which means Science classes in those schools will successfully adopt the new syllabi and enhance students’ inquiry-based science learning.

Under this inquiry-based curriculum, schools become well-funded and well-equipped in order to provide various forms of inquiry-based learning environments. Since 2001, schools have been provided additional science laboratories that increased the number of labs in each school. In the first Information and Technology (IT) Masterplan, schools were given data loggers (Tan, Hedberg, Koh, & Seah, 2006 ). More recently, MOE made available the PERI (Primary Education Review and Implementation Committee) Science Equipment Grant, a grand sum of $36,000 (in two phases over a period of two years, from 2011 to 2012), to all government-aided primary schools, money meant for the procurement of equipment and teaching materials to enhance the learning and teaching of Science.

However, Tan et al. ( 2006 ) discovered the incompatible evidence that more than 80% of the primary science teachers still continue to implement teacher-centered learning approaches. This finding is consistent with a study of Luke, Rahim, Koh, Lau, Ismail and Hogan ( 2005 ) that grade 5 (primary 5) and grade 8 (secondary 2) science teachers were predominantly using teacher-centered inquiry-based teaching practices even though they knew student-centered instruction was necessary for students’ learning. In other words, beginning primary school science teachers in Singapore who entered the profession over the past eight years were less likely to be uniquely positioned to teach science innovatively through sustained supports and intensive discussion for implementing student-centered instruction. As transitions of teachers’ instructional practices require teachers’ paradigm shifts, institutional and physical infrastructural supports must be provided by the Ministry.

At the same time, there is a scarcity of research which addresses how the beginning teachers form conceptions of inquiry and how their conceptions of inquiry affect enactment of inquiry (Ozel & Luft, 2013 ). It is necessary to carefully look at whether first-year science teachers form desired conceptions of science as inquiry that are guided by NIE. Currently, there is little study in Singapore about first-year science teachers’ conceptions and enactment of inquiry. Investigating teachers’ conceptions of inquiry is critical since conceptions of inquiry guide students’ experiences of inquiry -based learning in the science classroom (Crawford, 2007 ). In other words, understanding science teachers’ conceptions is predictive of how they implement inquiry-based instruction. If teachers have different conceptions of scientific inquiry, then their curriculum enactment will be different from the intended curriculum.

This study investigates how well first-year primary school science teachers are positioned to implement scientific inquiry in class, through uncovering their conceptions of scientific inquiry. Two research questions guide this study: 1) What are the first-year Primary Science teachers’ conceptions of scientific inquiry? 2) What are their challenges in implementing inquiry-based lessons?

This research project focuses on two first-year science teachers’ current state of understanding of scientific inquiry and enactment. At the same time, this research project looks at what types of challenges beginning teachers encounter in school. Previous research studies have shown that first year is the most difficult and challenging year for the beginning teachers (Watzke, 2003 ). Such challenges may adversely influence the way of beginning teachers form conceptions of inquiry. Hence, it is important to investigate how the first-year science teachers adopt what they have learned from the teacher training program, which extensively focuses on the inquiry-based learning approach and the new syllabi.

Adopting student-centered instruction is a big paradigm shift for the beginning teachers since they must adjust themselves from students to teachers (Crawford, 2000 ). The beginning teachers are required to create inquiry-based learning environments based on knowledge of teaching and learning. At the same time, they need to apply inquiry learning approaches to the content knowledge. Mentor teachers are in charge of inducting beginning teachers to position their learning experiences from training to classroom teaching practices. Therefore, the results of this study could have implications on the development of a beginning teacher induction programme and long-term staff development for beginning teachers by bridging the theory-practice gap (Murray, Nuthall, & Mitchell, 2008 ; Ingersoll & Strong, 2011 ). This study also aims to expose the challenges encountered by those teachers and the relationship between their challenges and changes in their conceptions of scientific inquiry.

Literature review

This session is divided into three parts. The first two parts – the definition of scientific inquiry, and literature on teachers’ conceptions of scientific inquiry – address the first research question. To address the second research question, the third part reviews the literature on the challenges of implementing inquiry-based instruction.

Part 1: Definition of scientific inquiry

The definition of science as inquiry used in the Singapore Primary Science syllabus drew heavily from the National Reasearch Council (NRC) ( 2000 ) document. The primary science syllabus (Ministry of Education (MOE), Singapore, 2014a , p.13) defined scientific inquiry as “the activities and processes which scientists and students engage in to study the natural and physical world around us. Students will be able to acquire knowledge and understanding of the natural world based on investigations, apply the skills and processes of inquiry and develop attitudes and values that are essential to the practice of science”. Furthermore, ‘inquiry-based learning may be characterized by the degree of responsibility students have in posing and responding to questions, designing investigations, and evaluating and communicating their learning (student-directed inquiry) compared to the degree of involvement the teacher takes (teacher-guided inquiry). In other words, inquiry is characterized as a continuum between student-directed and teacher-directed inquiry. Students will benefit from a mix of both types of inquiry so long as the five features of scientific inquiry are evident (see Appendix A).

