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Essays on Endangered Species

Endangered species essay topics and outline examples, essay title 1: vanishing wonders: the plight of endangered species and conservation efforts.

Thesis Statement: This essay explores the critical issue of endangered species, delving into the causes of endangerment, the ecological significance of these species, and the conservation strategies aimed at preserving them for future generations.

• Introduction
• Understanding Endangered Species: Definitions and Criteria
• Causes of Endangerment: Habitat Loss, Climate Change, Poaching, and Pollution
• Ecological Significance: The Role of Endangered Species in Ecosystems
• Conservation Strategies: Protected Areas, Breeding Programs, and Legal Protections
• Success Stories: Examples of Species Recovery and Reintroduction
• Ongoing Challenges: Balancing Conservation with Human Needs
• Conclusion: The Urgent Need for Global Action in Protecting Endangered Species

Essay Title 2: Beyond the Numbers: The Ethical and Moral Imperatives of Endangered Species Preservation

Thesis Statement: This essay examines the ethical dimensions of endangered species preservation, addressing questions of human responsibility, intrinsic value, and the moral imperative to protect and restore these species.

• The Ethical Dilemma: Balancing Human Needs and Species Preservation
• Intrinsic Value: Recognizing the Inherent Worth of All Species
• Interconnectedness: Understanding the Ripple Effects of Species Loss
• Human Responsibility: The Moral Imperative to Protect Endangered Species
• Conservation Ethics: Ethical Frameworks and Philosophical Perspectives
• Legislation and International Agreements: Legal Approaches to Ethical Conservation
• Conclusion: Embracing Our Role as Stewards of Biodiversity

Essay Title 3: The Economic Value of Biodiversity: Endangered Species and Sustainable Development

Thesis Statement: This essay explores the economic aspects of endangered species conservation, highlighting the potential economic benefits of preserving biodiversity, sustainable ecotourism, and the long-term economic consequences of species loss.

• Economic Importance of Biodiversity: Ecosystem Services and Human Well-being
• Sustainable Ecotourism: How Endangered Species Can Drive Local Economies
• Case Studies: Success Stories of Economic Benefits from Species Conservation
• The Costs of Inaction: Economic Consequences of Species Extinction
• Corporate Responsibility: Businesses and Conservation Partnerships
• Balancing Economic Growth with Conservation: The Path to Sustainable Development
• Conclusion: The Interplay Between Biodiversity, Economics, and a Sustainable Future

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Endangered Species: The African Elephant

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Endangered Species in Vietnam: South China Tiger and Asian Elephant

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De-extinction Can Help to Protect Endangered Species

Protection of endangered species can help us to survive, the way zoos helps to protect endangered species, ways of protection endangered species, sharks demand protection just like endangered species, the reasons why the koala species is endangered, the issue of philippine eagle endangerment, the issue of conserving endangered animals in the jungles of southeast asia, primates research project: the bushmeat crisis, the negative impact of the food culture on the environment and jani actman article that fish on your dinner plate may be an endangered species, nesting and population ecology of western chimpanzee in bia conservation area, human impact on red panda populations , the impact of climate change on the antarctic region, the ethics of bengal tigers, poaching and the illegal trade.

Endangered species are living organisms that face a high risk of extinction in the near future. They are characterized by dwindling population numbers and a significant decline in their natural habitats. These species are vulnerable to various factors, including habitat destruction, pollution, climate change, overexploitation, and invasive species, which disrupt their ecological balance and threaten their survival.

