problems in developing countries essay

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Development challenges and solutions

The challenges.

UNDP’s work, adapted to a range of country contexts, is framed through three broad development settings. These three development challenges often coexist within the same country, requiring tailored solutions that can adequately address specific deficits and barriers. Underpinning all three development challenges is a set of core development needs, including the need to strengthen gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls, and to ensure the protection of human rights.

Outcome 1: Eradication of poverty in all its forms and dimensions

It's estimated that approximately 700 million people still live on less than US$1.90 per day, a total of 1.3 billion people are multi-dimensionally poor, including a disproportionate number of women and people with disabilities and 80 percent of humanity lives on less than US$10 per day. Increasingly, middle-income countries account for a large part of this trend.

UNDP is looking at both inequalities and poverty in order to leave no one behind, focusing on the dynamics of exiting poverty and of not falling back. This requires addressing interconnected socio-economic, environmental and governance challenges that drive people into poverty or make them vulnerable to falling back into it. The scale and rapid pace of change necessitates decisive and coherent action by many actors at different levels to advance poverty eradication in all forms and dimensions. UNDP works to ensure responses are multisectoral and coherent from global to local.

Outcome 2: Accelerating structural transformations for sustainable development

The disempowering nature of social, economic, and political exclusion results in ineffective, unaccountable, non-transparent institutions and processes that hamper the ability of states to address persistent structural inequalities.

UNDP will support countries as they accelerate structural transformations by addressing inequalities and exclusion, transitioning to zero-carbon development and building more effective governance that can respond to megatrends such as globalization, urbanization and technological and demographic changes.

Outcome 3: Building resilience to crisis and shocks

Some countries are disproportionately affected by shocks and stressors such as climate change, disasters, violent extremism, conflict, economic and financial volatility, epidemics, food insecurity and environmental degradation. Climate-related disasters have increased in number and magnitude, reversing development gains, aggravating fragile situations, and contributing to social upheaval. Conflict, sectarian strife and political instability are on the rise and more than 1.6 billion people live in fragile or conflict-affected settings.

Around 258 million people live outside their countries of origin and 68.5 million are displaced. Disasters and the effects of climate change have displaced more people than ever before – on average 14 million people annually. Major disease outbreaks result in severe economic losses from the effect on livelihoods or decline in household incomes and national GDPs, as demonstrated by the Ebola outbreak in West Africa in 2014-2015.

To return to sustainable development, UNDP is strengthening resilience by supporting governments to take measures to manage risk, prevent, respond and recover more effectively from shocks and crises and address underlying causes in an integrated manner. Such support  builds on foundations of inclusive and accountable governance, together with a strong focus on gender equality, the empowerment of women and girls and meeting the needs of vulnerable groups, to ensure that no one is left behind.

The road to success

To fulfill the aims of the Strategic Plan with the multi-dimensionality and complexity that the 2030 Agenda demands, UNDP is implementing six cross-cutting approaches to development, known as Signature Solutions. A robust, integrated way to put our best work – or 'signature' skillset – into achieving the Sustainable Development Goals .

UNDP’s Signature Solutions are cross-cutting approaches to development— for example, a gender approach or resilience approach can be applied to any area of development, or to any of the SDGs.

Keeping people out of poverty

Today, 700 million people live on less than $1.90 per day and a total of 1.3 billion people are multi-dimensionally poor. People stay in or fall back into poverty because of a range of factors—where they live, their ethnicity, gender, a lack of opportunities, and others.

It’s no coincidence that our first Signature Solution relates directly to the first SDG: to eradicate all forms of poverty, wherever it exists. For UNDP, helping people to get out and stay out of poverty is our primary focus. It features in our work with governments, communities and partners across the 170 countries and territories in which we operate.

UNDP interventions help eradicate poverty, such as by creating decent jobs and livelihoods, providing social safety nets, boosting political participation, and ensuring access to services like water, energy, healthcare, credit, and productive assets. Our Signature Solution on poverty cuts across our work on all the SDGs, whether it’s decent work or peace and justice.

Governance for peaceful, just, and inclusive societies

People’s lives are better when government is efficient and responsive. When people from all social groups are included in decision-making that affects their lives, and when they have equal access to fair institutions that provide services and administer justice, they will have more trust in their government.

The benefits of our work on governance are evident in all the areas covered by the SDGs, whether it’s climate action or gender equality. UNDP’s governance work spans a wide range of institutions, from national parliaments, supreme courts, and national civil services through regional and local administrations, to some of the geographically remotest communities in the world. We work with one out of every three parliaments on the planet, help countries expand spaces for people’s participation, and improve how their institutions work, so that all people can aspire to a sustainable future with prosperity, peace, justice and security.

Crisis prevention and increased resilience

Crises know no borders. More than 1.6 billion people live in fragile and/or conflict-affected settings, including 600 million young people. More people have been uprooted from their homes by war and violence and sought sanctuary elsewhere than at any time since the Second World War. Poverty, population growth, weak governance and rapid urbanization are driving the risks associated with such crises.

UNDP helps reduce these risks by supporting countries and communities to better manage conflicts, prepare for major shocks, recover in their aftermath, and integrate risk management into their development planning and investment decisions. The sooner that people can get back to their homes, jobs, and schools, the sooner they can start thriving again. Resilience building is a transformative process of strengthening the capacity of people, communities, institutions, and countries to prevent, anticipate, absorb, respond to and recover from crises. By implementing this Signature Solution, we focus on capacities to address root causes of conflict, reduce disaster risk, mitigate and adapt to climate change impacts, recover from crisis, and build sustainable peace. This has an impact that not only prevents or mitigates crises, but also has an effect on people’s everyday lives across all SDGs.

Environment: nature-based solutions for development

Healthy ecosystems are at the heart of development, underpinning societal well-being and economic growth. Through nature-based solutions, such as the sustainable management and protection of land, rivers and oceans, we help ensure that countries have adequate food and water, are resilient to climate change and disasters, shift to green economic pathways, and can sustain work for billions of people through forestry, agriculture, fisheries and tourism.

A long-standing partner of the Global Environment Facility, and now with the second-largest Green Climate Fund portfolio, UNDP is the primary actor on climate change in the United Nations. Our aim is to help build the Paris Agreement and all environmental agreements into the heart of countries’ development priorities. After all, the food, shelter, clean air, education and opportunities of billions of people depend on getting this right.

Clean, affordable energy

People can’t prosper without reliable, safe, and affordable energy to power everything from lights to vehicles to factories to hospitals. And yet, 840 million people worldwide have no access to electricity, and 2.9 billion people use solid fuels to cook or heat their homes, exposing their families to grave health hazards and contributing to vast deforestation worldwide 3 . In these and other ways, energy is connected to every one of the SDGs.

UNDP helps countries transition away from the use of finite fossil fuels and towards clean, renewable, affordable sources of energy. Our sustainable energy portfolio spans more than 110 countries, leveraging billions of dollars in financing, including public and private sources. With this financial support, we partner with cities and industries to increase the share of renewables in countries’ national energy mix; establish solar energy access to people displaced by conflict; fuel systemic change in the transport industry; and generate renewable ways to light homes for millions of people. 

Women's empowerment and gender equality

Women’s participation in all areas of society is essential to make big and lasting change not only for themselves, but for all people. Women and girls make up a disproportionate share of people in poverty, and are more likely to face hunger, violence, and the impacts of disaster and climate change. They are also more likely to be denied access to legal rights and basic services.

UNDP has the ability and responsibility to integrate gender equality into every aspect of our work. Gender equality and women’s empowerment is a guiding principle that applies to everything we do, collaborating with our partner countries to end gender-based violence, tackle climate change with women farmers, and advance female leadership in business and politics.

[1] OECD , States of Fragility 2016: Understanding Violence (Paris, 2016), p. 16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264267213-en .

[2] sendai framework for disaster risk reduction 2015-2030, p.9.  http://www.unisdr.org/we/inform/publications/43291 ., [3] source: iea, irena, unsd, wb, who, 2019, tracking sdg7: the energy progress report 2019, washington, dc..

Globalization and environmental problems in developing countries

• Published: 04 May 2021
• Volume 28 , pages 33719–33721, ( 2021 )

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• Nicholas Apergis 1 ,
• Giray Gozgor 2 &
• Chi Keung (Marco) Lau 3  

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Introduction

Global climate change is among the leading problems of the globe in the twenty-first century. The main reason for climate change is attributed to global warming. Given that the global warming issue is mostly related to environmental degradation, global economies have attempted to provide specific solutions via environmental agreements, e.g., the Paris Agreement in the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference. Meanwhile, the number of empirical studies on environmental degradation determinants has increased, especially since the early 2010s.

Environmental degradation arises at the early stage of economic development when the income per capita reaches the upper-middle-income level, where environmental degradation begins to fall. This phenomenon occurs because global economies plan to generate business and employment opportunities rather than support environmental quality at the early development stages. However, ecological awareness increases as income also increases, making it the fundamental reason for reducing environmental degradation in the later stages of economic development (Chen et al. 2020 ).

At this stage, globalization and international trade indicators are considered as the leading determinants of environmental degradation. However, measuring international trade and globalization is a new research task after the Global Financial Crisis of 2008-9. Empirical papers have used different globalization indicators. The subject is open to new gauges and measures (see, e.g., economic complexity in Can and Gozgor 2017 ; Gozgor 2018 ; export concentration in Apergis et al. 2018 ; export diversification in Gozgor and Can 2016 ; export quality in Gozgor and Can 2017 ; Fang et al. 2019 ; trade potential in Gozgor 2017 ). There is almost no consensus among researchers on the best measure of globalization and its impact on developing countries’ environmental degradation. This special issue’s main objective is to provide different aspects of globalization and globalization’s environmental degradation effects in developing countries.

The first paper in this special issue, by Fang et al. ( 2021 ), analyzes the role of economic complexity in energy demand using a panel dataset of 25 OECD countries, spanning the period 1978 to 2016. The authors find that per capita income positively affects energy demand, while energy prices and economic complexity negatively affect it. The authors conclude that promoting technological innovation (i.e., higher economic complexity) will decrease the OECD countries' energy demand.

The second paper, by Rehman et al. ( 2021 ), examines the relationship between sectoral-level energy consumption of oil and natural gas and Pakistan’s economic growth from 1980 to 2016. The authors document that oil consumption in the agriculture and power sectors have positive effects on economic growth. Similarly, farmers, households, and industry sectors’ natural gas consumption positively affect Pakistan’s economic growth.

The third paper, by Shang and Xu ( 2021 ), proposes a new model to measure ecotourism’s environmental pollution impact. The authors first obtain environmental pollution data from the scenic areas of ecotourism. The authors then use these conversion data to construct a model to evaluate the pollution impact of ecotourism on scenic spots. The findings illustrate that the new proposed model measures the environmental pollution impact better than the previous models.

The fourth paper, by Payne and Apergis ( 2021 ), investigates the convergence of per capita carbon dioxide emissions in analyzing stochastic and club convergence within a panel framework for developing economies, i.e., the low-income, the lower-middle-income, and the combined panel of countries. The authors conclude that there is a significant geographic proximity among many developing economies within the respective convergence clubs.

The fifth paper, by Tarazkar et al. ( 2021 ), examines the effect of population age structure on environmental degradation in a panel of ten Middle East countries from 1990 to 2014. The authors find that children and working-age populations positively impact environmental pollution; however, older people hurt CO 2 emissions. The authors conclude that policymakers in the Middle East region should consider the population age structure to decrease carbon dioxide emissions.

The sixth paper, by Aslan and Altinoz ( 2021 ), examines the relationships among natural resources, gross capital formation, globalization, and economic growth in the developing countries in different continents from 1980 to 2018. The Panel Vector Autoregression (PVAR) method findings indicate that natural resources and globalization positively impact economic growth in European, Asian, and American countries. There is bidirectional causality between globalization and economic growth. Also, there is bidirectional causality between capital formation and growth in Europe and Asia and between natural resources and growth in Asia and America. However, there is unidirectional causality from growth to natural resources in Europe, from capital formation to growth in Africa and America, from growth to natural resources in Europe, and from natural resources to economic growth in America. The paper’s novelty is that new growth models should include the role of natural resource rents and globalization.

