problem based learning critical thinking

Reference Manager
Simple TEXT file

People also looked at

Systematic review article, the critical thinking-oriented adaptations of problem-based learning models: a systematic review.

Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Malaysia

Critical thinking is a significant twenty-first century skill that is prioritized by higher education. Problem-based learning is becoming widely accepted as an effective way to enhance critical thinking. However, as the results of studies that use PBL to develop CT have had mixed success, PBL models need to be modified to guarantee positive outcomes. This study is a systematic review that analyzed how studies have adapted Problem-Based Learning (PBL) to become more Critical Thinking (CT)-oriented, evaluated the effectiveness of these adaptations, and determined why certain adaptations were successful. The review was conducted in accordance with PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) by searching the scientific databases Scopus and Web of Science. Twenty journal articles were chosen based on their adherence to the inclusion criteria established by PICo (Population, Phenomenon of Interest, and Context). In these studies, PBL adaptations were categorized into five classifications, with activities centered on CT development being the most prevalent approach. Researchers utilized a variety of analytical methodologies to assess the effectiveness of these adaptations and derive significant insights and formulate valid conclusions. An analysis of all selected studies revealed positive outcomes, indicating that incorporating CT elements into PBL was effective in enhancing students' CT. These findings were categorized into nine factors that contribute to the successful adaptation of PBL to be CT-oriented.

1. Introduction

The twenty-first century is an era of innovation, requiring individuals to possess skills for academic excellence, success in the workplace, and the capability to cope with life. Examples of such transferable skills include communication, collaboration, creativity, problem-solving, and critical thinking (CT) ( Hidayati et al., 2022 ). Of these, CT is frequently cited as the most crucial ( National Association of Colleges Employers, 2016 ) for individuals to adapt to this quickly changing society ( Alper, 2010 ). Universities view the development of students' CT skills as one of their most significant educational objectives ( Facione, 2011 ; Erikson and Erikson, 2019 ) and must therefore continually refine their teaching techniques ( Bezanilla et al., 2019 ) and establish a learning environment that improves students' CT capabilities ( Evendi et al., 2022 ). In this way, universities can foster twenty-first-century talents with extraordinary academic performance and excellent professional skills ( Hidayati et al., 2022 ).

Problem-based learning is gaining popularity as a method for enhancing critical thinking. However, PBL models must be adapted to ensure beneficial outcomes, as the results of studies employing PBL to enhance CT have not always been positive. Thus, it is essential to determine which aspects contribute to the success of a PBL-adapted model for developing CT and explore the reason for the success. This paper offers a systematic review of how studies have altered PBL to become more focused on critical thinking, the evaluation of those modifications, and the factors that contribute to enhanced critical thinking.

1.1. Critical thinking

While the importance of CT has been widely acknowledged, scholars from different research fields have conceptualized and defined it differently. For instance, philosophy scholars view CT as the ability to challenge an assumption, evaluate the argument and relevant information, and draw correct conclusions ( Fisher, 2011 ); psychology scholars view CT as a broad range of thinking skills, including problem solving, decision making, and hypothesis testing ( Halpern, 2010 ). The literature generally conceptualizes CT as comprising two equally important elements—skills (CTSs) and dispositions (CTDs). Facione (1990) believes that critical thinkers are unsuccessful if they cannot apply their CT skills effectively.

For this paper, CT is understood as consisting of: (i) making judgments ( Chaffee, 1994 ; Snyder and Snyder, 2008 ; Papathanasiou et al., 2014 ; Ennis, 2018 ); (ii) evaluation ( Facione, 1990 ; Yanchar and Slife, 2004 ; Fisher, 2011 ; and (iii) reasoning ( Facione, 1990 ; Ennis, 2011 ; Elder and Paul, 2012 ). Characteristics commonly recognized as indispensable for CTD include: (1) open-mindedness ( Ennis, 1987 ; Facione, 1990 ); (2) fair-mindedness ( Facione, 1990 ; Elder and Paul, 2001 ); (3) inquisitiveness ( Facione, 1990 ; Elder and Paul, 2001 ); (4) respect for reason ( Ennis, 1987 ; Lipman, 1991 ); and (5) propensity to explore alternatives ( Elder and Paul, 2001 ).

CTSs and CTDs are not innate qualities but must be developed through learning and practice. However, conventional teaching approaches: (1) are not conducive to developing students' CT; (2) lack authenticity ( Sharma and Elbow, 2000 ); and (3) are inadequate for developing students' CTSs ( Drennan and Rohde, 2002 ). Education and teaching systems need to be designed to facilitate CT learning ( Dekker, 2020 ) by selecting the most recent effective instructional strategies ( Karakoc, 2016 ).

1.2. Problem-based learning

Problem-based learning (PBL) is a student-centered instructional method that enhances CT ( Facione et al., 2000 ; Choi et al., 2014 ; Carter et al., 2017 ), including CTSs ( Facione et al., 2000 ) and CTDs ( Dehkordi and Heydarnejad, 2008 ). PBL occurs among small groups of students who explore problems and find solutions collaboratively ( Yuan et al., 2008 ); it is a continual scientific learning process designed to accustom students to think critically ( Nurcahyo and Djono, 2018 ). PBL begins by challenging students to solve complicated, ill-structured problems ( Barrows, 1986 ) and provides opportunities inside and outside of the classroom to analyze information and consider different viewpoints ( Dwyer et al., 2015 ); students share their thoughts, listen to those of others, reflect on their own ideas, and ultimately obtain a suitable solution to a problem. The required self-directed learning, interpersonal communication, and reasoning foster CT ( Orique and McCarthy, 2015 ).

1.3. Problem-based learning and critical thinking

Liu and Pásztor (2022) meta-analysis of 50 relevant empirical studies with 5,210 participants and 58 effect sizes concluded that PBL was effective for fostering CT. However, Lee et al. (2016) meta-analysis of eight studies concluded that PBL was not effective for enhancing nursing students' CT. These contradictory conclusions suggest that teachers must adapt PBL according to the objectives to be attained ( Barrows, 1996 ). Researchers from different academic fields, such as Kamin et al. (2003) , Fujinuma and Wendling (2015) , and Evendi et al. (2022) have adapted PBL to improve students' CT.

This study thus sought to: (1) examine how studies have adapted PBL to be more focused on CT development; (2) examine the result of those studies; and (3) explore the reasons for successful modifications. It filled the gap left by the systematic reviews that are focused on the impacts of PBL model instead of adapted CT-oriented PBL models on CT development.

1.4. Research questions

The formulation of the research question for this study was based on the PICo framework, which has been developed specifically for qualitative reviews and identifies the key aspects of Population, Phenomenon of Interest, and Context ( JBI, 2011 ). Utilizing these concepts, the authors incorporated three primary aspects into the review: college students (Population), CT improvement (Phenomenon of Interest), and participation in CT-oriented PBL intervention (Context). The principal research question was thus: How can the PBL model be adapted to enhance students' critical thinking abilities? This broad question was further refined into several specific research questions:

(1) What adaptations can be made to PBL to enhance the CT of college students and what is the rationale for these adaptations?

(2) How are the results of CT-oriented PBL interventions evaluated?

(3) To what extent are these adapted PBL models successful and what factors contribute to their success?

2. Methodology

A protocol encompassing search terms, databases, screening criteria, and analytical methods was established to guide the literature search and generate the initial data set ( Yang et al., 2017 ). The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) ( Page et al., 2021 ) were employed to identify pertinent papers concerning PBL adaptations for teaching CTSs and CTDs at the undergraduate level in higher education. Two databases were utilized: Scopus and Web of Science (WOS).

2.1. Search strategy

The key search terms were derived from several sources: previous studies; an online thesaurus; keywords suggested by WOS and Scopus; and the research questions.

Two independent researchers identified research articles published in Scopus or WOS between January 2001 and mid-August 2022 by using a combination of the key search terms with a Boolean operator, phrase searching, and truncation to produce the search string. For WOS, the search string was TS = (PBL or “problem based learning” or “problem-based learning”) AND (“critical thinking” or “think critically”) AND (university or college or undergraduate or “higher education” or “tertiary education”). For Scopus, the search string was TITLE-ABS-KEY (PBL or “problem based learning” or “problem-based learning”) AND (“critical thinking” or “think critically”) AND (university or college or undergraduate or “higher education” or “tertiary education”).

2.2. Inclusion and exclusion criteria

The inclusion and exclusion criteria were based on PICo ( JBI, 2011 ). Articles were included if they: (1) undertook empirical research; (2) involved undergraduate students; (3) used PBL-adapted models as the main instructional intervention; (4) included research tools to collect CTS and CTD data; (5) explored students' learning experiences; (6) evaluated CTS and/or CTD as the main research outcome; and (7) published in an English peer-reviewed scientific journal.

Studies were excluded if they: (1)were review papers or not empirical papers; (2) did not adapt PBL models for their own research purposes; (3) involved non-undergraduate college students; (4) did not collect CTS and CTD data; (5) did not evaluate CTS and/or CTD as the main research outcome; (6) did not report CTS and/or CTD outcomes; (7) published in languages other than English; and (8) were not published in peer-reviewed journals, e.g., conference proceedings or book chapters.

2.3. Selection of articles

Articles were screened and selected according to PRISMA. Duplicate records and non-research or non-English articles were removed. Two independent reviewers then screened as many articles as possible to not miss any potentially eligible article. Records with a title and/or abstract that suggested the work involved PBL and CT were retained even though they did not fully meet the inclusion criteria for the title and/or abstract. The reviewers then rigorously applied the inclusion and exclusion criteria as they examined the full text of the retained articles. This meant that all eligible articles involved a modified PBL as the pedagogical intervention and evaluated CTS or CTD as the main research outcome. Finally, a database of selected articles was created for data extraction and analysis.

Figure 1 shows the number of records included at the identification, screening, selection and inclusion stages of the review process. The initial database searches uncovered 719 publications. After 70 duplicate records were eliminated, the literature was screened for journal or review articles that were written in English. This reduced the number of records to 499. After evaluating the abstracts of these articles, 292 records were deleted. The entire text of the remaining 207 papers were reviewed; 187 articles that failed to meet the inclusion criteria were excluded, leaving 20 journal articles to be included in this systematic review.

Figure 1 . The flow diagram of the literature search using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA).

2.4. Data extraction

To extract pertinent information from the 20 studies, Harris et al. (2014) guidelines were employed. These guidelines facilitated the extraction of information such as the author(s), year of publication, types of intervention implemented, types of data collection methods, types of data analysis methods, main findings of the study, and the effectiveness of the interventions in achieving their intended outcomes.

3. Results and discussion

The findings of the study are presented in three distinct sub-sections, each corresponding to a specific research question. The first sub-section details the types of PBL adaptations that were made to improve CT. The second sub-section presents the details of data collection and analysis implemented by each study. The last sub-section discusses the reasons for the observed improvements in student's CT as a result of these interventions.

3.1. The CT-oriented adaptations made to PBL models

An analysis revealed five distinct approaches to adapting Problem-Based Learning (PBL) to enhance Critical Thinking (CT) skills: (1) the implementation of CT-specific tools; (2) the incorporation of CT-focused activities; (3) the utilization of digital technologies; (4) the integration with other pedagogical methods; and (5) the integration with discipline-specific knowledge. As depicted in Table 1 , CT-oriented activities ( n = 6) emerged as the most prevalent strategy for augmenting CT, followed by the utilization of instructional technologies ( n = 5) and the assimilation of other instructional modes ( n = 4). Conversely, CT-oriented instruments ( n = 3) and the combination of PBL with subject-specific knowledge ( n = 2) were identified as the least frequently employed tactics for adapting PBL to foster CT development.

Table 1 . The author(s), publication date, and intervention used in studies by approach to PBL adaptation.

3.1.1. CT-oriented tools

As is depicted in Table 1 , the aforementioned studies employed various adaptations of Problem-Based Learning (PBL) with the objective of enhancing critical thinking (CT). These adaptations encompassed the utilization of CT-oriented guiding questions ( Carbogim et al., 2017 ), concept mapping ( Orique and McCarthy, 2015 ), and a CT assessment rubric ( Suryanti and Nurhuda, 2021 ). In their studies, guiding questions were implemented to stimulate and direct cognitive processes, concept maps served as a visual instrument for representing concerned issues and facilitating the development of solving plans, and the CT assessment rubric was employed to furnish lucid guidelines and expectations that facilitated self-assessment and engendered a more profound engagement with the subject matter. These aforementioned instruments possess the capacity to facilitate the development of students' critical thinking aptitudes by providing a framework for the organization and analysis of information.

3.1.2. CT-oriented activities

The studies examined in this text employed various critical thinking-oriented activities within a problem-based learning (PBL) framework to enhance the development of critical thinking skills. These activities were collaborative in nature, a characteristic inherent to PBL ( Yuan et al., 2008 ), and allowed learners to practice cognitive and/or meta-cognitive skills. With regard to the incorporation of cognitive skills, Hsu (2021) , for example, advocates for the integration of collaborative learning with PBL as it requires learners to cooperatively analyze, synthesize, and evaluate ideas to solve complex problems. Additionally, Mumtaz and Latif (2017) and Latif et al. (2018) incorporated debate among learners as it provides an opportunity for deeper analysis and appraisal of issues. The others recognized the significant correlation between meta-cognitive skills and CT improvement. For example, Fujinuma and Wendling (2015) integrated team-based active learning into their PBL model focused on meta-cognitive development to improve critical thinking. Rivas et al. (2022) emphasized individual and interactive meta-cognitive development through reflective activities because effective use of critical thinking skills requires a certain degree of consciousness and regulation of them. Rodríguez et al. (2022) used peer assessment within a PBL framework to develop a four-stage metacognitive approach due to the positive correlation between metacognition and active learning ( Biasutti and Frate, 2018 ), which can help foster higher order thinking skills ( Kim et al., 2020 ). These CT-oriented adaptations suggest that future studies could consider creating active learning environments through collaborative activities to foster cognitive and meta-cognitive skills to enhance critical thinking.

3.1.3. Digital strategies

Included research examined the incorporation of digital technologies into PBL to enhance CT. Sendag and Odabasi (2009) and Evendi et al. (2022) adapted traditional face-to-face PBL to an electronic format known as e-PBL in response to the increasing prevalence of online learning and the demonstrated efficacy of e-PBL in enhancing learning outcomes. Other studies investigated the use of videos in problem-based learning because they can present ill-structured problems in a more vivid manner ( Kamin et al., 2003 ; Roy and McMahon, 2012 ). Digital mind maps were used in conjunction with PBL by Hidayati et al. (2022) because they can create an engaging learning environment and facilitate deeper learning regardless of the learning styles of the learners.

3.1.4. PBL integrated with other pedagogical models

Researchers attempted to combine other pedagogical mode with PBL to enhance CT development. Lim (2020) integrated problem-based learning (PBL) with simulation-based learning to enable students to tackle problems that mirror real-life scenarios, thereby enhancing their professional skills and critical thinking abilities. Similarly, Xing et al. (2021) employed a clinical case-based PBL approach in conjunction with the “Status-Background-Assessment-Recommendation” (SBAR) teaching model to facilitate communication ( Abdellatif et al., 2007 ). Carbogim et al. (2018) combined PBL with the Active Learning Model for Critical Thinking (ALMCT), which comprises a series of questions designed to promote deeper understanding and exploration of meanings, relationships, and outcomes through inquiry within a clinical context or case. Aein (2018) modified PBL by incorporating inter-professional learning (IPL) to foster teamwork, enhance communication, and overcome inter-professional barriers. These studies share a common focus on the medical field and aim to improve students' professional competencies and critical thinking skills by presenting simulated real-world cases and promoting communication and collaboration among students.

3.1.5. PBL integrated with subject knowledge

Silviarza et al. (2020) and Silviariza and Handoyo (2021) are the sole authors among the studies reviewed to have undertaken research on the integration of problem-based learning (PBL) with the instruction of subject knowledge. They contend that the ability to critically solve problems is of paramount importance in the study of geography ( Nagel, 2008 ). Academics may contemplate the incorporation of problem-based learning (PBL) methodologies within fields of study that necessitate the utilization of critical thinking competencies for problem resolution and knowledge acquisition. Such an approach has the potential to augment not only students' comprehension of the subject matter but also their capacity for critical thinking.

3.2. The evaluation of CT-oriented PBL interventions

The efficacy of Problem-Based Learning (PBL) adaptations in enhancing Critical Thinking (CT) was investigated by examining the results of individual studies. To determine the overall effectiveness of modified PBL models on the development of CT skills or dispositions (CTS or CTD), it is necessary to scrutinize the instruments employed for data collection and the analytical methods utilized. Table 2 provides an overview of the article title, publication year, data collection instrument, and data analysis approach utilized in the study.

Table 2 . Evaluation of included educational intervention.

3.2.1. Data collection

The instruments employed by the studies included in this analysis can be classified according to their use in collecting either quantitative or qualitative data, as delineated in Table 2 . Quantitative instruments comprise questionnaires (e.g., Mumtaz and Latif, 2017 ; Carbogim et al., 2018 ; Latif et al., 2018 ; Lim, 2020 ; Silviarza et al., 2020 ; Hsu, 2021 ; Xing et al., 2021 ), tests (e.g., Sendag and Odabasi, 2009 ; Silviariza and Handoyo, 2021 ; Hidayati et al., 2022 ; Rivas et al., 2022 ; Evendi et al., 2022 ), and assessment rubrics (e.g., Orique and McCarthy, 2015 ; Suryanti and Nurhuda, 2021 ; Rodríguez et al., 2022 ), with questionnaires being the most commonly utilized instrument. On the other hand, several studies have employed qualitative instruments to collect CT-related data, which are less varied than their quantitative counterparts. Qualitative instruments primarily encompass recorded learning activities (e.g., Kamin et al., 2003 ; Roy and McMahon, 2012 ; Evendi et al., 2022 ), interviews (e.g., Carbogim et al., 2017 ; Aein, 2018 ; Xing et al., 2021 ), and open-ended questions (e.g., Fujinuma and Wendling, 2015 ; Mumtaz and Latif, 2017 ). Based on an analysis of the tools utilized by the studies involved in this investigation, future research exploring the adaptations of PBL for CT can employ quantitative (e.g., Silviarza et al., 2020 ), qualitative (e.g., Aein, 2018 ), or mixed methods (e.g., Carbogim et al., 2017 ).

As indicated in Table 2 , researchers employ one of two approaches in constructing data collection instruments for quantitative data: either directly utilizing tools developed by others or developing their own research instruments. For instance, widely used and well-developed instruments include the Chinese adaptation of the California Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory (CCTDI) and the California Critical Thinking Skills Test (CCTST). Xing et al. (2021) employed the Chinese version of the CCTDI to investigate the impact of modified PBL on learners' CT disposition, while Carbogim et al. (2018) utilized the CCTST to assess students' CT skills. These extensively used tools have been demonstrated to be valid and reliable for data collection and analysis. Alternatively, researchers have endeavored to design their own instruments tailored to their specific study requirements. For example, Silviarza et al. (2020) and Hidayati et al. (2022) developed an essay test and a CTS test, respectively, based on the CT indicators proposed by Ennis (2011) . These self-made instruments were subjected to validity and reliability checks prior to being employed for data collection (e.g., Hidayati et al., 2022 ). Both of the above-discussed approaches, when implemented with established credibility and validity, are effective in collecting the desired data. On the other hand, most studies employing qualitative tools do not test validity and reliability in the same manner as quantitative studies (e.g., Kamin et al., 2003 ; Roy and McMahon, 2012 ), but instead utilize triangulation to enhance validity and reliability (e.g., Rodríguez et al., 2022 ).

3.2.2. Data analysis

As delineated in Table 2 , the studies included in this analysis employed distinct analytical methodologies based on their data collection methods. It is only through the application of analytical techniques that are appropriately tailored to the data and research objectives that researchers can derive meaningful insights and draw valid conclusions from their data.

For quantitative data, researchers utilized descriptive analysis to determine the means and proportions of CT-related data. Several studies employed this method, including Mumtaz and Latif (2017) , Carbogim et al. (2018) , Latif et al. (2018) , Suryanti and Nurhuda (2021) , and Rivas et al. (2022) . In addition to descriptive analysis, other statistical techniques were also frequently employed. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used by Sendag and Odabasi (2009) and Fujinuma and Wendling (2015) to compare the means of multiple groups and determine whether there were any statistically significant differences between them. The t -test technique to compare the means of experimental and control group was also commonly used, as seen in studies by Carbogim et al. (2018) , Latif et al. (2018) , Silviarza et al. (2020) , and Xing et al. (2021) .

In contrast to the quantitative methods described above, content analysis was typically applied to qualitative data. Studies that employed this method include Kamin et al. (2003) . In addition to content analysis, narrative summary was also used to present and interpret qualitative data (e.g., Mumtaz and Latif, 2017 ).

3.3. Examination of the findings from PBL-adapted interventions

3.3.1. interventional outcomes.

The results of individual studies were examined to explore the success of PBL adaptations for improving CT. Table 3 summarizes the CT development outcomes of each intervention. All the studies had positive outcomes with students showing increased CT. This indicates that the planful integration of CT elements into PBL was effective and necessary for enhancing students' CT which cannot be assured with PBL that do not have CT-oriented adaptations ( Lee et al., 2016 ).

Table 3 . The main findings of each study.

3.3.2. Positive findings

Although all of their studies reported positive outcomes in the development of critical thinking (CT), the depth of their research varied. Some studies documented general improvements in CT as a result of instructional interventions, while others reported enhancements in specific CT sub-skills. For instance, Silviarza et al. (2020) discovered that engaging students in debates and encouraging them to confirm information through research promoted critical thinking. Similarly, Aein (2018) found that challenging students to respond to difficulties posed by their peers with concealed features of disorders prompted them to think critically about current and potential health concerns. On the other hand, several researchers confirmed that problem-based learning (PBL) oriented toward CT improved CT sub-skills. Latif et al. (2018) , for example, reported that exposing students to challenging real-life situations encouraged them to conduct research based on their arguments, fostering the CT processes of analysis and interpretation. Carbogim et al. (2017) argued that pairing PBL with guided questions enhanced students' abilities to analyze, reason, and generate solutions for safe care action, demonstrating intellectual stimulation for CT.

