health hazards essay

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October 2016

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Understanding Health Risks

Improve Your Chances for Good Health

Risks are all around us. A nearby sneeze may raise your risk for catching the flu. Obesity boosts the odds you’ll get diabetes. Smoking increases your risk for many cancers. And if you pay attention to news headlines, you may worry that you’re at risk for food poisoning, Zika infection, shark attacks, and more. How can you know which health risks apply to you?

Health risks can sometimes be confusing, but they’re important to understand. Knowing the risks you and your family may face can help you find ways to avoid health problems. It can also keep you from fretting over unlikely threats. Knowing the risks and benefits of a medical treatment can help you and your doctor make informed decisions.

“Understanding health risks is key to making your own health care decisions,” says Dr. William Elwood, a psychologist and behavioral scientist at NIH. “It gives you perspective on potential harms and benefits, so you can make smart choices based on facts and not fears.”

A health risk is the chance or likelihood that something will harm or otherwise affect your health. Risk doesn’t mean that something bad will definitely happen. It’s just a possibility. Several characteristics, called risk factors, affect whether your health risks are high or low.

Your personal health risk factors include your age, sex, family health history, lifestyle, and more. Some risks factors can’t be changed, such as your genes A substance inherited from your parents that defines features such as your risk for certain diseases. or ethnicity. Others are within your control, like your diet, physical activity, and whether you wear a seatbelt.

When you see health statistics, consider the types of people being described. If they’re not similar to you, or if the category is very broad, then your risks may be different. A general statement like “More than half of Americans over age 45 will develop heart disease at some point” is based on statistical averages across the entire U.S. population. If you’re younger than 45, your heart disease risk will generally be much lower. The more risk factors you have—such as smoking, high blood pressure, or diabetes—the greater your risk. Exercise and a healthy diet, on the other hand, can make your chance of developing heart disease lower than for most other people.

“In many ways, our perception of risk is irrational,” says Elwood. “We sometimes worry over something that’s extremely unlikely, like Ebola in the U.S. And we ignore steps we can take to prevent what’s much more likely to harm us, like heart disease or colon cancer.” 

Talking about health risks can seem intimidating. Even doctors sometimes have trouble with risk concepts. That’s why NIH supports research to improve how medical staff and others communicate health risks and prevention strategies to patients and the public.

“Math in general is hard for a lot of people. Yet math is often hidden in everyday activities that affect our health,” says Dr. Russell Rothman, a physician and scientist at Vanderbilt University in Nashville. Rothman’s research focuses on helping people understand and work with numbers, so they can reduce their risks for diabetes and excess weight, including childhood obesity.

Studies show that the way we hear and understand health statistics can be influenced by how the numbers are described, or how they’re “framed.” Different descriptions can affect how clear the information is and also what emotions it stirs. For example, the statement: “More than 20% of Americans will eventually die of cancer” might sound less scary from a different perspective: “Nearly 80% of Americans will not die of cancer.” The same information might seem clearer described as a ratio: “More than 1 in 5 Americans will eventually die of cancer.” Research shows that pictures or diagrams are often the most understandable—for instance, showing 5 human figures with 1 in a different color.

To understand the potential risks or benefits of a medical treatment or behavior change, it helps to focus on a math concept called “absolute risk.” Absolute risk is the chance of something happening, such as a health problem that might arise over a period of time. For example, a disease might affect 2 in 100 middle-aged men over their lifetimes. If a certain drug lowers their risk for the disease to 1 in 100, the drug has reduced their absolute risk by 1 person in 100, or 1%. Another way to think of it is that you’d need to treat 100 people with this medicine to prevent  just 1 additional person from getting the disease.

Often, however, you might hear numbers that use a related concept called “relative risk.” Relative risk compares the absolute risks of one group to another. In the example above, you could also say that the drug reduced the risk of disease by 50%, since 1 is half of 2. Looking at relative risk alone, you may mistakenly think that the drug is highly effective.

“Many times, the relative risk sounds much greater than the absolute risk, which can be confusing,” Rothman explains. When you hear numbers about risk, it’s best to focus on the absolute risk.

Health risks can be especially hard to grasp when emotions run high, such as when people are faced with a serious illness. One recent NIH-funded study found that people with advanced cancer tended to expect better outcomes and longer survival times from treatment than their doctors did. Most patients didn’t realize that their outlook differed from their doctors. Such misunderstandings might affect whether patients choose to undergo harsh treatments.

“Communication is a 2-way street,” says the study’s lead researcher, Dr. Ronald M. Epstein of the University of Rochester Medical Center in New York. “For effective discussions to occur, doctors must provide encouragement and answers. And patients have to ask important questions.” Epstein and colleagues are developing methods to help doctors and patients have realistic discussions about topics such as emotions, treatment choices, and likely outcomes.

“We’ve shown it’s possible to improve the conversations. It helps if patients come prepared with 3 or 4 big-picture questions to ask their doctors,” Epstein says. For people with advanced cancer, questions might include: How will treatment affect my quality of life? What’s the average survival time for this type of cancer?

“It can feel scary to ask those kinds of questions. Sometimes you don’t really want to know the answers, or you have mixed feelings,” Epstein says. “Doctors can help by opening the door to conversation. They can say, ‘Tell me what’s on your mind. Do you have any questions?’” Such open conversations can help patients and their families make more informed health decisions.

Start by talking with your doctor about your health risks. Ask how you can reduce your risks. And look to trustworthy websites—like NIH’s health.nih.gov —for reliable health information.

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Attention Editors: Reprint our articles and illustrations in your own publication. Our material is not copyrighted. Please acknowledge NIH News in Health as the source and send us a copy.

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15.1: Types of Environmental Hazards

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• Melissa Ha and Rachel Schleiger
• Yuba College & Butte College via ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative

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Environmental health  is a field that focuses on how the natural and human-built surroundings as well as behaviors affect human well-being. The field is concerned with preventing disease, death, and disability by reducing exposure to environmental hazards and promoting behavioral change.  Environmental hazards  are threats to human health and well-being (table \(\PageIndex{a}\)).

Table based on  Lvovsky/World Bank ( CC-BY )

Traditional versus Modern Environmental Hazards

Environmental hazards can be classified as traditional or modern.  Traditional hazards are related to poverty and mostly affect low-income people and those in developing countries. Modern hazards , caused by technological development, prevail in industrialized countries where exposure to traditional hazards is low.

The impact of traditional hazards exceeds that of modern hazards by 10 times in Africa, five times in Asian countries (except for China), and 2.5 times in Latin America and the Middle East (figure \(\PageIndex{a}\)). Water-related diseases caused by inadequate water supply and sanitation impose an especially large health burden in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific region. In India alone, 90,000 children under five died diarrhea in 2017. Globally, 409,000 people died of malaria in 2019 with 94% of these deaths occurring in African countries. In 2016, approximately one third of the world’s households used unprocessed solid fuels, particularly biomass (crop residues, wood, and dung) for cooking and heating in inefficient stoves without proper ventilation. This exposes people—mainly low-income women and children—to high levels of indoor air pollution, the cause of about 1.6 million deaths in each year (figure \(\PageIndex{b}\)).

The contribution of modern environmental risks to the disease burden in most developing countries is similar to – and in quite a few countries, greater than – that in rich countries (figure \(\PageIndex{a}\)). Urban air pollution, for example, is highest in parts of China, India, and some cities in Asia and Latin America. Low-income people increasingly experience a “ double burden ” of traditional and modern environmental health risks. In rich countries, they experience twice the burden of illness and death from all causes and 10 times greater disease burden from environmental risks.

Biological, Chemical, and Physical Environmental Hazards

Environmental hazards can also be classified into three interrelated categories (biological, chemical, and physical) based on the properties of their causes. These categories are not mutually exclusive with traditional versus modern hazards. For example, indoor air pollution is both a traditional and chemical hazard. Different hazards can interact and exacerbate one another. For example, a flood is primarily a physical hazard, but it can lead to the spread of waterborne disease (a biological hazard). Similarly, air pollution (a chemical hazard) can damage respiratory tissue, making the body more vulnerable to a respiratory infection (a biological hazard). Infectious diseases (biological hazards) can also weaken the immune system, making an individual more vulnerable to chemical hazards.

Biological Hazards

For most of human history, biological hazards were the most significant factor in health. Biological hazards  are infectious (communicable) diseases caused by  pathogens  (disease-causing organisms or infectious particles) such as bacteria, fungi, parasitic worms, protozoa, viruses, and prions.  Bacteria are single-celled organisms with small, simple cells. Examples of bacterial diseases include tuberculosis, cholera, bacterial pneumonia, and dysentery. Fungi may have one or multiple cells and have a more complex cell type than bacteria. Fungal diseases include minor infections like candidiasis (yeast infection) or athlete's foot, but they can also causes severe respiratory infections (histoplasmosis, coccidioidomycosis, etc.) particularly in individuals with compromised immune systems. Parasitic worms  are animals from several phyla (groups) that siphon nutrients from their hosts. Examples include tapeworms, commonly acquired through consuming undercooked meat, and blood flukes ( Schistosoma ). Like fungi, protozoa have larger, more complex cells than bacteria, but they are single celled and lack the rigid cell wall that surrounds fungal cells. Malaria (figure \(\PageIndex{c}\)), African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness), and giardiasis are caused by protozoa. Viruses are infectious particles with genetic information surrounded by a protein coat, but they are not technically considered organisms in part because they do not consist fo cells. COVID-19, influenza, measles, the common cold, ebola viral disease (Ebola hemorrhagic fever), and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) are all caused by viruses. Prions (proteinaceous infectious particles) are even simpler than viruses because they lack genetic material and only contain protein.