The early stages of human civilization witnessed a relatively harmonious coexistence with the natural world. Indigenous cultures across the globe held deep reverence for the interconnectedness of all living beings, fostering a sense of stewardship and respect for the environment. Nevertheless, with the rise of industrialization and modernization, the exploitation of natural resources escalated at an unprecedented pace. The late 19th and early 20th centuries marked a turning point, as rapid urbanization, deforestation, pollution, and overhunting posed significant threats to numerous species. The dawn of globalization further accelerated these challenges, as international trade in exotic species intensified and habitats faced relentless encroachment. In response to this growing concern, conservation movements emerged worldwide. Influential figures such as John Muir, Rachel Carson, and Aldo Leopold championed the cause of environmental preservation, raising awareness about the fragility of ecosystems and the need for proactive measures. International conventions and treaties, such as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), were established to regulate and monitor the trade of endangered species across borders. As our understanding of ecological dynamics deepened, scientific advancements and conservation efforts gained momentum. Endangered species recovery programs, habitat restoration initiatives, and the establishment of protected areas have all played a vital role in safeguarding vulnerable populations. However, the struggle to protect endangered species continues in the face of ongoing challenges. Climate change, habitat destruction, poaching, and illegal wildlife trade persist as formidable threats. Efforts to conserve endangered species require a multi-faceted approach, encompassing scientific research, policy development, sustainable practices, and international collaboration.

Leonardo DiCaprio: An acclaimed actor and environmental activist, DiCaprio has been an outspoken advocate for wildlife conservation. Through the Leonardo DiCaprio Foundation, he has supported various initiatives aimed at protecting endangered species and their habitats. Sigourney Weaver: Besides her notable acting career, Sigourney Weaver has been a passionate environmental activist. She has advocated for the protection of endangered species, particularly in her role as an honorary co-chair of the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund. Prince William: The Duke of Cambridge, Prince William, has shown a deep commitment to wildlife conservation. He has actively supported initiatives such as United for Wildlife, which aims to combat the illegal wildlife trade and protect endangered species. Edward Norton: Actor and environmental activist Edward Norton has been actively involved in various conservation efforts. He co-founded the Conservation International's Marine Program and has been vocal about the need to protect endangered species and their habitats.

Amur Leopard (Panthera pardus orientalis) Sumatran Orangutan (Pongo abelii) Javan Rhino (Rhinoceros sondaicus) Vaquita (Phocoena sinus) Cross River Gorilla (Gorilla gorilla diehli) Hawksbill Turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) Yangtze River Dolphin (Lipotes vexillifer) Philippine Eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi) Sumatran Tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae) African Elephant (Loxodonta africana)

1. Habitat Loss and Fragmentation 2. Climate Change 3. Pollution 4. Overexploitation and Illegal Wildlife Trade 5. Invasive Species 6. Disease and Pathogens 7. Lack of Conservation Efforts and Awareness 8. Genetic Issues 9. Natural Factors

The majority of the public recognizes the significance of conserving endangered species. Many people believe that it is our moral obligation to protect and preserve the Earth's diverse wildlife. They understand that losing species not only disrupts ecosystems but also deprives future generations of the natural beauty and ecological services they provide. Some individuals view endangered species conservation through an economic lens. They understand that wildlife and ecosystems contribute to tourism, provide ecosystem services like clean water and air, and support local economies. These economic arguments often align with conservation efforts, highlighting the potential benefits of protecting endangered species. Additionally, public opinion on endangered species is often shaped by awareness campaigns, education initiatives, and media coverage. Increased access to information about the threats faced by endangered species and the consequences of their decline has resulted in a greater understanding and concern among the public. Many people support the implementation and enforcement of laws and regulations aimed at protecting endangered species. They believe that legal frameworks are essential for ensuring the survival of vulnerable species and holding individuals and industries accountable for actions that harm wildlife. Moreover, individuals increasingly feel a sense of personal responsibility in addressing the issue of endangered species. This includes making conscious choices about consumption, supporting sustainable practices, and engaging in activities that contribute to conservation efforts, such as volunteering or donating to wildlife organizations. Public opinion can vary when it comes to instances where the protection of endangered species conflicts with human interests, such as land use, agriculture, or development projects. These situations can lead to debates and differing perspectives on how to balance conservation needs with other societal needs.