Tourism development is an essential tool in promoting economic growth; however, it may also affect environmental degradation and energy indicators (Li et al. 2019 ). The last paper, by Teng et al. ( 2021 ), examines the effects of domestic tourism, international tourism, economic growth, and CO2 emissions on China’s regions from 2006 to 2017. The Panel Vector Autoregressive Model’s findings indicate that promoting international tourism and domestic tourism increases economic growth and CO 2 emissions.

Apergis N, Can M, Gozgor G, Lau MCK (2018) Effects of export concentration on CO2 emissions in developed countries: an empirical analysis. Environ Sci Pollut Res 25(14):14106–14116

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Aslan A, Altinoz B (2021) The impact of natural resources and gross capital formation on economic growth in the context of globalization: evidence from developing countries on the continent of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. Environ Sci Pollut Res, forthcoming. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-12979-7

Can M, Gozgor G (2017) The impact of economic complexity on carbon emissions: evidence from France. Environ Sci Pollut Res 24(19):16364–16370

Article   Google Scholar  

Chen T, Gozgor G, Koo CK, Lau MCK (2020) Do International Cooperation Affect CO2 Emissions? Evidence from OECD Countries. Environ Sci Pollut Res 27(3):8548–8556

Fang J, Gozgor G, Lu Z, Wu W (2019) Effects of the Export Product Quality on Carbon Dioxide Emissions Evidence from Developing Economies. Environ Sci Pollut Res 26(12):12181–12193

Fang J, Gozgor G, Mahalik MK, Padhan H, Xu R (2021) The impact of economic complexity on the energy demand in OECD Countries. Environ Sci Pollut Res forthcoming. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-12089-w

Gozgor G (2017) Does trade matter for carbon emissions in OECD countries? Evidence from a new trade openness measure. Environ Sci Pollut Res 24(36):27813–27821

Gozgor G (2018) A new approach to the renewable energy-growth nexus: evidence from the USA. Environ Sci Pollut Res 25(17):16590–16600

Gozgor G, Can M (2016) Export product diversification and the environmental Kuznets curve: evidence from Turkey. Environ Sci Pollut Res 23(21):21594–21603

Gozgor G, Can M (2017) Does export product quality matter for CO2 emissions? Evidence from China. Environ Sci Pollut Res 24(3):2866–2875

Li H, Gozgor G, Lau MCK, Paramati SR (2019) Does tourism investment improve the energy efficiency in transportation and residential sectors? Evidence from the OECD Economies. Environ Sci Pollut Res 26(18):18834–18845

Payne JE, Apergis N (2021) Convergence of per capita carbon dioxide emissions among developing countries: evidence from stochastic and club convergence tests. Environ Sci Pollut Res, forthcoming. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-09506-5

Rehman A, Ma H, Ozturk I, Ahmad M, Rauf A, Irfan M (2021) Another outlook to sector-level energy consumption in Pakistan from dominant energy sources and correlation with economic growth. Environ Sci Pollut Res, forthcoming. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-09245-7

Shang Y, Xu A (2021) An evaluation of the impact of natural ecotourism on environmental pollution. Environ Sci Pollut Res, forthcoming. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-11440-5

Tarazkar MH, Dehbidi NK, Ozturk I, Al-Mulali U (2021) The impact of age structure on carbon emission in the Middle East: the panel autoregressive distributed lag approach. Environ Sci Pollut Res, forthcoming. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-08880-4

Teng Y, Cox A, Chatziantoniou I (2021) Environmental degradation, economic growth and tourism development in Chinese regions. Environ Sci Pollut Res, forthcoming. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-12567-9

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Department of Economics and Finance, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX, USA

Nicholas Apergis

Faculty of Political Sciences, Istanbul Medeniyet University, Istanbul, Turkey

Giray Gozgor

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Chi Keung (Marco) Lau

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Apergis, N., Gozgor, G. & Lau, C.K.(. Globalization and environmental problems in developing countries. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28 , 33719–33721 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-14105-z

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-14105-z

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Development Solutions: How to be sensitive

Half of the world’s poor live in fragile or conflict-affected countries. To end poverty, we need to break the cycle of fragility with special conflict development solutions

• Part of the series "Development Solutions"
• 1 July 2020

By Mariella Ciuffreda, Sladjana Cosic and Harald Schölzel

No poverty . Some might call it a utopian ideal, but it is an achievable feat. Eliminating poverty is not just an economic necessity. It is our global responsibility. “ No poverty ” is the first among the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, our blueprint for a better and more sustainable future for all. The 17 goals, intended to be achieved by 2030, are interdependent. If we cannot meet one of them, we fail at all of them.

But poverty is more than just a lack of money or assets. It is lack of food and shelter, as well as lack of access to affordable education, healthcare and basic infrastructure services. To solve poverty, we need to address the underlying issues that contribute to it. Fragility is a critical one.

Today, half of the world’s poor people live in fragile or conflict-affected countries 1 . By 2030, up to 80% of the extremely poor are projected to be living in fragile contexts 2 . Note that’s the same year by which we are supposed to end poverty altogether. This is why fragility has been recognised as a key impediment to the achievement of Sustainable Development Goals, and to our efforts to promote peace and prosperity 3 .

Today, half of the world’s poor people live in fragile or conflict-affected countries . By 2030, up to 80% of the extremely poor are projected to be living in fragile contexts

States of fragility

Addressing fragility will require investment, one that will strengthen countries’ institutions and make their economies and societies more resilient. This is why many international financial institutions, including the European Investment Bank, are scaling up the volume and types of financing they provide to fragile contexts through both public and private sector investments.

But how do we even determine which country is fragile? Fragility is characterised by unstable institutions and poor governance, which result in weak political, fiscal, security and service delivery functions. Fragile states are either unable or unwilling to fulfil these core functions for the majority of, or for specific sections of society. They are also more likely to experience violent conflict.

The link between conflict and fragility is clear. To understand conflict’s causes and drivers, one has to consider the overall institutional framework of the country. Fragility of both institutions and societies are key risk factors for conflict.

Fragility and conflict have been identified as critical development challenges , both for low- and middle-income countries, and they represent a major trap for developing countries. Since 2010, we have seen a dramatic spike in the number of violent conflicts 4 . From highly internationalised conflicts, such as the war in Syria, to localised conflicts in east Ukraine, northern Mali, and Mindanao in the Philippines.

But fragility is about more than just conflict. A country doesn’t need to experience an outright violent conflict to be deemed fragile.

To understand how fragile a country is, the European Investment Bank relies on specialised sources, such as the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Its 2020 States of Fragility report lists 57 fragile states. The European Investment Bank has planned or active operations in 39 of them . Other relevant sources include the World Bank’s Harmonized List of Fragile Situations , and the Global Peace Index .

Sense and sensitivity in conflict development solutions

Not to invest in countries affected by fragility, conflict and high levels of violence, would be to disregard two billion people living in them. The European Investment Bank has a long record of investing in fragile contexts inside and outside Europe.

The Bank itself was born at the heart of the European peace project. World War II wounds were still healing back when the EIB was founded. Economic integration was a major aspect of peacebuilding in Europe, and the European Investment Bank played a central role in it.

In the aftermath of the conflicts in former Yugoslavia in the 1990s, the Bank emerged as the leading international financier supporting reconstruction in the Western Balkans . More recently, the EIB developed, together with the European Commission, a €200 million Early Recovery Programme to support the conflict-affected areas in Ukraine . The United Nations Development Programme is helping ensure the transparency of the programme’s implementation .

Since the civil war broke out in Mali in 2012, the EIB has supported small businesses and financed water and energy infrastructure in the country. In the capital, Bamako, the Bank worked to provide clean water to more than half a million people , many of whom have fled the conflict-hit north of the country. The Bank is also contributing to the peacebuilding process in Colombia, having approved more than €600 million in financing for infrastructure projects since 2006. It set up an office in Bogotá to promote economic and social development on the continent.

To strengthen the effectiveness of our development interventions and maximize positive impact on peace, the Bank has developed a conflict sensitive approach .

The European Investment Bank’s conflict sensitive approach aims to:

• reduce the risk of the conflict and fragility derailing the project
• avoid the risk of conflict being exacerbated by the project and
• contribute to conflict prevention and peacebuilding efforts through its investments.

Conflict sensitivity refers to the awareness of risks related to conflict, but also of the impact the project can have on the conflict itself – both in positive and negative terms.

Public and private investors need to understand that their investments don’t happen in a vacuum. Their financing can tilt the potential conflict one way or another. They can have a positive influence by contributing to conflict prevention and stabilisation. They can also unintentionally aggravate things.

To help its staff translate the principles of conflict sensitivity into action, the European Investment Bank set up a Conflict Sensitivity Helpdesk . The Helpdesk is run in collaboration with internationally renowned experts from two conflict-specialist organisations, Saferworld and Swisspeace . They help the EIB by assessing contextual risks and opportunities, and making recommendations for project adjustments, in order to make them more conflict sensitive. One of the projects in question is the desalination plant in Gaza.

Bringing water to Gaza

Gaza has a water crisis. Only 3% of its freshwater meets the World Health Organization’s quality guidelines. One of the most densely populated places in the world, Gaza faces the worst drinking-water conditions in the region. After a decade of work, however, we are close to securing clean water to two million people.

The solution: a desalination plant powered partly by solar energy , which will provide 55 million cubic meters of quality drinking water a year feeding a rehabilitated and upgraded water distribution network. This project is a result of an international collaboration spearheaded by the European Investment Bank, and its €580 million cost will be split equally between Western and Arab partners.

It’s a story over a decade in the making, due to the lack of stability in the region and the complex political context.

Anywhere else, this project might have been easy to implement. But Israel gives approval for the entry of materials and people into Gaza and takes a special interest in “dual use” materials that it considers potential security concerns. Thanks to the commitment of the parties involved, a solution has been found, which will enable the materials to travel to Gaza so the plant can be constructed.

The EIB’s Conflict Sensitivity Helpdesk supports the project by providing relevant political economy insights and suggesting appropriate measures for project preparation

The idea for a desalination plant had been recommended years before the EIB stepped in, but as many development projects in fragile areas it required an increased commitment and resourcefulness.

A common thread

Fragility is a complex phenomenon. As such it is closely linked to other significant development themes, among which climate change, gender equality, and migration and forced displacement are notable. The European Investment Bank is making important contributions in each of these.

I. Climate change

Climate change is a major driver of fragility and a threat multiplier.This doesn’t mean that conflicts emerge solely due to climate change, but that its impact often exacerbates the existing fragility. It is also likely to result in an increase in conflict and violence. On the other hand, conflict and fragility negatively affect the country’s ability to respond and adapt to climate change. The relationship is troublesome both ways.

However, climate action intervention can also contribute to conflict prevention. Reducing fragility—thereby improving a country’s ability to respond and adapt to climate change—contributes to the success of environmental and climate investments. As the EU climate bank , the EIB seeks to apply its experience in climate finance and reinforce the work on supporting climate projects in fragile contexts.

II. Gender equality

Gender considerations should be fully integrated in post-conflict and conflict-prevention policies and programmes. There is a strong correlation between women’s empowerment and gender equality and peace levels in a country 6 . A 2015 global study even named gender equality the number one predictor of peace. If you contribute to gender equality, you contribute to conflict prevention in a fragile context.

Women suffer disproportionately from the effects of violent conflict. At the same time, women have a critical role to play in peacebuilding, even though they are often excluded from positions of power. During conflict and post-conflict, women take on the roles of community mobilisers, often lead the recovery efforts and provide humanitarian aid. Women played a critical role in economic recovery in the aftermath of the 1994 genocide in Rwanda and in the Colombian peace negotiations, the result of which is internationally recognised as history’s most inclusive peace deal .

