how to choose a research instrument

Research Methodologies: Research Instruments

• Research Methodology Basics
• Research Instruments
• Types of Research Methodologies

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Types of Research Instruments

A research instrument is a tool you will use to help you collect, measure and analyze the data you use as part of your research.  The choice of research instrument will usually be yours to make as the researcher and will be whichever best suits your methodology. 

There are many different research instruments you can use in collecting data for your research:

• Interviews  (either as a group or one-on-one). You can carry out interviews in many different ways. For example, your interview can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured. The difference between them is how formal the set of questions is that is asked of the interviewee. In a group interview, you may choose to ask the interviewees to give you their opinions or perceptions on certain topics.
• Surveys  (online or in-person). In survey research, you are posing questions in which you ask for a response from the person taking the survey. You may wish to have either free-answer questions such as essay style questions, or you may wish to use closed questions such as multiple choice. You may even wish to make the survey a mixture of both.
• Focus Groups.  Similar to the group interview above, you may wish to ask a focus group to discuss a particular topic or opinion while you make a note of the answers given.
• Observations.  This is a good research instrument to use if you are looking into human behaviors. Different ways of researching this include studying the spontaneous behavior of participants in their everyday life, or something more structured. A structured observation is research conducted at a set time and place where researchers observe behavior as planned and agreed upon with participants.

These are the most common ways of carrying out research, but it is really dependent on your needs as a researcher and what approach you think is best to take. It is also possible to combine a number of research instruments if this is necessary and appropriate in answering your research problem.

Data Collection

How to Collect Data for Your Research   This article covers different ways of collecting data in preparation for writing a thesis.

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Research Design | Step-by-Step Guide with Examples

Published on 5 May 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 20 March 2023.

A research design is a strategy for answering your research question  using empirical data. Creating a research design means making decisions about:

• Your overall aims and approach
• The type of research design you’ll use
• Your sampling methods or criteria for selecting subjects
• Your data collection methods
• The procedures you’ll follow to collect data
• Your data analysis methods

A well-planned research design helps ensure that your methods match your research aims and that you use the right kind of analysis for your data.

Table of contents

Step 1: consider your aims and approach, step 2: choose a type of research design, step 3: identify your population and sampling method, step 4: choose your data collection methods, step 5: plan your data collection procedures, step 6: decide on your data analysis strategies, frequently asked questions.

• Introduction

Before you can start designing your research, you should already have a clear idea of the research question you want to investigate.

There are many different ways you could go about answering this question. Your research design choices should be driven by your aims and priorities – start by thinking carefully about what you want to achieve.

The first choice you need to make is whether you’ll take a qualitative or quantitative approach.

Qualitative research designs tend to be more flexible and inductive , allowing you to adjust your approach based on what you find throughout the research process.

Quantitative research designs tend to be more fixed and deductive , with variables and hypotheses clearly defined in advance of data collection.

It’s also possible to use a mixed methods design that integrates aspects of both approaches. By combining qualitative and quantitative insights, you can gain a more complete picture of the problem you’re studying and strengthen the credibility of your conclusions.

Practical and ethical considerations when designing research

As well as scientific considerations, you need to think practically when designing your research. If your research involves people or animals, you also need to consider research ethics .

• How much time do you have to collect data and write up the research?
• Will you be able to gain access to the data you need (e.g., by travelling to a specific location or contacting specific people)?
• Do you have the necessary research skills (e.g., statistical analysis or interview techniques)?
• Will you need ethical approval ?

At each stage of the research design process, make sure that your choices are practically feasible.

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Within both qualitative and quantitative approaches, there are several types of research design to choose from. Each type provides a framework for the overall shape of your research.

Types of quantitative research designs

Quantitative designs can be split into four main types. Experimental and   quasi-experimental designs allow you to test cause-and-effect relationships, while descriptive and correlational designs allow you to measure variables and describe relationships between them.

With descriptive and correlational designs, you can get a clear picture of characteristics, trends, and relationships as they exist in the real world. However, you can’t draw conclusions about cause and effect (because correlation doesn’t imply causation ).

Experiments are the strongest way to test cause-and-effect relationships without the risk of other variables influencing the results. However, their controlled conditions may not always reflect how things work in the real world. They’re often also more difficult and expensive to implement.

Types of qualitative research designs

Qualitative designs are less strictly defined. This approach is about gaining a rich, detailed understanding of a specific context or phenomenon, and you can often be more creative and flexible in designing your research.

The table below shows some common types of qualitative design. They often have similar approaches in terms of data collection, but focus on different aspects when analysing the data.

Your research design should clearly define who or what your research will focus on, and how you’ll go about choosing your participants or subjects.

In research, a population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about, while a sample is the smaller group of individuals you’ll actually collect data from.

Defining the population

A population can be made up of anything you want to study – plants, animals, organisations, texts, countries, etc. In the social sciences, it most often refers to a group of people.

For example, will you focus on people from a specific demographic, region, or background? Are you interested in people with a certain job or medical condition, or users of a particular product?

The more precisely you define your population, the easier it will be to gather a representative sample.

Sampling methods

Even with a narrowly defined population, it’s rarely possible to collect data from every individual. Instead, you’ll collect data from a sample.