"Silent Spring" by Rachel Carson: Published in 1962, this influential book is credited with launching the modern environmental movement. Carson's seminal work highlighted the devastating impacts of pesticides, including their effects on wildlife and the environment. It drew attention to the need for conservation and sparked widespread concern for endangered species. "Gorillas in the Mist" by Dian Fossey: Fossey's book, published in 1983, chronicled her experiences studying and protecting mountain gorillas in Rwanda. It shed light on the challenges faced by these endangered primates and brought their conservation needs to the forefront of public consciousness. "March of the Penguins" (2005): This acclaimed documentary film depicted the annual journey of emperor penguins in Antarctica. By showcasing the hardships and perils these penguins face, the film garnered widespread attention and empathy for these remarkable creatures, raising awareness about their vulnerability and the impacts of climate change. "The Cove" (2009): This documentary exposed the brutal practice of dolphin hunting in Taiji, Japan. It not only brought attention to the mistreatment of dolphins but also highlighted the interconnectedness of species and the urgent need for their protection. "Racing Extinction" (2015): This documentary film by the Oceanic Preservation Society addressed the issue of mass species extinction and the human-driven factors contributing to it. It aimed to inspire viewers to take action and make positive changes to protect endangered species and their habitats.

1. It is estimated that around 26,000 species are currently threatened with extinction, according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). 2. The illegal wildlife trade is the fourth largest illegal trade globally, following drugs, counterfeiting, and human trafficking. It is a significant contributor to species endangerment. 3. The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) reports that since 1970, global wildlife populations have declined by an average of 68%. 4. Habitat loss is the primary cause of species endangerment, with deforestation alone accounting for the loss of around 18.7 million acres of forest annually. 5. The poaching crisis has pushed some iconic species to the brink of extinction. For example, it is estimated that only about 3,900 tigers remain in the wild. 6. The Hawaiian Islands are considered the endangered species capital of the world, with more than 500 endangered or threatened species due to habitat loss and invasive species. 7. Coral reefs, one of the most diverse ecosystems on the planet, are under significant threat. It is estimated that 75% of the world's coral reefs are currently threatened, primarily due to climate change, pollution, and overfishing. 8. The illegal pet trade is a significant threat to many species. It is estimated that for every live animal captured for the pet trade, several die during capture or transport. 9. The IUCN Red List, a comprehensive inventory of the conservation status of species, currently includes more than 38,000 species, with approximately 28% of them classified as threatened with extinction.

The topic of endangered species holds immense importance for writing an essay due to several compelling reasons. Firstly, endangered species represent a vital component of the Earth's biodiversity, playing crucial roles in maintaining ecosystem balance and functioning. Exploring this topic allows us to understand the interconnectedness of species and their habitats, emphasizing the intricate web of life on our planet. Secondly, the issue of endangered species is a direct reflection of human impacts on the environment. It brings attention to the consequences of habitat destruction, climate change, pollution, and unsustainable practices. By studying this topic, we can delve into the root causes of species endangerment and contemplate the ethical and moral dimensions of our responsibility towards other living beings. Moreover, the plight of endangered species evokes strong emotional responses, prompting discussions on the intrinsic value of nature and our duty to conserve it for future generations. Writing about endangered species enables us to raise awareness, foster empathy, and advocate for sustainable practices and conservation initiatives.

1. Dudley, N., & Stolton, S. (Eds.). (2010). Arguments for protected areas: Multiple benefits for conservation and use. Earthscan. 2. Fearn, E., & Butler, C. D. (Eds.). (2019). Routledge handbook of eco-anxiety. Routledge. 3. Groombridge, B., & Jenkins, M. D. (2002). World atlas of biodiversity: Earth's living resources in the 21st century. University of California Press. 4. Hoekstra, J. M., Boucher, T. M., Ricketts, T. H., & Roberts, C. (2005). Confronting a biome crisis: Global disparities of habitat loss and protection. Ecology Letters, 8(1), 23-29. 5. Kiesecker, J. M., & Copeland, H. E. (Eds.). (2018). The biogeography of endangered species: Patterns and applications. Island Press. 6. Laurance, W. F., Sayer, J., & Cassman, K. G. (2014). Agricultural expansion and its impacts on tropical nature. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 29(2), 107-116. 7. Meffe, G. K., & Carroll, C. R. (Eds.). (1997). Principles of conservation biology. Sinauer Associates. 8. Primack, R. B. (2014). Essentials of conservation biology. Sinauer Associates. 9. Soulé, M. E., & Terborgh, J. (Eds.). (1999). Continental conservation: Scientific foundations of regional reserve networks. Island Press. 10. Wilson, E. O. (2016). Half-earth: Our planet's fight for life. Liveright Publishing.