Since 2018, the European Investment Bank has provided training to its staff focusing on the connection between gender equality and fragility, and seeks to operationalize it by embedding gender equality in everything we do in fragile contexts.

III. Migration and forced displacement

An unprecedented 70.8 million people have been forced from their homes in 2019. Among them 25.9 million refugees 7 . The overwhelming part, however, were internally displaced people impacted by conflict. It’s no wonder migration and forced displacement have become major areas of focus for global development policy makers and institutions in recent years.

In 2016, the European Investment Bank launched the Economic Resilience Initiative , as part of the European Union’s response to the challenges in the Southern Neighbourhood and Western Balkans. The Economic Resilience Initiative blends funds from donors with EIB financing. It is designed to help these regions respond to crises such as refugee migration, economic downturns, political instability and natural disasters. The initiative is also focusing on creating employment and enhancing economic growth.

How things should be done

There were 54 active conflicts in the world in 2019 5 . To break the cycle of fragility and conflict we need to help these societies and their institutions recover. We need to invest in these countries, but in a way that will empower people and create the conditions for them to invest in their own lives. How can investors do that without making a bad situation worse?

Uppsala Conflict Data Program.

First, fragile states are not “blank slates” – or blank states, on which one can build new economic and social systems from scratch . This means dealing with the remnants of its institutions, however compromised they might be.

If investing in a fragile context, one needs to understand the local context. Not all fragile situations are the same. Avoid the “one size fits all” approach. Adapt strategies, products and services to fit the current and future needs of people and societies, which allow them to be flexible and resilient in times of crisis.

Expect that the project might take longer to get off the ground compared to regular circumstances. We mustn’t look for a quick fix, but rather a long-term solution. Economic investment alone might create wealth, but this wealth can be destroyed if the conflict re-emerges. This is why we need to apply a conflict sensitive approach and focus on conflict prevention. The investment should enable inclusion of different sections of society, especially those groups that are in danger of being excluded and under-represented. Ensuring an inclusive stakeholder engagement , which specifically targets marginalised groups, can lead to better development outcomes and higher levels of trust from local communities. Continuous inclusive stakeholder engagement is essential in countries where the sources of violence and conflict may be exclusion, discrimination, and marginalisation.

The main contribution of investment to conflict prevention is in providing conditions for self-sustaining economic growth, accompanied by significant employment creation and income generation. This is crucial to build peace in post-conflict situations. Employment is particularly important to short-term stability as it enables reintegration of ex-combatants and returnees.

Fragile states are not “blank slates” – or blank states, on which one can build new economic and social systems from scratch.

Partnerships with local communities, civil society organisations and relevant international organisations are especially vital in fragile and conflict-affected countries. These can strengthen project implementation and lead to efficiency savings, improved targeting of beneficiaries and potential innovations – all of which can help improve project outcomes and sustainability as well as enhance stakeholders’ sense of ownership.

Finally, the idea behind investment in post-conflict countries is not to restore these societies to the very pre-war conditions that fuelled the conflict in the first place. But to support the transformation of these societies politically, economically and socially by building institutional resilience and creating conditions for investment. Helping these countries make their institutions stronger and providing people with the support to rebuild their lives and livelihoods is the only way of breaking the vicious cycle of fragility and poverty.

Mariella Ciuffreda is a policy officer at the European Investment Bank. Sladjana Cosic is a senior social development specialist at the Environment, Climate and Social Office (ECSO) of the European Investment Bank. Harald Schölzel is a water engineer at the European Investment Bank.

• The New European Consensus on Development, signed by the European Union and its Member States on 7 June 2017, stresses that "countries in situations of fragility or affected by conflict require special attention and sustained international engagement in order to achieve sustainable development" and that "the development cooperation of the EU and its Member States will be targeted where the need is greatest and where it can have most impact, especially in Least Developed Countries and in situations of fragility and conflict”.
• Uppsala Conflict Data Program

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Article Contents

Introduction, rural health status, rural cultures, rural health services, the problems with primary health care, family practice, wonca, the world organization of family doctors, the world health organization, rural health around the world: challenges and solutions, who–wonca rural health initiative.

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Rural health around the world: challenges and solutions *

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Roger Strasser, Rural health around the world: challenges and solutions, Family Practice , Volume 20, Issue 4, August 2003, Pages 457–463, https://doi.org/10.1093/fampra/cmg422

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Despite the huge differences between developing and developed countries, access is the major issue in rural health around the world. Even in the countries where the majority of the population lives in rural areas, the resources are concentrated in the cities. All countries have difficulties with transport and communication, and they all face the challenge of shortages of doctors and other health professionals in rural and remote areas. Many rural people are caught in the poverty– ill health–low productivity downward spiral, particularly in developing countries. Since 1992, WONCA, the World Organization of Family Doctors, has developed a specific focus on rural health through the WONCA Working Party on Rural Practice. This Working Party has drawn national and international attention to major rural health issues through World Rural Health Conferences and WONCA Rural Policies. The World Health Organization (WHO) has broadened its focus beyond public health to partnership with family practice, initially through a landmark WHO–WONCA Invitational Conference in Canada. From this has developed the Memorandum of Agreement between WONCA and WHO which emphasizes the important role of family practitioners in primary health care and also includes the Rural Health Initiative. In April 2002, WHO and WONCA held a major WHO–WONCA Invitational Conference on Rural Health. This conference addressed the immense challenges for improving the health of people of rural and remote areas of the world and initiated a specific action plan: The Global Initiative on Rural Health. The ‘Health for All’ vision for rural people is more likely to be achieved through joint concerted efforts of international and national bodies working together with doctors, nurses and other health workers in rural areas around the world.

Strasser R. Rural health around the world: challenges and solutions. Family Practice 2003; 20: 457-463.

The year 2000 has passed and clearly we have not attained Health for All. Nowhere is this more evident than in the rural and remote areas where most of the world’s people live. This article begins by outlining some of the challenges facing rural health around the world before reviewing the Health for All target, reflecting on its non-achievement and on the potential role of family practice. It then describes the lead role of WONCA, the World Organization of Family Doctors, in tackling these issues, before introducing the World Health Organization (WHO)–WONCA Collaborative Rural Health Initiative.

Around the world, the health status of people in rural areas is generally worse than in urban areas. In South Africa, infant mortality rates in rural areas are 1.6 times that of urban areas. Rural children are 77% more likely to be underweight or under height for age; 56% of rural South Africans live >5 km from a health facility; and 75% of South Africa’s poor people live in rural areas. 1

Critical factors in the relationship between poverty and health are population and environmental health issues. Eighty percent of the poor in Latin America, 60% in Asia and 50% in Africa live on marginal lands of low productivity and high susceptibility to degradation. This tends to encourage migration from rural areas to the cities. However, in the world’s cities, more than one billion people live without facilities for garbage disposal or water drainage, and breathe polluted air. 2 There are Healthy Cities policies and programmes aimed at addressing these problems. At times, it seems to be assumed that eventually everyone will move to the cities. MK Rajakumar, the great family practitioner/philosopher, former WONCA President from Malaysia, points out that, in the totality of human history, cities are a very recent and potentially ‘unnatural’ phenomenon. He suggests that this helps to explain why so many urban people feel more at ease, somehow ‘at home’, in the rural areas. It does raise the notion that there should be programmes which actively seek to reverse the rural–urban drift.

With the concentration of poverty, low health status and high burden of disease in rural areas, there is a need to focus specifically on improving the health of people in rural and remote areas, particularly if the urban drift is to be reversed. The WHO International Development Programme has highlighted this, with specific objectives for policies and action which promote sustainable livelihoods including access for people to land, resources and markets, as well as better education, health and opportunities for rural people. These objectives seek to contribute to lowering child and maternal mortality, and to improve basic health care for all, including reproductive services. Achievement of this is linked to protection and better management of the natural and physical environment.

The emphasis on poverty as well as other social and economic factors has led to a tendency to focus on those issues rather than directly addressing health issues. The 10/90 Report on Health Research, 1999 presents an alternative view: “The global community should recognise that good health is a way out of poverty. It results in a greater sense of wellbeing and contributes to increased social and economic productivity. The impact of ill health on productivity affects not only the poor, but societies and economies as well”. 2 Drawing these points together, there is a particular need to focus on the health and well-being in rural and remote areas so as to break out of the poverty–ill health–low productivity downward spiral.

The low health status and variable patterns of illness and injury in rural areas are related not only to poverty. In general, the rates of avoidable deaths in rural and remote areas are higher than in the cities. Generally, work injuries are more serious and more severe in rural areas, which to some extent follows from the stoicism and the ‘too tough to care’ mindset particularly amongst farmers and agricultural workers. 3 In fact, in Australia, the tractor is the most dangerous machine with which people work. Forty percent of work injuries are associated with tractors, even though only 5% of the workforce actually work with tractors. 4 Similarly, there are dangers in other rural pursuits such as mining, fishing and timber work. In countries with established highway systems, country people spend a lot of time driving at high speed and tend to have more serious injuries from motor vehicle accidents.

The specifics differ from country to country; however, there are always some illnesses which are peculiar to living and working in rural areas. These include zoonoses, such as hydatids and leptospirosis, as well as other illnesses with animal vectors such as mosquitoes.

As a generalization, lifestyle-related illnesses are more common in the rural areas. The peaks and troughs of the economic cycle tend to impinge more directly on rural communities, with economic downturns often placing severe pressure on these communities. Consequently, there are significant levels of stress in a situation where generally counselling, support groups and other mental health services are limited if available at all. Commonly, in rural areas, there is a higher alcohol and tobacco consumption, and standards of nutrition vary when compared with the cities.

There tend to be clear cultural differences between rural communities and urban centres and, in many countries, there are significant cultural differences from community to community in rural areas. There is a strong feeling in rural communities that they are different from, and have special qualities not found in the cities. Sociologists describe this quality as ‘gemeinschaft’. Relationships are seen as personal and enduring; unlimited and unspecified in their demands and imbued with a strong sense of loyalty not only to friends and relatives, but to the community and its members. Particularly in smaller communities, there is a community conception of being part of ‘one big happy family’. 5 By way of contrast, the city and government are seen as distant and antagonistic. Sociologists describe this concept as ‘geselleschaft’. The city is seen in many respects as bad and inferior, while the small rural community is good and superior.

Another aspect of the sociology and psychology of rural communities is the clear sense of behavioural norms which translate into community views of social roles and functions of various members of the community. In many countries, the social roles and functions are supported by a long tradition and specific religious practices. People in rural communities often value very highly self-sufficiency, self-reliance and independence, coupled with a stoicism which comes primarily from the farming culture. There is very much a focus on getting the job done. Consequently, health is given a very low priority which often translates into the view that medical services and hospitals really are the last resort.

In most developing countries, the vast majority of the people are in rural areas, whereas in mostly developed countries the rural population is a relative minority. In all countries, accessibility to rural and remote communities is affected by the physical topography, with mountains, deserts and jungles creating difficulties for transportation, at times complicated by varying climatic conditions. Consequently, in some areas, at least some of the time, there is no means of transportation, and evacuation of critically ill or injured patients is impossible. The standard and quality of communications between different rural and remote areas and between those communities and the urban centres is also very variable.

Despite the substantial differences between developing and developed countries, the key themes in rural health are the same around the world. Access is the major rural health issue. Even in countries where the majority of the population lives in rural areas, the resources are concentrated in the cities. All countries have difficulties with transport and communication, and they all face the challenge of shortages of doctors and other health professionals in rural and remote areas.

People in rural communities need to know that if they are unlucky enough to be seriously ill or injured, then the system is there to ‘save’ them. Generally speaking, in the cities where there are hospital emergency departments and ambulance services, this emergency response is assumed to occur. In rural and remote areas, this cannot be taken for granted, and people tend to be focused on their security need. Often, the way in which this felt need is expressed is through the community’s primary focus on recruiting and retaining a doctor or doctors and having a hospital in the area. 6 Generally speaking, people in rural and remote areas very much prefer to be cared for in their local environment.