To select a sample, there are two main approaches: probability sampling and non-probability sampling . The sampling method you use affects how confidently you can generalise your results to the population as a whole.

Probability sampling is the most statistically valid option, but it’s often difficult to achieve unless you’re dealing with a very small and accessible population.

For practical reasons, many studies use non-probability sampling, but it’s important to be aware of the limitations and carefully consider potential biases. You should always make an effort to gather a sample that’s as representative as possible of the population.

Case selection in qualitative research

In some types of qualitative designs, sampling may not be relevant.

For example, in an ethnography or a case study, your aim is to deeply understand a specific context, not to generalise to a population. Instead of sampling, you may simply aim to collect as much data as possible about the context you are studying.

In these types of design, you still have to carefully consider your choice of case or community. You should have a clear rationale for why this particular case is suitable for answering your research question.

For example, you might choose a case study that reveals an unusual or neglected aspect of your research problem, or you might choose several very similar or very different cases in order to compare them.

Data collection methods are ways of directly measuring variables and gathering information. They allow you to gain first-hand knowledge and original insights into your research problem.

You can choose just one data collection method, or use several methods in the same study.

Survey methods

Surveys allow you to collect data about opinions, behaviours, experiences, and characteristics by asking people directly. There are two main survey methods to choose from: questionnaires and interviews.

Observation methods

Observations allow you to collect data unobtrusively, observing characteristics, behaviours, or social interactions without relying on self-reporting.

Observations may be conducted in real time, taking notes as you observe, or you might make audiovisual recordings for later analysis. They can be qualitative or quantitative.

Other methods of data collection

There are many other ways you might collect data depending on your field and topic.

If you’re not sure which methods will work best for your research design, try reading some papers in your field to see what data collection methods they used.

Secondary data

If you don’t have the time or resources to collect data from the population you’re interested in, you can also choose to use secondary data that other researchers already collected – for example, datasets from government surveys or previous studies on your topic.

With this raw data, you can do your own analysis to answer new research questions that weren’t addressed by the original study.

Using secondary data can expand the scope of your research, as you may be able to access much larger and more varied samples than you could collect yourself.

However, it also means you don’t have any control over which variables to measure or how to measure them, so the conclusions you can draw may be limited.

As well as deciding on your methods, you need to plan exactly how you’ll use these methods to collect data that’s consistent, accurate, and unbiased.

Planning systematic procedures is especially important in quantitative research, where you need to precisely define your variables and ensure your measurements are reliable and valid.

Operationalisation

Some variables, like height or age, are easily measured. But often you’ll be dealing with more abstract concepts, like satisfaction, anxiety, or competence. Operationalisation means turning these fuzzy ideas into measurable indicators.

If you’re using observations , which events or actions will you count?

If you’re using surveys , which questions will you ask and what range of responses will be offered?

You may also choose to use or adapt existing materials designed to measure the concept you’re interested in – for example, questionnaires or inventories whose reliability and validity has already been established.

Reliability and validity

Reliability means your results can be consistently reproduced , while validity means that you’re actually measuring the concept you’re interested in.

For valid and reliable results, your measurement materials should be thoroughly researched and carefully designed. Plan your procedures to make sure you carry out the same steps in the same way for each participant.

If you’re developing a new questionnaire or other instrument to measure a specific concept, running a pilot study allows you to check its validity and reliability in advance.

Sampling procedures

As well as choosing an appropriate sampling method, you need a concrete plan for how you’ll actually contact and recruit your selected sample.

That means making decisions about things like:

• How many participants do you need for an adequate sample size?
• What inclusion and exclusion criteria will you use to identify eligible participants?
• How will you contact your sample – by mail, online, by phone, or in person?

If you’re using a probability sampling method, it’s important that everyone who is randomly selected actually participates in the study. How will you ensure a high response rate?

If you’re using a non-probability method, how will you avoid bias and ensure a representative sample?

Data management

It’s also important to create a data management plan for organising and storing your data.

Will you need to transcribe interviews or perform data entry for observations? You should anonymise and safeguard any sensitive data, and make sure it’s backed up regularly.

Keeping your data well organised will save time when it comes to analysing them. It can also help other researchers validate and add to your findings.

On their own, raw data can’t answer your research question. The last step of designing your research is planning how you’ll analyse the data.

Quantitative data analysis

In quantitative research, you’ll most likely use some form of statistical analysis . With statistics, you can summarise your sample data, make estimates, and test hypotheses.

Using descriptive statistics , you can summarise your sample data in terms of:

• The distribution of the data (e.g., the frequency of each score on a test)
• The central tendency of the data (e.g., the mean to describe the average score)
• The variability of the data (e.g., the standard deviation to describe how spread out the scores are)

The specific calculations you can do depend on the level of measurement of your variables.

Using inferential statistics , you can:

• Make estimates about the population based on your sample data.
• Test hypotheses about a relationship between variables.

Regression and correlation tests look for associations between two or more variables, while comparison tests (such as t tests and ANOVAs ) look for differences in the outcomes of different groups.

Your choice of statistical test depends on various aspects of your research design, including the types of variables you’re dealing with and the distribution of your data.

Qualitative data analysis

In qualitative research, your data will usually be very dense with information and ideas. Instead of summing it up in numbers, you’ll need to comb through the data in detail, interpret its meanings, identify patterns, and extract the parts that are most relevant to your research question.