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Endangered and Threatened Species of the Platte River (2005)

Chapter: 8 conclusions and recommendations, 8 conclusions and recommendatons.

I n the previous chapters, the Committee on Endangered and Threatened Species in the Platte River Basin has explored science and its application for policy on the central and lower Platte River. The committee presents here its responses to the series of questions (reviewed in Box 1-2 ) included in its charge. In this chapter, for each question, we state our conclusions and the primary sources of evidence leading to them.

To reach its conclusions, the committee considered the extent of the data available for each question and whether the data was generated according to standard scientific methods that included, where feasible, empirical testing. The committee also considered whether those methods were sufficiently documented and whether and to what extent they had been replicated, whether either the data or the methods used had been published and subject to public comment or been formally peer-reviewed, whether the data were consistent with accepted understanding of how the systems function, and whether they were explained by a coherent theory or model of the system. To assess the scientific validity of the methods used to develop instream-flow recommendations, the committee applied the criteria listed above, but focused more directly on the methods. For example, the committee considered whether the methods used were in wide use or generally accepted in the relevant field and whether sources of potential error in the methods have been or can be identified and the extent of potential error estimated. The committee acknowledges that no one of the above criteria is decisive, but taken together they provide a good sense of the extent to

which any conclusion or decision is supported by science. Because some of the decisions in question were made many years ago, the committee felt that it was important to ask whether they were supported by the existing science at the time they were made. For that purpose, the committee asked, in addition to the questions above, whether the decision makers had access to and made use of state-of-the-art knowledge at the time of the decision.

The population viability analysis (PVA) developed by the committee was constrained by the short study period. It did not include systematic sensitivity analyses and did not base stochastic processes and environmental variation on data from the Platte River region. A more thorough representation of environmental variation in the Platte River could be developed from regional records of climate, hydrology, disturbance events, and other stochastic environmental factors. Where records on the Platte River basin itself are not adequate, longer records on adjacent basins could be correlated with records on the Platte to develop a defensible assessment of environmental variation and stochastic processes. In addition, a sensitivity analysis could demonstrate the effects of wide ranges of environmental variation on the outcomes of PVAs. In its analysis, the committee did not consider methods and techniques that are under development by researchers such as the new SEDVEG model. SEDVEG is being developed, but is not yet completed or tested, by USBR to evaluate the interactions among hydrology, river hydraulics, sediment transport, and vegetation for application on the Platte River. The committee did not consider USGS’s in-progress evaluation of the models and data used by USFWS to set flow recommendations for whooping cranes. The committee did not consider any aspects of the Environmental Impact Statement that was being drafted by U.S. Department of the Interior (DOI) agencies related to species recovery, because it was released after the committee finished its deliberations. The Central Platte River recovery implementation program proposed in the cooperative agreement by the Governance Committee also was not evaluated, because it was specifically excluded from the committee’s charge.