The provision of health services in rural and remote areas is significantly affected by limited funding and other resource constraints. As mentioned already, in developing countries, there is considerable poverty and limited facilities and resources available for health care. In many developed countries, there has been a trend towards the reduction of funding and infrastructure support for health services in rural and remote communities. This is occurring in rural communities against a background of changing practices in major rural industries such as agriculture, mining, fishing and forestry, combined with wider social and economic changes causing considerable upheaval often described as ‘the rural decline’. 7 At the same time, economic rationalist policies have led to reduced infrastructure in rural communities, with the closure of schools, hospitals, government offices and banks. Many rural and remote communities bear the cost of global change without the commensurate benefits. 8

All of these issues are accentuated in the context of often serious shortages of doctors, nurses and other health service providers in rural and remote areas. 9 Rural health services require sufficient numbers of doctors and other health care providers who have the necessary skills to work effectively and comfortably in these areas. Sustainability of these services is dependent on adequate health service infrastructure and availability of specialist support.

Drawing together the various aspects of rural morbidity and mortality patterns, and the rural context, it is clear that the development and delivery of health services in rural areas must be specific to the rural context and different from that in the cities. Unfortunately, urban-based policy makers and health service planners often seem to think that the country is just like the city but with a different population distribution, and that it is possible simply to transplant modified urban health services to rural areas.

Returning to the theme of ‘Health for All’. The Health for All programme was enunciated through the Declaration of Alma Ata in 1978. In part, the Declaration said “that health is a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity; that health is a fundamental human right; and that the attainment of the highest possible level of health is a most important world wide social goal”. 10

The Declaration of Alma Ata went on to say: “Governments have a responsibility for the health of their people which can be fulfilled only by the provision of adequate health and social measures. . . . Primary Health Care is the key to attaining this target as part of development in the spirit of social justice. Primary Health Care is the first level of contact of individuals, the family and community with the national health system bringing health care as close as possible to where people live and work and constitutes the first level of a continuing health care process. Primary Health Care addresses the main health problems in the community providing promotive, preventive, curative and rehabilitative services accordingly”.

The Declaration of Alma Ata outlined a grand vision of primary health care which has not yet been achieved. It clearly has a strong public health emphasis and is much more than primary medical care. In retrospect, there have been a series of problems with the interpretation and implementation of primary health care.

The first problem relates to the bureaucratic context. This was well outlined by Judith Justice in her paper: ‘The bureaucratic context of international health—a sociologist’s view’. 11 She commented that many primary health care programmes were ineffective because they reflect the perspective and needs of the health bureaucracies involved rather than those of the local villages receiving the services. Often primary health care is interpreted differently in different bureaucratic settings and adapted to bureaucratic needs, but not necessarily adapted to the village cultures and conditions. 11

Another issue was outlined recently in a paper in The Lancet by McFarlane et al ., 12 in which they comment that the Declaration of Alma Ata was followed by a series of northern-designed selective initiatives which are still being generated today. Selective vertical programmes enable the International Aid Agencies to measure results and protect their investments from complicated long-term multisectoral and interdepartmental implementation. Also, they comment that non-government organizations (NGOs) and religious groups have found that holistic community-based health programmes are generally undermined by narrowly selective interventions and that the sustainability of people-owned initiatives can be put in jeopardy. So clearly this approach of selective vertical programmes often focused on particular diseases has been another problem with the implementation of primary health care.

A third problem is the tendency of primary health care programmes to dismiss curative interventions and ignore the desire people have for some help with their immediate health problems. A programme in Nepal, the Nutrition Education Intervention Programme which was evaluated some years ago, did involve some curative intervention. The evaluators found that the inclusion of curative activities in the programme seemed to be a key factor in increasing the motivation of participants and acceptance by the community, so contributing to the success of the programme. 13

A fourth problem is the tendency to exclude practising clinicians. As the notions of primary health care were developed, the strong emphasis was on disease prevention and health promotion. Consequently, over the years, the development of the community health cum public health cum population health approach focused on healthy lifestyle and ‘wellness’ in the extreme, to the point of excluding the practitioners, the clinicians—doctors, nurses and others who are perceived to be dealing with ill health. That dichotomy and the tension itself has created difficulties.

In most of the WHO and the other primary health care programmes around the world, there has been little medical involvement in planning other than by specialists in public health or in specific diseases. Implementation in the field has tended not to involve clinicians and particularly not to involve doctors.

Family physicians or GPs are the key providers of primary medical care and so essential to successful primary health care. The family practitioner views the practice population as a ‘population at risk’ as part of providing community-oriented patient-centred preventive care. 14 The family doctor is well placed to provide the link between individual and family health care, and the community and population health focus embodied in primary health care.

This is true for developed and developing countries alike. Martha Carlough from the USA spent quite a number of years in Nepal under the Interserve USA Program. She wrote a paper describing how she sees the commonality in family practice in her experience in Nepal with the USA. 15 She observes that in both countries, every encounter is influenced by family relationships, cultural tradition and socio-economic status. Clearly, a key theme of family practice is the focus on caring for and understanding a person’s situation in the context of their home, family and community.

In 1998, the World Health Assembly could see 2000 coming and made new commitments to Health for All Policy for the 21st century. The commitment included in part: “We commit ourselves to strengthening, adapting and reforming as appropriate our health systems including essential public health functions and services in order to ensure universal access to health services that are based on scientific evidence of good quality and within affordable limits, and that are sustainable for the future. We will continue to develop health systems to respond to the current and anticipated health conditions, socio-economic circumstances and the needs of people, communities and countries concerned to appropriately manage public and private actions, and investments in health”. 16

Family practice is pivotal to the development of a health system as outlined by the World Health Assembly. It is also important to have the full health team. There is a need not only for doctors but also for nurses and other health professionals, including medical assistants and village health workers who are part of the health team responding to the health care needs of the community. In fact, for the vision of primary health care to be achieved, there needs to be strong and active community involvement. Health systems work best where there is active community participation. 17

In the rural context, the ideals of primary health care are best achieved through Healthy Village Projects. This community development approach supports and encourages sustainability of the small rural community, as well as facilitating improvements in health status and outcomes. The Healthy Village Project at New Hanover, only 2 h drive from Durban in rural KwaZulu-Natal, is an excellent example. Dr Neethia Naidoo, local family physician and district medical officer, has a key role in encouraging and facilitating the project. Specific activities are developed in response to demonstrated local needs. In addition, community involvement extends to an active role for the other sectors of the economy in health and development activities.

Since 1993, specific achievements include:

A school water and sanitation project at 10 of the most needy schools in four villages.

An AIDS preventative programme linked to the Mobile Clinic services.

A district water reticulation scheme.

District Social Welfare and Pension Services.

A District Victim Support Service, an NGO linked to the University of Natal and the Criminal Justice system.

A District (KZN 221) Creche Project. This consists of 22 creches.

A Child and Family Welfare Society.

Returning to the international level, WONCA has provided leadership in rural health. It established the WONCA Working Party on Rural Practice in 1992 following the WONCA World Conference in Vancouver. At that conference, the rural delegates met to discuss matters related to rural practice. The consensus which developed formed the basis for the WONCA Policy on Training for Rural Practice which was endorsed by WONCA Council in June 1995. 9

Since the 1995 WONCA World Conference, the Working Party on Rural Practice has been involved in the organization of a series of International Rural Health Conferences. Each of these conferences has involved >300 delegates from up to 30 different countries around the world. These conferences have provided a forum for exchange of ideas between rural family practitioners, and have developed recommendations which form the basis for WONCA Policies on Using Information Technology to Improve Rural Health Care (1998) 18 and on Rural Practice and Rural Health (1999). 19 The Second World Rural Health Congress was held at Durban South Africa in 1997. It had a particular focus on rural health in the developing world. The Congress adopted: ‘Health for All Rural People: The Durban Declaration’. 20 This Declaration outlines a series of principles which are followed by a Call for Action renewing the ‘Health for All’ initiatives and calling on WHO, UNICEF, Development Banks such as the World Bank and other Regional Development Banks, and National Governments to work with local communities, doctors, nurses and other health workers actually working in poorer areas of the world to make a success of the ‘Health for All’ initiative at this time. The Declaration calls for a combined effort to address the historical inequities facing rural and disadvantaged communities. It recommends that targets be set in stages until the year 2020 to reduce substantially all aspects of global poverty, social, cultural, economic, education, nutritional and health. The Declaration concludes that, “Since the great majority of poor people of the world live in rural areas, we pledge ourselves to this global initiative to achieve health for all rural people by the year 2020”. 20

The WONCA Policy on Rural Practice and Rural Health outlines a framework for rural health care, noting that there are special problems in rural health care that are not seen in urban health care. The document calls for affirmative action policies by Government structures at national and regional levels which address the needs of underserved rural areas. It calls for research to inform rural health initiatives and to monitor progress in rural health care. The WONCA Policy goes on to outline a series of strategies: to establish rural health administrative structures; for the allocation of financial resources; to increase rural health research; and to enhance the development and representation of rural doctor issues. 19

One of the remarkable features of World Rural Health Conferences has been the high level of common interest and strong sense of fellowship coupled with a willingness to discuss even the most difficult issues. Each conference has been much more than just an International Conference. Each conference has contributed to the growing world rural health movement.

During the last decade, there has also been a developing relationship at the international level between the WHO and WONCA. The WHO appears to have recognized the need for doctors in the field as part of the primary health care team. In 1994, WHO and WONCA held a landmark Invitational Conference at London, Ontario on ‘Making Medical Practice and Education More Relevant to People’s Needs: The Contribution of the Family Doctor’. 21 The conference and its report have led to major changes in medical education around the world, shaping the development of new medical schools as well as curriculum reform in established ones. In 1998, WONCA and WHO developed a Memorandum of Agreement which includes the Rural Health Initiative.

Recently, the WHO has initiated the ‘Towards Unity for Health’ (TUFH) project. The project intends to study and promote efforts worldwide to create unity in health service organizations—particularly through a sustainable integration of medicine and public health, or, in other words, of individual health and community health-related activities—and consider the implication for important reforms within the health professions, practice and education. It is in rural practice that integration of health care is well exemplified. As well as knowing the health care needs of individual patients, the rural doctor must understand the needs of the community and its resources for health.

Following a WHO International Conference, ‘Towards Unity for Health: Challenges and Opportunities for Partnership in Health Development’ in Thailand, August 1999, the WHO has produced a working paper intended to further the TUFH Project. 22 This working paper explores innovative patterns of services for integrating medicine and public health, focusing particularly on reference population and geography. A district has been described as an ideal geographic area at the level at which health services could be usefully decentralized for planning and organization, and health status monitored with the understanding that it should be large enough to justify its own health surveillance system, but small enough to allow an efficient co-ordination and management of health interventions. Many of the issues raised in this working paper are particularly pertinent in rural and remote areas. Innovative models of health service delivery have been developed by rural practitioners. There is particular potential for the use of communication information technology and telehealth in serving the needs of rural people and their carers.

In the context of the WONCA–WHO Memorandum of Agreement (1998), commitment to the Rural Health Initiative, as well as the WONCA Durban Declaration, ‘Health for All Rural People’ (1997) and the WHO TUFH project (1999), WHO and WONCA have agreed to collaborate in addressing the immense challenges for improving the health of people in rural and remote areas around the world. It was agreed in 2001 to undertake a WHO–WONCA co-sponsored consultation: ‘Health for All Rural People’.

A focal point of the consultation process was a co-sponsored WHO–WONCA Invitational Conference on Rural Health held in April 2002. The conference explored the major issues and challenges of health and health services in rural and remote areas around the world. The conference was planned and organized in a similar way to the successful joint WHO–WONCA conference in London, Ontario in 1994. Invited participants to the conference represented WHO regions, NGOs, Medical and Health Science Schools around the world, health professional organizations, governments and health authorities, and WONCA.

The conference drew on the programmes and activities of WONCA and WHO, as well as specific case examples of successful rural health initiatives around the world. Guiding principles of the conference discussions were equity and integration in the development of innovative strategies to break the poverty–ill health–low productivity downward spiral for people in rural and remote areas.