Two of the most common approaches to doing this are thematic analysis and discourse analysis .

There are many other ways of analysing qualitative data depending on the aims of your research. To get a sense of potential approaches, try reading some qualitative research papers in your field.

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population. Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research.

For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

Statistical sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population. There are various sampling methods you can use to ensure that your sample is representative of the population as a whole.

Operationalisation means turning abstract conceptual ideas into measurable observations.

For example, the concept of social anxiety isn’t directly observable, but it can be operationally defined in terms of self-rating scores, behavioural avoidance of crowded places, or physical anxiety symptoms in social situations.

Before collecting data , it’s important to consider how you will operationalise the variables that you want to measure.

The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .

• If you want to measure something or test a hypothesis , use quantitative methods . If you want to explore ideas, thoughts, and meanings, use qualitative methods .
• If you want to analyse a large amount of readily available data, use secondary data. If you want data specific to your purposes with control over how they are generated, collect primary data.
• If you want to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables , use experimental methods. If you want to understand the characteristics of a research subject, use descriptive methods.

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Research Instruments

• Resources for Identifying Instruments
• Assessing Instruments
• Obtaining the Full Instrument
• Getting Help

What are Research Instruments?

A research instrument is a tool used to collect, measure, and analyze data related to  your subject.

Research instruments can  be tests , surveys , scales ,  questionnaires , or even checklists .

To assure the strength of your study, it is important to use previously validated instruments!

Getting Started

Already know the full name of the instrument you're looking for? 

• Start here!

Finding a research instrument can be very time-consuming!

This process involves three concrete steps:

It is common that sources will not provide the full instrument, but they will provide a citation with the publisher. In some cases, you may have to contact the publisher to obtain the full text.

Research Tip :  Talk to your departmental faculty. Many of them have expertise in working with research instruments and can help you with this process.

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What are Research Instruments

A research instrument is a survey, questionnaire, test, scale, rating, or tool designed to measure the variable(s), characteristic(s), or information of interest, often a behavioral or psychological characteristic. Research instruments can be helpful tools to your research study.

"Careful planning for data collection can help with setting realistic goals. Data collection instrumentation, such as surveys, physiologic measures (blood pressure or temperature), or interview guides, must be identified and described. Using previously validated collection instruments can save time and increase the study's credibility. Once the data collection procedure has been determined, a time line for completion should be established." (Pierce, 2009, p. 159)

• Pierce, L.L. (2009). Twelve steps for success in the nursing research journey. Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing 40(4), 154-162.

A research instrument is developed as a method of data generation by researchers and information about the research instrument is shared in order to establish the credibility and validity of the method. Whether other researchers may use the research instrument is the decision of the original author-researchers. They may make it publicly available for free or for a price or they may not share it at all. Sources about research instruments have a purpose of describing the instrument to inform. Sources may or may not provide the instrument itself or the contact information of the author-researcher. The onus is on the reader-researcher to try to find the instrument itself or to contact the author-researcher to request permission for its use, if necessary.

How to choose the right one?

Are you trying to find background information about a research instrument? Or are you trying to find and obtain an actual copy of the instrument?

If you need information about a research instrument, what kind of information do you need? Do you need information on the structure of the instrument, its content, its development, its psychometric reliability or validity? What do you need?

If you plan to obtain an actual copy of the instrument to use in research, you need to be concerned not only with obtaining the instrument, but also obtaining permission to use the instrument. Research instruments may be copyrighted. To obtain permission, contact the copyright holder in writing (print or email).

If someone posts a published test or instrument without the permission of the copyright holder, they may be violating copyright and could be legally liable. 

What are you trying to measure? For example, if you are studying depression, are you trying to measure the duration of depression, the intensity of depression, the change over time of the episodes, … what? The instrument must measure what you need or it is useless to you.

Factors to consider when selecting an instrument are • Well-tested factorial structure, validity & reliability • Availability of supportive materials and technology for entering, analyzing and interpreting results • Availability of normative data as a reference for evaluating, interpreting, or placing in context individual test scores • Applicable to wide range of participants • Can also be used as personal development tool/exercise • User-friendliness & administrative ease • Availability; can you obtain it? • Does it require permission from the owner to use it? • Financial cost • Amount of time required

Check the validity and reliability of tests and instruments. Do they really measure what they claim to measure? Do they measure consistently over time, with different research subjects and ethnic groups, and after repeated use? Research articles that used the test will often include reliability and validity data.

How Locate Instrument

Realize that searching for an instrument may take a lot of time. They may be published in a book or article on a particular subject. They be published and described in a dissertation. They may posted on the Internet and freely available. A specific instrument may be found in multiple publications and have been used for a long time. Or it may be new and only described in a few places. It may only be available by contacting the person who developed it, who may or may not respond to your inquiry in a timely manner.

There are a variety of sources that may used to search for research instruments. They include books, databases, Internet search engines, Web sites, journal articles, and dissertations.

A few key sources and search tips are listed in this guide.

Permission to Use the Test

If you plan to obtain an actual copy of the instrument to use in research, you need to be concerned not only with obtaining the instrument, but also obtaining permission to use the instrument. Research instruments are copyrighted. To obtain permission, contact the copyright holder to obtain permission in writing (print or email). Written permission is a record that you obtained permission.