In 1996, the NRC released the National Science Education Standards (NSES), which asserted a vision of science education that will make scientific literacy for all a reality in the twenty-first century. A fundamental understanding of inquiry revolves around students and teachers asking scientifically related questions, suggesting different kinds of scientific investigations that may involve the use of instruments like thermometers and data loggers, developing reasonable explanations using gathered evidence, and justifying the explanations based on evidence (National Reasearch Council, 2000 , p.168–169). With this notion, science inquiry teaching and learning has five essential features - engaging in scientifically orientated questions, giving priority to evidence in responding to questions, formulating explanations from evidence, connecting explanation to scientific knowledge, and communicating and justifying explanations. Those five essential features emphasize to expose students to many important aspects of science, and encourage students to develop a clearer and deeper knowledge of science concepts and processes. The result of five years of deliberation by more than 18,000 teachers, administrators, scientists, teacher educators, and others became the driving force of improvements in Singapore and other countries.

Singapore runs on a centralized system which expects to have closer alignment in teachers’ inquiry-based instruction across the nation than countries where each state has their own science curricula. However, if teachers have different conceptions of scientific inquiry, then the enactment will be different and students will learn inquiry in different ways according to their teachers’ understanding of scientific inquiry.

Teachers’ understanding of inquiry has been displayed in various ways. Inquiry as Scientific inquiry (National Reasearch Council, 2000 ) means “the diverse ways in which scientists examine the natural world and suggest explanations based on the evidence taken from their work” (p. 23). Inquiry as learning (Anderson, 2007 ) refers to an active process of learning, something that students do, not something that is done to them. Inquiry as teaching (Barman, 2002 ; Loyens & Rikers, 2011 ) means teachers understand inquiry as a whole spectrum of instructional techniques that make use of inquiry practices such as generating questions, formulating hypothesis or evaluating explanations.

Since scientific inquiry can be understood in different ways, science education researchers define inquiry with different meanings (Anderson, 2007 ; Lott, 1983 ; Shymansky, Kyle, & Alport, 1983 ). Also, science teachers have different understanding of inquiry for example, one believes inquiry is doing hands-on activity only (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006 )or the other understood inquiry as providing minimal guidance (Barron & Darling-Hammond,  2010 ). When scientific inquiry means different things to different people, it comes to a point where the understanding of inquiry becomes vague and non-specific (Anderson, 2002 ).

The disagreement over the understanding of science as inquiry among science teachers, curriculum developers and science educators has split the community (Martin-Hauser, 2002 ). Without a common understanding of inquiry, generalization of what inquiry-based teaching and learning becomes difficult. If there is no shared understanding about inquiry by both the science and education faculty of a teacher preparatory institute, pre-service teachers who are going through the teacher preparatory courses will not be fully prepared to implement science as inquiry as recommended by National Reasearch Council ( 2000 ).

Part 2: Beginning teachers’ conceptions of scientific inquiry

Basically, teachers’ conceptions are defined as ideas, thoughts, and understandings, of which there can be a wide variety (Demir & Abell, 2010 ). Teachers’ conceptions of inquiry may affect how they implement inquiry in the science classroom (Breslyn & McGinnis, 2012 ; Crawford, 2007 ; Wallace & Kang, 2004 ). These conceptions are centered around the teachers’ knowledge of inquiry and the ways to implement scientific inquiry (Lotter, Harwood, & Bonner, 2007 ; Windschitl, 2003 ). Capps and Crawford ( 2013 ) argued that elementary science teachers have a limited understanding of science as their training programmes focus more on promoting students’ basic skills such as reading and writing. Even though they are mostly trained with science teaching courses, very few possesses correct teachers’ understanding of scientific inquiry. Teachers who have better understanding of the National Reasearch Council guide ( 2000 ) also tend to have incomplete views of inquiry since there are limited discussions among science teachers about what scientific inquiry is and how to teach inquiry in science class (Demir, 2006 ).

In addition to these factors, teachers’ varied conceptions of inquiry are also likely to come from differences in teachers’ epistemological views of science and on effective teaching (Hashweh, 1986 ). Hashweh divided teachers into two groups, whether they are learning and knowledge empiricists or learning and knowledge constructivists. The empiricist teachers are likely to think that science is a body of knowledge created by an immutable scientific method while constructivist teachers supported reformed teaching processes that call for students to explore before receiving explanation.

Teachers believe good teaching must secure both students’ conceptual understanding of science based on their experiencing knowledge construction processes. However, when it comes to students’ high achievement scores on exams, inquiry-based learning approaches do not seem to work properly. With respect to good teaching, teachers believe conceptions of inquiry support both inquiry-based instruction and their implementations rather than students’ test preparation (Windschitl, 2003 ; Duschl & Wright, 1989 ). Therefore, it is important to investigate beginning science teachers’ conceptions and enactment of inquiry through teachers’ lived experiences (Kim, Tan, & Talaue, 2013 ; Tan, Talaue, & Kim, 2014 ).