The conference considered both developed and developing world perspectives, and focused on deliverable outcomes. It established a consensus as the basis for an Action Plan on Rural Health which integrates the individual and population health approaches towards improving the health and well-being of people in rural and remote areas around the world. The Action Plan proposes a range of global, regional and country-specific activities. Principles and guidelines were developed to assist educational institutions, health professional organizations, health services agencies and communities on implementing the proposed activities.

This article has outlined the major challenges facing rural health around the world, reviewed the problems experienced with primary health care and Health for All programmes, highlighted the pivotal role of family practice, described the leadership provided by WONCA in addressing rural health issues at the international level, and presented the growing collaborative WONCA–WHO Rural Health Initiative.

The WHO–WONCA co-sponsored Invitational Conference ‘Health for All Rural People’ focused world attention on rural health and marked the beginning of a new era for improving the health and well-being of people in rural and remote areas of the world.

This article is based on a Keynote Address at the 16th WONCA World Congress of Family Doctors, at Durban, South Africa in May 2001.

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Who and france convene high-level meeting to defeat meningitis.

Blog Least Developed Countries are facing five major challenges

Four suggestions to tackle them.

This month we had the honour to co-host  the first ever LDC Future Forum here in Helsinki. It was our first large-scale live event since the COVID-19 pandemic hit, which made it particularly exciting to be involved in.

Taking stock on the progress of LDCs

Least Developed Countries (LDCs) are low-income countries that are highly vulnerable to economic and environmental shocks. They have low levels of human assets, as reflected in low secondary schooling enrolment rates, adult literacy, and gender inequality in schooling, for example. At the moment there are 46 LDCs.

To graduate from the LDC category, one of the three criteria is the GNI per capita, which needs to be USD1,222 or above. For reference, in Finland GNI per capita in 2020 was over 48,000 dollars.

As we take stock on the progress that LDCs have made, we see very different regional experiences. In the Asia-Pacific region, of the 14 countries in the LDC group in 2011, three (Maldives, Samoa, Vanuatu) have moved out of LDC status and ten are in the process of graduating. Globally, of the seven LDCs scheduled to graduate by 2026, five are from the Asia-Pacific region — Bhutan, Solomon Islands, Bangladesh, Lao PDR, and Nepal. 

In Africa, there are also three countries (Botswana, Cabo Verde, Equatorial Guinea) that have graduated, but only two countries expected to graduate in 2024 (Angola, and São Tomé and Príncipe). Based on the current criteria, an additional four African countries may be found eligible to graduate by 2030, though this is far less than the 50% target that was agreed by the international community in 2011.

Five main challenges

The challenges of the LDCs were widely discussed in the Future Forum. I would narrow the list down to five main problems.

The first one is weak economic growth . Average growth in LDCs stood at 4.7% during 2011–19, which was significantly lower than the average of 6.6% during 2001–10. This implies that the living standards of many LDCs will not converge to the levels of the fast-growing developing countries in North and South-East Asia. With the onset of the pandemic in 2020, economic growth has been particularly affected in 2020 and 2021, leading to sharp increases in poverty.

Second, there is a lack of productive capacity . The gap in productive capacity of LDCs and other developing countries has not narrowed in the last ten years. There has been very little diversification into manufacturing or high-value services. Agriculture still remains the major source of value added and employment.

Third, there is lack of diversification of exports and high commodity dependence . We see an excessive dependence on a few products in the export baskets of many LDCs. Many countries seem to specialise in one or two products with respect to exports. This means that they are vulnerable to trade shocks and the sudden loss of export markets when another developing country becomes competitive in that product.

Fourth, there is high vulnerability to environmental shocks . Extreme weather events have an adverse effect on LDCs. For example, Myanmar is the second most climate risk-affected country in the world. Climate change also poses serious threats to the Pacific Islands LDCs.

Fifth, there is the potential loss of preferential market access such as the EU’s ‘Everything But Arms’ (EBA) for the LDCs that are in the process of graduating. As most of the successful exporters among LDCs specialise in products that are price-sensitive such as apparel, the possible tariff increases may lead to big losses in competitiveness. 

Addressing the challenges

How should national governments and the international community address these challenges?

First, there has to be concerted investment in productive capacity , especially in human capital development, infrastructure and energy, along with a facilitating environment for the private sector. This will not only build much needed productive capacity, but also contribute to higher economic growth and diversification of exports.

Second, appropriate actions need to be taken to minimise disaster risk , as well as vulnerabilities to climate change, including access to climate finance.

Third, in the light of the pandemic’s effects on LDCs, there has to be a concerted effort to improve health, sanitation and social protection systems to build resilience to future pandemics .

Fourth, there has to be commitment from development partners to augment the scarce domestic resources that LDCs have to invest in critical public goods, as well as ensuring a more equitable and rules-based multilateral governance system.

Science-based tools are available

The event clearly indicated that only through data-driven research will truly actionable and scalable solutions for sustainable development be found.

The views expressed in this piece are those of the author, and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Institute or the United Nations University, nor the programme/project donors.

October 2021

Other blogs by this author

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These are the biggest global risks we face in 2024 and beyond

From disinformation to inflation, these are the world's most pressing risks. Image:  Unsplash/Ryoji Iwata

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Ellissa cavaciuti-wishart.

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Stay up to date:, global cooperation.

• The World Economic Forum’s Global Risks Report 2024 says the biggest short-term risk stems from misinformation and disinformation.
• In the longer term, climate-related threats dominate the top 10 risks global populations will face.
• Two-thirds of global experts anticipate a multipolar or fragmented order to take shape over the next decade.

The cascading shocks that have beset the world in recent years are proving intractable. War and conflict, polarized politics, a continuing cost-of-living crisis and the ever-increasing impacts of a changing climate are destabilizing the global order.

The key findings of the World Economic Forum’s Global Risks Report 2024 reflect these most pressing challenges faced by people in every region of the world.

A pessimistic global outlook

The report reveals a world “plagued by a duo of dangerous crises: climate and conflict.” These threats are set against a backdrop of rapidly accelerating technological change and economic uncertainty.

The findings are based on the Forum’s Global Risks Perception Survey, which gathers insights from nearly 1,500 global experts from academia, business, government, the international community and civil society.

Have you read?

The four key ways disinformation is spread online, will a regional conflict re-tangle global supply chains, this is what the climate crisis is costing economies around the world.

As the chart above shows, optimism among respondents was in short supply. More than half (54%) anticipate a significant degree of instability and a moderate risk of global catastrophes. Another 30% see things getting even worse, envisioning looming global catastrophes and with a “stormy” or “turbulent” period ahead in the next two years.

Expand that view out to 10 years and the pessimism among respondents grows. By 2034, almost two-thirds (63%) predict a stormy or turbulent world order.

Breaking down the risks

While climate-related risks remain a dominant theme, the threat from misinformation and disinformation is identified as the most severe short-term threat in the 2024 report.

The growing concern about misinformation and disinformation is in large part driven by the potential for AI, in the hands of bad actors, to flood global information systems with false narratives.

In response to the uncertainties surrounding generative AI and the need for robust AI governance frameworks to ensure responsible and beneficial outcomes for all, the Forum’s Centre for the Fourth Industrial Revolution (C4IR) has launched the AI Governance Alliance .

The Alliance will unite industry leaders, governments, academic institutions, and civil society organizations to champion responsible global design and release of transparent and inclusive AI systems.

Over the next two years, the report states, “foreign and domestic actors alike will leverage misinformation and disinformation to widen societal and political divides”. This risk is enhanced by a large number of elections in the near future, with more than 3 billion people due to head to the polls in 2024 and 2025, including in major economies like the United States, India and the United Kingdom.

The report suggests that the spread of mis- and disinformation around the globe could result in civil unrest, but could also drive government-driven censorship, domestic propaganda and controls on the free flow of information.

In a 10-year context, climate-related risks contribute 5 of the top 10 threats as the world nears or crosses “climate tipping points”.

The risk posed by extreme weather events tops the list as nations remain unprepared for the “triggering of long-term, potentially irreversible and self-perpetuating changes to select planetary systems [which] could be passed at or before 1.5C of global warming, currently anticipated to be reached by the early 2030s”.

While the threat of extreme weather is seen as an immediate one, there was disagreement about the urgency of other climate-related risks such as the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem collapse. Concern about these risks was significantly higher among younger respondents to the survey, prompting fears that mitigation could be delayed beyond the point where meaningful action can be taken.

Opportunities for responding to global risks

With diminishing trust, political polarization and a volatile geopolitical landscape, the potential for cooperation to tackle global risks is under pressure. The report finds that solutions could emerge as a result of more localized cooperation on the part of nations, corporations and even individual citizens.

However, given the scale of the economic, political and environmental challenges the world is facing, the report concludes that, “cross-border collaboration at scale remains critical for risks that are decisive for human security and prosperity”.

This will be a focus at the 2024 World Economic Forum’s Annual Meeting in Davos, Switzerland, taking place under the theme Rebuilding Trust. The programme urges a “back to basics” spirit of open and constructive dialogue between leaders of government, business and civil society.”

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License and Republishing

World Economic Forum articles may be republished in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International Public License, and in accordance with our Terms of Use.

The views expressed in this article are those of the author alone and not the World Economic Forum.

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A weekly update of the most important issues driving the global agenda

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IELTS Preparation with Liz: Free IELTS Tips and Lessons, 2024

• Test Information FAQ
• Band Scores
• IELTS Candidate Success Tips
• Computer IELTS: Pros & Cons
• How to Prepare
• Useful Links & Resources
• Recommended Books
• Writing Task 1
• Writing Task 2
• Speaking Part 1 Topics
• Speaking Part 2 Topics
• Speaking Part 3 Topics
• 100 Essay Questions
• On The Day Tips
• Top Results
• Advanced IELTS

IELTS Problem Solution Essay Model Answer

Below is an IELTS model answer for the IELTS problem solution essay in writing task 2. There are five types of essays in IELTS writing task 2 and the “solution” type essay is a common one. However, make sure you follow the instructions. You need to know the difference between “what are the causes?” and “what problems does this cause?”.  The first requires causes and the second requires problems.

Problem Solution Essay Instructions

The instructions for problem solution questions are often paraphrased in different ways. Below you can see a few examples:

• What are the problems to this and how can it be solved?
• What problems are caused by this? What solutions would you recommend?
• What problems arise from this situation? What measures can be taken to deal with it?
• What problems does this cause? What can be done to deal with this situation?

You can find some essay questions for solution essays and problem solution essays on this page: Solution Essay Questions  and you can find over 100 essay questions to practice: 100 Essay Questions for IELTS

IELTS Problem Solution Essay Question

An increasing number of professionals, such as doctors and teachers, are leaving their own poorer countries to work in developed countries. What problems does this cause? What can be done to deal with this situation?

Model IELTS Essay: Problems and Solutions

More and more professionals from developing or underdeveloped countries are choosing to live and work in richer countries. As a result, poorer countries will struggle to develop but this can be tackled by offering more incentives to stay and better living conditions.

The main problem faced by poorer countries due to the brain-drain, in fields such as medicine and education, is that they will struggle to develop and find it difficult to improve their economy as well as living conditions. One of the main ways that a developing country can better themselves is through the skills and dedication of their professionals which is negated when they choose to take their skills to benefit another country. Consequently, less developed countries will not be able to offer their citizens high levels of education or health care, and this in turn will hinder their ability to compete on a global scale, to entice investors and ultimately to stop the poverty cycle.

One effective solution to deal with professionals leaving their country is for their government to encourage them to stay by offering better work conditions. This can be done by increasing wages and investing in state-of-the-art equipment and training to tempt doctors and teachers to continue working there. Another possible answer is for  poorer countries to offer better standards of living, more tolerance and a positive future as a way to entice their professionals back to their own country after they have completed their training abroad. However, these solutions are financially demanding which means poorer governments may have to look to developed countries for aid in order to implement these changes.