It is a good idea to have them state in wiritng that they are indeed the copyright holder and that they grant you permission to use the instrument. If you wish to publish the actual instrument in your paper, get permission for that, too. You may write about the instrument without obtaining permission. (But remember to cite it!)

If someone posts a published test or instrument without the permission of the copyright holder, they are violating copyright and could be legally liable. 

Subject Guide

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What is a Research Instrument?

• By DiscoverPhDs
• October 9, 2020

The term research instrument refers to any tool that you may use to collect or obtain data, measure data and analyse data that is relevant to the subject of your research.

Research instruments are often used in the fields of social sciences and health sciences. These tools can also be found within education that relates to patients, staff, teachers and students.

The format of a research instrument may consist of questionnaires, surveys, interviews, checklists or simple tests. The choice of which specific research instrument tool to use will be decided on the by the researcher. It will also be strongly related to the actual methods that will be used in the specific study.

What Makes a Good Research Instrument?

A good research instrument is one that has been validated and has proven reliability. It should be one that can collect data in a way that’s appropriate to the research question being asked.

The research instrument must be able to assist in answering the research aims , objectives and research questions, as well as prove or disprove the hypothesis of the study.

It should not have any bias in the way that data is collect and it should be clear as to how the research instrument should be used appropriately.

What are the Different Types of Interview Research Instruments?

The general format of an interview is where the interviewer asks the interviewee to answer a set of questions which are normally asked and answered verbally. There are several different types of interview research instruments that may exist.

• A structural interview may be used in which there are a specific number of questions that are formally asked of the interviewee and their responses recorded using a systematic and standard methodology.
• An unstructured interview on the other hand may still be based on the same general theme of questions but here the person asking the questions (the interviewer) may change the order the questions are asked in and the specific way in which they’re asked.
• A focus interview is one in which the interviewer will adapt their line or content of questioning based on the responses from the interviewee.
• A focus group interview is one in which a group of volunteers or interviewees are asked questions to understand their opinion or thoughts on a specific subject.
• A non-directive interview is one in which there are no specific questions agreed upon but instead the format is open-ended and more reactionary in the discussion between interviewer and interviewee.

What are the Different Types of Observation Research Instruments?

An observation research instrument is one in which a researcher makes observations and records of the behaviour of individuals. There are several different types.

Structured observations occur when the study is performed at a predetermined location and time, in which the volunteers or study participants are observed used standardised methods.

Naturalistic observations are focused on volunteers or participants being in more natural environments in which their reactions and behaviour are also more natural or spontaneous.

A participant observation occurs when the person conducting the research actively becomes part of the group of volunteers or participants that he or she is researching.

Final Comments

The types of research instruments will depend on the format of the research study being performed: qualitative, quantitative or a mixed methodology. You may for example utilise questionnaires when a study is more qualitative or use a scoring scale in more quantitative studies.

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Choosing a Qualitative Research Approach

Associated data.

Editor's Note: The online version of this article contains a list of further reading resources and the authors' professional information .

The Challenge

Educators often pose questions about qualitative research. For example, a program director might say: “I collect data from my residents about their learning experiences in a new longitudinal clinical rotation. If I want to know about their learning experiences, should I use qualitative methods? I have been told that there are many approaches from which to choose. Someone suggested that I use grounded theory, but how do I know this is the best approach? Are there others?”

What Is Known

Qualitative research is the systematic inquiry into social phenomena in natural settings. These phenomena can include, but are not limited to, how people experience aspects of their lives, how individuals and/or groups behave, how organizations function, and how interactions shape relationships. In qualitative research, the researcher is the main data collection instrument. The researcher examines why events occur, what happens, and what those events mean to the participants studied. 1 , 2

Qualitative research starts from a fundamentally different set of beliefs—or paradigms—than those that underpin quantitative research. Quantitative research is based on positivist beliefs that there is a singular reality that can be discovered with the appropriate experimental methods. Post-positivist researchers agree with the positivist paradigm, but believe that environmental and individual differences, such as the learning culture or the learners' capacity to learn, influence this reality, and that these differences are important. Constructivist researchers believe that there is no single reality, but that the researcher elicits participants' views of reality. 3 Qualitative research generally draws on post-positivist or constructivist beliefs.

Qualitative scholars develop their work from these beliefs—usually post-positivist or constructivist—using different approaches to conduct their research. In this Rip Out, we describe 3 different qualitative research approaches commonly used in medical education: grounded theory, ethnography, and phenomenology. Each acts as a pivotal frame that shapes the research question(s), the method(s) of data collection, and how data are analyzed. 4 , 5

Choosing a Qualitative Approach

Before engaging in any qualitative study, consider how your views about what is possible to study will affect your approach. Then select an appropriate approach within which to work. Alignment between the belief system underpinning the research approach, the research question, and the research approach itself is a prerequisite for rigorous qualitative research. To enhance the understanding of how different approaches frame qualitative research, we use this introductory challenge as an illustrative example.

The clinic rotation in a program director's training program was recently redesigned as a longitudinal clinical experience. Resident satisfaction with this rotation improved significantly following implementation of the new longitudinal experience. The program director wants to understand how the changes made in the clinic rotation translated into changes in learning experiences for the residents.