Although critical thinking (CT) encompasses both critical thinking skills (CTSs) and critical thinking dispositions (CTDs), only three studies have specifically investigated the development of students' CTDs. Carbogim et al. (2018) employed the Portuguese version of the California Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory (CCTDI) to evaluate CTDs and discovered that integrating problem-based learning (PBL) with the Active Learning Model for Critical Thinking (ALMCT) influenced the acquisition of an analytical disposition. Hsu (2021) utilized Yeh and study of substitute teachers' professional knowledge (1999 ) Inventory of Critical-Thinking Disposition (ICTD) to determine that support for social contacts enhanced students' CT cognitive development. Lim (2020) applied Yoon (2004) self-report questionnaire to assess CTDs and found a correlation between CTDs and problem-solving abilities. These findings indicate that current research primarily concentrates on the development of CTS, suggesting that future studies should not overlook the development of CTD.

3.3.3. Success factors

An analysis of the key CT-related findings from each study, as presented in Table 3 , was conducted to explore the reasons for successful adaptation of problem-based learning (PBL). These findings were categorized into nine factors that contribute to the successful adaptation of PBL to be CT-oriented, as delineated in Table 4 . These factors comprise self-directed learning, CT-related activities, interaction, problem-solving skills, metacognitive activities, authentic learning, positive atmosphere, self-efficacy, and role of teacher. These factors can serve as the principles upon which CT-oriented PBL models should be based.

Table 4 . Classification of the main findings from the studies by theme.

As is shown in Table 4 , the nine principles are identified. The principle of self-directed learning refers to students accepting responsibility for their own learning and actively participating in the learning process ( Kamin et al., 2003 ). CT-related activities refer to the activities of students applying their learning to enhance CT, such as debating (e.g., Latif et al., 2018 ). Interaction refers to students: (1) being assigned to small groups and sharing their learning within the group and across groups ( Kamin et al., 2003 ; Fujinuma and Wendling, 2015 ; Silviarza et al., 2020 ); (2) sharing their knowledge with other students ( Orique and McCarthy, 2015 ); (3) peer discussions on how to solve problems ( Lim, 2020 ; Hidayati et al., 2022 ); (4) challenging each others' views ( Aein, 2018 ); and (5) debating with each other ( Rivas et al., 2022 ). CT propensity in PBL has also been found to be associated with problem-solving abilities and metacognitive skills ( Rodríguez et al., 2022 ). Authentic learning in PBL is key to developing students' CT skills which involve authentic real-world problem that contain diverse, difficult, and ill-structured answers ( Hidayati et al., 2022 ) and utilizing relevant real-world experiences to solve it ( Latif et al., 2018 ). The problems are authentic ( Hidayati et al., 2022 ), relevant to learners' real-world experiences ( Latif et al., 2018 ), and contain diverse, difficult, and ill-structured answers. There was scant scholarly attention given to the learning environment and self-efficacy even though a positive learning environment can assist students to enhance their CT ( Evendi et al., 2022 ). Likewise, self-efficacy has received scant scholarly attention. After simulated PBL, students' learning self-efficacy was positively linked to CT propensity and problem-solving ability ( Lim, 2020 ). Teachers had a significant impact on PBL students, particularly when they assumed the role of facilitator rather than merely transmitting information ( Hsu, 2021 ), were less the center of attention in the classroom ( Sendag and Odabasi, 2009 ), and provided examples that were appropriate for the students' level of learning.

The principles for PBL adaptations for CT development align with those of original PBL models but are optimized to maximize CT development. For instance, Carter et al. (2017) assert that students should be at the center of learning, Barrows (1986) posits that PBL problems should be ill-structured, and Yuan et al. (2008) contend that students should collaborate to solve problems. These principles are intrinsic to PBL. Consequently, the design of new PBL models to enhance CT should adhere to the fundamental principles or characteristics of PBL.

4. Conclusions

In this study, a systematic review was undertaken of published articles associated with PBL adaptations as educational interventions to improve students' CT skills and dispositions. Using the 20 articles that met the inclusion criteria and the PICo approach, this paper explored the methods used to adapt the PBL model to optimize CT development, examined the effectiveness of those models and explored the reasons why these adaptations were successful with the intent to fulfill the gap of the limited number of systematic reviews on adapting the original PBL model to be a more CT oriented model.

Five distinct categories of the strategies employed to adapt PBL were found: activities centered on CT development, incorporation of digital technologies, integration of alternative pedagogical approaches, utilization of CT-specific instruments, and combination of PBL with discipline-specific knowledge. These adaptations were found to be effective in augmenting students' CT skills and dispositions, although the methodologies employed for data collection and analysis varied across studies. Future research is warranted to investigate the potential of these adaptations in diverse educational contexts.

Nine factors that contribute to the successful adaptation of PBL to be more CT-oriented were identified. They are: self-directed learning, CT-related activities, interaction with peers and teachers, problem-solving skills, metacognitive activities, authentic learning, positive atmosphere, high self-efficacy, and supportive teachers. These principles are congruent with those of traditional PBL models but have been specifically designed to optimize CT development. Future research could explore the relative significance of each of these factors in fostering CT development and examine their interplay. Additionally, researchers could investigate the effective integration of these factors into PBL models across diverse educational contexts and disciplines.

Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Author contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct, and intellectual contribution to the work and approved it for publication.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Abdellatif, A., Bagian, J. P., Barajas, E. R., Cohen, M., Cousins, D., Denham, C. R., et al. (2007). Communication during patient hand-overs. Joint Comm. J. Qual. Patient Safety . doi: 10.1016/S1553-7250(07)33128-0

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Aein, F. (2018). Midwifery students' experiences of problem solving based interprofessional learning: a qualitative study. Women Birth 31, e374–e379. doi: 10.1016/j.wombi.2018.02.006

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Alper, A. (2010). Critical thinking disposition of pre-service teachers. Egitimve Bilim. 35, 14.

Google Scholar

Barrows, H. S. (1986). A taxonomy of problem-based learning methods. Med. Educ. 20, 481–486. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.1986.tb01386.x

Barrows, H. S. (1996). Problem-based learning in medicine and beyond: a brief overview. New Direct. Teach. Learn. 1996, 3–12. doi: 10.1002/tl.37219966804

Bezanilla, M. J., Fernández-Nogueira, D., Poblete, M., and Galindo-Domínguez, H. (2019). Methodologies for teaching-learning critical thinking in higher education: the teacher's view. Think. Skills Creat. 33, 100584. doi: 10.1016/j.tsc.2019.100584

Biasutti, M., and Frate, S. (2018). Group metacognition in online collaborative learning: validity and reliability of the group metacognition scale (GMS). Educ. Technol. Res. Dev . 66, 321–1338. doi: 10.1007/s11423-018-9583-0

Carbogim, F. C., Barbosa, A. C. S., de Oliviera, L. B., de Sá Diaz, F. B. B., Toledo, L. V., Alves, K. R., et al. (2018). Educational intervention to improve critical thinking for undergraduate nursing students: a randomized clinical trial. Nurse Educ. Pract . 33, 121–126. doi: 10.1016/j.nepr.2018.10.001

Carbogim, F. D. C., Oliveira, L. B. D., Mendonça, É. T. D., Marques, D. A., Friedrich, D. B. D. C., and Püschel, V. A. D. A. (2017). Teaching critical thinking skills through problem based learning. Texto Contexto-Enfermagem 26, 17. doi: 10.1590/0104-07072017001180017

Carter, A. G., Creedy, D. K., and Sidebotham, M. (2017). Critical thinking evaluation in reflective writing: development and testing of carter assessment of critical thinking in midwifery (reflection). Midwifery 54, 73–80. doi: 10.1016/j.midw.2017.08.003

Chaffee, J. (1994). Thinking Critically . 4th Edn . Houghton: Mifflin.

Choi, E., Lindquist, R., and Song, Y. (2014). Effects of problem-based learning vs. traditional lecture on Korean nursing students' critical thinking, problem-solving and self-directed learning. Nurse Educ. Today 34, 52–56. doi: 10.1016/j.nedt.2013.02.012

Dehkordi, A. H., and Heydarnejad, M. S. (2008). The effects of problem-based learning and lecturing on the development of Iranian nursing students' critical thinking. Pak. J. Med. Sci. 24, 740–743.

PubMed Abstract | Google Scholar

Dekker, T. J. (2020). Teaching critical thinking through engagement with multiplicity. Think. Skills Creat. 37, 100701. doi: 10.1016/j.tsc.2020.100701

Drennan, L., and Rohde, F. (2002). Determinants of performance in advanced undergraduate management accounting: an empirical investigation. Accoun. Finan . 42, 27–40. doi: 10.1111/1467-629X.00065

Dwyer, C. P., Boswell, A., and Elliott, M. A. (2015). An evaluation of critical thinking competencies in business settings. J. Educ. Bus. 90, 260–269. doi: 10.1080/08832323.2015.1038978

Elder, L., and Paul, R. (2001). Critical thinking: thinking to some purpose. J. Dev. Educ. 25, 40.

Elder, L., and Paul, R. (2012). Critical thinking: competency standards essential to the cultivation of intellectual skills, part 4. J. Dev. Educ. 35, 30–31.

Ennis, R. H. (1987). “A taxonomy of critical thinking dispositions and abilities,” in Teaching Thinking Skills: Theory and Practice , eds J. B. Baron and R. J. Sternberg (New York, NY: W H Freeman/Times Books/Henry Holt and Co), 9–26.

Ennis, R. H. (2011). Ideal critical thinkers are disposed to. Inquiry Crit. Think. Across Discipl. 26, 4. doi: 10.5840/inquiryctnews201126214

Ennis, R. H. (2018). Critical thinking across the curriculum: A vision. Topoi 37, 65–184. doi: 10.1007/s11245-016-9401-4

Erikson, M. G., and Erikson, M. (2019). Learning outcomes and critical thinking–good intentions in conflict. Stud. Higher Educ. 44, 2293–2303. doi: 10.1080/03075079.2018.1486813

Evendi, E., Al Kusaeri, A. K., Pardi, M. H. H., Sucipto, L., Bayani, F., and Prayogi, S. (2022). Assessing students' critical thinking skills viewed from cognitive style:Study on implementation of problem-based e-learning model in mathematics courses. Eurasia J. Math. Sci. Technol. Educ . 18, pem2129. doi: 10.29333/ejmste/12161

Facione, P., Facione, N., and Giancarlo, C. (2000). The Disposition Toward Critical Thinking: Its Character, Measurement, and Relationship to Critical Thinking Skill. Informal Logic. p. 20. doi: 10.22329/il.v20i1.2254

Facione, P. A. (1990). Critical Thinking: A Statement of Expert Consensus for Purposes of Educational Assessment and Instruction-The Delphi Report . Millbrae, CA: California Academic Press.

Facione, P. A. (2011). Critical thinking: What it is and why it counts. Insight Assessment 1, 1–23.

Facione, P. A., and Facione, N. C. (1994). Holistic Critical Thinking Scoring Rubric . Available online at: http://www.insightassessment.com/Resources/Holistic-Critical-Thinking-Scoring-Rubric-HCTSR (accessed April 20, 2023).

Fisher, A. (2011). Critical Thinking: An Introduction . Cambridge University Press.

Fujinuma, R., and Wendling, L. A. (2015). Repeating knowledge application practice to improve student performance in a large, introductory science course. Int. J. Sci. Educ . 37, 2906–2922. doi: 10.1080/09500693.2015.1114191

Halpern, D. (2010). Undergraduate Education in Psychology: A Blueprint for the Future of the Discipline . Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Harris, J. D., Quatman, C. E., Manring, M. M., Siston, R. A., and Flanigan, D. C. (2014). How to write a systematic review. Am. J. Sports Med. 42, 2761–2768. doi: 10.1177/0363546513497567

Hidayati, N., Zubai Dah, S., and Amnah, S. (2022). The PBL vs. digital mind maps integrated PBL: choosing between the two with a view to enhance learners' critical thinking. Particip. Educ. Res . 9, 30–343. doi: 10.17275/per.22.69.9.3

Hsu, Y. (2021). An action research in critical thinking concept designed curriculum based on collaborative learning for engineering ethics course. Sustainability 13, 2621. doi: 10.3390/su13052621

JBI (2011). Joanna Briggs Institute Reviewers' Manual . Adelaide: University of Adelaide.

Kamin, C., O'Sullivan, P., Deterding, R., and Younger, M. (2003). A comparison of critical thinking in groups of third-year medical students in text, video, and virtual PBL case modalities. Acad. Med . 78, 204–211. doi: 10.1097/00001888-200302000-00018

Karakoc, M. (2016). The significance of critical thinking ability in terms of education. Int. J. Human. Soc. Sci. 6, 81–84.

Kim, H. J., Yi, P., and Hong, J. I. (2020). Students' academic use of mobile technology and higher-order thinking skills: the role of active engagement. Educ. Sci . 10, 47. doi: 10.3390/educsci10030047

Latif, R., Mumtaz, S., Mumtaz, R., and Hussain, A. (2018). A comparison of debate and role play in enhancing critical thinking and communication skills of medical students during problem based learning. Biochem. Mol. Biol. Educ . 46, 336–342. doi: 10.1002/bmb.21124

Lee, J., Lee, Y., Gong, S., Bae, J., and Choi, M. (2016). A meta-analysis of the effects of non-traditional teaching methods on the critical thinking abilities of nursing students. BMC Med. Educ . 16, 240. doi: 10.1186/s12909-016-0761-7

Lim, M.-H. (2020). Effectiveness of simulation linked problem based learning on nursing college students in South Korea. Acad. J. Interdiscip. Stud . 9, 15. doi: 10.36941/ajis-2020-0018

Lipman, B. L. (1991). How to decide how to decide how to…: modeling limited rationality. Econom. J. Econom. Soc. 1105–1125. doi: 10.2307/2938176

Liu, Y., and Pásztor, A. (2022). Effects of problem-based learning instructional intervention on critical thinking in higher education: a meta-analysis. Think. Skills Creat. 45, 101069. doi: 10.1016/j.tsc.2022.101069

Mumtaz, S., and Latif, R. (2017). Learning through debate during problem-based learning: an active learning strategy. Adv. Physiol. Educ . 41, 390–394. doi: 10.1152/advan.00157.2016

Nagel, P. (2008). Geography: the essential skill for the 21st century. Soc. Educ. 72, 354.

National Association of Colleges Employers (2016). Class of 2016 Believes it is “Career Ready,” But is It? Available online at: http://tinyurl.com/ya8a559g (accessed April 20, 2023).

Nurcahyo, E., and Djono, D. (2018). The implementation of discovery learning model with scientific learning approach to improve students' critical thinking in learning history. Int. J. Multicul. Multirel. Understand . 5, 106. doi: 10.18415/ijmmu.v5i3.234

Orique, S. B., and McCarthy, M. A. (2015). Critical thinking and the use of nontraditional instructional methodologies. J. Nurs. Educ . 54, 455–459. doi: 10.3928/01484834-20150717-06

Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., et al. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ 372, n71. doi: 10.1136/bmj.n71

Papathanasiou, I. V., Kleisiaris, C. F., Fradelos, E. C., Kakou, K., and Kourkouta, L. (2014). Critical thinking: the development of an essential skill for nursing students. Acta Inform. Med. 22, 283. doi: 10.5455/aim.2014.22.283-286

Peng, M., Wang, G., Chen, J., Chen, M., Bai, H., Li, S., et al. (2004). Validity and reliability of the Chinese critical thinking disposition inventory. Chin. J. Nurs . 39, 7–10 (In Chinese).

Rivas, S., and Saiz, C. (2012). Validación y propiedades psicométricas de la prueba de pensamiento crítico PENCRISAL. Revista Electrónica de Metodología Aplicada 17, 18–34.

Rivas, S. F., Saiz, C., and Ossa, C. (2022). Metacognitive strategies and development of critical thinking in higher education. Front. Psychol . 13, 913219. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.913219

Rodríguez, M. F., Nussbaum, M., Pertuzé, J., Avila, C., Caceres, J., Valenzuela, T., et al. (2022). Using metacognition to promote active learning in large business management classes. Innov. Educ. Teach. Int . 59, 410–420. doi: 10.1080/14703297.2021.1887750

Roy, R. B., and McMahon, G. T. (2012). Video-based cases disrupt deep critical thinking in problem-based learning. Med. Educ . 46, 426–435. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.2011.04197.x

Saiz, C., and Rivas, S. F. (2008). Evaluación en pensamiento crítico: una propuesta para diferenciar formas de pensar. Ergo. Nueva Época 22–23, 25–66.

Schraw, G., and Dennison, R. (1994). Assessing metacognitive awareness. Contemp. Educ. Psychol . 19, 460–475. doi: 10.1006/ceps.1994.1033

Sendag, S., and Odabasi, H. F. (2009). Effects of an online problem based learning course on content knowledge acquisition and critical thinking skills. Comput. Educ . 53, 132–141. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2009.01.008

Sharma, M. B., and Elbow, G. S. (2000). Using Internet Primary Sources to Teach Critical Thinking Skills in Geography . Santa Barbara: Greenwood Publishing Group.

Silviariza, W. Y., and Handoyo, B. (2021). Improving critical thinking skills of geography students with spatial-problem based learning (SPBL). Int. J. Instr. 14, 133–152. doi: 10.29333/iji.2021.1438a

Silviarza, W., Sumarmi, S., and Handoyo, B. (2020). Using of Spatial Problem Based Learning (SPBL) model in geography education for developing critical thinking skills. J. Educ. Gifted Young Sci. 8, 1045–1060. doi: 10.17478/jegys.737219

Snyder, L. G., and Snyder, M. J. (2008). Teaching critical thinking and problem solving skills. J. Res. Bus. Educ. 50, 90.

Suryanti, N., and Nurhuda, N. (2021). The effect of problem-based learning with an analytical rubric on the development of students' critical thinking skills. Int. J. Instruct. 14, 665–684. doi: 10.29333/iji.2021.14237a

Xing, C., Zhou, Y., Li, M., Wu, Q., Zhou, Q., Wang, Q., et al. (2021). The effects of CPBL + SBAR teaching mode among the nursing students. Nurse Educ. Today , 100, 104828. doi: 10.1016/j.nedt.2021.104828

Yanchar, S. C., and Slife, B. D. (2004). Teaching critical thinking by examining assumptions. Teach. Psychol. 31, 85–90. doi: 10.1207/s15328023top3102_2

Yang, E. C. L., Khoo-Lattimore, C., and Arcodia, C. (2017). A systematic literature review of risk and gender research in tourism. Tour. Manag. 58, 89–100. doi: 10.1016/j.tourman.2016.10.011

Yeh Y. C. A. study of substitute teachers' professional knowledge personal teaching effificacy, teaching behavior in criticalthinking instruction. J. Chengchi. Univ. (1999). 78, 55–84.

Yoon, J. (2004). Development of an instrument for the measurement of critical thinking disposition: in nursing . (Unpublished theses), Seoul: Catholic University.

Yuan, H., Kunaviktikul, W., Klunklin, A., and Williams, B. A. (2008). Improvement of nursing students' critical thinking skills through problem-based learning in the People's Republic of China: a quasi-experimental study. Nurs. Health Sci. 10, 70–77. doi: 10.1111/j.1442-2018.2007.00373.x

Zainul, A. (2001). Alternative Assessment. PAU-PPAI, DirJen Dikti: DepDikNas . Available online at: http://www.academia.edu/5158544/Pengukuran_Assesment_Dan_Penilaian_Evaluation_Hasil_Belajar/Pdf_file (accessed April 20, 2023).

Keywords: higher education, problem-based learning, critical thinking, educational intervention, systematic review, pedagogical adaption

Citation: Yu L and Zin ZM (2023) The critical thinking-oriented adaptations of problem-based learning models: a systematic review. Front. Educ. 8:1139987. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2023.1139987

Received: 08 January 2023; Accepted: 02 May 2023; Published: 24 May 2023.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2023 Yu and Zin. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Zuhana Mohamed Zin, zuhana.kl@utm.my

Center for Teaching Innovation

Resource library.

Establishing Community Agreements and Classroom Norms
Sample group work rubric
Problem-Based Learning Clearinghouse of Activities, University of Delaware

Problem-Based Learning

Problem-based learning  (PBL) is a student-centered approach in which students learn about a subject by working in groups to solve an open-ended problem. This problem is what drives the motivation and the learning. 

Why Use Problem-Based Learning?

Nilson (2010) lists the following learning outcomes that are associated with PBL. A well-designed PBL project provides students with the opportunity to develop skills related to:

Working in teams.
Managing projects and holding leadership roles.
Oral and written communication.
Self-awareness and evaluation of group processes.
Working independently.
Critical thinking and analysis.
Explaining concepts.
Self-directed learning.
Applying course content to real-world examples.
Researching and information literacy.
Problem solving across disciplines.

Considerations for Using Problem-Based Learning

Rather than teaching relevant material and subsequently having students apply the knowledge to solve problems, the problem is presented first. PBL assignments can be short, or they can be more involved and take a whole semester. PBL is often group-oriented, so it is beneficial to set aside classroom time to prepare students to  work in groups  and to allow them to engage in their PBL project.

Students generally must:

Examine and define the problem.
Explore what they already know about underlying issues related to it.
Determine what they need to learn and where they can acquire the information and tools necessary to solve the problem.
Evaluate possible ways to solve the problem.
Solve the problem.
Report on their findings.