In conclusion, poorer countries are unable to develop due to the brain-drain which can only be tackled by enticing professionals to remain in their country of origin through better conditions.

Question Prompt: A rise in the standard of living in a country often only seems to benefit cities rather than rural areas. What problems can this cause? How might these problems be reduced?

One-sided rise of living standards in cities as opposed to poor and underdeveloped rural areas can create conflicts and conflagrations between communities, but equal distribution of funds for developing both urban and rustic landscapes and infrastructures can solve these issues.

Better education, income or living conditions, which can only be seen in city areas create inequality between the urban dwellers and those residing in pastoral grounds. Consequently, it leads to resentment and hatred against each other, creating ground to bear infighting between people. Therefore, civil war and rebellions will arise if social equality is not achieved between residents of different regions. For example, the French revolution in the Renaissance era occurred because of the growing divide between the rich aristocrats in the urban areas and the poor common people in the outskirts of France.

One of the effective solutions to tackle this problem is to implement equal wealth distribution policies amongst different jurisdictional areas in a nation. In other words, the resources and wealth of a country should be equally divided, regardless of whether it is urban or rural. Only then, the quality of life in both of the regions will be improved together at the same time, without an evident disparity. For instance, the Malaysian government equally divides the capital for investments in the construction of buildings amongst 13 states of the republic, modernising them equally at the same time.

In conclusion, war and political divide between cities and the countryside can result as a consequence of unequal living standards, while establishment of policies advocating fair distribution of resources will shorten the gap of disparaging living standards.

As the professionals, such as doctors and teachers leave their own poor nations with lower incomes to seek jobs in the first world countries with better living standards, the essential institutions in their home countries cease to function. However, with better incentives, these skilled workers may be enticed to return to their countries of origin.

The first and foremost problem arises from the professionals moving to richer countries is the resultant shortage of labour and lack of skilled employees. As a result, the departments and establishments run by these professionals are no longer able to operate, and are closed down. Consequently, the residents of these underdeveloped nations struggle to find services and providers for their day-to-day activities. For example, many third world nations in SouthEast Asia have inefficient health care services with a shortage of competent medical professionals, compared to their counterparts in Europe despite producing millions of doctors, nurses every year.

One possible solution to this issue is to offer enticements to persuade the much needed skilled service providers to stay in the country. In other words, if employee benefits are enhanced by giving a higher pay, free living, better pension schemes or cheaper health care, they will be willing to settle down in the areas they were trained. In addition, these countries will also attract foreign workers to come and replace those who are still willing to leave due to other reasons, such as personal preferences or weather. For instance, many poor African countries pay these highly sought after professionals attractive wages and salaries, which are three-times higher than that of the minimum pay in the country.

In conclusion, many poor countries have been significantly experiencing an emigration of professionals, creating a shortage of the services provided by them, whereas raising the standard of living of these professionals can convince them to work for their own countries.

It has been universally accepted that problem of professionals are migrating from own poorer countries is escalating at an alarming rate. The problem is bringing a state of depression among the masses and in economy too. There are plethora of reasons of the same and its possible solutions can be suggested too which are discussed as follows.

In regards to the problem, the major reason which can be stated is inflation. dozens of professionals when they pass from institutions they start to find a good job, but due to inflation if they get a reasonable job then they cannot fulfill even basic needs for their family members. that is the point where they start thinking of migrating to developed countries. Another problematic cause is those professionals who fail to achieve a better job and then they select a crime path. Government should take a stand on this point and focus on the employment sector and how to create ease in the job market for the professionals who really can be a valuable asset for our country’s growth and economy. Seeing the problem with a brighter mind, many solutions can be helpful to this menace. One of the solutions is whenever they are passing out from university Government should offer paid internship program via an aptitude test. To conclude, solving a global issue is not easy but with the efforts of the Government, control can be taken over the problem with the aforementioned suggested measures. I believe that government should come forward to mitigate this problem.

For a IELTS solution essay if the instructions ask to write solutions but does not mention to write about problems/causes then I assume I only write about solutions only?

That is correct. You follow the instructions precisely and don’t change them. An essay question about solutions only will be an essay based on solutions only.

Thank you ma’am this was really helpful

Hi miss Liz. what are the differences between “what are the reasons” and “what are the problems” in problem-solution essay. I mean that in which way should I answer these questions?

“Reasons” are similar to causes. It’s an explanation for why something is happening. “Problems” are negative effects.

I kindly hope evaluating my essay answer, even merely a score prediction. =============================================== Undoubtedly, the prosperity of the developed countries increasingly attracts highly qualified individuals to immigrate and forsake their struggling people regardless of the severe issues they may cause such as the decreased quality of health and education; besides, economic recession. Those issues will be illustrated and addressed separately.

Firstly, to efficiently handle the migration issue, we have to be aware of two of its fundamental impacts. Brain drain has been a direct immigration impact. Consequently, an absence of physicians leading to a high number of patients; furthermore, a reduced number of educators causing unqualified post-graduates. However, the predicted and indirect result from immigration is a heavy burden affecting the economy of the third world because they have been forced to hire foreigners from the developed countries to establish some hospitals and universities to fill the gap caused by the vocational immigrants. Therefore, the shortage of doctors and teachers and the economic problems are the essential issues aroused from immigration. That should be quickly treated by governments.

Secondly, after understanding the results of immigration toward economically developed countries, I am convinced that the best solution to tackle this situation is that the authorities of the suffered states should closely observe any ambitious and clever pupil and foster him. In other words, they have to establish specialized schools that receive every high IQ scored student and seriously teach him all types of contemporary sciences. In addition, continuous communications should be done to any high qualified immigrant to make him believe that he is immensely demanded and respected among his hometown and has a responsibility to be involved and serve his people, who fostered and taught him before his success, whenever he is wanted. Based on that, high-quality education and tightly connection with immigrants will markedly mitigate the impact of the brain drain phenomena.

In conclusion, the challenges the developing countries have been recently facing for decades could be addressed within few years if those countries considered the risk of low health care and poor education aroused from migration. I believe that a pivotal role could be achieved by the administrators of those poor countries by education and conducting with the qualified immigrants.

Sorry I don’t offer marking or feedback.

Hey miss, I’ve been trying to improve my writing but unfortunately, due to not getting feedback I’m not sure whether am i writing correct or not. I just wrote a problem solution essay can you pls give me feedback it will helped me alot. Q : Nowadays, more and more younger people needs to compete with older people for the same jobs. What problems does this cause? What would you suggest as a solution.

Currently, many youngsters are facing competition with elderly people for similar kind of jobs. This essay will suggests, the major problem that causes is Higher unemployment amongst young employees, and proposing a retirement age on old employees as a viable solution.

Due to rising competition, youngsters struggles alot in finding jobs. Due to not having enough experience, they fail in getting jobs and this leads to poverty. Inspite of, due to lack of jobs, they are deprived of paying their living expenses. For instance, majority of the people who are of aged 40-60, are working more rather than young people.

Therefore, authorities should implement a law on those employees who are of aged ( 40-70 respectively). Those of them who just crossed the age of 40, must gets retired as well as government should take care of their living expenses. Moreover, giving them social benefits and ensuring that no worker will gets employed after the age of 40, will automatically eliminate the escalating competition among both young workers and old workers. For example, if older people stopped working than young people can get more chances in showing their skills and boosting the economy.

In conclusion, by preventing elderly people from working will gives a positive impact and the rivalry among them wil be finished

Hi Liz, Is this a problem solution essay or direct question essay? “Nowadays the increasing number of garbage is a real concern .why is this happening? what can be done to resolve it?”

Be careful with labelling what type of essay something is. Each teacher labels essays differently and IELTS labels them differently again. There are clearly two direct questions. However, I teach them under causes/solution essays.

Hi Liz, can I bring some information not related to the question to make the lengthen my essay

You will be marked down for padding out your essay with information that is not 100% relevant to the question. This is why you need to prepare lots of ideas for topics so that your essays can contain relevant, highly focused points.

I love your tips and it is quite easy to understand. But I have a question in the below question it does not ask for causes. In such situations do we need to write the causes as well?

In many developing countries, there is a problem with declining quality of air and water from both industry and construction. What measures could be taken to prevent this?

You should only ever follow instructions. If you are asked for only solutions, you will give only solutions. For marking criteria of Task Response is not just about the ideas you use, it is also about how you fulfil the instructions – always write a focused, relevant essay 🙂

Thank you! Liz. Appreciate your answer.

Hey Liz, can you tell.me is this a proper way to paraphrase (intro) this question in task 2 Some cities create housing areas by providing taller buildings.others create housing by building houses one a wider area of land what solution is better? My ans: as a result of rapidly increasing population the demand for housing has increased . I believe that creating housing through high rise buildings is better than constructing houses on a wider area of land.

It’s fine.

Thank you so much dear LIZ, you are a blessing After watching your videos I can do my writing in a very efficient way, I can control over time so easily, hope I can make it it in my test. I highly appreciated all the tips you advise us in your videos.

I’m so glad my lessons are helping you. Good luck in your test !! 🙂

Hi Liz It is a wonderful site !! What if I label an essay differently from my examiner. 🙃 How many points do tend to loose?

There are no labels that the examiner follows. Only teacher give labels in order to help explain and teach.

Hi Liz, One question contains this at the end, ‘… why do you think that is? What could be done to encourage more people to take interest in the arts?’ Is this also a course+ solution essay?? Looking forward a response

Yes, it asks for causes and solutions. It is common for IELTS to paraphrase instructions.

Dear Li, I will be taking the IELTS General Training test next week. I’d like to know if the problem/solution or cause/solution essays are only for Academic Test takers or GT candidates should also expect them in the test.

The question types are the same for both tests. This applies to both writing task 2 and the reading test.

Thank You dear Liz

Thank You for your helps

The question prompt usually says “What are the problems due to this phenomenon?” and “What are the solutions to this problems?”. In this case, are we supposed to write two problems and two solutions or one problem and one solution? I ask this because question says problems and solutions, which is plural but if we write two problems and solutions than we will have to write about 350 to 400 words to fully develop those ideas to get higher task achievement scores. This will mean that completing task in 40 minutes will be tough. What do you suggest in this case? Is writing one problem and a solution answering all parts of the task? Looking forward to your response. Thanks

The page above gives you a model essay for exactly that type of essay. Read through it and learn how to write it using a reasonable word count.

Hello Liz. Can you share with me the link to your video lessons where you explain “cause and solution essay”? Looking forward your response. Thanks.

I don’t have a video for that essay question yet. Sorry.

Hi Liz, Firstly wanted to thank for the info you’re providing!

I just have one question about the solution essay. When they just ask to provide the solution in the essay (not mentioning cause or problems) how do we structure the two BP’s? One solution each body BP?

I can’t see any examples about this on your website!

Thanks in advance,

Who said you could only have two body paragraphs? It is fine to have three. The number of body paragraphs will depend on the number of solutions you have.

Thanks a lot for you effort

Dear Liz, For a problem solution essay, can I follow the following structure to get higher bands? 1- Intro 2- Body paragraph 1 (problem + solution) 3- Body paragraph 2 (problem + solution) 4- Conclusion

It is a standard, correct structure to use. There are many reasons to get a higher score based on the 4 marking criteria – that only will not help you.

Thank you so much.

Can you please tell where could I find your problem solution essay video lesson … shall be thankful

I haven’t made that lesson yet.

Thank you for the essay. I observed that this essay does not consist of any examples in both the body paragraphs. Does that mean we have to only include examples in opinion essays? or we can afford to not mention examples in writing task 2 and still get a good band score?

Thank you for your help in advance.

You give examples when you want. Some teachers teach students always to give examples because it is an easy way to explain ideas. But it isn’t a requirement. Ideas can be developed in many ways.

Understood. Thank you.

Thank you for this model answer. But, I have a feeling that the solution could be more fully developed. Please clear my doubt dear teacher.

You don’t get marks for a longer essay and this essay is long enough. Developing solutions further would not increase your score.

The official criteria is very confusing which states that not developing ideas could lower your writing score. What should I do teacher? Ielts is so confusing.