Qualitative research can support this program director's efforts. Qualitative research focuses on the events that transpire and on outcomes of those events from the perspectives of those involved. In this case, the program director can use qualitative research to understand the impact of the new clinic rotation on the learning experiences of residents. The next step is to decide which approach to use as a frame for the study.

The table lists the purpose of 3 commonly used approaches to frame qualitative research. For each frame, we provide an example of a research question that could direct the study and delineate what outcomes might be gained by using that particular approach.

Methodology Overview

How You Can Start TODAY

• 1 Examine the foundations of the existing literature: As part of the literature review, make note of what is known about the topic and which approaches have been used in prior studies. A decision should be made to determine the extent to which the new study is exploratory and the extent to which findings will advance what is already known about the topic.
• 2 Find a qualitatively skilled collaborator: If you are interested in doing qualitative research, you should consult with a qualitative expert. Be prepared to talk to the qualitative scholar about what you would like to study and why . Furthermore, be ready to describe the literature to date on the topic (remember, you are asking for this person's expertise regarding qualitative approaches—he or she won't necessarily have content expertise). Qualitative research must be designed and conducted with rigor (rigor will be discussed in Rip Out No. 8 of this series). Input from a qualitative expert will ensure that rigor is employed from the study's inception.
• 3 Consider the approach: With a literature review completed and a qualitatively skilled collaborator secured, it is time to decide which approach would be best suited to answering the research question. Questions to consider when weighing approaches might include the following:
• • Will my findings contribute to the creation of a theoretical model to better understand the area of study? ( grounded theory )
• • Will I need to spend an extended amount of time trying to understand the culture and process of a particular group of learners in their natural context? ( ethnography )
• • Is there a particular phenomenon I want to better understand/describe? ( phenomenology )

What You Can Do LONG TERM

• 1 Develop your qualitative research knowledge and skills : A basic qualitative research textbook is a valuable investment to learn about qualitative research (further reading is provided as online supplemental material). A novice qualitative researcher will also benefit from participating in a massive online open course or a mini-course (often offered by professional organizations or conferences) that provides an introduction to qualitative research. Most of all, collaborating with a qualitative researcher can provide the support necessary to design, execute, and report on the study.
• 2 Undertake a pilot study: After learning about qualitative methodology, the next best way to gain expertise in qualitative research is to try it in a small scale pilot study with the support of a qualitative expert. Such application provides an appreciation for the thought processes that go into designing a study, analyzing the data, and reporting on the findings. Alternatively, if you have the opportunity to work on a study led by a qualitative expert, take it! The experience will provide invaluable opportunities for learning how to engage in qualitative research.

Supplementary Material

The views expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of the Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, the Department of the Navy, the Department of Defense, or the US government.

References and Resources for Further Reading

Finding Research Instruments: ERIC

• Health & Psychosocial Instruments
• Mental Measurements Yearbook
• Find Journals by Title This link opens in a new window
• Interlibrary Loan

What is ERIC?

ERIC is an excellent database for searching the education literature.

• ERIC (EBSCO) This link opens in a new window This database, sponsored by the Institute of Education Sciences of the U.S. Department of Education, includes citations, abstracts, and full-text of scholarly journal articles, reports, and more related to all facets of education.

Important Definitions

• searchable research tool that includes records about a wide range of sources, primarily articles
• collection of information about a single item, usually an article, within a database; includes several fields
• section of a record that provides a specific piece of information about the item described (the title, the author, the abstract, etc.)

Truncation (*)

• the star or asterisk key tells the database to look for any ending of a word; one example: searching for measure* in a database would find the words measure, measures, and measurement

Searching By Topic

To find instruments about your research topic, use keywords about it in one or more of the search boxes. In the final box, try using this string of words: test* OR measure* OR survey* OR questionnaire* OR scale* OR batter* OR inventor* OR checklist* OR instrument* OR pretest* OR posttest* OR interview* . It's generally unwise to limit to any particular field here, since the name of a test may show up in the abstract or the identifier, so to be comprehensive you need to search both.

To narrow your results, if they're too broad, consider using the ERIC Thesaurus to find the appropriate descriptor for your topic.

Alternately, you can use additional keywords to reduce irrelevant results.

ERIC does have a Publication Type limit for Tests/Questionnaires , but it significantly narrows your search results. That may make it difficult to find test name options that you could try in another database, even if they don't show up in ERIC.

Searching By Title

As mentioned in the Searching By Topic box above, limiting to a specific field isn't your best option here, so try putting the name of your instrument (if you know it exactly) in quotation marks. You can use the acronym instead, if you know it.

Searching For Evaluations

Follow the instructions for either Searching By Topic or Searching By Name , depending on what you're trying to do. In the final box, put this string of words: "Test Reviews" OR "Test Reliability" OR "Test Validity" OR "Construct Validity" OR "Content Validity" and use the drop-down menu next to the box to select SU Descriptors . This tells ERIC to search the descriptor field for terms relating to evaluation of tests.

If you're searching by topic, this will give you considerably more results than a more specific search. As an alternative, if you want only test reviews, just use "Test Reviews" instead, still using the drop-down to choose SU Descriptors .

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How To Choose The Right Research Instrumentation For Your Experiment?