While the proportion of deaths caused by in infectious diseases has overall decreased (with a higher proportion of deaths caused by noncommunicable diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular disease), infectious diseases still caused about one in five deaths in 2017. These deaths occurred at the highest rates in developing countries and many were in children. Malnutrition, unclean water, poor sanitary conditions and lack of proper medical care all play roles in transmission and high death rates from infectious diseases Compounding the problems of infectious diseases are factors such as antibiotic-resistant pathogens , pesticide-resistant disease vectors, and overpopulation.

Chemical Hazards

Chemical hazards  are toxic substances, which cause damage to living organisms.  Air pollutants (such as secondhand smoke or carbon monoxide), heavy metals, and pesticides are a few examples. We can be exposed to these contaminants from a variety of residential, commercial, and industrial sources. Sometimes harmful environmental contaminants occur biologically, such as those from mold or a toxic algae bloom. Toxins can be classified based on their origin, purpose, chemical structure and properties, or effects. Table \(\PageIndex{b}\) describes a few categories of toxins based on their effects and provides examples. A few of these examples are discussed more specifically below.

Formaldehyde

Formaldehyde is a colorless, flammable gas or liquid that has a pungent, suffocating odor. It is a volatile organic compound , which is a compound containing carbon and hydrogen that easily becomes a vapor or gas. It is also naturally produced in small, harmless amounts in the human body. The primary way we can be exposed to formaldehyde is by breathing air containing it. Formaldehyde is released into the air by industries using or manufacturing formaldehyde, wood products (such as particle-board, plywood, and furniture), automobile exhaust, cigarette smoke, paints and varnishes, and carpets and permanent press fabrics. Nail polish and commercially applied floor finish emit formaldehyde (figure \(\PageIndex{d}\)).

In general, indoor environments consistently have higher concentrations than outdoor environments because many building materials, consumer products, and fabrics emit formaldehyde. Levels of formaldehyde measured in indoor air range from 0.02–4 parts per million (ppm). Formaldehyde levels in outdoor air range from 0.001 to 0.02 ppm in urban areas.

Heavy Metals

Heavy metals are chemical elements of high density that form a special type of bond (called metallic bonds, in which electrons are shared but in a less constricted way than in covalent bonds). Arsenic, mercury, lead, and cadmium are examples of heavy metals. 

Arsenic  (As) is a naturally occurring element that is normally present throughout our environment in water, soil, dust, air, and food. Levels of arsenic can regionally vary due to farming and industrial activity as well as natural geological processes. The arsenic from farming and smelting tends to bind strongly to soil and is expected to remain near the surface of the land for hundreds of years as a long-term source of exposure. Wood that has been treated with chromated copper arsenate (CCA) is commonly found in decks and railings in existing homes and outdoor structures such as playground equipment. Some underground aquifers are located in rock or soil that has naturally high arsenic content.

Most arsenic gets into the body through ingestion of food or water. Arsenic in drinking water is a problem in many countries around the world, including Bangladesh, Chile, China, Vietnam, Taiwan, India, and the United States. Arsenic may also be found in foods, including rice and some fish, where it is present due to uptake from soil and water. It can also enter the body by breathing dust containing arsenic.

Arsenic poisoning causes a variety of symptoms and serious health conditions (figure \(\PageIndex{e}\)). Researchers are finding that arsenic, even at low levels, can interfere with the body’s endocrine system. Arsenic is also a known human carcinogen associated with skin, lung, bladder, kidney, and liver cancer.

Mercury  (Hg) is a naturally occurring metal, a useful chemical in some products, and a potential health risk. Mercury exists in several forms; the types people are usually exposed to are methylmercury and elemental mercury. Elemental mercury at room temperature is a shiny, silver-white liquid which can produce a harmful odorless vapor. Methylmercury, an organic compound, can build up in the bodies of long-living, predatory fish ( Biomagnification ). Although fish and shellfish have many nutritional benefits, consuming large quantities of fish increases a person’s exposure to mercury. Pregnant women who eat fish high in mercury on a regular basis run the risk of permanently damaging their developing fetuses. Children born to these mothers may exhibit motor difficulties, sensory problems and cognitive deficits. The United States Environmental Protection Agency thus recommends that pregnant women and young children should not consume any swordfish, shark, king mackerel, or tilefish because of their high mercury content. These individuals are advised to eat fish low in mercury such as salmon, shrimp, pollock, and catfish (figure \(\PageIndex{f}\)). To keep mercury out of the fish we eat and the air we breathe, it’s important to take mercury-containing products to a hazardous waste facility for disposal . Common products sold today that contain small amounts of mercury include fluorescent lights and button-cell batteries (figure \(\PageIndex{g}\)). 

Lead  (Pb) is a metal that occurs naturally in the rocks and soil of the Earth’s crust. It is also released from mining, manufacturing, and the combustion (burning) fossil fuels such as coal, oil, gasoline, and natural gas. Lead has no distinctive taste or smell. Lead is used to produce batteries, pipes, roofing, scientific electronic equipment, military tracking systems, medical devices, and products to shield X-rays and nuclear radiation. It is used in ceramic glazes and crystal glassware. Because of health concerns, lead and lead compounds were banned from house paint in 1978; from solder used on water pipes in 1986; from gasoline in 1995; from solder used on food cans in 1996; and from tin-coated foil on wine bottles in 1996. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has set a limit on the amount of lead that can be used in ceramics.

Lead and lead compounds are listed as “reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen”. It can affect almost every organ and system in your body. It can be equally harmful if breathed or swallowed. The part of the body most sensitive to lead exposure is the central nervous system, especially in children, who are more vulnerable to lead poisoning than adults. A child who swallows large amounts of lead can develop brain damage that can cause convulsions and death; the child can also develop blood anemia, kidney damage, colic, and muscle weakness. Repeated low levels of exposure to lead can alter a child’s normal mental and physical growth and result in learning or behavioral problems. Exposure to high levels of lead for pregnant women can cause miscarriage, premature births, and smaller babies. Repeated or chronic exposure can cause lead to accumulate in your body, leading to lead poisoning.

The video below explains how Flint, Michigan's water supply was polluted with lead in 2014 and the problematic government response that followed. This video was made in 2016. As of 2020, Flint has a clean water source, and the city of Flint is in the process of compensating affected residents for the damages. ( Click here to read a 2020 update. )

Asbestos is a mineral fiber that occurs in rock and soil. Because of its fiber strength and heat resistance asbestos has been used in a variety of building construction materials for insulation and as a fire retardant. Asbestos has also been used in a wide range of manufactured goods, mostly in building materials (roofing shingles, ceiling and floor tiles, paper products, and asbestos cement products), friction products (automobile clutch, brake, and transmission parts), heat-resistant fabrics, packaging, gaskets, and coatings. Exposure to asbestos is associated with cancers (lung cancer and mesothelioma) and another lung disease called asbestosis. In the United States, certain uses of asbestos, including in corrugated paper, flooring, and building insulation, are banned under the Toxic Substances Control Act and Clean Air Act (figure \(\PageIndex{h}\)). In contrast, asbestos is fully banned in 67 countries as of 2019.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a group of manufactured organic chemicals used in a variety of industries (figure \(\PageIndex{i}\)). They can be found in food packaging, stain- and water-repellent fabrics, nonstick products (such as Teflon), polishes, waxes, paints, cleaning products, and fire-fighting foams. 

Studies indicate that some PFAS can cause reproductive and developmental, liver and kidney, and immunological effects in laboratory animals. More limited findings associate some PFAS with low infant birth weights, effects on the immune system, cancer, and thyroid hormone disruption in humans.

Eight major chemical manufacturers in the U.S. phased out the use certain PFAS (called perfluorooctanoic acid, PFOA, and perfluorooctane sulfonate, PFOS) and related chemicals in their products and as emissions from their facilities. However, these PFAS can still be imported and other PFAS are still manufactured in the U.S.

Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are a group of manufactured organic chemicals. They belong to a broad family of chemicals known as chlorinated hydrocarbons, which consisting of carbon, hydrogen and chlorine atoms (figure \(\PageIndex{j}\)). The number of chlorine atoms and their location in a PCB molecule determine many of its physical and chemical properties. PCBs have no known taste or smell, and range in consistency from an oil to a waxy solid.

Polychlorinated biphenyls have been shown to cause cancer, cause birth defects, and affect the immune, reproductive, nervous, and endocrine systems in animals. Studies in humans support evidence for potential carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic effects of PCBs. The different health effects of PCBs may be interrelated. Alterations in one system may have significant implications for the other systems of the body.

The manufacture of PCBs in the U.S. began in 1929 until it was banned in 1979 under the Toxic Substances Control Act. Due to their non-flammability, chemical stability, high boiling point and electrical insulating properties, PCBs were used in hundreds of industrial and commercial applications including in electrical equipment, coolants paints, plastics, rubber products, pigments, and dyes. 