I think you need to consider what the requirements are. An essay is under 300 words (about 290). This means the intro is about 40 or 50, the conclusion about 30. So, you are left with about 105 or 110 words per body paragraph (for two body paragraphs). This means to get band 9, those words are enough. Just be logical. An underdeveloped body paragraph contains one or two sentences – no more. Try to work within the requirements. See my advanced lessons for training: https://elizabethferguson.podia.com/

Hi Liz!i want to pay 24$.can i do through bank.i face face problem in my visa card.

The payments are processed by paypal using either a debit or credit card. All lessons are bought individually.

Thank you Liz Your free training is doing a good work in me, I actually need to extend time for my IELTS test.

Thank you Liz for your brilliant ideas and tips!!

Dear liz Pls let me know GT task 2 questions are similar to academic task 2 questions? As I need GT task 2 questions to practice please give me some details about it?

Yes, they are similar. GT questions are sometimes easier.

Hello mam please I’d like to ask who marks ielts exam papers? Are they sent to british council uk or marked in country where its taken? Just to clear a doubt please. Thanks mam.

This has recently changed. Before the writing was marked by examiners in the city where you did your test. Now the papers are sent to a central location abroad where examiners will mark them.

Hi Liz, Since when did they start sending the writing papers to be assessed at central location. Does this mean we can’t apply for remark anymore?

Of course, you can apply for a remark. All remarks are checked by a senior examiner. The change in system has NO influence on candidates, on your score or on your remarking.

Liz can you please explain use of articles in particular ‘the’? I feel like I miss them before abstract nouns. Is there any lesson/video I could watch? I’m desperate for your help!

My website is based on IELTS exam technique. You will need to find an English language website. See this page for some links: https://ieltsliz.com/useful-websites-and-resources-for-ielts/ or use google.

Thank you very much, Liz. You have been very helpful.

Thank you very much madam

Hello Liz, thanks for sharing your knowledge with us, “poor mortals”. If you were an examiner, would you give which band for this problem solution essay you made as a model? Would it be band 9, indeed? If so, I’m very confident I got the right structure to build it. Thanks a lot!

Yes, it would be a band 9. It addresses the task fully with relevant, well developed ideas. Signposts and linking are used flexibly. Paragraphing is logical. Vocab and grammar are flexible and also error free. The real aim for a high score is keeping your English language error free – don’t take risks.

Thank you liz. It was long awaited. I also purchased your other writing videos. They are great. Your way of explaining is very good and easy to understand.

I’m really glad my advanced writing task 2 lessons were useful. I tried to pack them with as many flexible techniques as I could 🙂

For Writing Task 1 and 2, can extra sheet be given?

If you have filled the answer sheet, you can raise your hand and ask for another. However, the answer sheets are the right length for the writing required.

I knew that I need two sheets because I practised on them before therefore I ask for them at the beginning of writing part. I’ve obtained them without any problem.

You will not be given them at the start of the writing part. You must first full the answer sheets provided. Always remember that your aim is to write under 300 words for task 2 and under 200 for task 1.

Thank you Liz for your prompt response .

Thanx alot mam liz. This is very helpful eassy of solution and problem. Can we use this eassy words for every eassy of solution and problem.

I don’t understand your question. Are you talking about memorising the essay? You definitely can’t memorise it but you can learn vocabulary from it.

What is the paraphrase of financially demanding?

Thanks for whole essay . It is really nice answer for problem and solution type of essay. My problem is I could not copy your sample essay and paste it into word doc. Could you please tell me how it can be done? I know it is a silly question. I prefer read them rather on the paper than on computer. . Thank you

Unfortunately, you’ll have to type the essay into your laptop to copy it. It will do you good to test your English accuracy 🙂

Splendid😊😊 Thanks liz Is lure equal tempt??

It has a similar meaning but I wouldn’t use it in this context. You need to be very careful with synonyms. Although they have similar meaning, they might not all be suitable for the same topics or contexts.

thanks for the answer to this essay. But one thing I want to clarify is that “brain-drain” is an informal word. So can we use it in writing ? thanks & regards,

It is not an informal word – it’s fine to use.

Thanks alot Liz.. I have LWR on Dec. 2nd and this has help alot.

Good luck!! See my last minute tips: https://ieltsliz.com/ielts-exam-tips-on-the-day/

Is conclusion word not used in introduction and conclusion of task 2.

Sorry I don’t understand this comment at all. The linking words “In conclusion” are used to start the conclusion of the essay above.

Thanks liz .. Your ielts tips are really helpful.

Hi Liz Thank you very much for your efforts writing the wonderful essay, Can I ask you there is a repeatation of (entice) is there any exact synynom for entice or it is ok to repeat it?? Thanks

It’s fine and natural for some words to be repeated. As long as you show paraphrasing skills that’s all that is needed. Your aim isn’t change all words, all the time.

Good morning Liz, thanks. ☺

I watched your videos on all modules and I would like to sincerely thank you for your guidance and support. Your videos and tips are very much helpful, after watching your videos my preparation style and concepts on each modules are changed completely.

Thank you so much for your support.

You’re welcome 🙂

Thank You Liz for your update Currently, I’m preparing my IELTS test and all tips in your website really helps me

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Childhood Obesity as a Serious Public Health Problem

1. introduction.

The increasing prevalence of childhood overweight and obesity is experienced in both developed and developing countries. The scientific concern about childhood obesity is reflected in the great number of publications (mainly reviews and greater or smaller samples of clinical and community studies) published in medical journals and books in the past 10 years. Children with overweight and obesity are a critical concern in health care. These children are at increased risk for a number of health problems, and it is anticipated that their chronic care will become a major challenge to our health care system. The cause of the rapid increase in childhood overweight and obesity is contentious and is likely due to multiple factors, that may differ by age, sex, and race. Several studies have emphasized the importance of preventing obesity in early childhood. Such interventions may be the most successful because childhood obesity often persists into adulthood and causes numerous health problems including premature death. Other interventions may need to target population subsets and may need to focus on health and fitness rather than on achieving an ideal weight. Community-wide campaigns may be needed to change many factors, such as the increasing availability of fast food, that have contributed to the changing environment.

1.1. Definition of Childhood Obesity

Childhood obesity can be defined as the presence of excess body fat, typically resulting in a body mass index (BMI) higher than the crude cut-off value, deviating from internationally applied BMI or age- and sex-specific BMI criteria or thresholds for obesity. A child who is overweight has a weight above average for their age and sex. However, the term should not be confused with that of overweight. In many cases, quite simple assessments of overweightness can be conducted using percentages, such as using the 85th percentile to indicate a normal weight and the 95th percentile to indicate overweightness. Crespo et al. note, however, that it would not be accurate to use body mass index (BMI) to differentiate between those children who have high percent body fat or high weight for height and those who are overweight but not at risk of obesity-related diseases. And the accuracy may not be perfect because BMI fails to reflect differences in body fat between children. Those with different BMIs also have different amounts of subcutaneous fat. According to Wright et al., the distribution of fat, i.e., the percentage of fat distribution around the body, including central fat development, varies with different childhood growth patterns. Diseases that result from being overweight, such as heart disease, hypertension, and type 2 diabetes mellitus, are associated with the abnormal distribution of body fat. However, there has been a point at which the above definitions are doubtful in the sense of co-morbidity. A child must also be regarded as obese if thresholds of other diagnostic markers, such as waist circumference or a value above the cutoff specified by other conventional diagnostic measures, are exceeded, regardless of the BMI value.

1.2. Prevalence and Trends

Because of the contributors to childhood obesity and the consequences, it is increasingly considered a serious public health problem. The prevalence of childhood obesity is increasing in developing and developed parts of the world. Consequently, the history of obesity in a society is shaping what we do as a society: what we do for infants (6 to 23 month olds), for toddlers (2- to 5-year-olds), for primary school children (6- to-11-year-olds), for middle school students (12-to-17-year-olds), and for young adults (18-to-25-year-olds) who are preparing for the worlds of work and education, adult health, and family formation. Today, the focus of policy, program interventions, and investigations involves new initiatives to enhance breastfeeding, increasing fruit and vegetable consumption, especially for 2 to 10-year-olds. There are also new physical activity curricula and efforts to address vending machines and increase portions of high-calorie, low-nutrient foods and beverages in schools. Because of our public concern, we are constantly engaged in the process of developing projects, programs, and interventions in homes, preschools, and schools. For older youngsters, policy decisions often emphasize energy balance, screens, sleep, and food factors, and much less data are generated on how the lives of these older children and adolescents can be adjusted to enhance energy balance. With such developments, there is a real interest in sharing projects, programs, interventions, and being part of the force to measure them.

2. Health Consequences of Childhood Obesity

Overweight adolescents have a 70% chance of becoming overweight or obese adults, which increases to 80% if one or both parents are overweight or obese. In addition to complications for diabetes and other endocrine problems, socioeconomic problems, and impairments in daily life and growth, obesity in childhood produces emotional and psychological problems. Problems occurring in childhood include hypertension, endocrine problems, sleep apnea, and orthopedic complications such as Blount's disease and gastric reflux. Endocrine problems include hyperinsulinemia, which occurs in 50% of obese children and is a possible risk factor for developing diabetes in the future. Among the psychological problems are those associated with emotional and social issues, discrimination and prejudice, which can lead to increased incidents of teasing and bullying and impairment of the child's quality of life, exacerbated by low self-esteem and poor self-perception. Furthermore, overweight children have a tendency to become socially withdrawn and to have more social problems than children of normal weight. They suffer from worse outcomes with peers through a lack of companions, a greater difficulty integrating in society, fewer friends, more bullying, discrimination, less support, and a greater feeling of loneliness, which can affect the psychological growth of the child.

2.1. Physical Health Effects

Because children are still in the growing and developing stages, having an obese body size as a result of excess energy intake will lead to an imbalance between energy intake and expenditure. To put it simply, excess energy intake can end the potential for short, disease-filled lives. Childhood obesity increases the risk of developing several health conditions. It is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular diseases, type 2 non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, elevated cholesterol, elevated lipids, arterial hypertension, and polycystic ovarian disease. Excess body weight during childhood will lead to early puberty, which decreases the maximum developmental time of the growing process of height and growth, and will reduce the adult height and weight that children who are overweight or obese can possibly reach. For example, the increase in body weight before puberty shortens the potential developmental time of puberty spurt, thus reducing the peak height velocity and final height.

2.2. Psychological and Social Impact

Childhood obesity can have a social and psychological impact and lead to stigmatization and low self-esteem. In addition, overweight children are more frequently targeted by bullying, a condition that further negatively affects their self-esteem, resulting in feelings of sadness and loneliness. In terms of the social implications, it should be emphasized that a higher body mass index can have toxic effects on childhood and adolescent social dynamics. One of the factors that influences childhood attitudes and prejudices about weight and socialization is the body mass index of their playmates. The overweight and obese are generally negatively evaluated. Over time, discrimination of overweight children increases, influencing the key psychosocial dimensions of their life in a significant way. Children generally have ready access to examples of prejudice against overweight that occur in people's daily lives. Families, peers, and friends make it clear that it is acceptable to provide negative evaluations, thus establishing social standards through the media and in conversations with others. Therefore, it must be understood that early childhood socialization can influence the value children place on peers' attitudes and beliefs.