Kim et al. ( 2013 ) aim to uncover pre-service and in-service teachers’ perceptions of inquiry-based science teaching and the challenges the latter group experienced in such a curriculum. Their sample population included 50 pre-service and 41 in-service teachers with teaching experience ranging from less than one year to more than 30 years. In a follow-up paper, Tan et al. ( 2014 ), using the same dataset from their earlier research, studied in-service teachers’ perceptions of inquiry-based science teaching and the challenges they faced in an inquiry-focused curriculum. In the first study, the authors focus on comparing the similarities and differences in how pre- and in-service teachers perceived inquiry-based science teaching, whereas in the second study, the same researchers reveal in-service teachers’ perceptions on inquiry as one that focused on students’ abilities, knowledge acquisition, classroom environment and assessment. However, as a hypothesis in this study is that first-year primary school science teachers are better positioned to implement science as inquiry due to certain advantages such as having a mentor who provide advice to the beginning teachers based on their experiences and expertise. This article will take different notions from the research studies that were introduced above.

Before moving to the third part of my literature review on the challenges of implementing inquiry-based instruction, it is necessary to clarify that this study will not be able to draw a distinction between beliefs and conceptions, simply because the instruments that are adopted in this study, the kind of data collected and the method of analysis do not allow me to distinguish between the two. Therefore, literature on beliefs are also reviewed in this section as both beliefs and conceptions share similar qualities. Richardson ( 1996 ) argued beliefs and conceptions are both personal constructs that guide instructional decisions and impact the representation of content. The author asserted teachers’ beliefs have been found to play a significant role in the implementation of inquiry-based lessons. These beliefs can be about teaching, students, confidence to accomplish a task (self-efficacy), and subject matter (Pajares, 1992 ). Of these beliefs, the one about teaching and learning has an immediate influence on teachers’ classroom practices (Fang, 1996 ). There is strong evidence that beliefs influence practice (Jones & Carter, 2007 ; Pajares, 1992 ; Richardson, 1996 ). Previous research studies revealed that absence of professional development programmes impact beginning teachers’ beliefs about scientific inquiry (Luft, 2001 ; Roehrig & Luft, 2006 ). As Bush ( 1983 , p.3) eloquently puts it, “The conditions under which a person carries out the first years of teaching have a strong influence on the level of effectiveness which that teacher is able to achieve and sustain over the years; on the attitudes which govern teachers’ behavior over even a forty year career; and, indeed, on the decision whether or not to continue in the teaching profession.” What they teach, and how well they teach it rests on the “the knowledge, skills, and commitments they bring to their teaching and the opportunities they have to continue learning in and from their practice” (Feiman-Nemser, 2001 , p. 1013).

In the context of first-year teachers, the influences of effective professional development programmes to shape teachers’ conceptions and beliefs cannot be understated. Teachers must have opportunities to implement inquiry-based activities based on what they learned from professional development programmes and share their inquiry instruction with other teachers and professional development programmers in order to improve their inquiry teaching practices. Therefore, teachers are able to develop their understanding of inquiry and successfully implement inquiry-based learning approaches.

Part 3: Challenges of implementing inquiry-based instruction for beginning teachers

International studies indicate that teachers, whether they are beginners or not, are challenged to implement inquiry-based instruction (Gallagher, 1989 ). Some common constraints that teachers face when they implement inquiry lessons are: lack of collegial supervision (Brickhouse & Bodner, 1992 ), lack of pedagogical skills (Adams & Krockover, 1997 ), lack of time (Loughran, 1994 ), and insufficient guides for connecting curriculum and inquiry teaching (Adam & Krockover, 1997 ). Teachers also need to appreciate that learning is a process that happens gradually over time (Mercer, 2008 , p.35). Science teachers who implement inquiry-based lessons in their classes must be aware that students will need longer learning time as students bring to each lesson their current commonsense explanations which interfere with the one offered by the teacher (Roth, Tobin, & Ritchie, 2008 ).

Beginning teachers are likely to encounter further issues unique to them. Research considers a teacher with fewer than 3 years in service to be a ‘beginning teacher’ because of the time it takes to learn the craft of teaching (Darling-Hammond & Baratz-Snowden, 2005 ). Feinman-Nemser ( 1983 ) characterizes the first years of teaching as a time of survival, adaptation and learning. The author asserts that new teachers have two jobs – they are teaching and learning at the same time.

Unique challenges in Singapore remain

Beginning teachers in Singapore are likely to encounter similar challenges in addition to some unique to their milieu. They have to understand the multiple reforms and initiatives that spewed across the Singapore education landscape since the two big agenda, Thinking Schools, Learning Nation (Ministry of Education (MOE), Singapore, 1997 ) and Teach Less, Learn More (Ministry of Education (MOE), Singapore 2004b ), were introduced because each one of those represents an area for teachers to be accountable in. The increase of education reform initiatives has resulted in work intensification, as can be seen from the multiplication, diversification, and specialization of teachers’ tasks and responsibilities, and the heightened controls on teachers’ performance (Hargreaves, 1994 ) which usurp teachers’ autonomy (Apple & Beane, 1995 ). The study conducted by Tan et al. ( 2014 ) reveals an atypical set of concerns faced by Singapore teachers in terms of implementing inquiry-based lessons that differs significantly from constraints faced by their international counterparts. Significant concerns that stop implementing inquiry-based instruction are: assessment conflicts between inquiry instruction and assessment demands and heavy content in the curriculum.