Getting Started with Problem-Based Learning

Articulate the learning outcomes of the project. What do you want students to know or be able to do as a result of participating in the assignment?
Create the problem. Ideally, this will be a real-world situation that resembles something students may encounter in their future careers or lives. Cases are often the basis of PBL activities. Previously developed PBL activities can be found online through the University of Delaware’s PBL Clearinghouse of Activities .
Establish ground rules at the beginning to prepare students to work effectively in groups.
Introduce students to group processes and do some warm up exercises to allow them to practice assessing both their own work and that of their peers.
Consider having students take on different roles or divide up the work up amongst themselves. Alternatively, the project might require students to assume various perspectives, such as those of government officials, local business owners, etc.
Establish how you will evaluate and assess the assignment. Consider making the self and peer assessments a part of the assignment grade.

Nilson, L. B. (2010). Teaching at its best: A research-based resource for college instructors (2nd ed.).  San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. 

Problem-Based Learning (PBL)

What is Problem-Based Learning (PBL)? PBL is a student-centered approach to learning that involves groups of students working to solve a real-world problem, quite different from the direct teaching method of a teacher presenting facts and concepts about a specific subject to a classroom of students. Through PBL, students not only strengthen their teamwork, communication, and research skills, but they also sharpen their critical thinking and problem-solving abilities essential for life-long learning.

By working with PBL, students will:

Become engaged with open-ended situations that assimilate the world of work
Participate in groups to pinpoint what is known/ not known and the methods of finding information to help solve the given problem.
Investigate a problem; through critical thinking and problem solving, brainstorm a list of unique solutions.
Analyze the situation to see if the real problem is framed or if there are other problems that need to be solved.

How to Begin PBL

Establish the learning outcomes (i.e., what is it that you want your students to really learn and to be able to do after completing the learning project).
Find a real-world problem that is relevant to the students; often the problems are ones that students may encounter in their own life or future career.
Discuss pertinent rules for working in groups to maximize learning success.
Practice group processes: listening, involving others, assessing their work/peers.
Explore different roles for students to accomplish the work that needs to be done and/or to see the problem from various perspectives depending on the problem (e.g., for a problem about pollution, different roles may be a mayor, business owner, parent, child, neighboring city government officials, etc.).
Determine how the project will be evaluated and assessed. Most likely, both self-assessment and peer-assessment will factor into the assignment grade.

Designing Classroom Instruction

How to Orchestrate a PBL Activity

Explain Problem-Based Learning to students: its rationale, daily instruction, class expectations, grading.
Serve as a model and resource to the PBL process; work in-tandem through the first problem
Help students secure various resources when needed.
Supply ample class time for collaborative group work.
Give feedback to each group after they share via the established format; critique the solution in quality and thoroughness. Reinforce to the students that the prior thinking and reasoning process in addition to the solution are important as well.

Teacher’s Role in PBL

The Role of the Students

Concept Maps and How To Use Them

Concept maps help our brains take in information, mostly when there is visual information. The maps help us to see the big picture along with the connected and related data. They also help…

Definitions of Educational Technology

Educational Technology What is educational technology? There are a variety of definitions of educational technology. What is instructional design and technology? The Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT): Educational technology is the study…

Open Source Learning Management Systems (LMS)

Learning Management Systems (LMSs) are becoming a vital part of classrooms in the 21th Century. This is a list of open source learning management systems. By open source we mean that source code of…

SAMR Model: Substitution, Augmentation, Modification, and Redefinition

When integrating technology into education, the SAMR model serves as a foundational guide. Crafted by Ruben R. Puentedura, SAMR offers educators a structured way to think about incorporating technology effectively. It stands for…

How To Design A Course

This article includes tips on designing and building a course. Allow enough time to carefully plan and revise content for a new course. Careful planning will make teaching easier and more enjoyable. Talk…

We apologize for the inconvenience...

To ensure we keep this website safe, please can you confirm you are a human by ticking the box below.

If you are unable to complete the above request please contact us using the below link, providing a screenshot of your experience.

https://ioppublishing.org/contacts/

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

View all journals
My Account Login
Explore content
About the journal
Publish with us
Sign up for alerts
Review Article
Open access
Published: 11 January 2023

The effectiveness of collaborative problem solving in promoting students’ critical thinking: A meta-analysis based on empirical literature

Enwei Xu ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6424-8169 1 ,
Wei Wang 1 &
Qingxia Wang 1

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume 10 , Article number: 16 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

15k Accesses

14 Citations

3 Altmetric

Metrics details

Science, technology and society

Collaborative problem-solving has been widely embraced in the classroom instruction of critical thinking, which is regarded as the core of curriculum reform based on key competencies in the field of education as well as a key competence for learners in the 21st century. However, the effectiveness of collaborative problem-solving in promoting students’ critical thinking remains uncertain. This current research presents the major findings of a meta-analysis of 36 pieces of the literature revealed in worldwide educational periodicals during the 21st century to identify the effectiveness of collaborative problem-solving in promoting students’ critical thinking and to determine, based on evidence, whether and to what extent collaborative problem solving can result in a rise or decrease in critical thinking. The findings show that (1) collaborative problem solving is an effective teaching approach to foster students’ critical thinking, with a significant overall effect size (ES = 0.82, z = 12.78, P < 0.01, 95% CI [0.69, 0.95]); (2) in respect to the dimensions of critical thinking, collaborative problem solving can significantly and successfully enhance students’ attitudinal tendencies (ES = 1.17, z = 7.62, P < 0.01, 95% CI[0.87, 1.47]); nevertheless, it falls short in terms of improving students’ cognitive skills, having only an upper-middle impact (ES = 0.70, z = 11.55, P < 0.01, 95% CI[0.58, 0.82]); and (3) the teaching type (chi 2 = 7.20, P < 0.05), intervention duration (chi 2 = 12.18, P < 0.01), subject area (chi 2 = 13.36, P < 0.05), group size (chi 2 = 8.77, P < 0.05), and learning scaffold (chi 2 = 9.03, P < 0.01) all have an impact on critical thinking, and they can be viewed as important moderating factors that affect how critical thinking develops. On the basis of these results, recommendations are made for further study and instruction to better support students’ critical thinking in the context of collaborative problem-solving.

Fostering twenty-first century skills among primary school students through math project-based learning

problem based learning critical thinking

A meta-analysis to gauge the impact of pedagogies employed in mixed-ability high school biology classrooms

A guide to critical thinking: implications for dental education

Introduction.

Although critical thinking has a long history in research, the concept of critical thinking, which is regarded as an essential competence for learners in the 21st century, has recently attracted more attention from researchers and teaching practitioners (National Research Council, 2012 ). Critical thinking should be the core of curriculum reform based on key competencies in the field of education (Peng and Deng, 2017 ) because students with critical thinking can not only understand the meaning of knowledge but also effectively solve practical problems in real life even after knowledge is forgotten (Kek and Huijser, 2011 ). The definition of critical thinking is not universal (Ennis, 1989 ; Castle, 2009 ; Niu et al., 2013 ). In general, the definition of critical thinking is a self-aware and self-regulated thought process (Facione, 1990 ; Niu et al., 2013 ). It refers to the cognitive skills needed to interpret, analyze, synthesize, reason, and evaluate information as well as the attitudinal tendency to apply these abilities (Halpern, 2001 ). The view that critical thinking can be taught and learned through curriculum teaching has been widely supported by many researchers (e.g., Kuncel, 2011 ; Leng and Lu, 2020 ), leading to educators’ efforts to foster it among students. In the field of teaching practice, there are three types of courses for teaching critical thinking (Ennis, 1989 ). The first is an independent curriculum in which critical thinking is taught and cultivated without involving the knowledge of specific disciplines; the second is an integrated curriculum in which critical thinking is integrated into the teaching of other disciplines as a clear teaching goal; and the third is a mixed curriculum in which critical thinking is taught in parallel to the teaching of other disciplines for mixed teaching training. Furthermore, numerous measuring tools have been developed by researchers and educators to measure critical thinking in the context of teaching practice. These include standardized measurement tools, such as WGCTA, CCTST, CCTT, and CCTDI, which have been verified by repeated experiments and are considered effective and reliable by international scholars (Facione and Facione, 1992 ). In short, descriptions of critical thinking, including its two dimensions of attitudinal tendency and cognitive skills, different types of teaching courses, and standardized measurement tools provide a complex normative framework for understanding, teaching, and evaluating critical thinking.

Cultivating critical thinking in curriculum teaching can start with a problem, and one of the most popular critical thinking instructional approaches is problem-based learning (Liu et al., 2020 ). Duch et al. ( 2001 ) noted that problem-based learning in group collaboration is progressive active learning, which can improve students’ critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Collaborative problem-solving is the organic integration of collaborative learning and problem-based learning, which takes learners as the center of the learning process and uses problems with poor structure in real-world situations as the starting point for the learning process (Liang et al., 2017 ). Students learn the knowledge needed to solve problems in a collaborative group, reach a consensus on problems in the field, and form solutions through social cooperation methods, such as dialogue, interpretation, questioning, debate, negotiation, and reflection, thus promoting the development of learners’ domain knowledge and critical thinking (Cindy, 2004 ; Liang et al., 2017 ).

Collaborative problem-solving has been widely used in the teaching practice of critical thinking, and several studies have attempted to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis of the empirical literature on critical thinking from various perspectives. However, little attention has been paid to the impact of collaborative problem-solving on critical thinking. Therefore, the best approach for developing and enhancing critical thinking throughout collaborative problem-solving is to examine how to implement critical thinking instruction; however, this issue is still unexplored, which means that many teachers are incapable of better instructing critical thinking (Leng and Lu, 2020 ; Niu et al., 2013 ). For example, Huber ( 2016 ) provided the meta-analysis findings of 71 publications on gaining critical thinking over various time frames in college with the aim of determining whether critical thinking was truly teachable. These authors found that learners significantly improve their critical thinking while in college and that critical thinking differs with factors such as teaching strategies, intervention duration, subject area, and teaching type. The usefulness of collaborative problem-solving in fostering students’ critical thinking, however, was not determined by this study, nor did it reveal whether there existed significant variations among the different elements. A meta-analysis of 31 pieces of educational literature was conducted by Liu et al. ( 2020 ) to assess the impact of problem-solving on college students’ critical thinking. These authors found that problem-solving could promote the development of critical thinking among college students and proposed establishing a reasonable group structure for problem-solving in a follow-up study to improve students’ critical thinking. Additionally, previous empirical studies have reached inconclusive and even contradictory conclusions about whether and to what extent collaborative problem-solving increases or decreases critical thinking levels. As an illustration, Yang et al. ( 2008 ) carried out an experiment on the integrated curriculum teaching of college students based on a web bulletin board with the goal of fostering participants’ critical thinking in the context of collaborative problem-solving. These authors’ research revealed that through sharing, debating, examining, and reflecting on various experiences and ideas, collaborative problem-solving can considerably enhance students’ critical thinking in real-life problem situations. In contrast, collaborative problem-solving had a positive impact on learners’ interaction and could improve learning interest and motivation but could not significantly improve students’ critical thinking when compared to traditional classroom teaching, according to research by Naber and Wyatt ( 2014 ) and Sendag and Odabasi ( 2009 ) on undergraduate and high school students, respectively.

The above studies show that there is inconsistency regarding the effectiveness of collaborative problem-solving in promoting students’ critical thinking. Therefore, it is essential to conduct a thorough and trustworthy review to detect and decide whether and to what degree collaborative problem-solving can result in a rise or decrease in critical thinking. Meta-analysis is a quantitative analysis approach that is utilized to examine quantitative data from various separate studies that are all focused on the same research topic. This approach characterizes the effectiveness of its impact by averaging the effect sizes of numerous qualitative studies in an effort to reduce the uncertainty brought on by independent research and produce more conclusive findings (Lipsey and Wilson, 2001 ).

This paper used a meta-analytic approach and carried out a meta-analysis to examine the effectiveness of collaborative problem-solving in promoting students’ critical thinking in order to make a contribution to both research and practice. The following research questions were addressed by this meta-analysis:

What is the overall effect size of collaborative problem-solving in promoting students’ critical thinking and its impact on the two dimensions of critical thinking (i.e., attitudinal tendency and cognitive skills)?

How are the disparities between the study conclusions impacted by various moderating variables if the impacts of various experimental designs in the included studies are heterogeneous?

This research followed the strict procedures (e.g., database searching, identification, screening, eligibility, merging, duplicate removal, and analysis of included studies) of Cooper’s ( 2010 ) proposed meta-analysis approach for examining quantitative data from various separate studies that are all focused on the same research topic. The relevant empirical research that appeared in worldwide educational periodicals within the 21st century was subjected to this meta-analysis using Rev-Man 5.4. The consistency of the data extracted separately by two researchers was tested using Cohen’s kappa coefficient, and a publication bias test and a heterogeneity test were run on the sample data to ascertain the quality of this meta-analysis.

Data sources and search strategies

There were three stages to the data collection process for this meta-analysis, as shown in Fig. 1 , which shows the number of articles included and eliminated during the selection process based on the statement and study eligibility criteria.

This flowchart shows the number of records identified, included and excluded in the article.

First, the databases used to systematically search for relevant articles were the journal papers of the Web of Science Core Collection and the Chinese Core source journal, as well as the Chinese Social Science Citation Index (CSSCI) source journal papers included in CNKI. These databases were selected because they are credible platforms that are sources of scholarly and peer-reviewed information with advanced search tools and contain literature relevant to the subject of our topic from reliable researchers and experts. The search string with the Boolean operator used in the Web of Science was “TS = (((“critical thinking” or “ct” and “pretest” or “posttest”) or (“critical thinking” or “ct” and “control group” or “quasi experiment” or “experiment”)) and (“collaboration” or “collaborative learning” or “CSCL”) and (“problem solving” or “problem-based learning” or “PBL”))”. The research area was “Education Educational Research”, and the search period was “January 1, 2000, to December 30, 2021”. A total of 412 papers were obtained. The search string with the Boolean operator used in the CNKI was “SU = (‘critical thinking’*‘collaboration’ + ‘critical thinking’*‘collaborative learning’ + ‘critical thinking’*‘CSCL’ + ‘critical thinking’*‘problem solving’ + ‘critical thinking’*‘problem-based learning’ + ‘critical thinking’*‘PBL’ + ‘critical thinking’*‘problem oriented’) AND FT = (‘experiment’ + ‘quasi experiment’ + ‘pretest’ + ‘posttest’ + ‘empirical study’)” (translated into Chinese when searching). A total of 56 studies were found throughout the search period of “January 2000 to December 2021”. From the databases, all duplicates and retractions were eliminated before exporting the references into Endnote, a program for managing bibliographic references. In all, 466 studies were found.

Second, the studies that matched the inclusion and exclusion criteria for the meta-analysis were chosen by two researchers after they had reviewed the abstracts and titles of the gathered articles, yielding a total of 126 studies.

Third, two researchers thoroughly reviewed each included article’s whole text in accordance with the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Meanwhile, a snowball search was performed using the references and citations of the included articles to ensure complete coverage of the articles. Ultimately, 36 articles were kept.

Two researchers worked together to carry out this entire process, and a consensus rate of almost 94.7% was reached after discussion and negotiation to clarify any emerging differences.

Eligibility criteria

Since not all the retrieved studies matched the criteria for this meta-analysis, eligibility criteria for both inclusion and exclusion were developed as follows:

The publication language of the included studies was limited to English and Chinese, and the full text could be obtained. Articles that did not meet the publication language and articles not published between 2000 and 2021 were excluded.

The research design of the included studies must be empirical and quantitative studies that can assess the effect of collaborative problem-solving on the development of critical thinking. Articles that could not identify the causal mechanisms by which collaborative problem-solving affects critical thinking, such as review articles and theoretical articles, were excluded.

The research method of the included studies must feature a randomized control experiment or a quasi-experiment, or a natural experiment, which have a higher degree of internal validity with strong experimental designs and can all plausibly provide evidence that critical thinking and collaborative problem-solving are causally related. Articles with non-experimental research methods, such as purely correlational or observational studies, were excluded.

The participants of the included studies were only students in school, including K-12 students and college students. Articles in which the participants were non-school students, such as social workers or adult learners, were excluded.

The research results of the included studies must mention definite signs that may be utilized to gauge critical thinking’s impact (e.g., sample size, mean value, or standard deviation). Articles that lacked specific measurement indicators for critical thinking and could not calculate the effect size were excluded.

Data coding design

In order to perform a meta-analysis, it is necessary to collect the most important information from the articles, codify that information’s properties, and convert descriptive data into quantitative data. Therefore, this study designed a data coding template (see Table 1 ). Ultimately, 16 coding fields were retained.

The designed data-coding template consisted of three pieces of information. Basic information about the papers was included in the descriptive information: the publishing year, author, serial number, and title of the paper.

The variable information for the experimental design had three variables: the independent variable (instruction method), the dependent variable (critical thinking), and the moderating variable (learning stage, teaching type, intervention duration, learning scaffold, group size, measuring tool, and subject area). Depending on the topic of this study, the intervention strategy, as the independent variable, was coded into collaborative and non-collaborative problem-solving. The dependent variable, critical thinking, was coded as a cognitive skill and an attitudinal tendency. And seven moderating variables were created by grouping and combining the experimental design variables discovered within the 36 studies (see Table 1 ), where learning stages were encoded as higher education, high school, middle school, and primary school or lower; teaching types were encoded as mixed courses, integrated courses, and independent courses; intervention durations were encoded as 0–1 weeks, 1–4 weeks, 4–12 weeks, and more than 12 weeks; group sizes were encoded as 2–3 persons, 4–6 persons, 7–10 persons, and more than 10 persons; learning scaffolds were encoded as teacher-supported learning scaffold, technique-supported learning scaffold, and resource-supported learning scaffold; measuring tools were encoded as standardized measurement tools (e.g., WGCTA, CCTT, CCTST, and CCTDI) and self-adapting measurement tools (e.g., modified or made by researchers); and subject areas were encoded according to the specific subjects used in the 36 included studies.

The data information contained three metrics for measuring critical thinking: sample size, average value, and standard deviation. It is vital to remember that studies with various experimental designs frequently adopt various formulas to determine the effect size. And this paper used Morris’ proposed standardized mean difference (SMD) calculation formula ( 2008 , p. 369; see Supplementary Table S3 ).

Procedure for extracting and coding data

According to the data coding template (see Table 1 ), the 36 papers’ information was retrieved by two researchers, who then entered them into Excel (see Supplementary Table S1 ). The results of each study were extracted separately in the data extraction procedure if an article contained numerous studies on critical thinking, or if a study assessed different critical thinking dimensions. For instance, Tiwari et al. ( 2010 ) used four time points, which were viewed as numerous different studies, to examine the outcomes of critical thinking, and Chen ( 2013 ) included the two outcome variables of attitudinal tendency and cognitive skills, which were regarded as two studies. After discussion and negotiation during data extraction, the two researchers’ consistency test coefficients were roughly 93.27%. Supplementary Table S2 details the key characteristics of the 36 included articles with 79 effect quantities, including descriptive information (e.g., the publishing year, author, serial number, and title of the paper), variable information (e.g., independent variables, dependent variables, and moderating variables), and data information (e.g., mean values, standard deviations, and sample size). Following that, testing for publication bias and heterogeneity was done on the sample data using the Rev-Man 5.4 software, and then the test results were used to conduct a meta-analysis.

Publication bias test

When the sample of studies included in a meta-analysis does not accurately reflect the general status of research on the relevant subject, publication bias is said to be exhibited in this research. The reliability and accuracy of the meta-analysis may be impacted by publication bias. Due to this, the meta-analysis needs to check the sample data for publication bias (Stewart et al., 2006 ). A popular method to check for publication bias is the funnel plot; and it is unlikely that there will be publishing bias when the data are equally dispersed on either side of the average effect size and targeted within the higher region. The data are equally dispersed within the higher portion of the efficient zone, consistent with the funnel plot connected with this analysis (see Fig. 2 ), indicating that publication bias is unlikely in this situation.

This funnel plot shows the result of publication bias of 79 effect quantities across 36 studies.

Heterogeneity test

To select the appropriate effect models for the meta-analysis, one might use the results of a heterogeneity test on the data effect sizes. In a meta-analysis, it is common practice to gauge the degree of data heterogeneity using the I 2 value, and I 2 ≥ 50% is typically understood to denote medium-high heterogeneity, which calls for the adoption of a random effect model; if not, a fixed effect model ought to be applied (Lipsey and Wilson, 2001 ). The findings of the heterogeneity test in this paper (see Table 2 ) revealed that I 2 was 86% and displayed significant heterogeneity ( P < 0.01). To ensure accuracy and reliability, the overall effect size ought to be calculated utilizing the random effect model.

The analysis of the overall effect size

This meta-analysis utilized a random effect model to examine 79 effect quantities from 36 studies after eliminating heterogeneity. In accordance with Cohen’s criterion (Cohen, 1992 ), it is abundantly clear from the analysis results, which are shown in the forest plot of the overall effect (see Fig. 3 ), that the cumulative impact size of cooperative problem-solving is 0.82, which is statistically significant ( z = 12.78, P < 0.01, 95% CI [0.69, 0.95]), and can encourage learners to practice critical thinking.

This forest plot shows the analysis result of the overall effect size across 36 studies.

In addition, this study examined two distinct dimensions of critical thinking to better understand the precise contributions that collaborative problem-solving makes to the growth of critical thinking. The findings (see Table 3 ) indicate that collaborative problem-solving improves cognitive skills (ES = 0.70) and attitudinal tendency (ES = 1.17), with significant intergroup differences (chi 2 = 7.95, P < 0.01). Although collaborative problem-solving improves both dimensions of critical thinking, it is essential to point out that the improvements in students’ attitudinal tendency are much more pronounced and have a significant comprehensive effect (ES = 1.17, z = 7.62, P < 0.01, 95% CI [0.87, 1.47]), whereas gains in learners’ cognitive skill are slightly improved and are just above average. (ES = 0.70, z = 11.55, P < 0.01, 95% CI [0.58, 0.82]).