The committee’s experience with data, models, and explanations led us to the identification of three common threads throughout the issues related to threatened and endangered species. First, change across space and through time is pervasive in all natural and human systems in the central and lower Platte River. Change implies that unforeseen events may affect the survival or recovery of federally listed species. Land-use and water-use changes are likely in the central and lower Platte River region in response to market conditions, changing lifestyles, shifts in the local human population, and climate change; such changes will bring about pressures on wildlife populations that are different from those observed today. For example, riparian vegetation on the central Platte River has changed because of both natural and anthropogenic impacts. Regardless of its condition and

distribution before European settlement in the middle 1800s, the riparian forest of the central Platte River was geographically limited from the middle 1800s to the first decades of the 1900s. At the time of the first aerial photography of the river in 1938, extensive sandbars, beaches, and braided channels without extensive forest cover were common in many reaches of the central Platte. Between the late 1930s and the middle to late 1960s, woodland covered increasing portions of the areas that had previously been without trees. By the late 1990s, clearing of woodlands had become a major habitat-management strategy to benefit whooping cranes that desire open roosting areas with long sight lines. Whooping cranes have used the newly cleared areas, but the overall effects of clearing on the crane population and on the structure of the river are not completely known. As with most habitat-management strategies in the central Platte River, there has been no specific monitoring to assess the success of clearing. Unintended effects remain to be investigated.

From a planning and management perspective, stable conditions are desirable so that prediction of outcomes of decisions can be simplified; but stability is rare, especially in the Platte River Basin. Explanations of existing hydrological, geomorphologic, and biological conditions and predictions of future conditions that fail to discern and accommodate change are not likely to be successful. Science can inform decision makers about expected outcomes of various choices, but prediction of the outcomes is likely to be imprecise because of ecosystem variability. Management choices therefore must include some flexibility to deal with the inevitable variability and must be adaptive, continually monitoring and adjusting. The conditions our parents would have seen in these ecosystems a half-century ago were not the conditions we see now, and present conditions are not likely to be the ones our children or grandchildren will see.

A second thread identified by the committee is that one’s view of an ecosystem depends on the temporal and spatial scales on which it is examined. The variability in scale of processes in smaller drainage basins nested within larger ones is obvious, but most natural systems have a similar nested hierarchical structure. The groups of birds and fish that use the Platte River Basin are a fraction of the larger, more widely distributed population, so conditions along the river affect only a portion of each population at any time. Loss of the subpopulations that use the Platte River might not damage the entire population if there were no losses elsewhere—something that Platte River managers cannot assume. The concentration of listed species along the central Platte indicates the importance of the river, despite the fact that the birds can be found elsewhere in Nebraska during migration or nesting periods. The river is important from a management perspective because it contains all the habitat features that are included in the regulatory definitions of critical habitat.

The river supplies the needs of an assemblage of species in addition to serving the needs of single species.

Climate also operates on a series of hierarchical scales. Regional climate in the central and northern Great Plains evinces a variety of changes that depend on the time scale used for analysis. Over a period of 5 or even 10 years, we do not see the complete range of temperature and rainfall conditions likely to be experienced over a century. Decades-long drought or wet periods are likely to be important in species survival and recovery, so short-term observations of less than a few years cannot illuminate the expected conditions that a recovery effort must face.

The various scales of scientific analysis with respect to threatened and endangered species in the Platte River Basin imply that decisions based on science should also recognize scale. Decisions concerning the Platte River Basin that are based on short-term multiyear data and a local perspective are not likely to benefit the long-term (multidecadal) viability of a species that operates on a continental or intercontinental scale. The costs of efforts to recover threatened or endangered species are often most obvious on a local scale, but the benefits are much more widely distributed.

The third thread is that water links the needs of human, wildlife, and habitat more than any other ecological process. Many of the risks to threatened and endangered species, and all the comprehensive solutions to the problem of recovery, require a refined understanding of hydrological processes. The hydrological system of the Platte River is highly interconnected, so solutions to the species issues that attempt to protect commodity values of water must also be interconnected, particularly between surface water and groundwater. Climatic changes create a changing backdrop for the more important human-induced changes in the hydrology of the basin. The committee is firmly convinced that upstream storage, diversion, and distribution of the river’s flow are the most important drivers of change that adversely affect species habitat along the Platte River.