Bisphenol A (BPA)

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a chemical synthesized in large quantities for use primarily in the production of polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins. Polycarbonate plastics have many applications including use in some food and drink packaging such as water and infant bottles, impact-resistant safety equipment, and medical devices (figure \(\PageIndex{k}\)). Epoxy resins are used as lacquers to coat metal products such as food cans, bottle tops, and water supply pipes. Some dental sealants and composites may also contribute to BPA exposure. The primary source of exposure to BPA for most people is through the diet. Bisphenol A can leach into food from the protective internal epoxy resin coatings of canned foods and from consumer products such as polycarbonate tableware, food storage containers, water bottles, and baby bottles. The degree to which BPA leaches from polycarbonate bottles into liquid may depend more on the temperature of the liquid or bottle, than the age of the container. It has also be found in breast milk.

Some animal studies suggest that infants and children may be the most vulnerable to the effects of BPA. It disrupts signaling by estrogen, a naturally produced hormone, and the U.S. National Toxicology Program (NTP) documented concerns about its effects on the behavior, brain, and prostate in young children and developing fetuses.

The following personal choices can reduce exposure to BPA:

• Avoid microwaving polycarbonate plastic food containers. Polycarbonate is strong and durable, but over time it may break down from over use at high temperatures.
• Note recycle codes on the bottom of plastic containers. Some, but not all, plastics that are marked with recycle codes 3 or 7 may be made with BPA.
• Reduce your use of canned foods.
• When possible, opt for glass, porcelain or stainless steel containers, particularly for hot food or liquids.

While BPA is not banned in the U.S., the Food and Drug Adminsitration banned its use in baby bottles and sippy cups in 2012 and its use in the coating of infant formula containers in 2013. However, similar compounds such as bisphenol S (BPS) are now used as replacements. 

Phthalates are a group of synthetic chemicals used to soften and increase the flexibility of plastic and vinyl. Polyvinyl chloride is made softer and more flexible by the addition of phthalates. Phthalates are used in hundreds of consumer products. Phthalates are used in cosmetics and personal care products, including perfume, hair spray, soap, shampoo, nail polish, and skin moisturizers (figure \(\PageIndex{l}\)). They are used in consumer products such as flexible plastic and vinyl toys, shower curtains, wallpaper, vinyl miniblinds, food packaging, and plastic wrap. Exposure to low levels of phthalates may come from eating food packaged in plastic that contains phthalates or breathing dust in rooms with vinyl miniblinds, wallpaper, or recently installed flooring that contain phthalates. We can be exposed to phthalates by drinking water that contains phthalates.

Phthalates are suspected to be endocrine disruptors. Some types of phthalates have affected the reproductive system of laboratory animals. In 2017, The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) has banned several pthalates from being used at concentrations greater than 0.1% in toys and products designed to be used by children three years old or younger.

Radon  is a radioactive gas that is naturally-occurring, colorless, and odorless (figure \(\PageIndex{m}\)). It comes from the natural decay of uranium or thorium found in nearly all soils. It typically moves up through the ground and into the home through cracks in floors, walls and foundations. It can also be released from building materials or from well water. Radon breaks down quickly, giving off radioactive particles. Long-term exposure to these particles can lead to lung cancer. Radon is the leading cause of lung cancer among nonsmokers, according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and the second leading cause behind smoking. To reduce the risk of radon exposure, the Department of Urban and Housing Development recommends testing your home for radon, avoiding smoking to reduce the risk of lung cancer, and ensuring proper ventilation in your home.

Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane  (DDT)

Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane  (DDT) was the first of a long line of chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides (figure \(\PageIndex{n}\)). These compounds are chains of carbon and hydrogen with chlorine atoms replacing some of the hydrogen atoms. Introduced during World War II, DDT, along with penicillin and the sulfa drugs, was responsible for the fact that this was the first war in history where trauma killed more people - combatants and noncombatants alike - than infectious disease.

Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane is effective against many crop pests as well as vectors of human diseases such as the mosquitoes that spread malaria and yellow fever and fleas, which transmit the plague. Prior to the introduction of DDT, the number of cases of malaria in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) was more than a million a year. By 1963 the disease had been practically eliminated from the island. However, growing concern about the hazards of DDT led to its abandonment there in the mid-1960s, and soon thereafter malaria became common once again. Because it remains in the environment and is resistant to breakdown, DDT was especially effective against malarial mosquitoes. One or two sprays a year on the walls of homes kept them free of mosquitoes. It was also inexpensive, further adding to its appeal, but DDT has several serious drawbacks.

Because DDT builds up in fatty tissues ( bioaccumulation ) and becomes more concentrated at the highest levels of the food chain ( biomagnification ), it is especially harmful to apex predators, such as Bald Eagles (figure \(\PageIndex{o}\)). Classical studies documenting these effects were described in the 1960s bestseller Silent Spring by Rachel Carson. It was discovered that DDT caused the eggshells of birds to become fragile and break, making reproduction impossible. As a result, the Bald Eagle was listed as an endangered species under U.S. law. After DDT was banned in the United States in 1972, affected bird populations made noticeable recoveries, including the iconic Bald Eagle.

Physical Hazards

Physical hazards  are additional forces that can imperil humans. Physical hazards may arise naturally such as natural disasters (earthquakes, wildfires, landslides, etc.) or extreme weather (figure \(\PageIndex{p}\)). Others may arise from human structures or activities (traffic accident, building collapse, injury from mechanical equipment, strain on the body from repeated movements, etc.) Some physical hazards, such as explosions or radiation, can arise from natural or human sources.

Radiation  is energy given off by matter in the form of rays or high-speed particles, and some types of radiation present a physical hazard. Some familiar forms of radiation are infrared radiation (heat), visible light, ultraviolet (UV) light, radio waves, and microwaves. We are exposed to radiation every day from natural sources. For example, the sun exposes us to UV radiation. We are also exposed to radiation from human-made sources like medical X-rays and smoke detectors. We’re even exposed to low levels of radiation on cross-country flights, from watching television, and even from some construction materials. Some types of radioactive materials are more dangerous than others. Specifically,  ionizing radiation , like X rays and gamma rays (one of the forms of radiation emitted from nuclear fuel and waste), have enough energy to break molecular bonds and displace (or remove) electrons from atoms. 

Attribution

Modified by Melissa Ha from the following sources:

• The Impacts of Environmental Conditions
• Environmental Health
• Environmental Toxicology
• Pests and Pesticides
• Energy Flow through Ecosystems
• Insecticides  from  Biology  by John W. Kimball (licensed under  CC-BY )
• Impact on Human Health from AP Environmental Science by University of California College Prep (licensed under CC-BY )
• Environmental Health at a glance . 2003. World Bank. Washington, DC. (licensed under CC-BY )
• Asbestos . 2018. Environment Protection Agency. Accessed 01-07-2021. (public domain)
• Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) . 2018. Environment Protection Agency. Accessed 01-07-2021. (public domain)
• Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) . 2020. Environment Protection Agency. Accessed 01-08-2021. (public domain)
• What are DALYs? National Institute of Mental Health. Accessed 01-06-2021. (public domain)
• Radiation Basics . 2020. U.S. NRC. Accessed 01-07-2021 (public domain)
• Phthalates . 2017. National Biomonitoring Program. Centers for Disease Control. Accessed 01-08-2021. (public domain)

Essay on Health for Students and Children

500+ words essay on health.

Essay on Health: Health was earlier said to be the ability of the body functioning well. However, as time evolved, the definition of health also evolved. It cannot be stressed enough that health is the primary thing after which everything else follows. When you maintain good health , everything else falls into place.

Similarly, maintaining good health is dependent on a lot of factors. It ranges from the air you breathe to the type of people you choose to spend your time with. Health has a lot of components that carry equal importance. If even one of them is missing, a person cannot be completely healthy.

Constituents of Good Health

First, we have our physical health. This means being fit physically and in the absence of any kind of disease or illness . When you have good physical health, you will have a longer life span. One may maintain their physical health by having a balanced diet . Do not miss out on the essential nutrients; take each of them in appropriate quantities.

Secondly, you must exercise daily. It may be for ten minutes only but never miss it. It will help your body maintain physical fitness. Moreover, do not consume junk food all the time. Do not smoke or drink as it has serious harmful consequences. Lastly, try to take adequate sleep regularly instead of using your phone.

Next, we talk about our mental health . Mental health refers to the psychological and emotional well-being of a person. The mental health of a person impacts their feelings and way of handling situations. We must maintain our mental health by being positive and meditating.

Subsequently, social health and cognitive health are equally important for the overall well-being of a person. A person can maintain their social health when they effectively communicate well with others. Moreover, when a person us friendly and attends social gatherings, he will definitely have good social health. Similarly, our cognitive health refers to performing mental processes effectively. To do that well, one must always eat healthily and play brain games like Chess, puzzles and more to sharpen the brain.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Physical Health Alone is Not Everything

There is this stigma that surrounds mental health. People do not take mental illnesses seriously. To be completely fit, one must also be mentally fit. When people completely discredit mental illnesses, it creates a negative impact.

For instance, you never tell a person with cancer to get over it and that it’s all in their head in comparison to someone dealing with depression . Similarly, we should treat mental health the same as physical health.