The analysis of moderator effect size

The whole forest plot’s 79 effect quantities underwent a two-tailed test, which revealed significant heterogeneity ( I 2 = 86%, z = 12.78, P < 0.01), indicating differences between various effect sizes that may have been influenced by moderating factors other than sampling error. Therefore, exploring possible moderating factors that might produce considerable heterogeneity was done using subgroup analysis, such as the learning stage, learning scaffold, teaching type, group size, duration of the intervention, measuring tool, and the subject area included in the 36 experimental designs, in order to further explore the key factors that influence critical thinking. The findings (see Table 4 ) indicate that various moderating factors have advantageous effects on critical thinking. In this situation, the subject area (chi 2 = 13.36, P < 0.05), group size (chi 2 = 8.77, P < 0.05), intervention duration (chi 2 = 12.18, P < 0.01), learning scaffold (chi 2 = 9.03, P < 0.01), and teaching type (chi 2 = 7.20, P < 0.05) are all significant moderators that can be applied to support the cultivation of critical thinking. However, since the learning stage and the measuring tools did not significantly differ among intergroup (chi 2 = 3.15, P = 0.21 > 0.05, and chi 2 = 0.08, P = 0.78 > 0.05), we are unable to explain why these two factors are crucial in supporting the cultivation of critical thinking in the context of collaborative problem-solving. These are the precise outcomes, as follows:

Various learning stages influenced critical thinking positively, without significant intergroup differences (chi 2 = 3.15, P = 0.21 > 0.05). High school was first on the list of effect sizes (ES = 1.36, P < 0.01), then higher education (ES = 0.78, P < 0.01), and middle school (ES = 0.73, P < 0.01). These results show that, despite the learning stage’s beneficial influence on cultivating learners’ critical thinking, we are unable to explain why it is essential for cultivating critical thinking in the context of collaborative problem-solving.

Different teaching types had varying degrees of positive impact on critical thinking, with significant intergroup differences (chi 2 = 7.20, P < 0.05). The effect size was ranked as follows: mixed courses (ES = 1.34, P < 0.01), integrated courses (ES = 0.81, P < 0.01), and independent courses (ES = 0.27, P < 0.01). These results indicate that the most effective approach to cultivate critical thinking utilizing collaborative problem solving is through the teaching type of mixed courses.

Various intervention durations significantly improved critical thinking, and there were significant intergroup differences (chi 2 = 12.18, P < 0.01). The effect sizes related to this variable showed a tendency to increase with longer intervention durations. The improvement in critical thinking reached a significant level (ES = 0.85, P < 0.01) after more than 12 weeks of training. These findings indicate that the intervention duration and critical thinking’s impact are positively correlated, with a longer intervention duration having a greater effect.

Different learning scaffolds influenced critical thinking positively, with significant intergroup differences (chi 2 = 9.03, P < 0.01). The resource-supported learning scaffold (ES = 0.69, P < 0.01) acquired a medium-to-higher level of impact, the technique-supported learning scaffold (ES = 0.63, P < 0.01) also attained a medium-to-higher level of impact, and the teacher-supported learning scaffold (ES = 0.92, P < 0.01) displayed a high level of significant impact. These results show that the learning scaffold with teacher support has the greatest impact on cultivating critical thinking.

Various group sizes influenced critical thinking positively, and the intergroup differences were statistically significant (chi 2 = 8.77, P < 0.05). Critical thinking showed a general declining trend with increasing group size. The overall effect size of 2–3 people in this situation was the biggest (ES = 0.99, P < 0.01), and when the group size was greater than 7 people, the improvement in critical thinking was at the lower-middle level (ES < 0.5, P < 0.01). These results show that the impact on critical thinking is positively connected with group size, and as group size grows, so does the overall impact.

Various measuring tools influenced critical thinking positively, with significant intergroup differences (chi 2 = 0.08, P = 0.78 > 0.05). In this situation, the self-adapting measurement tools obtained an upper-medium level of effect (ES = 0.78), whereas the complete effect size of the standardized measurement tools was the largest, achieving a significant level of effect (ES = 0.84, P < 0.01). These results show that, despite the beneficial influence of the measuring tool on cultivating critical thinking, we are unable to explain why it is crucial in fostering the growth of critical thinking by utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving.

Different subject areas had a greater impact on critical thinking, and the intergroup differences were statistically significant (chi 2 = 13.36, P < 0.05). Mathematics had the greatest overall impact, achieving a significant level of effect (ES = 1.68, P < 0.01), followed by science (ES = 1.25, P < 0.01) and medical science (ES = 0.87, P < 0.01), both of which also achieved a significant level of effect. Programming technology was the least effective (ES = 0.39, P < 0.01), only having a medium-low degree of effect compared to education (ES = 0.72, P < 0.01) and other fields (such as language, art, and social sciences) (ES = 0.58, P < 0.01). These results suggest that scientific fields (e.g., mathematics, science) may be the most effective subject areas for cultivating critical thinking utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving.

The effectiveness of collaborative problem solving with regard to teaching critical thinking

According to this meta-analysis, using collaborative problem-solving as an intervention strategy in critical thinking teaching has a considerable amount of impact on cultivating learners’ critical thinking as a whole and has a favorable promotional effect on the two dimensions of critical thinking. According to certain studies, collaborative problem solving, the most frequently used critical thinking teaching strategy in curriculum instruction can considerably enhance students’ critical thinking (e.g., Liang et al., 2017 ; Liu et al., 2020 ; Cindy, 2004 ). This meta-analysis provides convergent data support for the above research views. Thus, the findings of this meta-analysis not only effectively address the first research query regarding the overall effect of cultivating critical thinking and its impact on the two dimensions of critical thinking (i.e., attitudinal tendency and cognitive skills) utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving, but also enhance our confidence in cultivating critical thinking by using collaborative problem-solving intervention approach in the context of classroom teaching.

Furthermore, the associated improvements in attitudinal tendency are much stronger, but the corresponding improvements in cognitive skill are only marginally better. According to certain studies, cognitive skill differs from the attitudinal tendency in classroom instruction; the cultivation and development of the former as a key ability is a process of gradual accumulation, while the latter as an attitude is affected by the context of the teaching situation (e.g., a novel and exciting teaching approach, challenging and rewarding tasks) (Halpern, 2001 ; Wei and Hong, 2022 ). Collaborative problem-solving as a teaching approach is exciting and interesting, as well as rewarding and challenging; because it takes the learners as the focus and examines problems with poor structure in real situations, and it can inspire students to fully realize their potential for problem-solving, which will significantly improve their attitudinal tendency toward solving problems (Liu et al., 2020 ). Similar to how collaborative problem-solving influences attitudinal tendency, attitudinal tendency impacts cognitive skill when attempting to solve a problem (Liu et al., 2020 ; Zhang et al., 2022 ), and stronger attitudinal tendencies are associated with improved learning achievement and cognitive ability in students (Sison, 2008 ; Zhang et al., 2022 ). It can be seen that the two specific dimensions of critical thinking as well as critical thinking as a whole are affected by collaborative problem-solving, and this study illuminates the nuanced links between cognitive skills and attitudinal tendencies with regard to these two dimensions of critical thinking. To fully develop students’ capacity for critical thinking, future empirical research should pay closer attention to cognitive skills.

The moderating effects of collaborative problem solving with regard to teaching critical thinking

In order to further explore the key factors that influence critical thinking, exploring possible moderating effects that might produce considerable heterogeneity was done using subgroup analysis. The findings show that the moderating factors, such as the teaching type, learning stage, group size, learning scaffold, duration of the intervention, measuring tool, and the subject area included in the 36 experimental designs, could all support the cultivation of collaborative problem-solving in critical thinking. Among them, the effect size differences between the learning stage and measuring tool are not significant, which does not explain why these two factors are crucial in supporting the cultivation of critical thinking utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving.

In terms of the learning stage, various learning stages influenced critical thinking positively without significant intergroup differences, indicating that we are unable to explain why it is crucial in fostering the growth of critical thinking.

Although high education accounts for 70.89% of all empirical studies performed by researchers, high school may be the appropriate learning stage to foster students’ critical thinking by utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving since it has the largest overall effect size. This phenomenon may be related to student’s cognitive development, which needs to be further studied in follow-up research.

With regard to teaching type, mixed course teaching may be the best teaching method to cultivate students’ critical thinking. Relevant studies have shown that in the actual teaching process if students are trained in thinking methods alone, the methods they learn are isolated and divorced from subject knowledge, which is not conducive to their transfer of thinking methods; therefore, if students’ thinking is trained only in subject teaching without systematic method training, it is challenging to apply to real-world circumstances (Ruggiero, 2012 ; Hu and Liu, 2015 ). Teaching critical thinking as mixed course teaching in parallel to other subject teachings can achieve the best effect on learners’ critical thinking, and explicit critical thinking instruction is more effective than less explicit critical thinking instruction (Bensley and Spero, 2014 ).

In terms of the intervention duration, with longer intervention times, the overall effect size shows an upward tendency. Thus, the intervention duration and critical thinking’s impact are positively correlated. Critical thinking, as a key competency for students in the 21st century, is difficult to get a meaningful improvement in a brief intervention duration. Instead, it could be developed over a lengthy period of time through consistent teaching and the progressive accumulation of knowledge (Halpern, 2001 ; Hu and Liu, 2015 ). Therefore, future empirical studies ought to take these restrictions into account throughout a longer period of critical thinking instruction.

With regard to group size, a group size of 2–3 persons has the highest effect size, and the comprehensive effect size decreases with increasing group size in general. This outcome is in line with some research findings; as an example, a group composed of two to four members is most appropriate for collaborative learning (Schellens and Valcke, 2006 ). However, the meta-analysis results also indicate that once the group size exceeds 7 people, small groups cannot produce better interaction and performance than large groups. This may be because the learning scaffolds of technique support, resource support, and teacher support improve the frequency and effectiveness of interaction among group members, and a collaborative group with more members may increase the diversity of views, which is helpful to cultivate critical thinking utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving.

With regard to the learning scaffold, the three different kinds of learning scaffolds can all enhance critical thinking. Among them, the teacher-supported learning scaffold has the largest overall effect size, demonstrating the interdependence of effective learning scaffolds and collaborative problem-solving. This outcome is in line with some research findings; as an example, a successful strategy is to encourage learners to collaborate, come up with solutions, and develop critical thinking skills by using learning scaffolds (Reiser, 2004 ; Xu et al., 2022 ); learning scaffolds can lower task complexity and unpleasant feelings while also enticing students to engage in learning activities (Wood et al., 2006 ); learning scaffolds are designed to assist students in using learning approaches more successfully to adapt the collaborative problem-solving process, and the teacher-supported learning scaffolds have the greatest influence on critical thinking in this process because they are more targeted, informative, and timely (Xu et al., 2022 ).

With respect to the measuring tool, despite the fact that standardized measurement tools (such as the WGCTA, CCTT, and CCTST) have been acknowledged as trustworthy and effective by worldwide experts, only 54.43% of the research included in this meta-analysis adopted them for assessment, and the results indicated no intergroup differences. These results suggest that not all teaching circumstances are appropriate for measuring critical thinking using standardized measurement tools. “The measuring tools for measuring thinking ability have limits in assessing learners in educational situations and should be adapted appropriately to accurately assess the changes in learners’ critical thinking.”, according to Simpson and Courtney ( 2002 , p. 91). As a result, in order to more fully and precisely gauge how learners’ critical thinking has evolved, we must properly modify standardized measuring tools based on collaborative problem-solving learning contexts.

With regard to the subject area, the comprehensive effect size of science departments (e.g., mathematics, science, medical science) is larger than that of language arts and social sciences. Some recent international education reforms have noted that critical thinking is a basic part of scientific literacy. Students with scientific literacy can prove the rationality of their judgment according to accurate evidence and reasonable standards when they face challenges or poorly structured problems (Kyndt et al., 2013 ), which makes critical thinking crucial for developing scientific understanding and applying this understanding to practical problem solving for problems related to science, technology, and society (Yore et al., 2007 ).

Suggestions for critical thinking teaching

Other than those stated in the discussion above, the following suggestions are offered for critical thinking instruction utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving.

First, teachers should put a special emphasis on the two core elements, which are collaboration and problem-solving, to design real problems based on collaborative situations. This meta-analysis provides evidence to support the view that collaborative problem-solving has a strong synergistic effect on promoting students’ critical thinking. Asking questions about real situations and allowing learners to take part in critical discussions on real problems during class instruction are key ways to teach critical thinking rather than simply reading speculative articles without practice (Mulnix, 2012 ). Furthermore, the improvement of students’ critical thinking is realized through cognitive conflict with other learners in the problem situation (Yang et al., 2008 ). Consequently, it is essential for teachers to put a special emphasis on the two core elements, which are collaboration and problem-solving, and design real problems and encourage students to discuss, negotiate, and argue based on collaborative problem-solving situations.

Second, teachers should design and implement mixed courses to cultivate learners’ critical thinking, utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving. Critical thinking can be taught through curriculum instruction (Kuncel, 2011 ; Leng and Lu, 2020 ), with the goal of cultivating learners’ critical thinking for flexible transfer and application in real problem-solving situations. This meta-analysis shows that mixed course teaching has a highly substantial impact on the cultivation and promotion of learners’ critical thinking. Therefore, teachers should design and implement mixed course teaching with real collaborative problem-solving situations in combination with the knowledge content of specific disciplines in conventional teaching, teach methods and strategies of critical thinking based on poorly structured problems to help students master critical thinking, and provide practical activities in which students can interact with each other to develop knowledge construction and critical thinking utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving.

Third, teachers should be more trained in critical thinking, particularly preservice teachers, and they also should be conscious of the ways in which teachers’ support for learning scaffolds can promote critical thinking. The learning scaffold supported by teachers had the greatest impact on learners’ critical thinking, in addition to being more directive, targeted, and timely (Wood et al., 2006 ). Critical thinking can only be effectively taught when teachers recognize the significance of critical thinking for students’ growth and use the proper approaches while designing instructional activities (Forawi, 2016 ). Therefore, with the intention of enabling teachers to create learning scaffolds to cultivate learners’ critical thinking utilizing the approach of collaborative problem solving, it is essential to concentrate on the teacher-supported learning scaffolds and enhance the instruction for teaching critical thinking to teachers, especially preservice teachers.

Implications and limitations

There are certain limitations in this meta-analysis, but future research can correct them. First, the search languages were restricted to English and Chinese, so it is possible that pertinent studies that were written in other languages were overlooked, resulting in an inadequate number of articles for review. Second, these data provided by the included studies are partially missing, such as whether teachers were trained in the theory and practice of critical thinking, the average age and gender of learners, and the differences in critical thinking among learners of various ages and genders. Third, as is typical for review articles, more studies were released while this meta-analysis was being done; therefore, it had a time limit. With the development of relevant research, future studies focusing on these issues are highly relevant and needed.

Conclusions

The subject of the magnitude of collaborative problem-solving’s impact on fostering students’ critical thinking, which received scant attention from other studies, was successfully addressed by this study. The question of the effectiveness of collaborative problem-solving in promoting students’ critical thinking was addressed in this study, which addressed a topic that had gotten little attention in earlier research. The following conclusions can be made:

Regarding the results obtained, collaborative problem solving is an effective teaching approach to foster learners’ critical thinking, with a significant overall effect size (ES = 0.82, z = 12.78, P < 0.01, 95% CI [0.69, 0.95]). With respect to the dimensions of critical thinking, collaborative problem-solving can significantly and effectively improve students’ attitudinal tendency, and the comprehensive effect is significant (ES = 1.17, z = 7.62, P < 0.01, 95% CI [0.87, 1.47]); nevertheless, it falls short in terms of improving students’ cognitive skills, having only an upper-middle impact (ES = 0.70, z = 11.55, P < 0.01, 95% CI [0.58, 0.82]).

As demonstrated by both the results and the discussion, there are varying degrees of beneficial effects on students’ critical thinking from all seven moderating factors, which were found across 36 studies. In this context, the teaching type (chi 2 = 7.20, P < 0.05), intervention duration (chi 2 = 12.18, P < 0.01), subject area (chi 2 = 13.36, P < 0.05), group size (chi 2 = 8.77, P < 0.05), and learning scaffold (chi 2 = 9.03, P < 0.01) all have a positive impact on critical thinking, and they can be viewed as important moderating factors that affect how critical thinking develops. Since the learning stage (chi 2 = 3.15, P = 0.21 > 0.05) and measuring tools (chi 2 = 0.08, P = 0.78 > 0.05) did not demonstrate any significant intergroup differences, we are unable to explain why these two factors are crucial in supporting the cultivation of critical thinking in the context of collaborative problem-solving.

Data availability

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included within the article and its supplementary information files, and the supplementary information files are available in the Dataverse repository: https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/IPFJO6 .

Bensley DA, Spero RA (2014) Improving critical thinking skills and meta-cognitive monitoring through direct infusion. Think Skills Creat 12:55–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2014.02.001

Article Google Scholar

Castle A (2009) Defining and assessing critical thinking skills for student radiographers. Radiography 15(1):70–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radi.2007.10.007

Chen XD (2013) An empirical study on the influence of PBL teaching model on critical thinking ability of non-English majors. J PLA Foreign Lang College 36 (04):68–72

Google Scholar

Cohen A (1992) Antecedents of organizational commitment across occupational groups: a meta-analysis. J Organ Behav. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.4030130602

Cooper H (2010) Research synthesis and meta-analysis: a step-by-step approach, 4th edn. Sage, London, England

Cindy HS (2004) Problem-based learning: what and how do students learn? Educ Psychol Rev 51(1):31–39

Duch BJ, Gron SD, Allen DE (2001) The power of problem-based learning: a practical “how to” for teaching undergraduate courses in any discipline. Stylus Educ Sci 2:190–198

Ennis RH (1989) Critical thinking and subject specificity: clarification and needed research. Educ Res 18(3):4–10. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x018003004

Facione PA (1990) Critical thinking: a statement of expert consensus for purposes of educational assessment and instruction. Research findings and recommendations. Eric document reproduction service. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ed315423

Facione PA, Facione NC (1992) The California Critical Thinking Dispositions Inventory (CCTDI) and the CCTDI test manual. California Academic Press, Millbrae, CA

Forawi SA (2016) Standard-based science education and critical thinking. Think Skills Creat 20:52–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2016.02.005

Halpern DF (2001) Assessing the effectiveness of critical thinking instruction. J Gen Educ 50(4):270–286. https://doi.org/10.2307/27797889

Hu WP, Liu J (2015) Cultivation of pupils’ thinking ability: a five-year follow-up study. Psychol Behav Res 13(05):648–654. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1672-0628.2015.05.010

Huber K (2016) Does college teach critical thinking? A meta-analysis. Rev Educ Res 86(2):431–468. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315605917

Kek MYCA, Huijser H (2011) The power of problem-based learning in developing critical thinking skills: preparing students for tomorrow’s digital futures in today’s classrooms. High Educ Res Dev 30(3):329–341. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2010.501074

Kuncel NR (2011) Measurement and meaning of critical thinking (Research report for the NRC 21st Century Skills Workshop). National Research Council, Washington, DC

Kyndt E, Raes E, Lismont B, Timmers F, Cascallar E, Dochy F (2013) A meta-analysis of the effects of face-to-face cooperative learning. Do recent studies falsify or verify earlier findings? Educ Res Rev 10(2):133–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2013.02.002

Leng J, Lu XX (2020) Is critical thinking really teachable?—A meta-analysis based on 79 experimental or quasi experimental studies. Open Educ Res 26(06):110–118. https://doi.org/10.13966/j.cnki.kfjyyj.2020.06.011

Liang YZ, Zhu K, Zhao CL (2017) An empirical study on the depth of interaction promoted by collaborative problem solving learning activities. J E-educ Res 38(10):87–92. https://doi.org/10.13811/j.cnki.eer.2017.10.014

Lipsey M, Wilson D (2001) Practical meta-analysis. International Educational and Professional, London, pp. 92–160

Liu Z, Wu W, Jiang Q (2020) A study on the influence of problem based learning on college students’ critical thinking-based on a meta-analysis of 31 studies. Explor High Educ 03:43–49

Morris SB (2008) Estimating effect sizes from pretest-posttest-control group designs. Organ Res Methods 11(2):364–386. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428106291059

Article ADS Google Scholar

Mulnix JW (2012) Thinking critically about critical thinking. Educ Philos Theory 44(5):464–479. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-5812.2010.00673.x

Naber J, Wyatt TH (2014) The effect of reflective writing interventions on the critical thinking skills and dispositions of baccalaureate nursing students. Nurse Educ Today 34(1):67–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2013.04.002

National Research Council (2012) Education for life and work: developing transferable knowledge and skills in the 21st century. The National Academies Press, Washington, DC

Niu L, Behar HLS, Garvan CW (2013) Do instructional interventions influence college students’ critical thinking skills? A meta-analysis. Educ Res Rev 9(12):114–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2012.12.002

Peng ZM, Deng L (2017) Towards the core of education reform: cultivating critical thinking skills as the core of skills in the 21st century. Res Educ Dev 24:57–63. https://doi.org/10.14121/j.cnki.1008-3855.2017.24.011

Reiser BJ (2004) Scaffolding complex learning: the mechanisms of structuring and problematizing student work. J Learn Sci 13(3):273–304. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327809jls1303_2

Ruggiero VR (2012) The art of thinking: a guide to critical and creative thought, 4th edn. Harper Collins College Publishers, New York

Schellens T, Valcke M (2006) Fostering knowledge construction in university students through asynchronous discussion groups. Comput Educ 46(4):349–370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2004.07.010

Sendag S, Odabasi HF (2009) Effects of an online problem based learning course on content knowledge acquisition and critical thinking skills. Comput Educ 53(1):132–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2009.01.008

Sison R (2008) Investigating Pair Programming in a Software Engineering Course in an Asian Setting. 2008 15th Asia-Pacific Software Engineering Conference, pp. 325–331. https://doi.org/10.1109/APSEC.2008.61

Simpson E, Courtney M (2002) Critical thinking in nursing education: literature review. Mary Courtney 8(2):89–98

Stewart L, Tierney J, Burdett S (2006) Do systematic reviews based on individual patient data offer a means of circumventing biases associated with trial publications? Publication bias in meta-analysis. John Wiley and Sons Inc, New York, pp. 261–286

Tiwari A, Lai P, So M, Yuen K (2010) A comparison of the effects of problem-based learning and lecturing on the development of students’ critical thinking. Med Educ 40(6):547–554. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2929.2006.02481.x

Wood D, Bruner JS, Ross G (2006) The role of tutoring in problem solving. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 17(2):89–100. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1976.tb00381.x

Wei T, Hong S (2022) The meaning and realization of teachable critical thinking. Educ Theory Practice 10:51–57

Xu EW, Wang W, Wang QX (2022) A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of programming teaching in promoting K-12 students’ computational thinking. Educ Inf Technol. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-022-11445-2

Yang YC, Newby T, Bill R (2008) Facilitating interactions through structured web-based bulletin boards: a quasi-experimental study on promoting learners’ critical thinking skills. Comput Educ 50(4):1572–1585. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2007.04.006

Yore LD, Pimm D, Tuan HL (2007) The literacy component of mathematical and scientific literacy. Int J Sci Math Educ 5(4):559–589. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-007-9089-4

Zhang T, Zhang S, Gao QQ, Wang JH (2022) Research on the development of learners’ critical thinking in online peer review. Audio Visual Educ Res 6:53–60. https://doi.org/10.13811/j.cnki.eer.2022.06.08

Download references

Acknowledgements

This research was supported by the graduate scientific research and innovation project of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region named “Research on in-depth learning of high school information technology courses for the cultivation of computing thinking” (No. XJ2022G190) and the independent innovation fund project for doctoral students of the College of Educational Science of Xinjiang Normal University named “Research on project-based teaching of high school information technology courses from the perspective of discipline core literacy” (No. XJNUJKYA2003).