Another area of tension highlighted in Tan et al. ( 2014 , p.125) was the “antagonistic relationship between the practice of science as inquiry and examination performance”. This is a reflection of the performance-based culture that pervades the Singapore education system. Taken together, this emphasis on performance has been linked to teacher stress, exhaustion, and burnout (Cosgrove, 2001 ).

To the credit of the Ministry of Education (MOE) in Singapore, it has sought to address many of the challenges faced by teachers in implementing inquiry lessons. In addition to infrastructure and institutional support, MOE created administrative support roles in schools such as Teacher Assistants, Teacher Aides, Laboratory Technicians, ICT Executives and Co-curricular Programme Executives (Ministry of Education (MOE), Singapore 2005a ) to support teachers by freeing up more time for them to devote to instructional matters (Ministry of Education (MOE), Singapore, 2005b ). As mentioned before, generous financial backing has been given to schools for the purchase of equipment and teaching materials to enhance the learning and teaching of Science. The Structured Mentoring Programme or SMP (Ministry of Education (MOE), Singapore, 2006 ) was introduced in 2006 to provide school-level mentoring to first-year teachers. One main aim of school-level mentoring is to have mentors help beginning teachers acquire knowledge and work skills in a specific area like a teaching subject. In the period after SMP was introduced, there were several longitudinal survey studies conducted by local researchers (Choy, Chong, Wong, & Wong, 2011 ; Wong, Teo, & Russo, 2012 ) to discover the teachers’ perceptions of their levels of pedagogical knowledge and skills from pre-service years to their first year of teaching. The findings revealed that beginning teachers expressed a greater sense of confidence in their pedagogical skills and knowledge by the end of their first year of teaching. Although research in mentoring in Singapore is only in its nascent stage (Ng, 2012 ), the positive effects of mentoring have already been acknowledged (Carter & Francis, 2001 ).

This study analyzes teacher interviews and lesson observation with a qualitative research design to investigate two first-year science teachers’ conceptions of science as inquiry, the challenges they face in implementing inquiry-based instruction, and provide an explanation that can cope with the complexity of the reality of teaching in a Singapore school. The method section of this study focuses on whether first-year science teachers are ready to implement inquiry-based instruction when they are situated in a school that is supportive of inquiry-based instruction. The collection of detailed empirical data on the classroom practices of two first-year primary science teachers includes video recording of lessons as well as interviews with each teacher. These data are complemented by artifacts such as lesson plans and the teacher’s personal timetable.

Data collection

Research participants.

The two beginning teachers, ‘Ken’ and ‘Yvonne’ (pseudonyms), met the research requirement of first year science teachers. All the participants had completed a post-graduate diploma in education (PGDE) from the NIE. Both teachers had no prior working experience (see Table  1 ).

Research site

The two teacher participants, Ken and Yvonne, were from Reform Primary School (a pseudonym). Reform Primary school was a ‘neighborhood’ school in the north with a population of around 1000 students and 60 teachers, of which 14 were science teachers. At the time of the study, more than 50% of the teachers in the school had five or fewer years in teaching experience. Out of the fourteen teachers teaching science this year, six had three or fewer years of teaching experience.

The school was chosen based on its efforts to implement inquiry-based instruction. Reform Primary School has implemented a science curriculum redesigned around inquiry-based learning approaches since 2009. Science teachers in this school have been monitored for successful adoption of the school-based curriculum, which included problem-based learning and project-based learning at primary levels 3, 4 and 5. The combination of these two factors – a young teacher population and the presence of a seemingly effective inquiry-based curriculum – led to make the decision to explore the experiences of the beginning teachers in this school.

It was necessary to communicate clearly with the participants in order to collect valid data. Through interactive communication between researchers and participants before conducting this study, the participants had a clear understanding of the purpose and procedures of this study. Two participant teachers agreed with conducting classroom observations and interviews because those data vividly display the beginning teachers’ experiences and challenges as first year Science teachers who tried to implement inquiry-based instructions in their classroom.

Data analysis

To investigate the first-year science teachers’ lived stories in the classroom, data analysis focused on teachers’ perceptions and beliefs that were underneath their teaching practices. At the same time, this study focused on answers to research questions: All teacher classroom observations and interviews were transcribed by the project investigator. And EQUIP (Electronic Quality of Inquiry Protocol) was utilized during two coding cycles: in the first cycle, teachers’ classroom discourses such as questions and dialogues with students and interviews were coded separately, and in the second cycle, a cross-coding procedure was conducted to produce integrated themes based on codes from the first cycle.