Parents always take care of their children’s physical needs. They feed them with nutritious foods and always dress up their wounds immediately. However, they fail to notice the deteriorating mental health of their child. Mostly so, because they do not give it that much importance. It is due to a lack of awareness amongst people. Even amongst adults, you never know what a person is going through mentally.

Thus, we need to be able to recognize the signs of mental illnesses . A laughing person does not equal a happy person. We must not consider mental illnesses as a taboo and give it the attention it deserves to save people’s lives.

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Health And Safety Act Question & Answer

Discussion on health and safety act in geomatics

Introduction Geomatics is a field of collecting, archiving, processing and distributing physical or specially referenced information. Geomatics involve the use of laws, ordinances, and regulations among other policies to ensure that all individuals are protected against all forms of risks. Such systems may include land use, security, hazardous waste, health issues, and environmental use among others. The paper focuses on the definition of the health laws associated with geomatics and the impacts of introducing such laws.

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Safety and Health, Essay Example

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In Chapter 24, the focus is on chemical compounds.  The interest in chemicals by the general public has become greatly increased recently due to chemical catastrophes in India, Michigan, New York, and other locations.  In India in 1988, methyl isocyanate gas leaked from a chemical plant and settled over a 15 square mile area.  The chemical killed 2,500 people and injured 20,000 others.  Because of events like this, the public has become rightly concerned with chemicals.  There are a multitude of chemical compounds, greater than 3,000,000 registered compounds, of which approximately 60,000 have economic value in the marketplace.  Another estimated 700-1000 compounds enter the marketplace each year.  According to NIOSH, 5000 chemicals have some inherent hazards.  However, only 500 chemical compounds have published exposure standards.  So, many chemicals are lacking published hazards.

The three main types of hazards for chemicals are: 1. health effects , 2. fires and explosions, and 3. reactivity with other materials.  Chapter 24 mainly focuses on the different health effects of chemical compounds.  It is important to note that the hazards are interrelated.  That is, a fire can cause a chemical to become less stable and more reactive.  As the chemical becomes more reactive it can cause more serious health effects, so it becomes very important to understand how to properly address each of the hazards without causing greater hazards.

Since the focus of this chapter is health effects, this summary will mainly address those concerns.  There are three main entries into the body for chemicals, inhalation, ingestion, and absorption.  To understand the health effects of inhalation, one must understand the two forms of airborne contaminants: particulates and gases or vapors.  Particulates are classified by their size and chemical makeup and include dusts, fumes, smoke, aerosols, and mists.  The shape of the particulate is also important as some are spherical while others are long and fibrous.  Dusts are made of fine particulate matter created from processes that break matter into smaller pieces.  Fumes are fine solids often formed from the condensation of vapors.  Smoke is carbon or soot particles that result from incomplete combustion of carbonaceous materials.  Aerosols are solid or liquid particulates that are dispersed in the air.  Mists are liquid droplets that are suspended in or falling through air.  Gases are a different state of matter from solids or liquids.  Lastly, vapors are the gaseous phase of a substance that is a liquid at normal temperature and pressure.

When chemicals enter the body, they often affect particular organs of the body.  The effects on the organs can cause physical change, such as headache and nausea, and behavioral change, such as hallucinations and confusion.  Three factors determine the damage that the chemical will cause.  One is the type and form of the substance, two is the type and rate of exposure, and three is what happens to the substance in the body.  The time of exposure affects the latency period.  Some chemicals cause immediate effects while others may not have effects for years, as is the case with carcinogens.  Time also determines if an exposure is acute or chronic.  An acute exposure is one that causes damage in a single short exposure.  A chronic exposure is one that causes damage over a long period of multiple exposures.  Additionally, health effects can be local or systemic.  A local effect is one that causes injury to eyes, skin, or the respiratory tract after one or more exposures.  A systemic effect occurs when a substance enters the body and disrupts organs or other biological functions.  Interestingly, chemicals known as asphyxiants do not directly affect the body.  Instead, they displace oxygen which then causes damage to the organs and tissues of the body.  Some of the most serious health effects from chemicals are carcinogens, mutagens, and teratogens.  A substance that falls into one of these three categories causes damage to the DNA of a person resulting in a wide-range of effects for a long period of time.

Interestingly, not every person reacts the same to a chemical.  Some people have allergies to chemicals that cause increased responses.  Others become desensitized through exposure and do not show health effects until they are placed in repeated exposures.

So, what methods are used to assess the toxic properties of these chemicals, given that they have sometimes serious and wide-ranging effects?  The first method is through human experimentation.  However, it is unethical to test chemicals on humans for toxicity.  So, human experimentation is no longer used to test chemicals if the chemical is suspected to be toxic.  Another more useful method of assessing toxicity is through human experience.  While we do not allow humans to be exposed on purpose, sometimes they are exposed through accident.  By studying the outcomes of these accidents, the effects of the chemicals involved can be gauged.  Most toxicity data comes from the use of animal experimentation.  When chemicals are tested on animals that are similar in physiology to humans, much can be learned about their effects.  There are some drawbacks to this procedure.  For instance, a chemical with a long latency time must be tested at higher doses than a human would normally encounter in order to speed up the effects.  This process means that the animal experiments are useful for the study of toxicity in humans but not completely reliable.  Lastly, chemicals can be tested on microorganisms in order to more quickly get results.  These tests are generally short-term as microorganisms have such a short life.  The most common of these tests is the Ames test.

Chemicals are some of man’s greatest inventions, but they have the potential for great harm.  One must understand how the chemical works and how it can be toxic to a human in order to handle it safely.

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Essay: Health and safety in the workplace

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Accidents and mishaps are unforeseen circumstances that can affect individuals and groups at any time and in any place. Most accidents are preventable, but the carelessness or negligence of the involved individuals leads to major injuries and grievances. Accidents can also occur in the workplace and seriously affect the ability and health of the involved workers.

The objectives of this essay to discuss the safety and wellbeing of all workers are necessary for the organization not only for consistent productivity but also due to regulatory requirements. Workers and human resources are the necessary components of all organizations due to their role in the effective accomplishment of objectives. Corporations cannot achieve long-term success and sustainable growth in the absence of motivated, safe, healthy, and effective workers. The health and safety of all workers are necessary to ensure the enhancement of productivity and efficiency at all levels and areas. Lack of safety measures can create havoc for the organization and negatively affect the working criterion of an organization. The management has to devise and implement effective safety procedures to reduce hazards and prevent accidents in the workplace. The can motivate the employees through this perspective as employees admire working in organizations that prefer safe working conditions. Employees believe that safer working conditions enhance their ability work because they do not feel scared in troublesome situations. The management should coordinate with all the related stakeholders when they devise policies about safety at workplace, as this would enhance a positive change in an organization. Different legislations also depict that organizations should focus on these perspectives and they should attain self-sufficiency in providing workplace safety.

Introduction

Corporations in the current era focus on the development of employees and they believed in the ideology of benefiting employees through different approaches. Safety at the work force is an important aspect that many organizations of today’s world disregard. Many people face mishaps and accidents in various situations especially due to negligence, recklessness, and carelessness. Many accidents and serious injuries are avoidable and preventable by taking effective safety measures and reducing hazards. For example, drivers and passengers can avoid serious injuries and death by wearing seatbelts while traveling in cars. However, many people fail to realize the importance of seatbelts and face a variety of consequences in the event of an accident. Mishaps and accidents are unforeseen occurrences that can lead to several adverse consequences in the absence of effective safety measures and precautions. Accidents, disasters, and mishaps can also occur in the workplace and affect several employees in the absence of precautions and safety procedures. Certain mediocre organizations do not regard this aspect as important and they do not focus on safety at the workplace. The owners and management of the organization need to implement rules, regulations, procedures, and systems relevant to safety and health. The management also needs to ensure that all workers have ample knowledge and information regarding safety procedures, prevention of accidents, and safe working practices.

Human resources

Human resources are one of the most important assets of the organization with respect to success and growth. The success and growth of the organization depend on the effectiveness and efficiency of the human resources. However, the inefficiencies in human resources caused by any circumstances, occurrences, and events can hinder the accomplishments of the organization. Organizations take all necessary measures to ensure the productivity of all workers and employees to maximize profits and achieve organizational objectives (Blair, 2013). The wellbeing, safety, and health of all employees are among the highest priorities of all organizations. Organizations cannot take risk for their respective employees because an occurrence of a negative event would tarnish the credibility of an organization. Safe and healthy workers are more productive as compared to injured or sick employees. Employees that cannot work in safe conditions feel suffocated because of the risks associated with their respective work. Risks and hazards associated with a specific job or organization adversely affect the morale and motivation level of employees. The unsafe or hazardous working conditions have several long-term psychological and physiological consequences for the workers and the organizations. When a negative event occurs in an organization, it sets up the mindset of an employee. Employees would feel that this event would occur again and this would create hurdles in their effective working process. Organizations need to create a safe and healthy working environment for all workers to ensure high levels of motivation and enhancement in efficiency (Stricoff & Groover, 2012).