Selecting suitable research instrumentation is crucial for conducting accurate and reliable experiments. The choice of instruments directly impacts the quality of data collected and the validity of research outcomes. This article provides guidance on how to choose the right research instrumentation for your experiment. It will outline key considerations and factors to consider during the decision-making process.

What Makes A Good Research Instrument?

Good scientific instruments are validated, and proven reliability of them. Ideally, it should provide information that is pertinent to a particular research question. The research instrument must be capable of supporting the research goals and questions, as well as supporting and disproving the hypothesis of the research. It should not be biased when collecting data, and it should be clearly indicated how it should be used.

How To Choose Research Methodology

When it comes to selecting the most suitable research methodology for your dissertation, there are several important factors to consider. These factors will help guide you in determining whether qualitative, quantitative methods or mixed methods are the most appropriate approach for your study. Once you have chosen a specific research topic, you can delve into the details of your methodology. We will discuss these three aspects and their significance in choosing the right research methodology.

Nature Of The Research Questions:

The first factor to consider is the nature of your research question. Are you aiming to explore subjective experiences, meanings, or social phenomena? In such cases, qualitative research methods may be the most appropriate choice. On the other hand, if you are seeking to measure, quantify, or establish cause-and-effect relationships, quantitative methods may be more suitable.

Mixed methods can be advantageous when your research question requires a combination of both qualitative and quantitative approaches to provide a comprehensive understanding of the topic.

Data Collection And Analysis:

Another crucial aspect to consider is the type of data you need to collect and analyze. Qualitative research involves collecting non-numerical data, such as interviews, observations, or textual analysis, which requires different analytical techniques.

On the other hand, quantitative research involves gathering numerical data and applying statistical analysis methods to draw conclusions. Mixed methods research involves integrating both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis techniques, allowing for a more comprehensive and balanced examination of the research question.

Feasibility And Resources:

The feasibility of your chosen research methodology is also an important consideration. Evaluate the availability of resources, such as time, funding, and access to participants or data sources. Consider the practicality of implementing your chosen methodology within the given constraints. Each methodology has its own requirements and may require specific tools, expertise, or logistical considerations. Assessing the feasibility of your chosen approach will ensure that you can execute your research effectively and efficiently.

Understand Your Experimental Requirements:

First and foremost, it is crucial to establish a clear definition for your research question or objective. Understanding the specific variables and parameters you need to measure is vital for selecting appropriate instrumentation. Consider the level of precision and accuracy required to meet your research goals. Determine the desired frequency and duration of data collection to ensure the instrument can effectively capture the necessary information.

Assess Available Research Instruments:

Next, evaluate the available research instruments that align with your experimental requirements. Different types of instruments, such as sensors, probes, or detectors, may be applicable. Consider the measurement principles and technologies employed by each instrument. Evaluate their measurement range, sensitivity, precision, accuracy, and resolution. Assess their reliability, durability, ease of use and maintenance requirements. Additionally, compare the cost and availability of the instruments to ensure they fit within your budget and timeline.

Consider Environmental And Experimental Constraints:

• Take into account any environmental factors or constraints that may affect your experiment.
• Evaluate the conditions in which the instruments will be used, including temperature, humidity, pressure, and compatibility with hazardous substances.
• Consider any physical or spatial limitations, such as size, weight, and mounting requirements, to ensure the instruments can be effectively deployed.

Seek Expert Advice And Consult Relevant Literature:

It is valuable to seek advice from colleagues, mentors, or subject matter experts with experience in your research area. They can provide insights and recommendations on suitable research instrumentation . Additionally, explores scientific literature to identify instruments successfully used in similar experiments. Attend conferences or workshops where experts discuss instrumentation choices and advancements in the field.

Perform Pilot Studies And Calibration:

Conduct pilot studies using different instruments to compare their performance before finalizing your instrument selection. This step allows you to evaluate the instruments’ capabilities and assess their suitability for your experiment. Verify the accuracy and precision of the chosen instruments and perform calibration procedures as necessary to ensure reliable measurements.

Budgeting And Resource Allocation:

Consider the financial resources available for procuring and maintaining the chosen instruments. Evaluate the overall cost, including purchase, maintenance, and consumables. Additionally, assess the availability of technical support and repair services to address any potential issues that may arise during the experiment.

Document Your Instrument Selection Process:

• Maintain detailed records of your decision-making process throughout the instrument selection phase.
• Document the specifications of the chosen instruments and the reasons behind their selection.
• Keep a record of calibration procedures and results for future reference and ensure data collection consistency.

Q1: What Is A Research Instrument?

A research instrument refers to tools or devices used to collect data during a study.

Q2: How Do Research Instruments Help In Collecting Data?

Research instruments facilitate the collection of data by providing a systematic and standardized approach.

Q3: What Is The Relationship Between Research Methodologies And Research Instruments?

Research methodologies guide the overall approach, while research instruments are the specific tools used within those methodologies.

Q4: How Does The Research Process Influence The Choice Of Research Instrumentation?

It helps identify the specific data needs, which then inform the selection of appropriate research instruments.

Q5: How do I Obtain Data Using Research Instruments?

Research instruments enable the systematic collection of data through structured observations , surveys, experiments, or other methods.

Q6: Can I Use Multiple Research Instruments In A Single Study?

Yes, depending on the research objectives and data requirements, it is common to employ multiple research instruments .