Coding video taped lessons

Two inquiry-based science lessons (4 half-hour school periods) were recorded over two school days. All teacher instruction was transcribed and coded to identify the features of inquiry. EQUIP was chosen to identify features of teachers’ discussions and inquiry-based instruction in this study. EQUIP is a validated and reliable instrument developed to assess the quality and quantity of inquiry in K-12 math and science classrooms. The instrument used the NRC’s definition of inquiry (National Reasearch Council, 2000 ) as a point of reference. Since the definition of inquiry has been appropriated into the Singapore Primary Science Syllabus, a guiding document for science teachers to abide by, EQUIP can be used to guide teachers’ discussions and analyses of inquiry-based instruction in this study.

In preparation for coding using EQUIP

The coding process was repeated several times to increase validity (Marshall, Horton, Smart & Llewellyn, 2008 ; Marshall, Horton & White, 2009 ; Marshall, Smart & Horton, 2010 ; Smart & Marshall, 2013 ). Appendix B shows the coding schemes used through EQUIP.

Transcripts from the two participant teachers were segmented into five-minute intervals. At each five-minute interval, 19 different indicators that support inquiry-based teaching and learning were used to assess the way the time was utilized.

These indicators were considered across five factors, namely: time usage, instruction, discourse, assessment, and curriculum. The indicators for each factor were individually assessed before a holistic score was given to each factor based on the level of inquiry. This score may not be a mean value of the independent indicator scores, but it reflects the essence of the lesson. There were four inquiry levels, with a score of 1 given to Pre-inquiry, 2 to Developing Inquiry, 3 to Proficient Inquiry, and 4 to Exemplary Inquiry. Scores of 3 and 4 were considered to be very inquiry-based. A score of 0 was given if the lesson revolved around non-instructional activities like the collection of homework or discipline.

Coding interview responses

Both teachers’ interviews were conducted a week after each lesson observation. All teacher interviews were audiotaped and transcribed, and then analyzed through EQUIP.

Five following ideas related to the research questions came up with while interview was conducted: (a) teacher’s conceptions of scientific inquiry, (b) the roles of students in an inquiry classroom, (c) the roles of teachers in an inquiry classroom, (d) the importance of teacher’s personal experiences in shaping his or her conceptions of scientific inquiry, and (e) challenges faced by a first-year science teacher.

In order to create codes based on teachers’ responses to the first three questions, a priori coding scheme was used by focusing on the five essential features of inquiry spelled out by National Reasearch Council ( 2000 ). All statements mentioning any considerations of any of these features were included in the data analyses. The rationale for selecting those five features of interview questions were: first, these five features were adopted in the primary science curriculum framework in Singapore, and second, these five features were also used as a framework for data analysis in two previous studies (Kang, Orgill, & Crippen, 2008 ; Tan et al., 2014 ).

In terms of the teachers’ responses to the fourth and fifth questions (d and e), it was considered that each teacher may have unique experiences based on school situations they were teaching in now. The one-to-one semi-structured interview (Denscombe, 2010, p.175) was chosen to explore issues the beginner teachers faced in implementing inquiry-based lessons in order to gain insights into the teachers’ feelings, opinions, and experiences. The theoretical basis for the coding process followed grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967 ).

The initial questions used to first find the challenges teachers face in school were adapted from Morrison’s ( 2013 ) paper, Exploring Exemplary Elementary Teachers’ conceptions and implementation of inquiry science . The categories developed from the one-to-one interviews were: (a) teachers’ conceptions, ideas, or beliefs about inquiry, (b) factors that had led to teachers’ conceptions of inquiry; (c) barriers to teaching inquiry science, and (d) suggestions to help beginning teachers teach inquiry science.

Coding responses to lesson scenario

In addition to the interview questions, a lesson scenario was posed to each teacher in which the teacher was asked to share his or her thoughts of how to plan an ideal inquiry-based lesson on the topic of having students classify substances based on their observable properties. A priori coding scheme was adapted from the five features of inquiry.

In coding the interviews, two rounds of coding were conducted. The second round of coding was carried out two weeks after the first attempt, and a comparison between both sets of coding was done to surface and resolve discrepancies in interpretations. This procedure was done to simulate having multiple coders doing the coding. Based on these coding results, the emergent themes and concerns of inquiry teaching were created.

The results highlight two sections that correspond to the two research questions. The findings regarding the first year science teachers’ conceptions of inquiry are presented first, followed by the findings of the challenges faced by these teachers in implementing science as inquiry.

RQ1: Teachers’ conceptions of inquiry: Teachers’ definition of inquiry

Both teachers were asked to define and explain their understanding of an inquiry-based lesson in the interview. Ken believed that there are two kinds of inquiry, the ideal inquiry and the structured inquiry:

“Inquiry can be very open like the kids asking a question and wanting to find out about something, but then because in school we are constrained by the syllabus, we have to complete whatever that has to be taught, so the kids will not have this luxury of asking their own questions, you know, and coming out with a research plan, you know, and go and investigate and stuff like that so right now what I have been doing has been the very structured kind, this is something we want to find out, lets find out about this and lets explain about what happened during the investigation.”