Safety at Workplace

Workplace safety refers to the prevention of illness, injury, and hazards in the workplace for all employees. Workplace safety involves the creation of a safe and healthy environment for all workers to evade hazards, injuries, and illnesses. Organizations can ensure the efficiency of all workers and circumvent a considerable amount of costs by ensuring workplace safety and health. Organizations develop different strategies through which they set up different work place safety policies and benefit the workers through this. Workplace injuries and illnesses lead to compensation benefits, health insurance costs, hiring temporary replacements, lost work hours, and lawsuits. Lack of concentration would cost severe damage to an organization and they should sort such issues in order to attain proactive benefits. Business can save a considerable amount of costs by creating and maintaining a safe and healthy environment for all workers. Safeguarding the interests and wellbeing of the employees allows organizations to circumvent costs relevant to injuries and illnesses (Legg, Laird, Olsen, & Hasle, 2014). On the other hand, workplace safety instills a sense of commitment and dedication among the employees due to the safety assurance of the organization. The morale and motivation of the workers increase due to the implementation of rules that safeguard the health and interest of the employees. Employees feel that they are safe to work in this place, and through this perspective, they would perform well.

Purpose of Workplace safety

The primary objective of safety in the workplace is to create a safe, healthy, and risk-free environment for all workers. Workplace safety involves the evaluation, analysis, prevention, and elimination of hazardous and dangerous elements from the workplace. Workplace safety programs evaluate and remove the risks and hazards relevant to the safety, well-being, and health of workers and other relevant individuals. Organizations develop health and safety standards due to several reasons including laws, regulatory requirements, organizational policies, and historical occurrences. Certain industries and their associations bind organizations to work for the benefit of their employees and they force organizations to focus on different safety related perspectives. Workplace injuries and illnesses caused by working conditions or environment can lead to lawsuits, high costs, and deterioration of the corporate image. There are instances when employees at times die because of sever working conditions. Employees might got injured because of certain safety and the lack of safety would be the only probable reason of this. Enhanced safety measures and appropriate quality of these measures can reduce this perspective to a considerable level.

Safety at the workplace enables organizations to comply with regulatory requirements and prevent high costs resulting from injuries and illnesses. Several corporations can consider the fact that these safety measures would save their health and medicinal costs that would arise when an employees would hurt him. They should take proactive measures earlier through which people can benefit from these perspectives. The management can maintain high levels of productivity and efficiency by creating a safe and healthy working environment. Conversely, the employees work with dedication due to their perceptions regarding the commitment of the organization with respect to the wellbeing of the workers.

Importance of safety at workplace

Legislative and legal requirements are the most prominent cause of health and safety policies in most organizations. The Occupational and Safety Health Act is the primary law for the assurance of health and safety of all workers throughout the United States. The Occupational and Safety Health Act (OSHA) necessitates the dissemination of standards, rules, and regulations relevant to the safety and health of workers. The government establishes and enforces the standards for the safety and health of all workers and their families through the Act. All public and private organizations have to comply with the rules, regulations, and standards prescribed in OSHA (Jung & Makowsky, 2014). They would face legal complications if they do not comply with such policies and measures taken by the decision makers. However, many organizations develop and implement health and safety procedures to safeguard their interests relevant to organizational objectives rather than legal requirements. The financial and moral aspects of workers’ health and safety have a greater influence as compared to regulatory compliance. Corporations can save considerable costs by avoiding high insurance expenses, lawsuits, and employee replacement costs in the event of injuries and illnesses (Barling & Frone, 2003).

Manpower and Management

The primary objective of all managers is to enhance and promote productivity and efficiency in all areas and functions. However, the managers cannot uphold efficiency and effectiveness in the absence of a safe workplace. The managers need to create a safe working environment and increase the awareness and knowledge of all employees with respect to safe working practices. The employees and workers also need to understand the importance of workplace safety and reduce personal injury through attentiveness and removal of hazards. These safety hazards are negative for the effectiveness of organizations and create a long-term negative impact. The attitude of the employees, management, and employers plays a vital role in preventing accidents and creating a safe working environment. The negligence on the part of the employers and employees can cause a variety of hazards and accidents (Rahim, Ng, Biggs, & Boots, 2014). However, the diligence and commitment of all stakeholders regarding safe work practices leads to the prevention of major accidents and injuries. The employees and management can create a safe workplace through a shared responsibility model for workplace safety and cooperation. Organizations should own this perspective and they should realize the fact that it is their managerial responsibility to focus on this perspective so that employees can remain safe.

Conclusively, a safety plan is necessary and it comprises of certain steps that would develop a safer workplace. Organizations should make sure that everyone else in the workplace is aware of the core problem. People should notify their respective supervisors and they should file any reports if there is a problem. An important aspect is that people should realize that there is a problem as sitting back and holding the problem for a long time would not solve the problem.

Barling, J., & Frone, M. (2003). The Psychology of Workplace Safety. New Jersey: Amer Psychological Assn. Blair, E. H. (2013). Building safety culture. Professional Safety , 58 (11), 59-65. Cobb, E. (2013). Bullying, Violence, Harassment, Discrimination and Stress: Emerging Workplace Health and Safety Issues. New Jersey: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. Jung, J., & Makowsky, M. D. (2014). The determinants of federal and state enforcement of workplace safety regulations: OSHA inspections 1990’2010. Journal of Regulatory Economics , 45 (1), 1-33. Legg, S., Laird, I., Olsen, K., & Hasle, P. (2014). Creating healthy work in small enterprises – from understanding to action: Summary of current knowledge. Small Enterprise Research , 21 (2), 139-147. Mathis, T., & Galloway, S. (2013). Steps to Safety Culture Excellence. New Jersey: Wiley. Rahim, A. N., Ng, H. K., Biggs, D., & Boots, K. (2014). Perceptions of safety, physical working conditions and stress between Malaysia and United Kingdom. International Journal of Business & Society , 15 (2), 321-338. Stricoff, R., & Groover, D. (2012). The Manager’s Guide to Workplace Safety. New York : Safety in Action Press.

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• About Health Effects of Cigarette Smoking
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Health Effects of Vaping

At a glance.

Learn more about the health effects of vaping.

• No tobacco products, including e-cigarettes, are safe.
• Most e-cigarettes contain nicotine, which is highly addictive and is a health danger for pregnant people, developing fetuses, and youth. 1
• Aerosol from e-cigarettes can also contain harmful and potentially harmful substances. These include cancer-causing chemicals and tiny particles that can be inhaled deep into lungs. 1
• E-cigarettes should not be used by youth, young adults, or people who are pregnant. E-cigarettes may have the potential to benefit adults who smoke and are not pregnant if used as a complete substitute for all smoked tobacco products. 2 3 4
• Scientists still have a lot to learn about the short- and long-term health effects of using e-cigarettes.

Most e-cigarettes, or vapes, contain nicotine, which has known adverse health effects. 1

• Nicotine is highly addictive. 1
• Nicotine is toxic to developing fetuses and is a health danger for pregnant people. 1
• Acute nicotine exposure can be toxic. Children and adults have been poisoned by swallowing, breathing, or absorbing vaping liquid through their skin or eyes. More than 80% of calls to U.S. poison control centers for e-cigarettes are for children less than 5 years old. 5

Nicotine poses unique dangers to youth because their brains are still developing.

• Nicotine can harm brain development which continues until about age 25. 1
• Youth can start showing signs of nicotine addiction quickly, sometimes before the start of regular or daily use. 1
• Using nicotine during adolescence can harm the parts of the brain that control attention, learning, mood, and impulse control. 1
• Adolescents who use nicotine may be at increased risk for future addiction to other drugs. 1 6
• Youth who vape may also be more likely to smoke cigarettes in the future. 7 8 9 10 11 12

Other potential harms of e-cigarettes

E-cigarette aerosol can contain substances that can be harmful or potentially harmful to the body. These include: 1

• Nicotine, a highly addictive chemical that can harm adolescent brain development
• Cancer-causing chemicals
• Heavy metals such as nickel, tin, and lead
• Tiny particles that can be inhaled deep into the lungs
• Volatile organic compounds
• Flavorings such as diacetyl, a chemical linked to a serious lung disease. Some flavorings used in e-cigarettes may be safe to eat but not to inhale because the lungs process substances differently than the gut.

E-cigarette aerosol generally contains fewer harmful chemicals than the deadly mix of 7,000 chemicals in smoke from cigarettes. 7 13 14 However, this does not make e-cigarettes safe. Scientists are still learning about the immediate and long-term health effects of using e-cigarettes.

Dual use refers to the use of both e-cigarettes and regular cigarettes. Dual use is not an effective way to safeguard health. It may result in greater exposure to toxins and worse respiratory health outcomes than using either product alone. 2 3 4 15

Some people who use e-cigarettes have experienced seizures. Most reports to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA ) have involved youth or young adults. 16 17

E-cigarettes can cause unintended injuries. Defective e-cigarette batteries have caused fires and explosions, some of which have resulted in serious injuries. Most explosions happened when the batteries were being charged.

Anyone can report health or safety issues with tobacco products, including e-cigarettes, through the FDA Safety Reporting Portal .