COMMITTEE’S FINDINGS

1. Do current central Platte habitat conditions affect the likelihood of survival of the whooping crane? Do they limit (adversely affect) its recovery?

Conclusions: The committee concluded that, given available knowledge, current central Platte habitat conditions adversely affect the likelihood of survival of the whooping crane, but to an unknown degree. The Platte River is important to whooping cranes: about 7% of the total whooping crane population stop on the central Platte River in any one year, and many, if not all, cranes stop over on the central Platte at some point in their lifetimes. Population viability analyses show that if mortality were to

increase by only 3%, the general population would likely become unstable. Thus, if the cranes using the Platte River were eliminated, population-wide effects would be likely. Resources acquired by whooping cranes during migratory stopovers contribute substantially to meeting nutrient needs and probably to ensuring survival and reproductive success. Because as much as 80% of crane mortality appears to occur during migration, and because the Platte River is in a central location for the birds’ migration, the river takes on considerable importance. The committee concluded that current habitat conditions depend on river management in the central Platte River, but the population also depends on events in other areas along the migratory corridor. If habitat conditions on the central Platte River—that is, the physical circumstances and food resources required by cranes—decline substantially, recovery could be slowed or reversed. The Platte River is a consistent source of relatively well-watered habitat for whooping cranes, with its water source in distant mountain watersheds that are not subject to drought cycles that are as severe as those of the Northern Plains. There are no equally useful habitats for whooping cranes nearby: the Rainwater Basin dries completely about once a decade, and the Sandhills are inconsistent as crane habitat, while the Niobrara and other local streams are subject to the same variability as the surrounding plains. Future climatic changes may exacerbate conflicts between habitat availability and management and human land use. If the quality or quantity of other important habitats becomes less available to whooping cranes, the importance of the central Platte River could increase.

Primary Sources of Scientific Information: The basis of the above conclusion is published documents that were available to other researchers and the public including the original listing document and recovery plan for the species and a review of knowledge about the cranes by the Interstate Task Force on Endangered Species (EA Engineering, Science and Technology, Inc. 1985). Other important contributions to knowledge include Allen (1952) and Austin and Richert (2001). The committee also reviewed and discussed critical comments presented in open sessions and written testimony exemplified by Lingle (G. Lingle, unpublished material, March 22, 2000) and Czaplewski et al. (M.M. Czaplewski et al., Central Platte Natural Resource District, unpublished material, August 22, 2003) that was critical of the research conducted by DOI agencies.

2. Is the current designation of central Platte River habitat as “critical habitat” for the whooping crane supported by existing science?

Conclusions: An estimated 7% of the wild, migratory whooping crane population now uses the central Platte River on an annual basis and many, if not all, cranes stop over on the central Platte at some point in their

lifetimes. The proportion of whooping cranes that use the central Platte River and the amount of time that they use it are increasing (with expected inter-annual variation). The designation of central Platte River migratory stopover habitat as critical to the species is therefore supported because the birds have specific requirements for roosting areas that include open grassy or sandy areas with few trees, separation from predators by water, and proximity to foraging areas such as wetlands or agricultural areas. The Platte River critical habitat area is the only area in Nebraska that satisfies these needs on a consistent basis. However, some habitats designated as critical in 1978 appear to be largely unused by whooping cranes in recent years, and the birds are using adjacent habitats that are not so designated (Stehn 2003).

Habitat selection (to the extent that it can be measured) on multiple geographic scales strongly suggests that Nebraska provides important habitat for whooping cranes during their spring migration. Riverine, palustrine, and wetland habitats serve as important foraging and roosting sites for whooping cranes that stop over on the central Platte River. Whooping cranes appear to be using parts of the central Platte River that have little woodland and long, open vistas, including such areas outside the zone classified as critical habitat. In some cases the cranes appear to be using areas that have been cleared of riparian woodland, perhaps partly explaining their distribution outside the critical habitat area.