He posited that ideal inquiry is a process of learning that begins with the students posing questions and exploring possible solutions before the teacher offers the explanation. However, Ken was quick to reiterate his position that ideal inquiry cannot happen in reality, due to the constraint of time, assessment concerns, and the need to complete the syllabus on time:

“But in school, the reality is different. How do we find so much time to do all of these? And we have been like pushing this (inquiry-based instruction) to like do this after the exams. Like last year, for PBL (problem based learning), we did it after the exams. No time already; we have to prepare them for exams.”

Ken found that the structured inquiry is the only kind of inquiry that is possible, as he felt constrained by the syllabus .

In the interview, Yvonne mentioned conceptions of science as inquiry that reflect a different perspective from Ken:

“Inquiry-based lesson is one where the students are the owners of their own learning. Teachers provide the resources and scaffolds. And then the pupils are free to explore and come up with their own conclusions. There is no right or wrong in the process of inquiry.”

She defined inquiry in terms of the roles and responsibility of the students and teachers. In an inquiry-based lesson, the learners take on greater responsibilities for their learning and they have to be the inquirers, the teachers take a more backseat role of scaffolding the learning environment and presumably learning task, and through these efforts, teachers empower students to inquire.

Teachers’ conceptions of inquiry: Teachers’ experiences

The teachers’ personal experiences prior to teaching affected them to different extents. In Ken’s case, his pre-service training at the NIE helped reinforce his belief that science education should be inquiry-based. However, his first year of teaching has challenged that belief. Yvonne’s experience was as a student who did not receive inquiry-based instruction. Learning science in the rote-learning manner was a chore for her, and even though that approach helped her to get good grades, she did not wish for her students to see science as boring.

RQ2: Challenges in implementing inquiry-based instructions

Throughout the interview, both teachers shared their thoughts on the challenges they faced as first year science teachers attempting to practice inquiry science. Although there were similarities in some of their challenges, such as the lack of curriculum time and inquiry being dependent on pupils’ readiness, these teachers from the same school differed in their emphasis. Ken’s primary obstacle to practicing inquiry is that of summative assessment:

“Why do we have learning sheets (handouts) after learning sheets? I think it is to get them used to be asked the type of question during exams. So if there is less emphasis on exams, there will be fewer learning sheets, and maybe we just concentrate on the activities in the workbook.”

His frustrations at the system came through loudly, and for a first year teacher, Ken was already jaded. He experienced a lot of tension between his belief about teaching science and the way he felt he was compelled to teach science, due to the academic focus in school,

“I have been thinking about this. Am I teaching science inquiry or am I teaching them how to answer questions for exams? And I find myself doing the answering-questions-for-exam more than getting them to be really curious about coming up with their own questions to ask about the world and investigate it on their own.”

His sense of helplessness was also evident because he did not see himself, or even the school leader, as the change agent. The only way to resolve this tension was to remove or change the system of assessment,

“I think this is a nationwide thing… so it is very hard to change this at the school level, unless there is a bigger change up there or something like that.”

Yvonne focused on a different set of challenges. The tension Ken faced with examination was not even mentioned at all by Yvonne. Her two main obstacles as a trained teacher with a full teaching load would be the lack of time to plan inquiry lessons as well as the lack of resources.

“Oh… this year, I was actually very sad that the learning journey to the science center is not…we don’t have the budget or the resources to bring them there… they were actually very, very disappointed because some of them have siblings in the previous years and they know there were learning journeys to the Science Centre, so they kept asking me when they would be going to the science center this year. And when I said we were not going, they were very, very disappointed.”

By resources, she referred to funding for learning journeys and manpower. Such challenges, if unresolved, would rob her students’ of rich learning experiences.

What helped them and what could have helped them

Although both teachers mentioned that the Teachers’ Learning Community (TLC) every Monday was a platform that provided them with support, Yvonne appeared to have found more help than Ken, from such formal as well as other informal platforms in the school. Besides having learnt a lot from the TLC sessions actually in terms of questioning techniques in science, something that she felt was useful because she got opportunities to discuss questioning skills with experienced teachers in the TLC. Yvonne also tapped into the expertise of Senior Teachers and other experienced teachers to clarify her doubts. She formed informal communities with colleagues from the same teaching level to exchange teaching ideas. Although her focus was to deliver a more effective lesson rather than a more inquiry-based lesson, such support nonetheless helped her to cope with the challenges of being a first-year teacher.

As a follow up to the challenges she faced, Yvonne believed that if she as a first year teacher was given fewer teaching periods, she would have more time to prepare inquiry-based lessons. Also she felt that it would be helpful to have Senior Teachers demonstrate the enactment of inquiry-based curriculum to beginning teachers. As Senior Teachers were selected teachers based on their teaching experiences, content and pedagogical expertise, they could provide empirical advice to beginning teachers.

Assessing the level of inquiry using EQUIP

During the interview, teachers may share their beliefs about how inquiry science should be enacted, but these may not be congruent with their actual classroom practices. Therefore, data triangulation (Patton, 1990 ) was used to validate my interpretation of the data about the teachers’ conceptions of inquiry, which was why apart from the interviews and the teachers’ way of planning an ideal inquiry lesson, the EQUIP instrument was also used to assess the teachers’ Level of Inquiry as observed in action.