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

College of Educational Science, Xinjiang Normal University, 830017, Urumqi, Xinjiang, China

Enwei Xu, Wei Wang & Qingxia Wang

You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Enwei Xu or Wei Wang .

Ethics declarations

Competing interests.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Ethical approval

This article does not contain any studies with human participants performed by any of the authors.

Informed consent

Additional information.

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary information

Supplementary tables, rights and permissions.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Xu, E., Wang, W. & Wang, Q. The effectiveness of collaborative problem solving in promoting students’ critical thinking: A meta-analysis based on empirical literature. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 10 , 16 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-01508-1

Download citation

Received : 07 August 2022

Accepted : 04 January 2023

Published : 11 January 2023

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-01508-1

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

This article is cited by

Impacts of online collaborative learning on students’ intercultural communication apprehension and intercultural communicative competence.

Hoa Thi Hoang Chau
Hung Phu Bui
Quynh Thi Huong Dinh

Education and Information Technologies (2024)

Exploring the effects of digital technology on deep learning: a meta-analysis

Sustainable electricity generation and farm-grid utilization from photovoltaic aquaculture: a bibliometric analysis.

A. A. Amusa
M. Alhassan

International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology (2024)

Quick links

Explore articles by subject
Guide to authors
Editorial policies

Effective Learning Behavior in Problem-Based Learning: a Scoping Review

Published: 21 April 2021
Volume 31 , pages 1199–1211, ( 2021 )

Cite this article

Azril Shahreez Abdul Ghani ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9130-2175 1 , 2 ,
Ahmad Fuad Abdul Rahim ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7499-8895 2 ,
Muhamad Saiful Bahri Yusoff ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4969-9217 2 &
Siti Nurma Hanim Hadie ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9046-9379 3

7469 Accesses

26 Citations

Explore all metrics

Problem-based learning (PBL) emphasizes learning behavior that leads to critical thinking, problem-solving, communication, and collaborative skills in preparing students for a professional medical career. However, learning behavior that develops these skills has not been systematically described. This review aimed to unearth the elements of effective learning behavior in a PBL context, using the protocol by Arksey and O’Malley. The protocol identified the research question, selected relevant studies, charted and collected data, and collated, summarized, and reported results. We discovered three categories of elements—intrinsic empowerment, entrustment, and functional skills—proven effective in the achievement of learning outcomes in PBL.

Effectiveness of problem-based learning methodology in undergraduate medical education: a scoping review

Problem-Based Learning: Conception, Practice, and Future

Does your group matter? How group function impacts educational outcomes in problem-based learning: a scoping review

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Introduction

Problem-based learning (PBL) is an educational approach that utilizes the principles of collaborative learning in small groups, first introduced by McMaster Medical University [ 1 ]. The shift of the higher education curriculum from traditional, lecture-based approaches to an integrated, student-centered approach was triggered by concern over the content-driven nature of medical knowledge with minimal clinical application [ 2 ]. The PBL pedagogy uses a systematic approach, starting with an authentic, real-life problem scenario as a context in which learning is not separated from practice as students collaborate and learn [ 3 ]. The tutor acts as a facilitator who guides the students’ learning, while students are required to solve the problems by discussing them with group members [ 4 ]. The essential aspect of the PBL process is the ability of the students to recognize their current knowledge, determine the gaps in their knowledge and experience, and acquire new knowledge to bridge the gaps [ 5 ]. PBL is a holistic approach that gives students an active role in their learning.

Since its inception, PBL has been used in many undergraduate and postgraduate degree programs, such as medicine [ 6 , 7 ], nursing [ 8 ], social work education [ 9 ], law [ 10 ], architecture [ 11 ], economics [ 12 ], business [ 13 ], science [ 14 ], and engineering [ 15 ]. It has also been applied in elementary and secondary education [ 16 , 17 , 18 ]. Despite its many applications, its implementation is based on a single universal workflow framework that contains three elements: problem as the initiator for learning, tutor as a facilitator in the group versions, and group work as a stimulus for collaborative interaction [ 19 ]. However, there are various versions of PBL workflow, such as the seven-step technique based on the Maastricht “seven jumps” process. The tutor’s role is to ensure the achievement of learning objectives and to assess students’ performance [ 20 , 21 ].

The PBL process revolves around four types of learning principles: constructive, self-directed, collaborative, and contextual [ 19 ]. Through the constructive learning process, the students are encouraged to think about what is already known and integrate their prior knowledge with their new understanding. This process helps the student understand the content, form a new opinion, and acquire new knowledge [ 22 ]. The PBL process encourages students to become self-directed learners who plan, monitor, and evaluate their own learning, enabling them to become lifelong learners [ 23 ]. The contextualized collaborative learning process also promotes interaction among students, who share similar responsibilities to achieve common goals relevant to the learning context [ 24 ]. By exchanging ideas and providing feedback during the learning session, the students can attain a greater understanding of the subject matter [ 25 ].

Dolmans et al. [ 19 ] pointed out two issues related to the implementation of PBL: dominant facilitators and dysfunctional PBL groups. These problems inhibit students’ self-directed learning and reduce their satisfaction level with the PBL session. A case study by Eryilmaz [ 26 ] that evaluated engineering students’ and tutors’ experience of PBL discovered that PBL increased the students’ self-confidence and improved essential skills such as problem-solving, communications, critical thinking, and collaboration. Although most of the participants in the study found PBL satisfactory, many complained about the tutor’s poor guidance and lack of preparation. Additionally, it was noted that 64% of the first-year students were unable to adapt to the PBL system because they had been accustomed to conventional learning settings and that 43% of students were not adequately prepared for the sessions and thus were minimally involved in the discussion.

In a case study by Cónsul-giribet [ 27 ], newly graduated nursing professionals reported a lack of perceived theoretical basic science knowledge at the end of their program, despite learning through PBL. The nurses perceived that this lack of knowledge might affect their expertise, identity, and professional image.

Likewise, a study by McKendree [ 28 ] reported the outcomes of a workshop that explored the strengths and weaknesses of PBL in an allied health sciences curriculum in the UK. The workshop found that problems related to PBL were mainly caused by students, the majority of whom came from conventional educational backgrounds either during high school or their first degree. They felt anxious when they were involved in PBL, concerned about “not knowing when to stop” in exploring the learning needs. Apart from a lack of basic science knowledge, the knowledge acquired during PBL sessions remains unorganized [ 29 ]. Hence, tutors must guide students in overcoming this situation by instilling appropriate insights and essential skills for the achievement of the learning outcomes [ 30 ]. It was also evident that the combination of intention and motivation to learn and desirable learning behavior determined the quality of learning outcomes [ 31 , 32 ]. However, effective learning behaviors that help develop these skills have not been systematically described. Thus, this scoping review aimed to unearth the elements of effective learning behavior in the PBL context.

Scoping Review Protocol

This scoping review was performed using a protocol by Arksey and O’Malley [ 33 ]. The protocol comprises five phases: (i) identification of research questions, (ii) identification of relevant articles, (iii) selection of relevant studies, (iv) data collection and charting, and (v) collating, summarizing, and reporting the results.

Identification of Research Questions

This scoping review was designed to unearth the elements of effective learning behavior that can be generated from learning through PBL instruction. The review aimed to answer one research question: “What are the effective learning behavior elements related to PBL?” For the purpose of the review, an operational definition of effective learning behavior was constructed, whereby it was defined as any learning behavior that is related to PBL instruction and has been shown to successfully attain the desired learning outcomes (i.e., cognitive, skill, or affective)—either quantitatively or qualitatively—in any intervention conducted in higher education institutions.

The positive outcome variables include student viewpoint or perception, student learning experience and performance, lecturer viewpoint and expert judgment, and other indirect variables that may be important indicators of successful PBL learning (i.e., attendance to PBL session, participation in PBL activity, number of interactions in PBL activity, and improvement in communication skills in PBL).

Identification of Relevant Articles

An extensive literature search was conducted on articles published in English between 2015 and 2019. Three databases—Google Scholar, Scopus, and PubMed—were used for the literature search. Seven search terms with the Boolean combination were used, whereby the keywords were identified from the Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) and Education Resources Information Center (ERIC) databases. The search terms were tested and refined with multiple test searches. The final search terms with the Boolean operation were as follows: “problem-based learning” AND (“learning behavior” OR “learning behaviour”) AND (student OR “medical students” OR undergraduate OR “medical education”).

Selection of Relevant Articles

The articles from the three databases were exported manually into Microsoft Excel. The duplicates were removed, and the remaining articles were reviewed based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria. These criteria were tested on titles and abstracts to ensure their robustness in capturing the articles related to learning behavior in PBL. The shortlisted articles were reviewed by two independent researchers, and a consensus was reached either to accept or reject each article based on the set criteria. When a disagreement occurred between the two reviewers, the particular article was re-evaluated independently by the third and fourth researchers (M.S.B.Y and A.F.A.R), who have vast experience in conducting qualitative research. The sets of criteria for selecting abstracts and final articles were developed. The inclusion and exclusion criteria are listed in Table 1 .

Data Charting

The selected final articles were reviewed, and several important data were extracted to provide an objective summary of the review. The extracted data were charted in a table, including the (i) title of the article, (ii) author(s), (iii) year of publication, (iv) aim or purpose of the study, (v) study design and method, (iv) intervention performed, and (v) study population and sample size.

Collating, Summarizing, and Reporting the Results

A content analysis was performed to identify the elements of effective learning behaviors in the literature by A.S.A.G and S.N.H.H, who have experience in conducting qualitative studies. The initial step of content analysis was to read the selected articles thoroughly to gain a general understanding of the articles and extract the elements of learning behavior which are available in the articles. Next, the elements of learning behavior that fulfil the inclusion criteria were extracted. The selected elements that were related to each other through their content or context were grouped into subtheme categories. Subsequently, the combinations of several subthemes expressing similar underlying meanings were grouped into themes. Each of the themes and subthemes was given a name, which was operationally defined based on the underlying elements. The selected themes and subthemes were presented to the independent researchers in the team (M.S.B.Y and A.F.A.R), and a consensus was reached either to accept or reformulate each of the themes and subthemes. The flow of the scoping review methods for this study is illustrated in Fig. 1 .

The flow of literature search and article selection

Literature Search

Based on the keyword search, 1750 articles were obtained. Duplicate articles that were not original articles found in different databases and resources were removed. Based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria of title selection, the eligibility of 1750 abstracts was evaluated. The articles that did not fulfil the criteria were removed, leaving 328 articles for abstract screening. A total of 284 articles were screened according to the eligibility criteria for abstract selection. Based on these criteria, 284 articles were selected and screened according to the eligibility criteria for full article selection. Fourteen articles were selected for the final review. The information about these articles is summarized in Table 2 .

Study Characteristics

The final 14 articles were published between 2015 and 2019. The majority of the studies were conducted in Western Asian countries ( n = 4), followed by China ( n = 3), European countries ( n = 2), Thailand ( n = 2), Indonesia ( n = 1), Singapore ( n = 1), and South Africa ( n = 1). Apart from traditional PBL, some studies incorporated other pedagogic modalities into their PBL sessions, such as online learning, blended learning, and gamification. The majority of the studies targeted a single-profession learner group, and one study was performed on mixed interprofessional health education learners.

Results of Thematic Analysis

The thematic analysis yielded three main themes of effective learning behavior: intrinsic empowerment, entrustment, and functional skills. Intrinsic empowerment overlies four proposed subthemes: proactivity, organization, diligence, and resourcefulness. For entrustment, there were four underlying subthemes: students as assessors, students as teachers, feedback-giving, and feedback-receiving. The functional skills theme contains four subthemes: time management, digital proficiency, data management, and collaboration.

Theme 1: Intrinsic Empowerment

Intrinsic empowerment enforces student learning behavior that can facilitate the achievement of learning outcomes. By empowering the development of these behaviors, students can become lifelong learners [ 34 ]. The first element of intrinsic empowerment is proactive behavior. In PBL, the students must be proactive in analyzing problems [ 35 , 36 ] and their learning needs [ 35 , 37 ], and this can be done by integrating prior knowledge and previous experience through a brainstorming session [ 35 , 38 ]. The students must be proactive in seeking guidance to ensure they stay focused and confident [ 39 , 40 ]. Finding ways to integrate content from different disciplines [ 35 , 41 ], formulate new explanations based on known facts [ 34 , 35 , 41 ], and incorporate hands-on activity [ 35 , 39 , 42 ] during a PBL session are also proactive behaviors.

The second element identified is “being organized” which reflects the ability of students to systematically manage their roles [ 43 ], ideas, and learning needs [ 34 ]. The students also need to understand the task for each learning role in PBL, such as chairperson or leader, scribe, recorder, and reflector. This role needs to be assigned appropriately to ensure that all members take part in the discussion [ 43 ]. Similarly, when discussing ideas or learning needs, the students need to follow the steps in the PBL process and organize and prioritize the information to ensure that the issues are discussed systematically and all aspects of the problems are covered accordingly [ 34 , 37 ]. This team organization and systematic thought process is an effective way for students to focus, plan, and finalize their learning tasks.

The third element of intrinsic empowerment is “being diligent.” Students must consistently conduct self-revision [ 40 ] and keep track of their learning plan to ensure the achievement of their learning goal [ 4 , 40 ]. The students must also be responsible for completing any given task and ensuring good understanding prior to their presentation [ 40 ]. Appropriate actions need to be undertaken to find solutions to unsolved problems [ 40 , 44 ]. This effort will help them think critically and apply their knowledge for problem-solving.

The fourth element identified is “being resourceful.” Students should be able to acquire knowledge from different resources, which include external resources (i.e., lecture notes, textbooks, journal articles, audiovisual instructions, the Internet) [ 38 , 40 , 45 ] and internal resources (i.e., students’ prior knowledge or experience) [ 35 , 39 ]. The resources must be evidence-based, and thus should be carefully selected by evaluating their cross-references and appraising them critically [ 37 ]. Students should also be able to understand and summarize the learned materials and explain them using their own words [ 4 , 34 ]. The subthemes of the intrinsic empowerment theme are summarized in Table 3 .

Theme 2: Entrustment

Entrustment emphasizes the various roles of students in PBL that can promote effective learning. The first entrusted role identified is “student as an assessor.” This means that students evaluate their own performance in PBL [ 46 ]. The evaluation of their own performance must be based on the achievement of the learning outcomes and reflect actual understanding of the content as well as the ability to apply the learned information in problem-solving [ 46 ].

The second element identified in this review is “student as a teacher.” To ensure successful peer teaching in PBL, students need to comprehensively understand the content of the learning materials and summarize the content in an organized manner. The students should be able to explain the gist of the discussed information using their own words [ 4 , 34 ] and utilize teaching methods to cater to differences in learning styles (i.e., visual, auditory, and kinesthetic) [ 41 ]. These strategies help capture their group members’ attention and evoke interactive discussions among them.

The third element of entrustment is to “give feedback.” Students should try giving constructive feedback on individual and group performance in PBL. Feedback on individual performance must reflect the quality of the content and task presented in the PBL. Feedback on group performance should reflect the ways in which the group members communicate and complete the group task [ 47 ]. To ensure continuous constructive feedback, students should be able to generate feedback questions beforehand and immediately deliver them during the PBL sessions [ 44 , 47 ]. In addition, the feedback must include specific measures for improvement to help their peers to take appropriate action for the future [ 47 ].

The fourth element of entrustment is “receive feedback.” Students should listen carefully to the feedback given and ask questions to clarify the feedback [ 47 ]. They need to be attentive and learn to deal with negative feedback [ 47 ]. Also, if the student does not receive feedback, they should request it either from peers or teachers and ask specific questions, such as what aspects to improve and how to improve [ 47 ]. The data on the subthemes of the entrustment theme are summarized in Table 4 .

Theme 3: Functional Skills

Functional skills refer to essential skills that can help students learn independently and competently. The first element identified is time management skills. In PBL, students must know how to prioritize learning tasks according to the needs and urgency of the tasks [ 40 ]. To ensure that students can self-pace their learning, a deadline should be set for each learning task within a manageable and achievable learning schedule [ 40 ].

Furthermore, students should have digital proficiency, the ability to utilize digital devices to support learning [ 38 , 40 , 44 ]. The student needs to know how to operate basic software (e.g., Words and PowerPoints) and the basic digital tools (i.e., social media, cloud storage, simulation, and online community learning platforms) to support their learning [ 39 , 40 ]. These skills are important for peer learning activities, which may require information sharing, information retrieval, online peer discussion, and online peer feedback [ 38 , 44 ].

The third functional skill identified is data management, the ability to collect key information in the PBL trigger and analyze that information to support the solution in a problem-solving activity [ 39 ]. Students need to work either individually or in a group to collect the key information from a different trigger or case format such as text lines, an interview, an investigation, or statistical results [ 39 ]. Subsequently, students also need to analyze the information and draw conclusions based on their analysis [ 39 ].

The fourth element of functional skill is collaboration. Students need to participate equally in the PBL discussion [ 41 , 46 ]. Through discussion, confusion and queries can be addressed and resolved by listening, respecting others’ viewpoints, and responding professionally [ 35 , 39 , 43 , 44 ]. In addition, the students need to learn from each other and reflect on their performance [ 48 ]. Table 5 summarizes the data on the subthemes of the functional skills theme.

This scoping review outlines three themes of effective learning behavior elements in the PBL context: intrinsic empowerment, entrustment, and functional skills. Hence, it is evident from this review that successful PBL instruction demands students’ commitment to empower themselves with value-driven behaviors, skills, and roles.

In this review, intrinsic empowerment is viewed as enforcement of students’ internal strength in performing positive learning behaviors related to PBL. This theme requires the student to proactively engage in the learning process, organize their learning activities systematically, persevere in learning, and be intelligently resourceful. One of the elements of intrinsic empowerment is the identification and analysis of problems related to complex scenarios. This element is aligned with a study by Meyer [ 49 ], who observed students’ engagement in problem identification and clarification prior to problem-solving activities in a PBL session related to multiple engineering design. Rubenstein and colleagues [ 50 ] discovered in a semi-structured interview the importance of undergoing a problem identification process before proposing a solution during learning. It was reported that the problem identification process in PBL may enhance the attainment of learning outcomes, specifically in the domain of concept understanding [ 51 ].

The ability of the students to acquire and manage learning resources is essential for building their understanding of the learned materials and enriching discussion among team members during PBL. This is aligned with a study by Jeong and Hmelo-Silver [ 52 ], who studied the use of learning resources by students in PBL. The study concluded that in a resource-rich environment, the students need to learn how to access and understand the resources to ensure effective learning. Secondly, they need to process the content of the resources, integrate various resources, and apply them in problem-solving activities. Finally, they need to use the resources in collaborative learning activities, such as sharing and relating to peer resources.

Wong [ 53 ] documented that excellent students spent considerably more time managing academic resources than low achievers. The ability of the student to identify and utilize their internal learning resources, such as prior knowledge and experience, is also important. A study by Lee et al. [ 54 ] has shown that participants with high domain-specific prior knowledge displayed a more systematic approach and high accuracy in visual and motor reactions in solving problems compared to novice learners.

During the discussion phase in PBL, organizing ideas—e.g., arranging relevant information gathered from the learning resources into relevant categories—is essential for communicating the idea clearly [ 34 ]. This finding is in line with a typology study conducted by Larue [ 55 ] on second-year nursing students’ learning strategies during a group discussion. The study discovered that although the content presented by the student is adequate, they unable to make further progress in the group discussion until they are instructed by the tutor on how to organize the information given into a category [ 55 ].

Hence, the empowerment of student intrinsic behavior may enhance students’ learning in PBL by allowing them to make a decision in their learning objectives and instilling confidence in them to achieve goals. A study conducted by Kirk et al. [ 56 ] proved that highly empowered students obtain better grades, increase learning participation, and target higher educational aspirations.