Primary Sources of Scientific Information: The basis of the committee’s conclusion is published documents that were available to other researchers and the public including the original listing document, recovery plan, and declaration of critical habitat; and information in Howe (1989) and Austin and Richert (2001). The committee also considered commentary that was critical of the research conducted by DOI agencies exemplified by open sessions and written testimony presented by Lingle (G. Lingle, unpublished material, March 22, 2000), EA Engineering, Science and Technology, Inc. (1985) and Czaplewski et al. (M.M. Czaplewski et al., Central Platte Natural Resources District, unpublished material, August 22, 2003).

3. Do current central Platte habitat conditions affect the likelihood of survival of the piping plover? Do they limit (adversely affect) its recovery?

Conclusions: Reliable data indicate that the northern Great Plains population of the piping plover declined by 15% from 1991 to 2001. The census population in Nebraska declined by 25% during the same period. Resident piping plovers have been virtually eliminated from natural riverine habitat on the central Platte River. No recruitment (addition of new individuals to the population by reproduction) has occurred there since 1999. The

disappearance of the piping plover on the central Platte can be attributed to harassment caused by human activities, increased predation of nests, and losses of suitable habitat due to the encroachment of vegetation on previously unvegetated shorelines and gravel bars.

The committee concluded that current central Platte River habitat conditions adversely affect the likelihood of survival of the piping plover, and, on the basis of available understanding, those conditions have adversely affected the recovery of the piping plover. Changes in habitat along the river—including reductions in open, sandy areas that are not subject to flooding during crucial nesting periods—have been documented through aerial photography since the late 1930s and probably have adversely affected populations of the piping plover. Sandpits and reservoir edges with beaches may, under some circumstances, mitigate the reduction in riverine habitat areas. Because piping plovers are mobile and able to find alternative nesting sites, changes in habitat may not be as severe as they would be otherwise, but no studies have been conducted to support or reject this hypothesis.

Primary Sources of Scientific Information: Corn and Armbruster (1993) demonstrated differences (including higher river invertebrate densities and catch rates) in foraging habitat between the river and sand pit sites; this suggests that riverine habitat areas are superior to the sand mines and reservoir beaches for the piping plover. Basic information sources include the listing document and recovery plan. Higgins and Brashier (1993) provide additional information on habitat conditions, survival, and recovery. The committee also considered commentary presented in open sessions and written testimony exemplified by Lingle (G. Lingle, unpublished material, March 22, 2000) and Czaplewski et al . (M.M. Czaplewski et al., Central Platte Natural Resources District, unpublished material, August 22, 2003) that was critical of the research conducted by DOI agencies.

4. Is the current designation of central Platte River habitat as “critical habitat” for the piping plover supported by the existing science?

Conclusions: The designation of central Platte habitat as critical habitat for the piping plover is scientifically supportable. Until the last several years, the central Platte supported substantial suitable habitat for the piping plover, including all “primary constituent elements” required for successful reproduction by the species. Accordingly, the central Platte River contributed an average of more than 2 dozen nesting pairs of plovers to the average of more than 100 pairs that nested each year in the Platte River Basin during the 1980s and 1990s. The critical habitat designation for the species explicitly recognizes that not all areas so designated will provide all neces-

sary resources in all years and be continuously suitable for the species. It is also now understood that off-stream sand mines and reservoir beaches are not an adequate substitute for natural riverine habitat.

Primary Sources of Scientific Information: Data generated according to standard scientific methods in well-defined and well-executed scientific investigations support the critical habitat designation for the piping plover—including work by Ziewitz et al. (1992), Ducey (1983), and Faanes (1983)—as does the designation in the Federal Register (67:57638 [2002]). The committee also considered commentary presented in open sessions and written testimony exemplified by Lingle (G. Lingle, unpublished material, March 22, 2000) and Czaplewski et al. (M.M. Czaplewski et al., Central Platte Natural Resources District, unpublished materials, August 10, 2001, and August 22, 2003) that was critical of the research conducted by DOI agencies.