Summative overview after using EQUIP

The teachers’ practices were deemed to be congruent with the beliefs on inquiry which they expressed during the interview. After considering all the five factors, both teachers were observed to have performed between Pre-Inquiry (Level 1) and Developing Inquiry (Level 2), and a holistic score of Developing Inquiry (Level 2) was assigned to both teachers (Table  2 ). For a more detailed presentation of the scores across all 19 indicators (Appendix C). However, I shall highlight some findings below.

The beginning teachers often got students to observe, an inquiry process skill. Ken repeatedly asked his students if they could see an increase in the number of paper clips that were supposed to be attracted to their magnetized steel scissors, while Yvonne asked her pupils to observe phenomena. Although both teachers did get some of their students to explain their answers or what they saw, they were rarely asked to justify their explanations.

When examining the teaching practices of Ken and Yvonne, they predominantly implemented a teacher-directed pedagogy. The use of lecture, didactic styles of teacher questioning, and teacher follow-up (Initiate-Response-Follow up, IRF) was evident. The flow of the lesson followed by a monological communication: a teacher gives directions and students follow their teacher’s guide. In Ken’s classroom, often, learning was focused on rote learning and memorisation, such as the spelling of key words (e.g. temporary) and the emphasis on one correct answer (e.g. giving students a ‘template’ to answer a relationship question). In Yvonne’s case, although she used questioning extensively in the lesson, the level of questioning was focused on the test preparation, and the conversations were still mainly the IRF type.

With the two research questions that feature how the beginning primary science teachers’ develop their perceptions of scientific inquiry, this study discovers there is an obvious tension between their understanding of ideal inquiry and implementation challenges. Comparing their conceptions of inquiry, which according to National Reasearch Council’s definition ( 1996 ), described the three domains of inquiry as: abilities of students to conduct inquiry, students’ understanding of inquiry so they know how science and scientists work, and teaching standards and strategies, it is gratifying to know that these first-year science teachers already expressed conceptions of inquiry that are compatible with the first and third domains. The lived-experiences of both teachers in the Singapore education system throughout their years as students would have imprinted upon them one mode of instruction – a predominantly transmissive, didactic model (Roehrig & Luft, 2004 ). That much is stated by teacher Yvonne during the interview.

“NIE is still pretty fresh in my mind…There was a big portion on inquiry as in you know the basis of science lessons or curriculum.”

Hence, it is reasonable to state that the teacher preparatory course at NIE strongly influenced their beliefs of inquiry and what constitutes good teaching , and to some extent regarding the necessity of the use in inquiry in science lessons. At the same time, it is crucial to highlight the gaps in their conceptions. While the teachers showed an appreciation that scientifically oriented questions are key to scientific inquiry in the classroom (National Reasearch Council, 2000 , pp. 24–27), they over-emphasized the skills such as observing, rather than on the development of their students’ ability to think as scientists and to think scientifically. The teachers gave little priority to evaluating evidence, formulating reasonable explanations from evidence and justifying their explanations, all of which are essential features of classroom inquiry. The beginning teachers have to gain an understanding of inquiry as apart from the belief that inquiry is made up of single process skills (Lederman, N.G. & Lederman, J.S., 2004 ).

Researchers have found that teachers’ conceptions (Crawford, 2007 ) and beliefs (Fang, 1996 ; Richardson, 1996 ) strongly affect the way that they implement inquiry in the classroom. The experiences of the two teachers through their teacher preparatory course at NIE and their personal experiences as science students shaped their ideas about science learning and teaching, yet their experiences as fully trained teachers, in a school that advocates the use of inquiry in its Science curriculum no less, imply that curricular demands and constraints threaten to override their beliefs that science as inquiry is the way students should learn science. The participants’ challenges are not unique. Tan et al. ( 2014 ) report that assessment, curriculum content, and preparation made up 35.8% of all the perceived difficulties in inquiry practices. However, what is surprising is that the first year teachers in this study also flagged these concerns and more. Instead of being given fewer teaching periods, they were not offloaded. Instead of being supported in terms of resources, especially in the wake of the PERI Equipment Grant and other funding, teachers were faced with the unlikely problem of lack of resources to even send students for outdoor learning experiences. Instead of allowing students to explore and investigate, the ever-present academic targets loomed. It was apparent that these teachers could not escape the pervasive performativity culture of the education system (Ball, 1998 ).

The supporters of a performativity education system would argue its necessity to close the implementation gap (Hargreaves & Fullan, 1992 ) because an improvement in academic scores of students, especially those from poorer backgrounds, is a big achievement for government policies intended to benefit both the society as well as the individual. The rise of the performativity discourse is on the back of the adoption of market structure for schools to enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of outputs of learning and to provide more choices for consumers of education (Ball, 1998 ).