Entrustment is the learning role given to students to be engaging and identify gaps in their learning. This theme requires the student to engage in self-assessment, prepare to teach others, give constructive feedback, and value the feedback received. One of the elements of entrustment is the ability to self-assess. In a study conducted by Mohd et al. [ 57 ] looking at the factors in PBL that can strengthen the capability of IT students, they discovered that one of the critical factors that contribute to these skills is the ability of the student to perform self-assessment in PBL. As mentioned by Daud, Kassim, and Daud [ 58 ], the self-assessment may be more reliable if the assessment is performed based on the objectives set beforehand and if the criteria of the assessment are understood by the learner. This is important to avoid the fact that the result of the self-assessment is influenced by the students’ perception of themselves rather than reflecting their true performance. However, having an assessment based on the learning objective only focuses on the immediate learning requirements in the PBL. To foster lifelong learning skills, it should also be balanced with the long-term focus of assessment, such as utilizing the assessment to foster the application of knowledge in solving real-life situations. This is aligned with the review by Boud and Falchikov [ 59 ] suggesting that students need to become assessors within the concept of participation in practice, that is, the kind that is within the context of real life and work.

The second subtheme of entrustment is “students as a teacher” in PBL. In our review, the student needs to be well prepared with the teaching materials. A cross-sectional study conducted by Charoensakulchai and colleagues discovered that student preparation is considered among the important factors in PBL success, alongside other factors such as “objective and contents,” “student assessment,” and “attitude towards group work” [ 60 ]. This is also aligned with a study conducted by Sukrajh [ 61 ] using focus group discussion on fifth-year medical students to explore their perception of preparedness before conducting peer teaching activity. In this study, the student in the focus group expressed that the preparation made them more confident in teaching others because preparing stimulated them to activate and revise prior knowledge, discover their knowledge gaps, construct new knowledge, reflect on their learning, improve their memory, inspire them to search several resources, and motivate them to learn the topics.

The next element of “student as a teacher” is using various learning styles to teach other members in the group. A study conducted by Almomani [ 62 ] showed that the most preferred learning pattern by the high school student is the visual pattern, followed by auditory pattern and then kinesthetic. However, in the university setting, Hamdani [ 63 ] discovered that students prefer a combination of the three learning styles. Anbarasi [ 64 ] also explained that incorporating teaching methods based on the student’s preferred learning style further promotes active learning among the students and significantly improved the long-term retrieval of knowledge. However, among the three learning styles group, he discovered that the kinesthetic group with the kinesthetic teaching method showed a significantly higher post-test score compared to the traditional group with the didactic teaching method, and he concluded that this is because of the involvement of more active learning activity in the kinesthetic group.

The ability of students to give constructive feedback on individual tasks is an important element in promoting student contribution in PBL because feedback from peers or teachers is needed to reassure themselves that they are on the right track in the learning process. Kamp et al. [ 65 ] performed a study on the effectiveness of midterm peer feedback on student individual cognitive, collaborative, and motivational contributions in PBL. The experimental group that received midterm peer feedback combined with goal-setting with face-to-face discussion showed an increased amount of individual contributions in PBL. Another element of effective feedback is that the feedback is given immediately after the observed behavior. Parikh and colleagues survey student feedback in PBL environments among 103 final-year medical students in five Ontario schools, including the University of Toronto, McMaster University, Queens University, the University of Ottawa, and the University of Western Ontario. They discovered that there was a dramatic difference between McMaster University and other universities in the immediacy of feedback they practiced. Seventy percent of students at McMaster reported receiving immediate feedback in PBL, compared to less than 40 percent of students from the other universities, in which most of them received feedback within one week or several weeks after the PBL had been conducted [ 66 ]. Another study, conducted among students of the International Medical University of Kuala Lumpur examining the student expectation on feedback, discovered that immediate feedback is effective if the feedback is in written form, simple but focused on the area of improvement, and delivered by a content expert. If the feedback is delivered by a content non-expert and using a model answer, it must be supplemented with teacher dialogue sessions to clarify the feedback received [ 67 ].

Requesting feedback from peers and teachers is an important element of the PBL learning environment, enabling students to discover their learning gaps and ways to fill them. This is aligned with a study conducted by de Jong and colleagues [ 68 ], who discovered that high-performing students are more motivated to seek feedback than low-performing students. The main reason for this is because high-performing students seek feedback as a tool to learn from, whereas low-performing students do so as an academic requirement. This resulted in high-performing students collecting more feedback. A study by Bose and Gijselaers [ 69 ] examined the factors that promote feedback-seeking behavior in medical residency. They discovered that feedback-seeking behavior can be promoted by providing residents with high-quality feedback to motivate them to ask for feedback for improvement.

By assigning an active role to students as teachers, assessors, and feedback providers, teachers give them the ownership and responsibility to craft their learning. The learner will then learn the skills to monitor and reflect on their learning to achieve academic success. Furthermore, an active role encourages students to be evaluative experts in their own learning, and promoting deep learning [ 70 ].

Functional skills refer to essential abilities for competently performing a task in PBL. This theme requires the student to organize and plan time for specific learning tasks, be digitally literate, use data effectively to support problem-solving, and work together efficiently to achieve agreed objectives. One of the elements in this theme is to have a schedule of learning tasks with deadlines. In a study conducted by Tadjer and colleagues [ 71 ], they discovered that setting deadlines with a restricted time period in a group activity improved students’ cognitive abilities and soft skills. Although the deadline may initially cause anxiety, coping with it encourages students to become more creative and energetic in performing various learning strategies [ 72 , 73 ]. Ballard et al. [ 74 ] reported that students tend to work harder to complete learning tasks if they face multiple deadlines.

The students also need to be digitally literate—i.e., able to demonstrate the use of technological devices and tools in PBL. Taradi et al. [ 75 ] discovered that incorporating technology in learning—blending web technology with PBL—removes time and place barriers in the creation of a collaborative environment. It was found that students who participated in web discussions achieved a significantly higher mean grade on a physiology final examination than those who used traditional methods. Also, the incorporation of an online platform in PBL can facilitate students to develop investigation and inquiry skills with high-level cognitive thought processes, which is crucial to successful problem-solving [ 76 ].

In PBL, students need to work collaboratively with their peers to solve problems. A study by Hidayati et al. [ 77 ] demonstrated that effective collaborative skills improve cognitive learning outcomes and problem-solving ability among students who undergo PBL integrated with digital mind maps. To ensure successful collaborative learning in PBL, professional communication among students is pertinent. Research by Zheng and Huang [ 78 ] has proven that co-regulation (i.e., warm and responsive communication that provides support to peers) improved collaborative effort and group performance among undergraduate and master’s students majoring in education and psychology. This is also in line with a study by Maraj and colleagues [ 79 ], which showed the strong team interaction within the PBL group leads to a high level of team efficacy and academic self-efficacy. Moreover, strengthening communication competence, such as by developing negotiation skills among partners during discussion sessions, improves student scores [ 80 ].

PBL also includes opportunities for students to learn from each other (i.e., peer learning). A study by Maraj et al. [ 79 ] discovered that the majority of the students in their study perceived improvement in their understanding of the learned subject when they learned from each other. Another study by Lyonga [ 81 ] documented the successful formation of cohesive group learning, where students could express and share their ideas with their friends and help each other. It was suggested that each student should be paired with a more knowledgeable student who has mastered certain learning components to promote purposeful structured learning within the group.

From this scoping review, it is clear that functional skills equip the students with abilities and knowledge needed for successful PBL. Studies have shown that strong time management skills, digital literacy, data management, and collaborative skills lead to positive academic achievement [ 77 , 82 , 83 ].

Limitation of the Study

This scoping review is aimed to capture the recent effective learning behavior in problem-based learning; therefore, the literature before 2015 was not included. Without denying the importance of publication before 2015, we are relying on Okoli and Schabram [ 84 ] who highlighted the impossibility of retrieving all the published articles when conducting a literature search. Based on this ground, we decided to focus on the time frame between 2015 and 2019, which is aligned with the concepts of study maturity (i.e., the more mature the field, the higher the published articles and therefore more topics were investigated) by Kraus et al. [ 85 ]. In fact, it was noted that within this time frame, a significant number of articles have been found as relevant to PBL with the recent discovery of effective learning behavior. Nevertheless, our time frame did not include the timing of the coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) pandemic outbreak, which began at the end of 2019. Hence, we might miss some important elements of learning behavior that are required for the successful implementation of PBL during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Surprisingly, the results obtained from this study are also applicable for the PBL sessions administration during the COVID-19 pandemic situation as one of the functional skills identified is digital proficiency. This skill is indeed important for the successful implementation of online PBL session.

This review identified the essential learning behaviors required for effective PBL in higher education and clustered them into three main themes: (i) intrinsic empowerment, (ii) entrustment, and (iii) functional skills. These learning behaviors must coexist to ensure the achievement of desired learning outcomes. In fact, the findings of this study indicated two important implications for future practice. Firstly, the identified learning behaviors can be incorporated as functional elements in the PBL framework and implementation. Secondly, the learning behaviors change and adaption can be considered to be a new domain of formative assessment related to PBL. It is noteworthy to highlight that these learning behaviors could help in fostering the development of lifelong skills for future workplace challenges. Nevertheless, considerably more work should be carried out to design a solid guideline on how to systematically adopt the learning behaviors in PBL sessions, especially during this COVID-19 pandemic situation.

Barrows HS. Problem-based learning in medicine and beyond: A brief overview. New Dir Teach Learn. 1996;68:3–12.

Article Google Scholar

Barrows H, Tamblyn R. Problem-based learning: An approach to medical education. Springer Publishing Company; 1980.

Taylor D, Miflin B. Problem-based learning: where are we now? Med Teach. Taylor & Francis. 2008;30(8):742–763.

Rakhudu MA. Use of problem based scenarios to prepare nursing students to address quality improvement in health care unit: Int J Educ Sci. 2015;10(1):72–80.

Google Scholar

Radcliffe P, Kumar D. Is problem-based learning suitable for engineering ? Australas J Eng Educ. 2016;21(2):81–8.

Azer SA, Hasanato R, Al-Nassar S, Somily A, AlSaadi MM. Introducing integrated laboratory classes in a PBL curriculum: impact on student’s learning and satisfaction. BMC Med Educ. 2013;13(1):1–12.

Doherty DO, Mc Keague H, Harney S, Browne G, McGrath D. What can we learn from problem-based learning tutors at a graduate entry medical school? A mixed method approach. BMC Med Educ. 2018;18(1):1–12.

Choi E, Lindquist R, Song Y. Effects of problem-based learning vs. traditional lecture on Korean nursing students’ critical thinking, problem-solving, and self-directed learning. Nurse Educ Today. 2014;34(1):52–56.

Wong DKP, Lam DOB. Problem-based learning in social work: a study of student learning outcomes. Res Soc Work Pract. 2007;17(1):55–6.

Wijnen M, Loyens SMM, Smeets G, Kroeze M, van der Molen H. Comparing problem-based learning students to students in a lecture-based curriculum: learning strategies and the relation with self-study time. Eur J Psychol Educ. 2017;32(3):431–447.

Armitage A, Pihl O, Ryberg T. PBL and Creative Processes. Journal of Problem Based Learning in Higher Education. 2015;3(1).

Harun NF, Yusof KM, Jamaludin MZ, Hassan SAHS. Motivation in Problem-based Learning Implementation. Procedia Soc Behav Sci. 2012;56:233–242.

Smith GF. Problem-based learning: can it improve managerial thinking? J Manag Educ. 2005;29(2):357–78.

Akcay B. Problem-based learning in science education. Journal of Turkish Science Education. 2009;6(1):28–38.

Van Barneveld A, Strobel J. Problem-based learning: Effectiveness, drivers, and implementation challenges. In Research on PBL practice in engineering education; 2009. pp. 35–44.

Siew NM, Mapeala R. The effects of problem based learning with thinking maps on fifth graders’ science critical thinking. J Balt Sci Educ. 2016;15(5):602.

Li HC, Stylianides AJ. An examination of the roles of the teacher and students during a problem-based learning intervention: lessons learned from a study in a Taiwanese primary mathematics classroom. Interact Learn Environ. 2018;26(1):106–17.

Wilder S. Impact of problem-based learning on academic achievement in high school: a systematic review. Educ Rev. 2015;67(4):414–35.

Dolmans D, Grave W, Wolfhagen I, Van der Vleuten C. Problem‐based learning: Future challenges for educational practice and research. Med Educ. 2005;1;39(7):732–41.

Wood DF. Problem based learning. BMJ. 2003;326(7384):328–30.

Ansari MT, Rahman SA, Badgujar VB, Sami F, Abdullah MS. Problem based learning (PBL): A novel and effective tool of teaching and learning. Indian J Pharm Educ Res. 2015;49(4):258–65.

Ertmer PA, Newby TJ. Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing critical features from an instructional design perspective. Perform Improv Q. 1993;6(4):50–72.

Ertmer PA, Newby TJ. The expert learner: strategic, self-regulated, and reflective. Instr Sci. 1996;24(1):1–24.

Billett S. Situated learning: bridging sociocultural and cognitive theorising. Learn Instr. 1996;6(3):263–80.

Dillenbourg P, Baker M, Blaye A, Malley CO. The evolution of research on collaborative learning. In: Spada E and Reimann P, editors. Learning in human machines: Towards an interdisciplinary learning science. 1996;189–211.

Ates O, Eryilmaz A. Strengths and weaknesses of problem-based learning: students’ and tutors’ perceptives. Journal of the Buca Educational Science Faculty. 2010;28:40–58.

Cónsul-giribet M, Medina-Moya JL. Strengths and weaknesses of problem based learning from the professional perspective of registered nurses. Rev Lat Am Enfermagem. 2014;22(5):724–30.

McKendree J. Experiences of problem-based learning in the UK. Clin Teach. 2010;7(4):262–5.

Hemker HC. Critical perceptions on problem-based learning. Eur Rev. 2001;9(3):269–74.

Davis MH, Harden RM. AMEE Medical Education Guide No. 15 : Problem-based learning: A practical guide. Med Teach. 1999;21(15):130–140.

Newblen DI, Entwistle NJ. Learning styles and approaches: Implications for medical education. Med Educ. 1986;20(3):162–75.

Albanese MA, Mitchell S. Problem-based learning: a review of literature on its outcomes and implementation issues. Acad Med. 1993;68(1):52–81.

Arksey H, O’Malley L. Scoping studies: towards a methodological framework. Int J Soc Res Methodol. 2005;8(1):19–32.

Khoiriyah U, Roberts C, Jorm C, Van Der Vleuten CPM. Enhancing students’ learning in problem based learning: validation of a self-assessment scale for active learning and critical thinking. BMC Med Educ. 2015;15(1):140.

Li H. Facilitating learning through PBL in a Chinese context: Students’ learning outcomes and attitudes. Int J Educ Res. 2018;17(7):80–93.

Gutman M. The influence of problem-based learning communities on research literacy and achievement goal motivation. Int J Educ. 2018;6(4):31–41.

Khumsikiew J, Donsamak S, Saeteaw M. A model of small-group problem-based learning in pharmacy education: teaching in the clinical environment. IAFOR J Educ. 2015;3(2):95–108.

William L, Abdul Rahim Z, Wu L, De Souza R. Effectiveness of supply chain games in problem-based learning environment. Game-Based Assessment Revisited. 2019:257–80.

Chung P, Yeh RC, Chen YC. Influence of problem-based learning strategy on enhancing student’s industrial oriented competences learned: An action research on learning weblog analysis. Int J Technol Des Educ. 2016;26(2):285–307.

Dawilai S, Kamyod C, Champakaew W. Proposed problem-based blended learning in creative writing: self-regulated learning in EFL Learners. Int J Appl Eng Res. 2018;13(7):4834–41.

Asad MR, Tadvi N, Amir KM, Afzal K, Irfan A, Hussain SA. Medical student’s feedback towards problem based learning and interactive lectures as a teaching and learning method in an outcome-based curriculum. Int J Med Res Health Sci. 2019;8(4):78–84.

Johnson M, Hayes MJ. A comparison of problem-based and didactic learning pedagogies on an electronics engineering course. Int J Electr Eng Educ. 2016;53(1):3–22.

Tarhan L, Ayyildiz Y. The views of undergraduates about problem-based learning applications in a biochemistry course. J Biol Educ. 2015;49(2):116–26.

Hursen C. The effect of technology supported problem-based learning approach on adults’ self-efficacy perception for research-inquiry. Educ Inf Technol. 2019;24(2):1131–45.

Asmi SO, Wonorahardjo S, Widarti HR. The application of problem based learning assisted by blended learning in atomic spectroscopy material on cognitive learning outcomes and students’ self system based on marzano taxonomy. European Journal of Open Education and E-learning Studies. 2019;4(1):88–99.

Arana-Arexolaleiba N, Zubizarreta MI. The impact of PBL learning environment and supervision of engineering faculty of Mondragon University in the student learning approach. 2015:479–491.

Geitz G, Ten BDJ, Kirschner PA. Sustainable feedback: students’ and tutors’ perceptions. Qual Rep. 2016;21(11):2103–23.

Chou FC, Kwan CY, Hsin DHC. Examining the effects of interprofessional problem-based clinical ethics: findings from a mixed methods study. J Interprof Care. 2016;30(3):362–9.

Meyer H. Teachers’ thoughts on student decision making during engineering design lessons. Educ Sci. 2018;8(1):9–19.

Rubenstein LDV, Callan GL, Speirs Neumeister K, Ridgley LM, Hernández FM. How problem identification strategies influence creativity outcomes. Contemp Educ Psychol. 2020;60:101840.

Kartamiharja MR, Sopandi W, Anggraeni D. Implementation of problem-based learning (PBL) approach in chemistry instructional with context of tofu liquid waste treatment. Int J Educ Res. 2020;19(5):47–77.

Jeong H, Hmelo-Silver CE. Productive use of learning resources in an online problem-based learning environment. Comput Hum Behav. 2010;26(1):84–99.

Wong L. Student Engagement with online resources and its impact on learning outcomes. Journal of Information Technology Education Innovation in Practice. 2013;12:129–46.

Lee JY, Donkers J, Jarodzka H, van Merriënboer JJG. How prior knowledge affects problem-solving performance in a medical simulation game: Using game-logs and eye-tracking. Comput Hum Behav. 2019;99:268–77.

Larue C. Group learning strategies for nursing students: Reflections on the tutor role. Int J Nurs Educ Scholarsh. 2008;5(1).

Kirk CM, Lewis RK, Brown K, Karibo B, Park E. The power of student empowerment: Measuring classroom predictors and individual indicators. J Educ Res. 2016;109(6):589–95.

Mohd H, Darus NM, Saip MA, Baharom F, Puteh N, Husin MZ, et al. Success factors of problem based learning for IT courses: measurements on PBL characteristics, PBL assessments and PBL practices. J Eng Appl Sci. 2017;12(21):5514–7.

Daud NM, Kassim NLA, Daud‏ NSM. Students as Assessors. 2011.

Boud D, Falchikov N. Aligning assessment with long-term learning. Assess Eval High Educ. 2006;31(4):399–413.

Charoensakulchai S, Kantiwong A, Piyaraj P. Factors influencing problem-based learning: Students’ and teachers’ perspectives. MedEdPublish. 2019;8(3).

Sukrajh V. The use of peer teaching to promote active learning amongst senior medical students. Doctoral dissertation, Stellenbosch University. 2018.

Almomani JA. Preferred cognitive learning patterns (VAK) among secondary students admitted to King Saud University and its effect on their academic achievement in physics. Int Educ Stud. 2019;12(6):108–19.

Hamdani D Al. Exploring students’ learning style at a Gulf University: A contributing factor to effective instruction. Procedia Soc Behav Sci. 2015;176:124–128.

Anbarasi M, Rajkumar G, Krishnakumar S, Rajendran P, Venkatesan R, Dinesh T, et al. Learning style-based teaching harvests a superior comprehension of respiratory physiology. Adv Physiol Educ. 2015;39:214–7.

Kamp RJA, Dolmans DHJM, Van Berkel HJM, Schmidt HG. The effect of midterm peer feedback on student functioning in problem-based tutorials. 2013;18:199–213.

Parikh A, McReelis K, Hodges B. Student feedback in problem based learning: a survey of 103 final year students across five Ontario medical schools. Med Educ. 2001;35(7):632–6.

Perera J, Lee N, Win K, Perera J, Wijesuriya L. Formative feedback to students: The mismatch between faculty perceptions and student expectations. 2008;30(4):395–9.

De Jong LH, Favier RP, Van der Vleuten CPM, Bok HGJ. Students’ motivation toward feedback-seeking in the clinical workplace. Med Teach. 2017;39(9):954–8.

Bose MM, Gijselaers WH. Why supervisors should promote feedback-seeking behaviour in medical residency. Med Teach. 2013;35(11):e1573–83.

Entwistle N. Promoting deep learning through teaching and assessment. In assessment to promote deep learning: Insights from AAHF’s 2000 and 1999 Assessment Conferences. 2000:9–20.

Tadjer H, Lafifi Y, Seridi-Bouchelaghem H, Gülseçen S. Improving soft skills based on students’ traces in problem-based learning environments. Interact Learn Environ. 2020:1–18.

Maule AJ, Hockey GRJ, Bdzola L. Effects of time-pressure on decision-making under uncertainty: changes in affective state and information processing strategy. Acta Physiol (Oxf). 2000;104(3):283–301.

Amabile TM, DeJong W, Lepper MR. Effects of externally imposed deadlines on subsequent intrinsic motivation. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1976;34(1):92–8.

Ballard T, Vancouver JB, Neal A. On the pursuit of multiple goals with different deadlines. J Appl Psychol. 2018;103(11):1242–64.