Q7: What Is Participant Observation, And How Does It Relate To Research Instruments?

Participant observation involves the researcher actively engaging in the study context, often using research instruments like field notes or audio/video recordings.

Q8: How Does A Conceptual Framework Influence The Choice Of Research Instruments?

A conceptual framework helps researchers identify the key variables and concepts to measure, informing the selection of appropriate research instruments.

Q9: Should I Consider Other Researchers’ Work When Selecting Research Instruments?

Reviewing the literature allows you to learn from others’ experiences and discover established research instruments relevant to your study.

Q10: What Do I Do With The Collected Data After Using Research Instruments?

It serves as the basis for analysis and interpretation, contributing to the findings and conclusions of your research.

Conclusion:

Selecting the appropriate research instrumentation is vital for the success of your experiment. You can make an informed decision by understanding your experimental requirements, assessing available instruments, considering environmental constraints, seeking expert advice, performing pilot studies, and documenting the process. Careful selection of research instrumentation will enhance the accuracy and reliability of your data, ultimately leading to more robust research outcomes.

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CHOOSING THE RIGHT MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENT FOR YOUR PROJECT: TIPS TO APPLY

May 14, 2014 By Japheth A. Yaya

Measurement instrument refers to various methods through which a researcher obtains data from respondents for his research work. The term data refers to all forms of information that researchers obtain from the participant of the study. Adedokun (2003:57) asserts that data refers “to any fact, observation or facts relating to the subject of the study”. There are different types of measurement instruments that can be used by researchers for their studies; it depends on the nature of research that is to be carried out. In this write up, we shall discuss various measurement instruments that can be used alongside with studies that are suitable for them.

  However, the collection of data is an important part of any research activity. This is because; the conclusions of the study are based on what the data reveals. Hence, no researcher is greater than his data.  Basically, data can be obtained from two major sources; primary and secondary sources.

Primary data represents the information gathered by the researcher through the use of questionnaire or personal interview or observation method; while in secondary data, the researcher collects information that has already been obtained and processed by government departments or various agencies before it is made available for other interested users. These are published and unpublished sources e.g. journals, textbooks, newspapers, magazines, fliers, annual reports, bulletins, periodicals etc As a result, the kind of data to be collected, the method of collection to be used, and the scoring of the data must be considered when undertaken any research activity. 

Types of Data to be Collected According to Aina, 2004; Adedokun, 2003; Avwokeni, 2006; Adeniyi; Oyekanmi and Tijani, 2011. Researchers can collect the following types of data from respondents:

• Demographic information or data e.g. age, sex, gender, educational background, ethnicity, religion, etc
• Test scores
• Responses to researchers questions in an interview or written replies to a survey question
• Grade point averages obtainable from school records
• Essay written by students e.g. projects, theses and dissertations.
• Anecdotal records kept by teachers or counselors or researchers.

In fact, the list of data to be collected is not limited to the one listed above. For this reason, it is important for every researcher to decide on what kind(s) of data he intends to collect and by what method to collect it. Those methods that researchers use in collecting his desired data are known as research or measurement instrument.

Data Collection Instruments These are instruments that are used to collect data from participants of the study. They are important for collecting data in all types of research methods. They are mainly used by researchers to collect reliable data which will later be analyzed (Aina, 2004). They include questionnaire, interviews, observations, focus group discussion and experiment. Each of the instruments shall be discussed in turn and also point out their merits and demerits.

• Questionnaire

The questionnaire is the commonly used instrument for collecting research data from the participants of a study. “It basically seeks the opinions of individuals in a sample or a population on issues directly related to the objectives of the research study” (Aina, 2004:348).

The questionnaire consists of a set of structured and unstructured questions designed by researchers to obtain data from the respondents. No research is better than its questionnaire and a faulty questionnaire means faulty research. Hence, a questionnaire designed must be valid, reliable and must not be bogus so that the data collected can validate the research.

Questionnaire has many advantages which include anonymity of the respondents is guaranteed; it facilitates the collection of large amounts of data in a relatively short period and it is cheap to administer. The major demerit of the method is that some confusing and misleading questions cannot be clarified as the researcher may not be there to explain the questions, and also, sometimes, the questions may not be easily comprehensible to individuals who are illiterate, thus, the method is restricted only to educated respondents. Moreover, the characteristics of a good questionnaire according to Popoola (2011) consist of:

• Questions should not be ambiguous. This implies that it must be capable of only one interpretation.
• Questions must be easily understood.
• Questions should be capable of having a precise answer.
• Questions must not contain words of vague meaning.
• Questions should not require rigorous calculations.
• Questions should not require the respondent to decide upon classification.
• Questions must not be in such a form that the answers will be biased.
• The questionnaire should not be too long.
• It should not be too wordy.

Interview is a measurement instrument otherwise known as oral questionnaire. It involves a process where a researcher solicits information from respondents through verbal interaction. A researcher would have previously prepared a schedule list of structured questions pertinent to the study before meeting respondents for their opinions on a subject matter.