Health effects of vaping for pregnant people

The use of any tobacco product, including e-cigarettes, is not safe during pregnancy. 1 14 Scientists are still learning about the health effects of vaping on pregnancy and pregnancy outcomes. Here's what we know now:

• Most e-cigarettes, or vapes, contain nicotine—the addictive substance in cigarettes, cigars, and other tobacco products. 18
• Nicotine is a health danger for pregnant people and is toxic to developing fetuses. 1 14
• Nicotine can damage a fetus's developing brain and lungs. 13
• E-cigarette use during pregnancy has been associated with low birth weight and pre-term birth. 19 20

Nicotine addiction and withdrawal

Nicotine is the main addictive substance in tobacco products, including e-cigarettes. With repeated use, a person's brain gets used to having nicotine. This can make them think they need nicotine just to feel okay. This is part of nicotine addiction.

Signs of nicotine addiction include craving nicotine, being unable to stop using it, and developing a tolerance (needing to use more to feel the same). Nicotine addiction can also affect relationships with family and friends and performance in school, at work, or other activities.

When someone addicted to nicotine stops using it, their body and brain have to adjust. This can result in temporary symptoms of nicotine withdrawal which may include:

• Feeling irritable, jumpy, restless, or anxious
• Feeling sad or down
• Having trouble sleeping
• Having a hard time concentrating
• Feeling hungry
• Craving nicotine

Withdrawal symptoms fade over time as the brain gets used to not having nicotine.

Nicotine addiction and mental health

Nicotine addiction can harm mental health and be a source of stress. 21 22 23 24 More research is needed to understand the connection between vaping and mental health, but studies show people who quit smoking cigarettes experience: 25

• Lower levels of anxiety, depression, and stress
• Improved positive mood and quality of life

Mental health is a growing concern among youth. 26 27 Youth vaping and cigarette use are associated with mental health symptoms such as depression. 22 28

The most common reason middle and high school students give for currently using e-cigarettes is, "I am feeling anxious, stressed, or depressed." 29 Nicotine addiction or withdrawal can contribute to these feelings or make them worse. Youth may use tobacco products to relieve their symptoms, which can lead to a cycle of nicotine addiction.

• U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. E-Cigarette Use Among Youth and Young Adults: A Report of the Surgeon General . Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2016. Accessed Feb 14, 2024.
• Goniewicz ML, Smith DM, Edwards KC, et al. Comparison of nicotine and toxicant exposure in users of electronic cigarettes and combustible cigarettes . JAMA Netw Open. 2018;1(8):e185937.
• Reddy KP, Schwamm E, Kalkhoran S, et al. Respiratory symptom incidence among people using electronic cigarettes, combustible tobacco, or both . Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2021;204(2):231–234.
• Smith DM, Christensen C, van Bemmel D, et al. Exposure to nicotine and toxicants among dual users of tobacco cigarettes and e-cigarettes: Population Assessment of Tobacco and Health (PATH) Study, 2013-2014 . Nicotine Tob Res. 2021;23(5):790–797.
• Tashakkori NA, Rostron BL, Christensen CH, Cullen KA. Notes from the field: e-cigarette–associated cases reported to poison centers — United States, April 1, 2022–March 31, 2023 . MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2023;72:694–695.
• Yuan M, Cross SJ, Loughlin SE, Leslie FM. Nicotine and the adolescent brain . J Physiol. 2015;593(16):3397–3412.
• National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Public Health Consequences of E-Cigarettes . The National Academies Press; 2018.
• Barrington-Trimis JL, Kong G, Leventhal AM, et al. E-cigarette use and subsequent smoking frequency among adolescents . Pediatrics. 2018;142(6):e20180486.
• Barrington-Trimis JL, Urman R, Berhane K, et al. E-cigarettes and future cigarette use . Pediatrics. 2016;138(1):e20160379.
• Bunnell RE, Agaku IT, Arrazola RA, et al. Intentions to smoke cigarettes among never-smoking US middle and high school electronic cigarette users: National Youth Tobacco Survey, 2011-2013 . Nicotine Tob Res. 2015;17(2):228–235.
• Soneji S, Barrington-Trimis JL, Wills TA, et al. Association between initial use of e-cigarettes and subsequent cigarette smoking among adolescents and young adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis . JAMA Pediatr. 2017;171(8):788–797.
• Sun R, Méndez D, Warner KE. Association of electronic cigarette use by U.S. adolescents with subsequent persistent cigarette smoking . JAMA Netw Open. 2023;6(3):e234885.
• U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. How Tobacco Smoke Causes Disease: The Biology and Behavioral Basis for Smoking-Attributable Disease . Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2010. Accessed Feb 13, 2024.
• U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The Health Consequences of Smoking: 50 Years of Progress. A Report of the Surgeon General . Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2014. Accessed Feb 12, 2024.
• Mukerjee R, Hirschtick JL, LZ Arciniega, et al. ENDS, cigarettes, and respiratory illness: longitudinal associations among U.S. youth . AJPM. Published online Dec 2023.
• Faulcon LM, Rudy S, Limpert J, Wang B, Murphy I. Adverse experience reports of seizures in youth and young adult electronic nicotine delivery systems users . J Adolesc Health . 2020;66(1):15–17.
• U.S. Food and Drug Administration. E-cigarette: Safety Communication - Related to Seizures Reported Following E-cigarette Use, Particularly in Youth and Young Adults . U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 2019. Accessed Feb 14, 2024.
• Marynak KL, Gammon DG, Rogers T, et al. Sales of nicotine-containing electronic cigarette products: United States, 2015 . Am J Public Health . 2017;107(5):702-705.
• Regan AK, Bombard JM, O'Hegarty MM, Smith RA, Tong VT. Adverse birth outcomes associated with prepregnancy and prenatal electronic cigarette use . Obstet Gynecol. 2021;138(1):85–94.
• Regan AK, Pereira G. Patterns of combustible and electronic cigarette use during pregnancy and associated pregnancy outcomes . Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):13508.
• Kutlu MG, Parikh V, Gould TJ. Nicotine addiction and psychiatric disorders . Int Rev Neurobiol. 2015;124:171–208.
• Obisesan OH, Mirbolouk M, Osei AD, et al. Association between e-cigarette use and depression in the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, 2016-2017 . JAMA Netw Open. 2019;2(12):e1916800.
• Prochaska JJ, Das S, Young-Wolff KC. Smoking, mental illness, and public health . Annu Rev Public Health. 2017;38:165–185.
• Wootton RE, Richmond RC, Stuijfzand BG, et al. Evidence for causal effects of lifetime smoking on risk for depression and schizophrenia: a Mendelian randomisation study . Psychol Med. 2020;50(14):2435–2443.
• Taylor G, McNeill A, Girling A, Farley A, Lindson-Hawley N, Aveyard P. Change in mental health after smoking cessation: systematic review and meta-analysis . BMJ. 2014;348:g1151.
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.   Youth Risk Behavior Survey Data Summary & Trends Report: 2011–2021 . U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 2023. Accessed Dec 15, 2023.
• U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Protecting Youth Mental Health: The U.S. Surgeon General's Advisory . Office of the Surgeon General; 2021. Accessed Jan 5, 2024.
• Lechner WV, Janssen T, Kahler CW, Audrain-McGovern J, Leventhal AM. Bi-directional associations of electronic and combustible cigarette use onset patterns with depressive symptoms in adolescents . Prev Med. 2017;96:73–78.
• Gentzke AS, Wang TW, Cornelius M, et al. Tobacco product use and associated factors among middle and high school students—National Youth Tobacco Survey, United States, 2021 . MMWR Surveill Summ. 2022;71(No. SS-5):1–29.

Smoking and Tobacco Use

Commercial tobacco use is the leading cause of preventable disease, disability, and death in the United States.

For Everyone

Health care providers, public health.

Occupational Health and Safety and Workplace Accidents Essay

Hazards, risks, and injuries, unsafe conditions and unsafe acts, the steps of accident investigation, the internal responsibility system and duties, the types of accidents at the workplace, works cited.

One of the most important responsibilities of an employer is to provide his or her employees with a safe and healthy workplace. Occupational health and safety involve a workplace that is free of any hazards, risks, or injuries. A Hazard refers to an unknown and unpredictable phenomenon within the workplace that is a source of danger and can cause an event to result in one way or another (Bohle, Lamm & Quinlan 121). Hazards classify as biological, chemical, or physical. Risks refer to the possibility of harm or infection occurring given that exposure to an infectious agent or a source of danger has occurred. Risks within the workplace involve possibilities of one incurring a misfortune.

Injuries refer to any physical damage to the body caused by violence or accidents within the workplace (Bohle, Lamm & Quinlan 123). The three elements have a close relationship because they influence each other. Hazards expose people to risks within the workplace. The more someone has greater exposure to risk, the higher the chances of getting injuries. A hazard can cause harm while a risk is the chance of harm occurring. Injury is the extent of harm.

Unsafe conditions and unsafe acts are very important concepts in understanding occupational health and safety. Injuries and accidents are very common within the workplace, and these two elements are some of the causes. An unsafe act refers to human action, activity, or execution of a task in a manner, which poses a threat to the health, and/or safety of an individual within a workplace (Bohle, Lamm & Quinlan 364).

Unsafe acts involve human factors, thus they are not easy to identify and respond to within the workplace. Any person within the workplace can make an unsafe act. Examples of unsafe acts within the workplace include insubordination, operating machines without the necessary expertise, removing workplace safety instructions and devices, failure to wear protective clothing, failure to provide warning, and being in dangerous positions among others (Bohle, Lamm & Quinlan 366).