Taradi SK, Taradi M, Radić K, Pokrajac N. Blending problem-based learning with Web technology positively impacts student learning outcomes in acid-base physiology. Adv Physiol Educ. 2005;29(1):35–9.

Stewart T, MacIntyre W, Galea V, Steel C. Enhancing problem-based learning designs with a single e-learning scaffolding tool: two case studies using challenge FRAP. Interact Learn Environ. 2007;15(1):77–91.

Hidayati N, Zubaidah S, Suarsini E, Praherdhiono H. Cognitive learning outcomes: Its relationship with communication skills and collaboration skills through digital mind maps-integrated PBL. Int J Inf Educ Technol. 2020;10(6):433–48.

Zheng L, Huang R. The effects of sentiments and co-regulation on group performance in computer supported collaborative learning. Internet High Educ. 2016;28:59–67.

Maraj M, Hale CP, Kogelbauer A, Hellgardt K. Teaming with confidence: How peer connections in problem-based learning impact the team and academic self-efficacies of engineering students. ASEE Annu Conf Expo. 2019:1–14.

Baranova T, Kobicheva A, Olkhovik N, Tokareva E. Analysis of the communication competence dynamics in integrated learning. In: Proceedings of the Conference “Integrating Engineering Education and Humanities for Global Intercultural Perspectives.” Springer; 2020:425–38.

Lyonga NAN. Peer learning amongst students of higher technical teachers’ training college (HTTTC) of the university of buea in kumba. Cameroon Int J High Educ. 2018;7(2):216–26.

Britton BK, Tesser A. Effects of time-management practices on college grades. J Educ Psychol. 1991;83(3):405–10.

Pagani L, Argentin G, Gui M, Stanca L. The impact of digital skills on educational outcomes: evidence from performance tests. Educ Stud. 2016;42(2):137–62.

Okoli C, Schabram K. A guide to conducting a systematic literature review of information systems research. Work Pap Inf Syst. 2010;10(26):1–51.

Kraus S, Breier M, Dasí-Rodríguez S. The art of crafting a systematic literature review in entrepreneurship research. Int Entrep Manag J. 2020;16(3):1023–42.

Download references

This study was supported by Postgraduate Incentive Grant-PhD (GIPS-PhD, grant number: 311/PPSP/4404803).

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Kulliyah of Medicine, Bandar Indera Mahkota Campus, International Islamic University Malaysia, Kuantan, 25200, Pahang, Malaysia

Azril Shahreez Abdul Ghani

Department of Medical Education, School of Medical Sciences, Health Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kubang Kerian, Kota Bharu, 16150, Kelantan, Malaysia

Azril Shahreez Abdul Ghani, Ahmad Fuad Abdul Rahim & Muhamad Saiful Bahri Yusoff

Department of Anatomy, School of Medical Sciences, Health Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kubang Kerian, 16150, Kota Bharu, Kelantan, Malaysia

Siti Nurma Hanim Hadie

You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Siti Nurma Hanim Hadie .

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval.

The study has received an ethical approval from the Human Research Ethics Committee of Universiti Sains Malaysia.

Informed Consent

No informed consent required for the scoping review.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher's note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Ghani, A.S.A., Rahim, A.F.A., Yusoff, M.S.B. et al. Effective Learning Behavior in Problem-Based Learning: a Scoping Review. Med.Sci.Educ. 31 , 1199–1211 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40670-021-01292-0

Download citation

Accepted : 13 April 2021

Published : 21 April 2021

Issue Date : June 2021

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s40670-021-01292-0

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Student behavior
Effective learning behavior
Problem-based learning
Higher education
Academic outcomes
Find a journal
Publish with us
Track your research

Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning

About IJPBL

Home > Libraries > LIBRARIESPUBLISHING > PUPOAJ > IJPBL > Vol. 11 (2017) > Iss. 2

Problem-Based Learning Pedagogy Fosters Students’ Critical Thinking About Writing

Rita Kumar , University of Cincinnati Blue Ash College Follow Brenda Refaei , University of Cincinnati Blue Ash College Follow

Convinced of the power of PBL to promote students’ critical thinking as demonstrated by its application across disciplines, we designed a series of problems for students in a second-year writing course. We collected samples of their writing before and after implementation of the problems. We were concerned about whether PBL pedagogy would negatively influence second-year students’ writing. However, our preliminary findings suggest that students’ critical thinking about writing improved with the use of PBL pedagogy.

Recommended Citation

Kumar, R. , & Refaei, B. (2017). Problem-Based Learning Pedagogy Fosters Students’ Critical Thinking About Writing. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning, 11 (2). Available at: https://doi.org/10.7771/1541-5015.1670

Since May 10, 2017

Included in

English Language and Literature Commons , Rhetoric and Composition Commons

To view the content in your browser, please download Adobe Reader or, alternately, you may Download the file to your hard drive.

NOTE: The latest versions of Adobe Reader do not support viewing PDF files within Firefox on Mac OS and if you are using a modern (Intel) Mac, there is no official plugin for viewing PDF files within the browser window.

Journal Home
IJPBL Celebrates 10 Years: 2006-2016
Most Popular Papers
Receive Email Notices or RSS

Advanced Search

ISSN: 1541-5015

Published with the support of the Teaching Academy at Purdue University, the School of Education at Indiana University, and the Educational Technology program at the University of South Carolina.

Home | About | FAQ | My Account | Accessibility Statement

Privacy Copyright

The effectiveness of problem based learning in improving critical thinking, problem-solving and self-directed learning in first-year medical students: A meta-analysis

Affiliations.

1 College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan.
2 Medical and Health Education Development, Faculty of Medicine, Udayana University, Bali, Indonesia.
3 Department of Education and Humanities in Medicine, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan.
4 Department of Urology, Taipei Medical University Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan.
PMID: 36413532
PMCID: PMC9681085
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0277339

Background: The adaptation process for first-year medical students is an important problem because it significantly affects educational activities. The previous study showed that 63% of students had difficulties adapting to the learning process in their first year at medical school. Therefore, students need the most suitable learning style to support the educational process, such as Problem-based learning (PBL). This method can improve critical thinking skills, problem-solving and self-directed learning. Although PBL has been adopted in medical education, the effectiveness of PBL in first-year medical students is still not yet clear. The purpose of this meta-analysis is to verify whether the PBL approach has a positive effect in improving knowledge, problem-solving and self-directed learning in first-year medical students compared with the conventional method.

Methods: We searched PubMed, ScienceDirect, Cochrane, and Google Scholar databases until June 5, 2021. Search terms included problem-based learning, effectiveness, effectivity, and medical student. We excluded studies with the final-year medical student populations. All analyses in our study were carried out using Review Manager version 5.3 (RevMan Cochrane, London, UK).

Result: Seven eligible studies (622 patients) were included. The pooled analysis demonstrated no significant difference between PBL with conventional learning method in critical thinking/knowledge assessment (p = 0.29), problem-solving aspect (p = 0.47), and self-directed learning aspect (p = 0.34).

Conclusion: The present study concluded that the PBL approach in first-year medical students appeared to be ineffective in improving critical thinking/knowledge, problem-solving, and self-directed compared with the conventional teaching method.

Copyright: © 2022 Manuaba et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Publication types

Meta-Analysis
Problem Solving
Problem-Based Learning* / methods
Students, Medical*

Grants and funding

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Publications
Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

Advanced Search
Journal List
Elsevier - PMC COVID-19 Collection

Problem-based learning: A strategy to foster generation Z's critical thinking and perseverance

Educators are concerned about Generation Z's inexperience with higher order critical thinking and tendency to give up or move on when faced with challenges. While acknowledging that this generation brings technological skills and an inclusive mindset that will enhance our profession, educators are challenged to adapt teaching strategies to promote critical thinking and foster perseverance. This manuscript will recount the attributes of Generation Z and describe problem-based learning as a strategy to enhance critical thinking and perseverance.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, the nursing workforce has demonstrated courage and perseverance in the face of challenges. Nurse educators are concerned about how to prepare nursing students for these workforce conditions and wonder how to equip students with the skills to persevere. Most nursing students in programs now are part of Generation Z ( Hampton & Keys, 2017 ). By recognizing Generation Z's learning needs, nurse educators can prepare students for the workforce through teaching strategies that empower critical thinking and perseverance skills. Teaching strategies that engage students in critical thinking and foster perseverance are of particular interest during the coronavirus pandemic because sites and opportunities for clinical rotations may be diminished. The following discussion will define critical thinking, perseverance, and problem-based learning (PBL), describe Generation Z, and then provide suggestions of how to use PBL as a strategy to build critical thinking skills and perseverance.

PBL employs constructivist principles to foster application of prior knowledge, collaborative learning, and active engagement. To begin a PBL activity, a small group of students analyzes a problem, identifies relevant facts, and applies existing knowledge and experiences to solve a problem ( Alexander, McDaniel, Baldwin & Money, 2002 ; Oja, 2011 ; Papastrat & Wallace, 2003 ; Yew & Schmidt, 2012 ; Zhou, 2018 ). The problem in a PBL activity should be a typical, work-related issue or situation that includes missing information or unclear answers such as ill-structured case studies ( Miner-Romanoff, Rae & Zakrzewski, 2019 ). The use of ill-structured case scenarios engages students in exploration of resources and self-directed information seeking; skills that are necessary in the nursing workforce and may be the first step toward perseverance.

In PBL, the teacher takes the role of a facilitator rather than a lecturer. The facilitator helps the groups construct understanding and connect concepts by scaffolding information, directing exploration, reinforcing understanding of difficult concepts, and introducing resources. In addition, the facilitator prompts reflection of group process and group outcomes. The facilitator may also be considered a coach or a guide who provides feedback and encouragement ( Salari, Roozbehi, Zarifi & Tarmizi, 2018 ).

Facilitators keep the groups on track and prompt critical thinking. Klunklin, Subpaiboongid, Keitlertnapha, Viseskul, and Turale, (2011) studied nursing student adaption to the PBL process. Their findings provide good insights for PBL facilitators. The study revealed that students adapting to PBL experience anxiety related to the new learning format and worry about their success with it. Facilitators need to be aware that students may need greater support, feedback, and encouragement when first participating in PBL. Students in the Klunklin et al. study reported appreciation for facilitators who provided feedback and encouragement. This finding may be a clue for successful promotion of perseverance through challenging PBL activities.

Studies of PBL in nursing education, including a systematic review ( Oja, 2011 ) and a meta-analysis ( Shin & Kim, 2013 ), reported positive results with student satisfaction, improved communication skills, and enhanced critical thinking ( Jones, 2008 ; Klunklin et al., 2011 ; Miner-Romanoff, Rae & Zakrzewski, 2019 ). Hodges (2011) promoted PBL as a strategy to prepare nursing students for the complex work environment by pushing them out of their comfort zone and giving them an opportunity to deal with uncertainty. Shin and Kim's (2013) meta-analysis revealed that PBL improved problem-solving in the clinical environment and promoted greater student satisfaction with the learning. This meta-analysis also reported that PBL was more effective with cognitive learning than traditional, lecture-based teaching. Recently, Zhou (2018) conducted a study of the influence of PBL on critical thinking in nursing students and discovered that PBL improved the analysis and interpretation elements of critical thinking. Likewise, Salari et al., (2018) also studied the effects of PBL on nursing student development of higher order cognition. Their results aligned with other studies, which demonstrated that PBL was more effective than traditional lectures to engage students in application, analysis, evaluation, and synthesis.

Critical thinking

The American Association of Colleges of Nursing (2008) defines critical thinking as “all or part of the process of questioning, analysis, synthesis, interpretation, inference, inductive and deductive reasoning, intuition, application, and creativity” (p. 36). The Critical Thinking Foundation describes critical thinking as an intellectual discipline that involves the following elements of thought: purpose and problem identification, concept clarification, discovery of assumptions, consideration of points of view, detection of implications/consequences, validation of evidence, and reflection ( Hawkins, Paul and Elder, 2010 ). Those definitions offer a framework to structure learning activities that foster critical thinking by engaging the students in the elements such as questioning, analyzing, synthesizing, etc. Clinical judgment, an outcome of critical thinking, is the basis for the new NCLEX format ( AACN, 2008 , NCSBN, 2020 ). The new NCLEX format applies the Clinical Judgement Model which includes the thinking process of clue recognition, analysis of clues, prioritization of hypothesis, generation of solutions, identifying actions, and evaluation of outcomes ( NCSBN, 2020 ). Our goal as nurse educators is to promote student thinking that will ultimately lead to sound clinical judgments which will produce safe clinical decisions. Nurse educators must select teaching strategies that support student critical thinking, clinical judgments, and care decisions to help our students not only pass licensure exams, but also to provide quality care within today's complex healthcare environments.

Perseverance

Perseverance is defined as courage to not give up when confronted with difficulties and failure; a quality that is predictive of quality work performance ( Littman-Ovadia & Lavy, 2016 ). Littman-Ovadia and Lavy (2016) conducted a survey of 686 employed adults and discovered that those who felt that they were “called” to do their line of work, felt as if their work was a career and not just a job, and found meaning in their work were more apt to persevere through challenges. They suggested that leaders could foster perseverance by encouraging employees to connect with their passion and sense of purpose. In addition, they recommend that educators should prepare students to expect and anticipate challenges and failures in their career. Wolters and Hussain's (2015) study identified that perseverance was a predictor of learning. They discovered that college students who had increased perseverance demonstrated greater self-efficacy with learning, an increased ability to choose effective learning strategies, and had better time management skills. In addition, the students with greater perseverance in the Wolter's and Hussain study also valued the learning, and thus were more motivated to learn. This study supported that educators need to encourage (motivate) students to be persistent in their efforts by providing clear alignment of efforts to goals, as well as, foster learning through exposing students to effective learning strategies and time management strategies. Furthermore, educators must plan opportunities for students to practice these strategies. In another study, Olson (2017) discovered that grit, tenacity, and perseverance could be developed in college through intentional assignments and identified self-confidence and tenacity as keys to effective perseverance.

Application of PBL to generation Z

Although generational generalizations could encourage stereotypes, acknowledgment of generational attributes may provide insights for selection of teaching strategies. Generation Z students need support with critical thinking skills and opportunities to enhance perseverance ( Twenge, 2016 ). The following discussion will highlight generation Z's attributes and describe how PBL can develop skills and augment strengths. Table 1 provides an overview of the learning needs of generation Z justified with PBL fulfillment of the skill gap or capitalization of the learning strength.

Generation Z skill gaps fulfilled by PBL or learning strength augmented by PBL

PBL is an ideal strategy to engage Gen Z student in higher order critical thinking. The PBL process aligns with the definition of critical thinking and the elements of thought involved with critical thinking. For instance, in PBL, students’ question, analyze, synthesize, interpret, infer, reason, apply, and use intuition and creativity. PBL also may involve clarifying concepts, prioritizing problems, and identifying what is known and what is not known, examining assumptions, assessing different viewpoints, identifying possible interventions, examining alternatives, and reflecting on the process. Also, facilitators could add another element of good decision-making by prompting students to identify resources that would aid in data gathering and decision making ( Table 2 ).

Example of PBL Activity to engage critical thinking and perseverance

Generation Z prefers practical, real-world learning experiences ( Chicca & Shellenbarger, 2018a ; Hampton & Keys, 2017 ; Seemiller & Grace, 2017 ; Schmitt and Lancaster, 2019 ). PBL provides an ideal strategy to capture the student's attention with real clinical problems and provide a learning medium that the students would find meaningful and applicable to their role in patient care.

Gen Zer's are “true digital natives” ( Chicca & Shellenbarger, 2018b , p. 250). They excel in finding information and communicating in the digital world. As a generation who have not known a time before the internet, they are prolific consumers of digital technology. They can instantly find a fact or find a video tutorial on how to do just about anything. These advanced technological skills enable them to quickly look up information and navigate most any digital platform. Nurse educators could capitalize on the technology skills of Gen Z by designing PBL activities that require online resource utilization such as academic electronic health records, scholarly websites, virtual tutorials, or databases to find missing information, gather needed information, clarify concepts, and explore options.

As a generation who is proficient with communication through messaging and social media, Generation Z may need support mastering professional communication and the skills to work effectively in teams ( Chicca & Shellenbarger, 2018b ; Hampton & Keys, 2017 ; Seemiller & Grace, 2017 ; Twenge, 2016 ) Engaging in PBL could enhance communication and team behaviors through the small group dynamics and collaboration during the activity as well as facilitator feedback.

When challenged to search for meaning and understanding that is not instantly apparent, Gen Zers may become frustrated ( Chicca & Shellenbarger, 2018b ; Twenge, 2016 ). Nurse educators must recognize that this generation wants to succeed and are willing to work hard but may need extra support to learn and practice perseverance ( Twenge, 2016 ). The facilitator of PBL activities may foster perseverance by prompting the students to reflect upon their role as the nurse as if they were dealing with situation in real-life. This reflection can bring their belief of being “called” to the forefront and help to connect their passion for nursing to the task of striving (persevering) to making clinical decisions in a complex work environment. PBL activities that employ unfolding case-studies, could be enhanced with built in challenges such as “there are no ICU beds available,” or “the nurse-patient ratio is greater because a nurse called in sick,” or “the pharmacy is out of one of the recommended drugs.” Throwing in common nursing challenges may help students to realize that challenges are innately part of a typical nursing day. The facilitator could also hold a debriefing to reflect not only upon the conclusions/decisions from the patient scenario, but also to reflect upon the team behaviors needed, the challenges encountered, and the consequences if the nurse or team would not follow through and persevere.

Generation Z's immersion in social media and dependence on their phones for social interaction, validation, and feedback has been correlated with greater levels of isolation, poor self-confidence, anxiety, and depression ( Chicca & Shellenbarger, 2018b ; Twenge, 2016 ). However, encouragement may bolster confidence and lessen anxiety ( Hampton & Keys, 2017 ; Schmitt & Lancaster, 2019 ; Twenge, 2016 ). The PBL facilitator may influence the confidence of the students during a PBL activity through praise and constructive feedback regarding group communication, team behaviors, information gathering, analysis of data, progress toward consensus, and appropriate use of resources. Immediate feedback may foster realistic reflection of their efforts, skill level, and knowledge which could build confidence. Also, the facilitator may be instrumental in prompting input and encouragement within the group as way for group members to validate each other's contributions ( Table 2 ).

Generation Z is also very concerned with emotional, physical, and financial safety. Such concerns were triggered by their early exposure to unstable, uncertain times that included bombings, school shootings, 9/11, and now, the coronavirus ( Marshall & Wolanskyj- Spinner, 2020 ). They strive for job security and fear the consequences of not succeeding in their career of choice ( Chicca & Shellenbarger, 2018b ; Hampton & Keys, 2017 ; Seemiller & Grace, 2017 ; Twenge, 2016 ). The PBL facilitator could allay some of these fears by hosting a debriefing after the PBL activity. The debriefing could include a reflection of how the knowledge gained and skills within the activity helped to prepared them for success.

Generation Z has been reported as the most open-minded, inclusive generation and the most technologically savvy ( Chicca & Shellenbarger, 2018b ; Twenge, 2016 ). However, educators must consider that Generation Z learns differently and has a unique worldview that differs from preceding generations. Although PBL is not a new teaching strategy, it is an ideal, evidence-based, option to fill the skill gaps regarding critical thinking and perseverance as well as accentuate Generation Z's strengths. Such strategies are needed in a time when clinical education may be limited.