The researcher poses questions to the respondents and the answers are recorded by the researcher. Materials that could be used during interview period include tape recorder, paper and biro. The major advantage of this method is that it produces high response rate. Besides, it tends to be representative of the entire population of the study, and personal contact between the researcher and respondents enables the researcher to explain confusing and ambiguous questions in detail (Aina, 2004; Popoola, 2011). However, its disadvantages include interviewer’s bias; inaccessibility to wealthy respondents due to fear of insecurity and the amount of data that can be collected through this method is usually limited compare to questionnaire method. Interview can be conducted personally or through telephone or electronic mailing system.   

• Observation

This is an instrument that is employed by a researcher in which an individual behavior or situation is observed and recorded. There are two types of observation: participant observation and non-participant observation. In participant observation, the researcher is a member of the group to be observed. Here, accurate and timely result would be obtained by the researcher but it has the problem of biasness. Non-participant observation on the other hand, the researcher is not a member of the group to be observed. Here, the result will be viable as it is free from being biased but it has the problem of inaccuracy and delayed result. Both observation methods enhance first hand information, flexible and cheaper to carryout, demand less active cooperation of the observed and their results are reliable for research activity.

However, Akinade & Owolabi (2009) assert that observation method is popular tool in research especially in behavioural and social sciences; the authors argue that it requires special skills to make and assess behavioural observation in research. In carrying out behavioural observation, first thing to do is to develop behavioural categories (coding scheme). This involves identifying specific attributes that will give clues to the problem at hand. The authors further reiterated that researchers may observe the following guidelines when developing observation method:

• “Clearly define the goal of the instrument;
• Carry out preliminary observations of your subjects under the conditions that will prevail in the course of the study with the aim of identifying behaviours exhibited by the subjects; and
• Focus Group Discussion

This data collection instrument refers to a process whereby researchers obtain data from large group of people at the same time. This method is different from interview method; in an interview method, researcher focuses on one person at a time but in a focus group discussion method, the researcher obtains data from large number (group) of people for his research activity. Focus group discussion method is very popular when carrying out research in the field of behavioural science, library and information science, archival science, records and information technology. It could be noted here that a need may arise for a researcher to use more than 2 or 3 approaches to obtain data for his research activity. This depends on the supervisor, nature of the research or problem to be investigated.

However, in focus group discussion; a researcher identifies key informants that may be contacted to elicit the deserved information on the variable(s) of interest in a study. It is very important to note that in evaluator study or when accessing the performance of a system or a project or when working at a policy and its impact on a particular operation in a society or organization; focus group discussion method could employed. The approach is used to generate qualitative data in explaining a phenomenon under study or investigation. Membership of the focus group discussion should not exceed 10 members at a time. It is like a mini conference where members of a group could be assembled in a conducive location. Before now, it is needful for the researcher to have obtained their consent to take part in the study.

Besides, the researcher must design a focus group discussion guide. The guide must contain outlines that capture variables of interest in the study. For example, in a study like: “Customers’ satisfaction with information services or products of Babcock university library”. The following guidelines may be prepared by the researcher:

• Nature of the library services;
• Nature of the products;
• Level of satisfaction of the users;
• Quality of the users, etc.

The following materials are needed for this method of data collection:

• Research assistants;
• Video recorder and cassette;
• Biro and paper;
• Tape recorder and cassette, and
• Light refreshment to entertain the participants.

After the focus group discussion exercise, the researcher has to transcribe the data into qualitative information e.g. on the nature of reference services available in the library; in a group where 10 members are involved, if 7 members affirmed that they are having good reference services in their library while the rest members’ response are negative. Then it can be calculated/quantify as: 7/10 *100 = 70%; this is the figure that the researcher will report in his work. Moreover, the major advantage of this method is that it added credibility and originality to the research activity while it challenges include: too cost to carry out, it takes too much of time to conduct and some of the respondents may not be free to contribute extensively especially if their boss is invited to such gathering.  

This type of data collection instrument takes place in pure and applied science research. Here the researchers carry out some experiments in the laboratory setting in order to test some reactions that may take place in the object of research. The advantages of this method is that it produces immediate result, its results are viable and error free if it is well carry out under normal condition/circumstances. While, its problems include: it is too costly to undertake and those chemicals used may cause permanent damage to the researcher if they are carelessly handled. Table1: Classification of Research Based on Data Collection Instruments

Source: Japheth Yaya, 18th June, 2014

 Conclusion It could be re-emphasized here that researchers are not restricted only to different methods of data collection instruments and their classification as presented in this paper but the choice of which method to apply depends on the researcher, nature or problem to be investigated and prevailing circumstances at the time of carrying out the study. Thus, researchers are free to use any method they deem fit for their research.

References Adedokun, J.A. (2003). Basics of Research Methodology . Sagamu: New Hope Publisher. Adeniyi, A.L.; Oyekanmi, A.O. & Tijani, M.O. (2011). Essentials of Business Research        Methods. Lagos: CSS Bookshops Limited. Aina, L.O. (2004). Library and Information Science Text for Africa . Ibadan: Third World         Services Limited. Akinade, E.A. & Owolabi, T. (2009). Research Methods: A Pragmatic Approach for Social         Sciences, Behavioural Sciences and Education. Lagos: Connel Publications. Avwokeni, J.A. (2006). Research Methods: Process, Evaluation & Critique. Portharcourt:         Unicampus Tutorial Services.

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How to choose and evaluate a research instrument

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• PMID: 12624866
• DOI: 10.1053/apnr.2003.50008
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