On the other hand, an unsafe condition refers to a situation within a workplace that has the potential to cause injury to people or property. Unsafe conditions expose one to various risks, thus hard to avoid them. Most workplaces are typically unsafe places for people to be, because of their numerous hazards that make occupants vulnerable to harm. Examples of unsafe conditions within the workplace include poor housekeeping, congestion, lack of protective clothing, inadequate or lack of warning signs, poor ventilation, and defective tools among others (Bohle, Lamm & Quinlan 369).

One of the nightmares that most people dread within the workplace is an accident. Workplace accidents are common, despite the employment laws providing strict guidelines to employers in order to ensure that all workers are safe. Therefore, it is important for employers to have a reliable and effective plan for dealing with such cases whenever they arise in the workplace. Occupational health and safety experts, advise all employers to have an accident plan that provides the essential steps of investigating an accident (Bohle, Lamm & Quinlan 144). There are four crucial steps taken when conducting an investigation of an internal accident.

The first step is an examination of the accident scene to determine what happened. This step should give a report on the tools involved in the accident, the condition of their user manuals, their maintenance condition, and availability of warning signs. The information gathered applies in determining the cause of the accident (Bohle, Lamm & Quinlan 145). The services of a professional investigator can be sourced if the cause of the accident is not easily identifiable.

The second step is establishing the visible facts of the accident scene. This happens by taking photographs and measurements of the whole scene. Forensic experts use the photographs and measurements to develop drawings that show the relation between the different elements collected from the accident scene. This step is all about the visual evidence, and its impact on understanding the cause of the accident (Bohle, Lamm & Quinlan 147).

The third step involves speaking to the witnesses of the accident. In conducting an internal accident investigation, it is necessary to speak to people who witness the accident, as well as people who might have any form of lead information about the same. The best people to interview for any lead information are people with similar job descriptions as those involved in the accident, supervisors, and employees trained to give first aid (Bohle, Lamm & Quinlan 150).

It is also important to talk to colleagues that the affected people associate closely with within the workplace. One important rule that investigators need to follow, is to ensure that all people who give written responses sign against them for the sake of reference and avoiding biased reactions. The fourth step involves reviewing all the collected data, as well as the work records of the employees involved in the accident.

This should give a clearer picture of the cause of the accident, and steps to prevent a similar mistake from happening at another given time. This step seeks to answer a number of questions for investigators regarding the accident (Bohle, Lamm & Quinlan 154). These questions focus on the intention of those injured, their qualifications for performing the task, work experience of those involved, choice of tools used, the availability of supervision, and any potential hazards on the scene of the accident.

One of the workplace characteristics is the availability of different types of jobs, whose duties and responsibilities vary. Everyone within the workplace has an ethical responsibility to ensure that duties are performed within the required standards. People also need to be accountable for their actions and take full responsibility whenever required to do so (Bohle, Lamm & Quinlan 428). Importantly, all these duties and responsibilities ought to apply in a safe and healthy workplace that is free of any kind of hazards. The combination of all these workplace elements creates an internal responsibility system.

The internal responsibility system integrates into an organization’s corporate culture, and it helps to allow all people within a workplace to contribute towards the attainment of occupational health and safety. This workplace strategy applies the format of a chart, where each employee is assigned a health and safety goal to promote and achieve within the workplace (Bohle, Lamm & Quinlan 430). Each employee holds full responsibility for his or her assigned element and is accountable to the rest of the employees.

The internal responsibility system applies a bottom to top responsibility approach. This means that everyone is answerable to the person above them. The basic structure of this system has the director at the top of the hierarchy, followed by the president, vice president, manager, supervisor, and worker respectively. Although these ranks have different levels of responsibility, people can interact freely with those above or below them for the sake of solving health and safety challenges within the workplace (Bohle, Lamm & Quinlan 436).

The duty of the internal responsibility system is to solve the dilemma of who ought to ensure the health and safety of employees within the workplace. Organizations that apply this strategy in their workplaces often experience safe and more secure environments characterized by low-risk levels. Some organizations are likely to record increased productivity and high employee morale to work. The reason for this is that the internal responsibility system helps to develop employee elements such as their ingenuity, acquaintance levels, management qualities, and better work experience (Bohle, Lamm & Quinlan 439).

The first accident type is working at risky speeds that are either too fast or too slow. The speed at which one does his or her work can compromise their safety because they can easily forget to observe safety rules. A good example is loading a truck with goods within a short time (Bohle, Lamm & Quinlan 66). This accident is avoidable by considering the age and physical condition of all employees. The second type is insubordination accidents.

It is important for workers to stick to jobs they are qualified to do. A good example is an accountant doing the work of a systems manager. The third type is poor storage accidents. When equipment and tools are stored poorly within the workplace, they are likely to cause accidents (Bohle, Lamm & Quinlan 69). Employers need to train their workers in good housekeeping skills in order to avoid accidents (Bohle, Lamm & Quinlan 72).

The fourth type is complacency accidents. Certain employees feel comfortable with their achievements and think they can try out new things. Employees need to avoid taking chances through shortcuts but instead stick to the safety regulation for their work. The fifth type is taking on risky body positions that expose employees to danger. For example, maintaining an erect upright position on top of chairs and tables is very dangerous (Bohle, Lamm & Quinlan 77). Employees need to learn better methods of executing their duties.

Bohle, Philip, Lamm Felicity & Quinlan Michael. Managing Occupational Health and Safety: A Multidisciplinary Approach . New York: Macmillan Education, 2010. Print.

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Bibliography

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Many of us can’t imagine starting the day without a cup of coffee. One reason may be that it supplies us with a jolt of caffeine, a mild stimulant to the central nervous system that quickly boosts our alertness and energy levels. [1] Of course, coffee is not the only caffeine-containing beverage. Read on to learn more about sources of caffeine, and a review of the research on this stimulant and health.

Absorption and Metabolism of Caffeine

The chemical name for the bitter white powder known as caffeine is 1,3,7 trimethylxanthine. Caffeine is absorbed within about 45 minutes after consuming, and peaks in the blood anywhere from 15 minutes to 2 hours. [2] Caffeine in beverages such as coffee, tea, and soda is quickly absorbed in the gut and dissolves in both the body’s water and fat molecules. It is able to cross into the brain. Food or food components, such as fibers, in the gut can delay how quickly caffeine in the blood peaks. Therefore, drinking your morning coffee on an empty stomach might give you a quicker energy boost than if you drank it while eating breakfast.

Caffeine is broken down mainly in the liver. It can remain in the blood anywhere from 1.5 to 9.5 hours, depending on various factors. [2] Smoking speeds up the breakdown of caffeine, whereas pregnancy and oral contraceptives can slow the breakdown. During the third trimester of pregnancy, caffeine can remain in the body for up to 15 hours. [3]

People often develop a “caffeine tolerance” when taken regularly, which can reduce its stimulant effects unless a higher amount is consumed. When suddenly stopping all caffeine, withdrawal symptoms often follow such as irritability, headache, agitation, depressed mood, and fatigue. The symptoms are strongest within a few days after stopping caffeine, but tend to subside after about one week. [3] Tapering  the amount gradually may help to reduce side effects.

Sources of Caffeine

Caffeine is naturally found in the fruit, leaves, and beans of coffee , cacao, and guarana plants. It is also added to beverages and supplements. There is a risk of drinking excess amounts of caffeinated beverages like soda and energy drinks because they are taken chilled and are easy to digest quickly in large quantities.

• Coffee. 1 cup or 8 ounces of brewed coffee contains about 95 mg caffeine. The same amount of instant coffee contains about 60 mg caffeine. Decaffeinated coffee contains about 4 mg of caffeine. Learn more about coffee .
• Espresso. 1 shot or 1.5 ounces contains about 65 mg caffeine.
• Tea. 1 cup of black tea contains about 47 mg caffeine. Green tea contains about 28 mg. Decaffeinated tea contains 2 mg, and herbal tea contains none. Learn more about tea .
• Soda. A 12-ounce can of regular or diet dark cola contains about 40 mg caffeine. The same amount of Mountain Dew contains 55 mg caffeine.
• Chocolate (cacao) . 1 ounce of dark chocolate contains about 24 mg caffeine, whereas milk chocolate contains one-quarter of that amount.
• Guarana. This is a seed from a South American plant that is processed as an extract in foods, energy drinks, and energy supplements. Guarana seeds contain about four times the amount of caffeine as that found in coffee beans. [4] Some drinks containing extracts of these seeds can contain up to 125 mg caffeine per serving.
• Energy drinks. 1 cup or 8 ounces of an energy drink contains about 85 mg caffeine. However the standard energy drink serving is 16 ounces, which doubles the caffeine to 170 mg. Energy shots are much more concentrated than the drinks; a small 2 ounce shot contains about 200 mg caffeine. Learn more about energy drinks .
• Supplements. Caffeine supplements contain about 200 mg per tablet, or the amount in 2 cups of brewed coffee.

Recommended Amounts

In the U.S., adults consume an average of 135 mg of caffeine daily, or the amount in 1.5 cups of coffee (1 cup = 8 ounces). [5] The U.S. Food and Drug Administration considers 400 milligrams (about 4 cups brewed coffee) a safe amount of caffeine for healthy adults to consume daily. However, pregnant women should limit their caffeine intake to 200 mg a day (about 2 cups brewed coffee), according to the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists.