However, a performativity discourse distorts teachers’ work because it pressurizes teachers to perform and deliver results, instead of exploiting children’s natural curiosity and interest in learning (Central Advisory Council for Education, 1967 ). Teacher-guided inquiry will be appropriate to the learning situations of two teachers, where students not only explore their own interests by engaging in inquiry-based activities, but also learn scientific concepts in the curriculum. Even though a high degree of professional accountability to their students’ academic performance limit their autonomy (Warwick, 2007 ), teachers provide inquiry learning opportunities to students by adjusting their pedagogical practices.

A source of comfort for Yvonne was the presence of a supportive professional community. It was not only provided her with professional developmental opportunities through the TLC platform, the collegial culture encouraged her to approach the experienced teachers for help. A review done by Ingersoll and Strong ( 2011 ) of over 15 empirical studies spanning almost 30 years concluded that most of these studies supported the claim that support and assistance for beginning teachers have a positive impact on teacher retention, instructional practices, and student achievements. Yet, why did Ken not seek out similar support from the school? Could their gender differences have a role in how they exhibit their responses to classroom challenges (Kardia & Wright, 2004 )? This provides a possible area for future research.

Implications on changing teachers’ conceptions

The first implication is that the intentions at the institutional level to support beginning teachers through a reduction in teaching load should be reflected in the school. The argument of prioritizing, a school’s needs ahead of beginning teachers, should be reconsidered. Thrusting beginning teachers into the thick of teaching without affording them sufficient adjustment time and support could lead to an increase in the attrition rate (Ingersoll & Smith, 2003 ).

The second came from the collegial support Yvonne experienced, which shaped the way she perceived the challenges of implementing Science as inquiry differently from Ken. The school could provide opportunities for beginning teachers to interact with Senior Teachers. The platform provided by the weekly TLC sessions is one such example where Senior Teachers modeled inquiry practices. More could be done. If the school can develop an Induction Programme for novice teachers to learn directly from experienced practitioners in a ‘community of practice’ (Lave & Wenger, 1991 ), this will allow the beginner teachers to access aspects of this professional knowledge and gradually develop their professional identity.

Conclusions

This study investigates if first year science teachers are well positioned to implement scientific inquiry in class through uncovering their conceptions of scientific inquiry (National Reasearch Council, 2000 ). It also aims to bring to light the challenges encountered by these teachers and how these challenges could have changed their conceptions of scientific inquiry. The findings suggest that the first year science teachers in this study shared common conceptions on scientific inquiry with some variations. These indicate some successes of NIE’s teacher preparatory course in developing a consistent conception of science as inquiry. Having experienced senior teachers as mentors also provided first-year teachers with much needed pedagogical support. However, they still experienced challenges in their practice of inquiry. The complexity of these challenges and experiences that affect first-year teachers’ conceptions of inquiry should be acknowledged and foregrounded. Finally, the assumptions of existing policies and programmes designed to help teachers to bridge the theory-practice gap are enacted as intended have to be reexamined.

Limitations

There are possible biases in interpreting participant teachers’ interviews because they are former colleagues of the primary investigator (PI). In addition, as the PI is the Science HOD of the school, participants may withhold or overcompensate when they share their thoughts related to both Science TLC and Science department programmes. Also, there is a possibility that the EQUIP coding results can be biased by the PI, although a check against the online training exemplars for EQUIP showed a high degree of agreement between codes and the exemplars. The qualitative coding process went through several rounds to enhance validity, however, the data analysis results can be subjective in that the PI reflected personal beliefs and theoretical views to data interpretation. Finally, the participants had to remember incidents from their past, and memories are subjected to incorrect representations or lapses.

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Acknowledgements

Authors James Long Soo Chiang and Yejun Bae would like to acknowledge Dr. Gavin Fulmer for his advice and support in writing of this manuscript.

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James Long Soo Chiang is an elementary school teacher who have been in teaching for 17 years. He is currently helming the Science Department in Punggol Green Primary School. His research interests include inquiry-based instruction and action research.

Yejun Bae is a graduate student studying science education at the University of Iowa. Bae focuses on developing competences of adaptive expertise through learning science and supporting underrepresented students’ science learning.

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James Long, S.C., Bae, Y. Action Research: First-Year Primary School Science Teachers’ Conceptions on and Enactment of Science Inquiry in Singapore. Asia Pac. Sci. Educ. 4 , 2 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41029-017-0017-9

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The Purdue On-Campus Writing Lab and Purdue Online Writing Lab assist clients in their development as writers—no matter what their skill level—with on-campus consultations, online participation, and community engagement. The Purdue Writing Lab serves the Purdue, West Lafayette, campus and coordinates with local literacy initiatives. The Purdue OWL offers global support through online reference materials and services.

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The Purdue OWL® is committed to supporting  students, instructors, and writers by offering a wide range of resources that are developed and revised with them in mind. To do this, the OWL team is always exploring possibilties for a better design, allowing accessibility and user experience to guide our process. As the OWL undergoes some changes, we welcome your feedback and suggestions by email at any time.

Please don't hesitate to contact us via our contact page  if you have any questions or comments.

All the best,

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