3. Causes of Childhood Obesity

Causes of childhood obesity: What is the evidence? Obesity is a complex problem; it is largely multifactorial. Our rapidly changing environment and lifestyle contribute heavily to obesity. Although genetic or other biomedical research is important, social science can identify what causes obesity through research with a knowledge-systems approach. Such research is an essential foundation of multidisciplinary or interdisciplinary public-health research and intervention. Good work has been done on what causes the increased prevalence of obesity. Regarding some of the influential factors that can be discussed with precision today, what follows will take you through some of the developments. This can help in a new, soundly based global strategy. From a biological perspective, obesity in children all over the world is associated with overweight or obese parents. Societal changes in parental work arrangements and the necessity for both parents to work mean that many children do not eat proper meals at home. Moreover, many more children are now likelier to eat outside the home, at fast food restaurants, and in front of the television or computer. Families eat fewer meals together, resulting in poor nutrition overall. In addition, with heavy marketing of unhealthy food and drink to children, whether alone or as part of whole families, children are eating increasingly less wholesome meals. These patterns result in an excess caloric intake. Decreases in physical activity are associated with substantial increases in TV viewing and computer use. There have been declines in physical education programs in school systems, and similar declines in available outdoor recreational space for children. Social environment and physique dissatisfaction influence physical inactivity and poor diet. These influences interact with individual genetic and biological factors. It is most important to note, however, that these changes are usually unintentional and they do not therefore represent the activity of any special interest group. The proactive influence of food and drink producers in addressing some of these problems, however, is necessary.

3.1. Genetic Factors

Genetic Factors. Parental obesity is one of the susceptibility factors for childhood obesity, with children of obese parents being 10 times more susceptible than the general population. Genetic factors contribute to about 25% of childhood obesity. In particular, links have been established between single gene defects and monogenic syndromes which cause severe early-onset obesity, such as the LEP (leptin), LEP-R (leptin receptor), or PC-1 (prohormone convertase 1) gene defects. Other candidate genes contribute to the polygenic form of childhood obesity. These are genes regulating appetite or satiety, which includes the hypothalamic peptide genes or neuromodulators controlling food intake like proopiomelanocortin and AgRP/NPY, respectively. Other than neuromodulators, genes linked with energy balance and fat storage also have polymorphisms associated with childhood obesity. Genes regulating adipocyte number or size are also crucial contributors to energy balance, including perilipin or leptin receptor genes. Of these genes in gene regulation, FTO (fat mass and obesity-associated protein), an intron gene implicated in the control of food intake, seems to be the gene to have the most predominant association with polygenic obesity rather than monogenic obesity. These neuromodulator peptides and non-homoeostatic pathways share the commonality that they are neural, and the study findings give a broad understanding to the biological control of body weight, obesity, and related comorbidities.

3.2. Environmental Factors

Only a few studies have evaluated the relation between physical characteristics of the environment and behavior or obesity among children, and nearly all of these studies have used cross-sectional data. One study documented a decrease in the frequency of outdoor play between and increasing distance from a child's home and park, the presence of graffiti and trash, and the safety of the playground equipment. A recent study reported that girls who perceived few safe places to play had greater increases in body mass index, which is weight divided by the square of the height, than did girls who perceived many such places. This association was found only for girls' fruit intake. However, this study was cross-sectional and could not establish the direction of the relation. One hypothesis is that a decrease in physical education classes and an increase in the number of hours spent watching television are proximate determinants of increased weight. These correlations probably do not, however, suggest a lack of association. Children with a genetic predisposition to obesity may be less likely to take part in activities that are seen as 'stigmatizing', even if these activities do not have a harmful effect. Alternatively, although sedentary behavior and inactivity during leisure time are thought to be the primary contributors of excessive weight gain in childhood, reverse causation could also be operating. In this scenario, obese children who are not physically successful would be expected to spend more time inactive.

4. Prevention and Intervention Strategies

Although evidence is accumulating about effective intervention strategies to prevent or treat childhood obesity, there is no definitive approach. Efforts to overcome obesity require understanding of the complex interplay among genetic, hormonal, environmental, and developmental processes, followed by coordinated implementation of a range of communitywide strategies that promote physical activity and a healthy diet in youth. There are no magic bullets, such as single food additives, micronutrients, or drugs, that will reverse the growing trend of pediatric obesity. There are, however, lifestyle changes that parents of obese children and adolescents can take to enhance the long-term health of their children. There is consensus that successful approaches intended to limit further progression of pediatric overweight require interventions that reduce the rate of age-specific weight gain, rather than encourage caloric restriction and weight loss. The primary goal for those with elevated BMI-for-age is to prevent any weight gain until there is appropriate growth into their current weight. If BMI continues to climb unsustainably, providers and families need to intervene, recognizing the lack of evidence documenting successful treatment intervention programs intended at long-term weight loss in pediatric populations. If BMIs stabilize, the hope is that weight ratio allowance due to normal growth would help move child closer to normal weight by maintaining BMI-for-age.

4.1. School-Based Programs

School-based prevention programs can be targeted at normal-weight children but may have an increased focus on obese children or children at risk of becoming overweight or obese. School-based programs have several advantages. Schools are central in children's lives and contribute significantly to their physical activity and eating patterns. Schools have a socializing function and can address vulnerable groups, including overweight children. Moreover, schools offer a wide range of opportunities, such as physical activity programs and healthy nutrition. Of course, besides these advantages, there are also impediments to successfully preventing and treating childhood obesity at schools. However, in many countries, different kinds of school-based programs are implemented. Research has shown that school-based prevention programs have been effective in improving knowledge and altering attitudes regarding the prevention of obesity. Since 2009, a number of school-based programs have been designed especially for overweight and obese children and their families, with promising outcomes.

4.2. Community Initiatives

Schools and communities across the nation are developing, with assistance from a variety of organizations, a great variety of local policies, programs, and physical environment initiatives to address obesity, promote health, and encourage physical activity among children and youth. Promising strategies are components of a comprehensive package that includes healthy physical, social, and political environments for children and families. These strategies are designed to help all families and children, those who are physically active and those who are not, and those who are obese and those who are not, to reach achievable health goals that will promote a healthy weight and protect them against future disease. All of these strategies support and promote good health practices that are social values of the families and communities who need them to be made accessible and affordable, safe, and physically and culturally appealing. Local comprehensive planning that includes community partners can bring numerous relevant strategies together into a single identification and goal-setting process. School-based Strategies Transforming schools into places where children accept and engage in physically active lives is a powerful environment and policy approach to reversing the childhood obesity epidemic. School-based strategies implemented by school system staff or by local, regional, or national organizations include programs and policies to promote healthy foods, healthy eating, and physical activity to the greatest benefit for all students, regardless of individual physical activity level or weight. Schools that have developed and adopted implementation plans to maximize the impact of strategies and policies to promote good nutrition and physical activity in their overall academic, social, and physical development mission are genuinely striving to create the best physical and social fitness and learning atmosphere possible. These schools are embracing the work of the President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports on the Physical Action Report: Physical Activity and the Prevention of Childhood Obesity and encouraging local businesses, organizations, and individuals to partner with the private and public school sectors to turn the goal of active children and a healthy future into a shared goal.

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IMF Selected Issues Paper

African Department

• Securing Fiscal Discipline and Credibility in WAEMU

Prepared by Ljubica Dordevic and Olivia Ibrahim

Authorized for distribution by Luca Antonio Ricci

IMF Selected Issues Papers are prepared by IMF staff as background documentation for periodic consultations with member countries . It is based on the information available at the time it was completed on March 1, 2024. This paper is also published separately as IMF Country Report No 24/091.

ABSTRACT : Fiscal consolidation and the reintroduction of the WAEMU fiscal framework is crucial for maintaining debt sustainability, external viability, and financial stability. The 3 and 70 percent of GDP deficit and debt ceilings envisaged by the expired rule remain appropriate, while addressing the stock-flow adjustments will help rebuild fiscal buffers. Convergence to a fiscal deficit of 3 percent of GDP should be ensured by 2025— barring exceptional circumstances—with focus on domestic revenue mobilization, while controlling expenditure. To secure fiscal discipline and credibility, it is essential to revamp the fiscal rule with a credible debt correction mechanism and exogenous escape clauses .

RECOMMENDED CITATION : Dordevic, Ljubica and Ibrahim, Olivia. Securing Fiscal Discipline and Credibility in WAEMU. IMF Selected Issues Paper (SIP/2024/012). Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund

SELECTED ISSUES PAPERS

Prepared by Ljubica Dordevic and Olivia Ibrahim 1

WEST AFRICAN ECONOMIC AND MONETARY UNION

SELECTED ISSUES

March 1, 2024

Approved By

Prepared By Ljubica Dordevic and Olivia Ibrahim..

SECURING FISCAL DISCIPLINE AND CREDIBILITY IN WAEMU

A. Overview

B. Policy Recommendations on Strengthening Fiscal Discipline

C. Conclusions

1. Debt Dynamics

2. Fiscal Targets in Context

We thank Annalisa Fedelino and Luca Antonio Ricci for their guidance, and Alain Feler, Lawrence Norton and Francisco Roldan for helpful comments and suggestions.

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Education in Developing Countries Essay

Diverse socio-economic environments in schools, current difficulties, recommendations for further negotiations, reference list.

• Political independence brought young countries harsh difficulties including the problems with education;
• Children in such countries do not have access to high-quality education due to the poor technological, social, and economic development.

After gaining political independence, young countries faced severe financial difficulties caused by long colonial robbery and continued economic dependence on the imperialist powers. Nowadays, the problem of socio-cultural transformations, including a fundamental restructuring of the education system and adapting it to the needs of socio-economic recovery is of paramount importance (Burnett, 2014). The improvement of the educational system should be conducted per the requirements of modern science and technology.

• To provide children and young generation with adequate education;
• The education should meet the demands of the national development;
• To make education accessible to all representatives of society regardless of the social status.

Why do these challenges matter?

• Governments are responsible for the reformation of education to provide their nations with learning opportunities;
• The economic independence cannot be achieved in the country where people are illiterate;
• The development of education is directly connected to the socio-economic improvement of the country.

In is necessary to give the young generation education that meets the needs of national development and involves in the educational process a significant amount of population. The prominent role in the solution of these challenges belongs to the governments. The improvement of education in countries is based on the state plan of socio-economic development of the country. The reformation of education and training is one of the important tasks of the struggle for economic independence, a constituent part of a complex of measures aimed at overcoming underdevelopment (Guthrie, 2011). Without solving this task, the consolidation of political independence and gaining economic independence is impossible.

Almost two hundred million people who are no more than thirty years old have never visited a primary school (Marshall, Kinuthia, & Taylor, 2009);

One of eight young people is unemployed and over a quarter is busy at work

The colonial education system has left one more heritage: higher education is disproportionately developed in comparison with primary and secondary school. As a result, there is the educated elite, some of which cannot find a job after college or university. It is well-known that information technology is one of the main factors of economic growth. Developing countries are doing their best to approach the level of developed countries of the assessment of electronic devices in the field of education. However, whereas the smartphone has become the part of everyday life in some countries, some still do not even have access to television, and, consequently, to the source of information and knowledge.

As far as the United Nations Development Programme is ready to contribute significantly to the development of the educational system, it is of great importance to present guidelines. These directions predetermine the further development and should serve as the proof for UN exemplifying the intention to reform education. The prescribed guidelines are as follows:

• To supply schools with computers;
• To establish a system of distant learning;
• To promote the development of learning through video lectures;
• To assist the government in educational reforms;
• To monitor the implementations of the educational reforms.

It would be a new direction for the UNDP to establish a well-structured system of the distance learning in the DCs. Video-lectures represent one of the cheapest ways to increase the educational level in the developing countries. This practice has already started by the non-commercial organizations consisting of volunteers from all over the world (Kennepohl & Shaw, 2010). Video-lectures based on the curriculum will contribute not only to education but also stimulate local teachers to broaden their knowledge of the subject and share the experience of foreign colleagues.

Burnett, N. (2014). International education policies, issues, and challenges. In G. Carbonnier, M. Carton & K. King (Eds.), Education, learning, training: Critical issues for development (pp. 27-36). Boston, USA: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.

Guthrie, G. (2011). The progressive education fallacy in developing countries . Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer.

Kennepohl, D., & Shaw, L. (2010). Accessible elements . Edmonton, United Kingdom: AU Press.

Marshall, S., Kinuthia, W., & Taylor, W. (2009). Bridging the knowledge divide . Charlotte, USA: Information Age Publishing.

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1. IvyPanda . "Education in Developing Countries." September 2, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/education-in-developing-countries/.

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IvyPanda . "Education in Developing Countries." September 2, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/education-in-developing-countries/.