The American Academy of Pediatrics suggests that children under age 12 should not consume any food or beverages with caffeine. For adolescents 12 and older, caffeine intake should be limited to no more than 100 mg daily. This is the amount in two or three 12-ounce cans of cola soda.

Caffeine and Health

Caffeine is associated with several health conditions. People have different tolerances and responses to caffeine, partly due to genetic differences. Consuming caffeine regularly, such as drinking a cup of coffee every day, can promote caffeine tolerance in some people so that the side effects from caffeine may decrease over time. Although we tend to associate caffeine most often with coffee or tea, the research below focuses mainly on the health effects of caffeine itself. Visit our features on coffee , tea , and energy drinks for more health information related to those beverages.

Caffeine can block the effects of the hormone adenosine, which is responsible for deep sleep . Caffeine binds to adenosine receptors in the brain, which not only lowers adenosine levels but also increases or decreases other hormones that affect sleep, including dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, and GABA. [2] Levels of melatonin, another hormone promoting sleep, can drop in the presence of caffeine as both are metabolized in the liver. Caffeine intake later in the day close to bedtime can interfere with good sleep quality. Although developing a caffeine tolerance by taking caffeine regularly over time may lower its disruptive effects, [1] those who have trouble sleeping may consider minimizing caffeine intake later in the day and before going to bed.

In sensitive individuals, caffeine can increase anxiety at doses of 400 mg or more a day (about 4 cups of brewed coffee). High amounts of caffeine may cause nervousness and speed up heart rate, symptoms that are also felt during an anxiety attack. Those who have an underlying anxiety or panic disorder are especially at risk of overstimulation when overloading on caffeine.

Caffeine stimulates the heart, increases blood flow, and increases blood pressure temporarily, particularly in people who do not usually consume caffeine. However, strong negative effects of caffeine on blood pressure have not been found in clinical trials, even in people with hypertension, and cohort studies have not found that coffee drinking is associated with a higher risk of hypertension. Studies also do not show an association of caffeine intake and atrial fibrillation (abnormal heart beat), heart disease , or stroke. [3]

Caffeine is often added to weight loss supplements to help “burn calories.” There is no evidence that caffeine causes significant weight loss. It may help to boost energy if one is feeling fatigued from restricting caloric intake, and may reduce appetite temporarily. Caffeine stimulates the sympathetic nervous system, which plays a role in suppressing hunger, enhancing satiety, and increasing the breakdown of fat cells to be used for energy. [6] Cohort studies following large groups of people suggest that a higher caffeine intake is associated with slightly lower rates of weight gain in the long term. [3] However, a fairly large amount of caffeine (equivalent to 6 cups of coffee a day) may be needed to achieve a modest increase in calorie “burn.” Additional calories obtained from cream, milk, or sweetener added to a caffeinated beverage like coffee or tea can easily negate any calorie deficit caused by caffeine.

Caffeine can cross the placenta, and both mother and fetus metabolize caffeine slowly. A high intake of caffeine by the mother can lead to prolonged high caffeine blood levels in the fetus. Reduced blood flow and oxygen levels may result, increasing the risk of miscarriage and low birth weight. [3] However, lower intakes of caffeine have not been found harmful during pregnancy when limiting intakes to no more than 200 mg a day. A review of controlled clinical studies found that caffeine intake, whether low, medium, or high doses, did not appear to increase the risk of infertility. [7]

Most studies on liver disease and caffeine have specifically examined coffee intake. Caffeinated coffee intake is associated with a lower risk of liver cancer, fibrosis, and cirrhosis. Caffeine may prevent the fibrosis (scarring) of liver tissue by blocking adenosine, which is responsible for the production of collagen that is used to build scar tissue. [3]

Studies have shown that higher coffee consumption is associated with a lower risk of gallstones. [8] Decaffeinated coffee does not show as strong a connection as caffeinated coffee. Therefore, it is likely that caffeine contributes significantly to this protective effect. The gallbladder is an organ that produces bile to help break down fats; consuming a very high fat diet requires more bile, which can strain the gallbladder and increase the risk of gallstones. It is believed that caffeine may help to stimulate contractions in the gallbladder and increase the secretion of cholecystokinin, a hormone that speeds the digestion of fats.

Caffeine may protect against Parkinson’s disease. Animal studies show a protective effect of caffeine from deterioration in the brain. [3] Prospective cohort studies show a strong association of people with higher caffeine intakes and a lower risk of developing Parkinson’s disease. [9]

Caffeine has a similar action to the medication theophylline, which is sometimes prescribed to treat asthma. They both relax the smooth muscles of the lungs and open up bronchial tubes, which can improve breathing. The optimal amount of caffeine needs more study, but the trials reviewed revealed that even a lower caffeine dose of 5 mg/kg of body weight showed benefit over a placebo. [10] Caffeine has also been used to treat breathing difficulties in premature infants. [3]

Caffeine stimulates the release of a stress hormone called epinephrine, which causes liver and muscle tissue to release its stored glucose into the bloodstream, temporarily raising blood glucose levels. However, regular caffeine intake is not associated with an increased risk of diabetes . In fact, cohort studies show that regular coffee intake is associated with a lower risk of type 2 diabetes , though the effect may be from the coffee plant compounds rather than caffeine itself, as decaffeinated coffee shows a similar protective effect. [3] Other observational studies suggest that caffeine may protect and preserve the function of beta cells in the pancreas, which are responsible for secreting insulin. [11]

Signs of Toxicity

Caffeine toxicity has been observed with intakes of 1.2 grams or more in one dose. Consuming 10-14 grams at one time is believed to be fatal. Caffeine intake up to 10 grams has caused convulsions and vomiting, but recovery is possible in about 6 hours. Side effects at lower doses of 1 gram include restlessness, irritability, nervousness, vomiting, rapid heart rate, and tremors.

Toxicity is generally not seen when drinking caffeinated beverages because a very large amount would need to be taken within a few hours to reach a toxic level (10 gm of caffeine is equal to about 100 cups of brewed coffee). Dangerous blood levels are more often seen with overuse of caffeine pills or tablets. [3]

Did You Know?

• Caffeine is not just found in food and beverages but in various medications. It is often added to analgesics (pain relievers) to provide faster and more effective relief from pain and headaches. Headache or migraine pain is accompanied by enlarged inflamed blood vessels; caffeine has the opposite effect of reducing inflammation and narrowing blood vessels, which may relieve the pain.
• Caffeine can interact with various medications. It can cause your body to break down a medication too quickly so that it loses its effectiveness. It can cause a dangerously fast heart beat and high blood pressure if taken with other stimulant medications. Sometimes a medication can slow the metabolism of caffeine in the body, which may increase the risk of jitteriness and irritability, especially if one tends to drink several caffeinated drinks throughout the day. If you drink caffeinated beverages daily, talk with your doctor about potential interactions when starting a new medication.

Energy Drinks

• Clark I, Landolt HP. Coffee, caffeine, and sleep: A systematic review of epidemiological studies and randomized controlled trials. Sleep medicine reviews . 2017 Feb 1;31:70-8. *Disclosure: some of HPL’s research has been supported by Novartis Foundation for Medical-Biological Research.
• Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Military Nutrition Research. Caffeine for the Sustainment of Mental Task Performance: Formulations for Military Operations. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2001. 2, Pharmacology of Caffeine. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK223808/
• van Dam RM, Hu FB, Willett WC. Coffee, Caffeine, and Health.  NEJM .  2020 Jul 23; 383:369-378
• Moustakas D, Mezzio M, Rodriguez BR, Constable MA, Mulligan ME, Voura EB. Guarana provides additional stimulation over caffeine alone in the planarian model. PLoS One . 2015 Apr 16;10(4):e0123310.
• Drewnowski A, Rehm CD. Sources of caffeine in diets of US children and adults: trends by beverage type and purchase location. Nutrients . 2016 Mar;8(3):154.
• Harpaz E, Tamir S, Weinstein A, Weinstein Y. The effect of caffeine on energy balance. Journal of basic and clinical physiology and pharmacolog y. 2017 Jan 1;28(1):1-0.
• Bu FL, Feng X, Yang XY, Ren J, Cao HJ. Relationship between caffeine intake and infertility: a systematic review of controlled clinical studies.  BMC Womens Health . 2020;20(1):125.
• Zhang YP, Li WQ, Sun YL, Zhu RT, Wang WJ. Systematic review with meta‐analysis: coffee consumption and the risk of gallstone disease. Alimentary pharmacology & therapeutics . 2015 Sep;42(6):637-48.
• Hong CT, Chan L, Bai CH. The Effect of Caffeine on the Risk and Progression of Parkinson’s Disease: A Meta-Analysis. Nutrients . 2020 Jun;12(6):1860.
• Welsh EJ, Bara A, Barley E, Cates CJ. Caffeine for asthma.  Cochrane Database Syst Rev . 2010;2010(1):CD001112.
• Lee S, Min JY, Min KB. Caffeine and Caffeine Metabolites in Relation to Insulin Resistance and Beta Cell Function in US Adults. Nutrients . 2020 Jun;12(6):1783.

Last reviewed July 2020

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