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

American Association of Colleges of Nursing [AACN] 2008. The Essentials of Baccalaureate Education for Professional Nursing Practice. http://www.aacn.nche.edu/educationresources/ [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Alexander J.G., McDaniel G.S., Baldwin M.S., Money B.J. Promoting, applying, and evaluating problem-based learning in the undergraduate nursing curriculum. Nursing Education Perspectives. 2002; 23 (5):248–253. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Chicca J., Shellenbarger T. Connecting with Generation Z: Approaches in nursing education. Teaching and Learning in Nursing. 2018; 13 (3):180–184. doi: 10.1016/j.teln.2018.03.008. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Chicca J., Shellenbarger T. Generation Z: Approaches and teaching -learning practices for nursing professional development practitioners. Journal for Nurses in Professional Development. 2018; 34 (5):230–256. doi: 10.1097/NND.0000000000000478. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Hampton D., Keys Y. Generation Z students: Will they change our nursing classrooms? Journal of Nursing Education and Practice. 2017; 7 (4):111–115. doi: 10.5430/jnep.v7n4p111. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Hawkins D., Paul R., Elder L. Foundation for Critical Thinking Press; 2010. The Thinker's Guide to Clinical Reasoning. www.criticalthinking.org [ Google Scholar ]
Hodges H.F. Preparing new nurses with complexity science and problem-bases learning. Journal of Nursing Education. 2011; 50 (1):7–13. doi: 10.3928/01484834-20101029-01. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Jones M. Developing clinically savvy nursing students: An evaluation of problem-based learning in an associate degree program. Nursing Education Perspectives. 2008; 29 (5):278–283. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Klunklin A., Subpaiboongid P., Keitlertnapha P., Viseskul N., Turale S. Thai nursing students' adaption to problem-based learning: A qualitative study. Nurse Education in Practice. 2011; 11 (6):370–374. doi: 10.1016/j.nepr.2011.03.011. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Littman-Ovadia H., Lavy S. Going the extra mile: Perseverance as a key character strength at work. Journal of Career Assessment. 2016; 24 (2):240–252. doi: 10.1177/1069072715580322. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Marshall A.L., M.D., Wolanskyj-Spinner A. COVID-19: Challenges and opportunities for educators and generation Z learners. Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 2020; 95 (6):1135–1137. doi: 10.1016/j.mayocp.2020.04.015. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Miner-Romanoff K., Rae A., Zakrzewski C.E. A holistic and multifaceted model for ill-structured experiential problem-based learning: Enhancing student critical thinking and communication skills. Journal of Problem Based Learning in Higher Education. 2019; 7 (1):70–96. doi: 10.5278/ojs.jpblhe.v7i1.3341. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
National Council of State Boards of Nursing [NCSBN] 2020. NCSBN Clinical Judgment Measurement Model. https://www.ncsbn.org/next-generation-nclex.htm . [ Google Scholar ]
Oja K.J. Using problem-based learning in the clinical setting to improve nursing students’ critical thinking: An evidence review. Journal of Nursing Education. 2011; 50 (3):145–151. 10https://doi.org/3928/01484834-20101230-10. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Olson J.S. Helping first-year students get grit: The impact of intentional assignments on the development of grit, tenacity, and perseverance. Journal of The First-Year Experience & Students in Transition. 2017; 29 (1):99–118. [ Google Scholar ]
Papastrat K., Wallace S. Teaching baccalaureate nursing students to prevent medication errors using a problem-based learning approach. Journal of Nursing Education. 2003; 42 (10):459–464. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
Salari M., Roozbehi A., Zarifi A., Tarmizi R.A. Pure PBL, hybrid PBL and lecturing: Which one is more effective in developing cognitive skills of undergraduate students in pediatric nursing course. BMC Medical Education. 2018; 18 (1):195. doi: 10.1186/s12909-018-1305-0. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Schmitt C.A., Lancaster R.J. Readiness to practice in Generation Z nursing students. Journal of Nursing Education. 2019; 58 (10):604–606. doi: 10.3928/01484834-20190923-09. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Seemiller C., Grace M. Generation Z: Educating and engaging the next generation of students. About Campus. 2017:21–26. doi: 10.1002/abc.21293. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Shin I.-S., Kim J.-H. The effect of problem-based learning in nursing education: A meta-analysis. Advances in Health Sciences Education. 2013; 18 (5):1103–1120. doi: 10.1007/s10459-012-9436-2. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Twenge, J. M. (2016). iGen: Why today's super connected kids are growing up less rebellious, more tolerant, less happy- and completely unprepared for adulthood. Atria.
Wolters C.A., Hussain M. Investigating grit and its relations with college students' self-regulated learning and academic achievement. Metacognition and Learning. 2015; 10 (3):293–311. doi: 10.1007/s11409-014-9128-9. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Yew E., Schmidt H. What students learn in problem-based learning: A process analysis. Instructional Science. 2012; 40 (2):371–395. doi: 10.1007/s11251-011-9181-6. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Zhou Z. An empirical study on the influence of PBL teaching model on college students’ critical thinking ability. English Language Teaching. 2018; 11 (4):15–20. doi: 10.5539/elt.v11n4p15. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]

Click through the PLOS taxonomy to find articles in your field.

For more information about PLOS Subject Areas, click here .

Loading metrics

Open Access

Correction: The effectiveness of problem based learning in improving critical thinking, problem-solving and self-directed learning in first-year medical students: A meta-analysis

Ida Bagus Amertha Putra Manuaba,
Chien-Chih Wu
Ida Bagus Amertha Putra Manuaba,
Yi -No,

Published: May 9, 2024

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0303724
Reader Comments

There is an error in affiliation 1 of the first author. The correct affiliation 1 of Ida Bagus Amertha Putra Manuaba is: International Ph.D. Program in Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University.

View Article
PubMed/NCBI
Google Scholar

Citation: Manuaba IBAP, -No Y, Wu C-C (2024) Correction: The effectiveness of problem based learning in improving critical thinking, problem-solving and self-directed learning in first-year medical students: A meta-analysis. PLoS ONE 19(5): e0303724. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0303724

Copyright: © 2024 Manuaba et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Explained: Importance of critical thinking, problem-solving skills in curriculum

F uture careers are no longer about domain expertise or technical skills. Rather, critical thinking and problem-solving skills in employees are on the wish list of every big organization today. Even curriculums and pedagogies across the globe and within India are now requiring skilled workers who are able to think critically and are analytical.

The reason for this shift in perspective is very simple.

These skills provide a staunch foundation for comprehensive learning that extends beyond books or the four walls of the classroom. In a nutshell, critical thinking and problem-solving skills are a part of '21st Century Skills' that can help unlock valuable learning for life.

Over the years, the education system has been moving away from the system of rote and other conventional teaching and learning parameters.

They are aligning their curriculums to the changing scenario which is becoming more tech-driven and demands a fusion of critical skills, life skills, values, and domain expertise. There's no set formula for success.

Rather, there's a defined need for humans to be more creative, innovative, adaptive, agile, risk-taking, and have a problem-solving mindset.

In today's scenario, critical thinking and problem-solving skills have become more important because they open the human mind to multiple possibilities, solutions, and a mindset that is interdisciplinary in nature.

Therefore, many schools and educational institutions are deploying AI and immersive learning experiences via gaming, and AR-VR technologies to give a more realistic and hands-on learning experience to their students that hone these abilities and help them overcome any doubt or fear.

ADVANTAGES OF CRITICAL THINKING AND PROBLEM-SOLVING IN CURRICULUM

Ability to relate to the real world: Instead of theoretical knowledge, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills encourage students to look at their immediate and extended environment through a spirit of questioning, curiosity, and learning. When the curriculum presents students with real-world problems, the learning is immense.

Confidence, agility & collaboration : Critical thinking and problem-solving skills boost self-belief and confidence as students examine, re-examine, and sometimes fail or succeed while attempting to do something.

They are able to understand where they may have gone wrong, attempt new approaches, ask their peers for feedback and even seek their opinion, work together as a team, and learn to face any challenge by responding to it.

Willingness to try new things: When problem-solving skills and critical thinking are encouraged by teachers, they set a robust foundation for young learners to experiment, think out of the box, and be more innovative and creative besides looking for new ways to upskill.

It's important to understand that merely introducing these skills into the curriculum is not enough. Schools and educational institutions must have upskilling workshops and conduct special training for teachers so as to ensure that they are skilled and familiarized with new teaching and learning techniques and new-age concepts that can be used in the classrooms via assignments and projects.

Critical thinking and problem-solving skills are two of the most sought-after skills. Hence, schools should emphasise the upskilling of students as a part of the academic curriculum.

The article is authored by Dr Tassos Anastasiades, Principal- IB, Genesis Global School, Noida.

Watch Live TV in English

Watch Live TV in Hindi

Explained: Importance of critical thinking, problem-solving skills in curriculum

Testimonials
Literacy Strategy 3: Inquiry-Based Learning

Image: TeachThought Staff / January 11, 2017 / Critical Thinking / Experienced Teacher, Fundamentals, Inquiry-based Learning

Inquiry-based learning.

Literacy Strategy 3: Inquiry-Based Learning, also known as Project-Based or Experiential Learning.

There are 4 types of inquiry-based learning:

1. The Structured Inquiry Approach

2. The Open-Ended Inquiry Approach

3. The Problem-Based Inquiry Approach

4. The Guided Inquiry Approach

There are 7 benefits to inquiry-based learning:

1. Encourages critical thinking

2. Improves problem-solving skills

3. Encourages creativity

4. Improves communication skills

5. Connects learning to the real world

6. Helps students understand complex topics

7. Encourages engaged learning

Five inquiry-based learning examples are:

1. Science experiments

2. Field trips

3. Classroom debates

4. Projects

5. Group work

Example injury-based learning project:

As a project-based (or inquiry-based) choice assignment, I would like to research my family history and ancestry using the open-ended inquiry approach, where do I begin?

I can begin by exploring my own knowledge of my family and family history. I will begin by exploring the makeup of my family: my siblings, my aunts, uncles, and cousins? I will include my parents and grandparents and their parents and grandparents if I have that information.

Ways to research my family history would be to interview some of my family members. Maybe there are some family members who would have a collection of old family photographs or historical family data. I remember that my grandmother used to keep names, marriages, and births in her bible. I also know that the U.S. Census Bureau has historical data, maybe I can find some of my relatives there?

An adopted person who does not know his or her family could at least get information about their family heritage or origins by taking a DNA test. Also, doing a Google search may reveal information about any relatives that I or someone else know by name.

This type of research can be done individually, with a partner, or in a group. For example, I can ask my sister or other relatives to help me research our family history. Other ways to research historical data are through:

Family Search
Olive Tree Genealogy
Ancestry.com
Ancestry DNA
My Heritage DNA
Genealogy Bank DNA
Your personal knowledge and records
Family records
Census records
Purchase or find a free or trial version of genealogy software

This website has information about inquiry-based learning: https://www.splashlearn.com/blog/what-is-inquiry-based-learning-a-complete-overview/#6

Here are 5 strategies and tips for implementing inquiry-based learning:

1. Start with a Question

Inquiry bases learning starts with a question. To make a family tree, begin with the date of your birth and work backwards. When, where, and under what circumstances was I born?

2. Allow for Exploration

Explore the topic on your own based on what you can discover about what goes on during a family history search.

3. Encourage Discussion

Discuss your ideas with your close family members and with peers who may be interested in the same type of research.

4. Provide Resources

Find a list of resources such as Ancestry.com and other resources listed above that are used to do genealogy searches. Check the records of your town and city around the time of your birth. There may be newspapers and books that can help in your search. Once, our local library completed a project on residents of the county and some of my relatives were featured.

5. Summarize What Was Learned At the end of the research on your family history, summarize what you have learned.

“Inquiry-based learning is promoted as a way to continually increase knowledge. The student starts with a body of knowledge that has already been acquired. This is used to help the student identify other things that are not known and to form educated guesses, or hypotheses, about those unknown things. Through research, observation, and the use of the five senses of sight, hearing, taste, touch, and smell, the student applies knowledge that has already been acquired to learning something new” (Ungvarsky, 2023).

SplashLearn. (2023). What is inquiry-based learning? Types, benefits, examples. https://www.splashlearn.com/blog/what-is-inquiry-based-learning-a-complete-overview/#6

TeachThought Staff. (2017). 10 benefits of inquiry-based learning. https://www.teachthought.com/critical-thinking/10-benefits-of-inquiry-based-learning/

Ungvarsky, J. (2023). Inquiry-based learning. Salem Press Encyclopedia.

IMAGES

The benefits of critical thinking for students and how to develop it
Critical Thinking Skills
The benefits of critical thinking for students and how to develop it
How to promote Critical Thinking Skills
Guide to improve critical thinking skills
Teaching Critical Thinking Skills (and How Technology Can Help

VIDEO

What’s the most important lesson when learning critical thinking?
Critical Thinking Skills! Asmr #shorts
Introduction to Critical Thinking
Simple Problem Solving Models
The Future of Education: Teaching the Skills Machines Can't Master
Using problem-based learning (PBL) in STEM: Insights from the classroom

COMMENTS

Effective Learning Behavior in Problem-Based Learning: a Scoping Review
Problem-based learning (PBL) emphasizes learning behavior that leads to critical thinking, problem-solving, communication, and collaborative skills in preparing students for a professional medical career. However, learning behavior that develops these skills has not been systematically described. This review aimed to unearth the elements of ...
Advancing Critical Thinking Through Learning Issues in Problem-Based
Abstract. Health professions educators are increasingly urged to use learning designs that promote critical thinking and the development of interpersonal competencies. Problem-based learning (PBL) has a long, albeit contested, history as a collaborative and deep think-aloud process that participants use to reach conclusions about medical cases.
Problem-Based Learning: An Overview of its Process and Impact on
Problem-based learning (PBL) has been widely adopted in diverse fields and educational contexts to promote critical thinking and problem-solving in authentic learning situations. Its close affiliation with workplace collaboration and interdisciplinary learning contributed to its spread beyond the traditional realm of clinical education 1 to ...
Problem-based learning: A strategy to foster generation Z's critical
The following discussion will define critical thinking, perseverance, and problem-based learning (PBL), describe Generation Z, and then provide suggestions of how to use PBL as a strategy to build critical thinking skills and perseverance. ... Small group prompts to address the case and engage critical thinking. • Identify the problem(s) or ...
Effects of problem-based learning instructional intervention on
1. Introduction. Critical thinking (CT), as certain higher-order thinking, has been regarded as a planned achievement of education in 2050 (International Commission on the Futures of Education Commission, 2021), which, when taught effectively, will promote logical problem-solving (Dwyer et al., 2011) and contribute to the educational improvement, especially in higher education, and the job market.
The critical thinking-oriented adaptations of problem-based learning
Critical thinking is a significant twenty-first century skill that is prioritized by higher education. Problem-based learning is becoming widely accepted as an effective way to enhance critical thinking. However, as the results of studies that use PBL to develop CT have had mixed success, PBL models need to be modified to guarantee positive outcomes. This study is a systematic review that ...
Problem-Based Learning
Problem-based learning (PBL) is a student-centered approach in which students learn about a subject by working in groups to solve an open-ended problem. This problem is what drives the motivation and the learning. ... Critical thinking and analysis. Explaining concepts. Self-directed learning. Applying course content to real-world examples.
Thinking Critically about Critical Thinking and Problem-Based Learning
It is often assumed that problem-based learning is an effective approach for fostering the development and/or improvement of students' critical thinking. To shed light on the connection between problem-based learning and critical thinking, this scoping review maps out how the notion of critical thinking is conceptualized in relation to problem-based learning in the literature about problem ...
The effectiveness of problem based learning in improving critical
Therefore, students need the most suitable learning style to support the educational process, such as Problem-based learning (PBL). This method can improve critical thinking skills, problem-solving and self-directed learning. Although PBL has been adopted in medical education, the effectiveness of PBL in first-year medical students is still not ...
(PDF) Problem-based learning: Improving critical thinking abilities
Problem-based learning facilitates the exploration of critical thinking, problem-solving, and real-life attitudes such as being active, independent, and cooperative.
PDF Problem based learning to increase competence of critical thinking and
Especially Critical thinking and problem solving skills So that there needs to be a learning model that can bring up these skills in the learning process, one of them is Problem Based learning. Problem based learning is problem-based learning. "The problem based learning is the modern methods of teaching that allow each learner to construct
Problem-Based Learning (PBL)
PBL is a student-centered approach to learning that involves groups of students working to solve a real-world problem, quite different from the direct teaching method of a teacher presenting facts and concepts about a specific subject to a classroom of students. Through PBL, students not only strengthen their teamwork, communication, and ...
The Effectiveness of Problem-Based Learning on Students' Critical Thinking
This shows that both of these things have exceeded the minimum percentage set at 70%, or in other wordsThe problem-based learning process can develop students' critical thinking skills in ...
Problem Based Learning to Improve Critical Thinking
Problem Based Learning to Improve Critica l Thinking. Egi Gustomo Arifin. SD Negeri Tegalsari. [email protected]. Article History. received 3/12/2020 revised 17/12/2020 accepted 31/12/2020 ...
Effect of problem-based learning on critical thinking skills
The findings of this study included: (1) the implementation of PBL has the potential to help students motivate and provide learning experiences; and (2) PBL implementation is very useful in improving students' critical thinking skills, provided that teachers and students can apply each stage of PBL well. Export citation and abstract BibTeX RIS.
Systematic review of problem based learning research in fostering
2.1. Eligibility requirements. The enhancement of critical thinking abilities in problem-based learning was the subject of all initial studies. Studies were identified by viewing relevant publications from the five most recent years, from 2018 to December 2022, in the Scopus electronic databases and the SINTA 1-2 journal.
The effectiveness of collaborative problem solving in promoting
Collaborative problem-solving has been widely embraced in the classroom instruction of critical thinking, which is regarded as the core of curriculum reform based on key competencies in the field ...
Effective Learning Behavior in Problem-Based Learning: a Scoping Review
Problem-based learning (PBL) emphasizes learning behavior that leads to critical thinking, problem-solving, communication, and collaborative skills in preparing students for a professional medical career. However, learning behavior that develops these skills has not been systematically described. This review aimed to unearth the elements of effective learning behavior in a PBL context, using ...
The process of implementing problem-based learning in a teacher
This study aimed to explore how the problem-based learning ... PBL has benefits for learning outcomes and the development of reasoning and critical thinking skills; by solving authentic problems, students are better able to connect theory to practice (Blackburn, Citation 2017). I observed that the higher the students' learning engagement and ...
Problem-Based Learning Pedagogy Fosters Students' Critical Thinking
Convinced of the power of PBL to promote students' critical thinking as demonstrated by its application across disciplines, we designed a series of problems for students in a second-year writing course. We collected samples of their writing before and after implementation of the problems. We were concerned about whether PBL pedagogy would negatively influence second-year students' writing ...
The effectiveness of problem based learning in improving critical
The effectiveness of problem based learning in improving critical thinking, problem-solving and self-directed learning in first-year medical students: A meta-analysis PLoS One . 2022 Nov 22;17(11):e0277339. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0277339.
Education Sciences
The COVID-19 pandemic caused a sudden shift to virtual platforms. Physical distance and limited experience with both synchronous and asynchronous teamwork at work and school hampered problem-solving and the development of critical thinking skills. Under these circumstances, the implementation of team-based and problem-based learning (TBL, PBL, respectively) required a reevaluation of how teams ...
Problem-based learning: A strategy to foster generation Z's critical
This manuscript will recount the attributes of Generation Z and describe problem-based learning as a strategy to enhance critical thinking and perseverance. Keywords: Generation Z, Problem-based learning, Critical thinking. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the nursing workforce has demonstrated courage and perseverance in the face of challenges.
Profile of Students' Physics Critical Thinking Skills and Prospect
This research studies the profile of students' critical thinking skills in physics in general, indicators, aptitudes, gender, and analyzes the perspectives of the Project-Oriented Problem-Based Learning (POPBL) model in improving these skills. The method used in this study was descriptive quantitative with a sample of 154 students. Data collection methods using written tests, questionnaires ...
Correction: The effectiveness of problem based learning in improving
Manuaba IBAP, -No Y, Wu C-C (2022) The effectiveness of problem based learning in improving critical thinking, problem-solving and self-directed learning in first-year medical students: A meta-analysis. PLoS ONE 17(11): e0277339. pmid:36413532 . View Article PubMed/NCBI Google Scholar
Navigating Online Teaching: Critical Thinking Challenges
Teaching critical thinking skills is a vital part of education, preparing students for complex decision-making and problem-solving in their professional and personal lives. However, when this ...
Explained: Importance of critical thinking, problem-solving skills in
In a nutshell, critical thinking and problem-solving skills are a part of '21st Century Skills' that can help unlock valuable learning for life. Over the years, the education system has been ...
Socrates, Problem-based Learning and Critical Thinking—A Philosophic
The Kaohsiung Journal of Medical Sciences. Socrates, Problem-based Learning and Critical Thinking—A Philosophic Point of View. Problem-based learning (PBL) is a learner-centered educational method based on the principles of heuristics and collaboration. It has been considered an effective learning method in general and in professional ...
Literacy Strategy 3: Inquiry-Based Learning
Image: TeachThought Staff / January 11, 2017 / Critical Thinking / Experienced Teacher, Fundamentals, Inquiry-based Learning Inquiry-Based Learning. Literacy Strategy 3: Inquiry-Based Learning, also known as Project-Based or Experiential Learning. There are 4 types of inquiry-based learning: 1. The Structured Inquiry Approach. 2.
Students' performance, attitude, and classroom observation data to
The dataset comprises three types of data: students' performance in a physics topic (simple machines), their attitudes toward problem-solving and critical thinking when learning physics using Problem-Based Learning (PBL) supplemented by YouTube videos, and classroom observations documented with the reformed teaching observational protocol (RTOP).

People also looked at

1. Introduction

1.1. Critical thinking

1.2. Problem-based learning

1.3. Problem-based learning and critical thinking

1.4. Research questions

2. Methodology

2.1. Search strategy

2.2. Inclusion and exclusion criteria

2.3. Selection of articles

2.4. Data extraction

3. Results and discussion

3.1. The CT-oriented adaptations made to PBL models

3.1.1. CT-oriented tools

3.1.2. CT-oriented activities

3.1.3. Digital strategies

3.1.4. PBL integrated with other pedagogical models

3.1.5. PBL integrated with subject knowledge

3.2. The evaluation of CT-oriented PBL interventions

3.2.1. Data collection

3.2.2. Data analysis

3.3. Examination of the findings from PBL-adapted interventions

3.3.2. Positive findings

3.3.3. Success factors

4. Conclusions

Data availability statement

Author contributions

Conflict of interest

Publisher's note

Center for Teaching Innovation

Problem-Based Learning

Why Use Problem-Based Learning?

Considerations for Using Problem-Based Learning

Getting Started with Problem-Based Learning

Problem-Based Learning (PBL)

By working with PBL, students will:

How to Begin PBL

Designing Classroom Instruction

How to Orchestrate a PBL Activity

Teacher’s Role in PBL

The Role of the Students

Similar Posts

Concept Maps and How To Use Them

Definitions of Educational Technology

Open Source Learning Management Systems (LMS)

SAMR Model: Substitution, Augmentation, Modification, and Redefinition

How To Design A Course

We apologize for the inconvenience...

The effectiveness of collaborative problem solving in promoting students’ critical thinking: A meta-analysis based on empirical literature

Similar content being viewed by others

Fostering twenty-first century skills among primary school students through math project-based learning

A meta-analysis to gauge the impact of pedagogies employed in mixed-ability high school biology classrooms

A guide to critical thinking: implications for dental education

Data sources and search strategies

Eligibility criteria

Data coding design

Procedure for extracting and coding data

Publication bias test

Heterogeneity test

The analysis of the overall effect size

The analysis of moderator effect size

The effectiveness of collaborative problem solving with regard to teaching critical thinking

The moderating effects of collaborative problem solving with regard to teaching critical thinking

Suggestions for critical thinking teaching

Implications and limitations

Conclusions

Data availability

Acknowledgements

Author information

Corresponding authors

Ethics declarations

Ethical approval

Informed consent

Supplementary information

About this article

Share this article

This article is cited by

Exploring the effects of digital technology on deep learning: a meta-analysis

Quick links

Effective Learning Behavior in Problem-Based Learning: a Scoping Review