5. Do current central Platte habitat conditions affect the likelihood of survival of the interior least tern? Do they limit (adversely affect) its recovery?

Conclusions: The committee concluded that current habitat conditions on the central Platte River adversely affect the likelihood of survival of the interior least tern—in much the same fashion as they affect the likelihood of survival of the piping plover—and that on the basis of available information, current habitat conditions on the central Platte River adversely affect the likelihood of recovery of the interior least tern. Reliable population estimates indicate that the total (regional) population of interior least terns was at the recovery goal of 7,000 in 1995, but some breeding areas, including the central Platte River, were not at identified recovery levels. The central Platte subpopulation of least terns declined from 1991 to 2001. The number of terns using the Platte River is about two-thirds of the number needed to reach the interior least tern recovery goal for the Platte. The interior tern is nesting in substantial numbers on the adjacent lower Platte River, but numbers continue to decline on the central Platte, reflecting declining habitat conditions there. The decline in the tern population on the central Platte River has been coincidental with the loss of numerous bare sandbars and beaches along the river. Control of flows and diversion of water from the channel are the causes of these geomorphic changes. Woodland vegetation, unsuitable as tern habitat, has colonized some parts of the central Platte River. Alternative habitats, such as abandoned sand mines or sandy shores of Lake McConaughy, are not suitable substitutes for Platte River habitat because they are susceptible to disturbance by humans and natural predators. The shores of Lake McConaughy are available only at lower stages of the reservoir, and they disappear at high stages.

Primary Sources of Scientific Information: The scientific underpinnings of these conclusions are extensive and substantial, including work by Smith and Renken (1990), Sidle and Kirsch (1993), Ziewitz et al. (1992), and Higgins and Brashier (1993), all of whom used sound, widely accepted, standard scientific methods. The committee also considered commentary presented in open sessions and written testimony exemplified by Lingle (G. Lingle, unpublished material, March 22, 2000) and Czaplewski et al. (M.M. Czaplewski et al., Central Platte Natural Resources District, unpublished material, August 22, 2003) that was critical of the research conducted by DOI agencies.

6. Do current habitat conditions in the lower Platte (below the mouth of the Elkhorn River) affect the likelihood of survival of the pallid sturgeon? Do they limit (adversely affect) its recovery?

Conclusions: Current habitat conditions on the lower Platte River (downstream of the mouth of the Elkhorn River) do not adversely affect the likelihood of survival and recovery of the pallid sturgeon because that reach of the river appears to retain several habitat characteristics apparently preferred by the species: a braided channel of shifting sandbars and islands; a sandy substrate; relatively warm, turbid waters; and a flow regime that is similar to conditions that were found in the upper Missouri River and its tributaries before the installation of large dams on the Missouri. Alterations of discharge patterns or channel features that modify those characteristics might irreparably alter this habitat for pallid sturgeon use. In addition, the lower Platte River is connected with a long undammed reach of the Missouri River, which allows access of the pallid sturgeon in the Platte River to other segments of the existing population. Channelization and damming of the Missouri River have depleted pallid sturgeon habitats throughout its former range, so the lower Platte may be even more important for its survival and recovery. The population of pallid sturgeon is so low in numbers, and habitat such as the lower Platte River that replicates the original undisturbed habitat of the species is so rare that the lower Platte River is pivotal in the management and recovery of the species.

Primary Sources of Scientific Information: Scientific studies supporting those conclusions are reported in numerous peer-reviewed publications, as exemplified by general research on the habitat of hatchery-derived pallid sturgeon in the lower Platte River by Snook (2001) and Snook et al. (2002). Carlson et al. (1985) and Kallemeyn (1983) provided useful background information. Additional investigations in the Missouri River system by Bramblett (1996) and Bramblett and White (2001) have results that are applicable to the lower Platte River. The committee also considered com-

mentary presented in open sessions and written testimony exemplified by Czaplewski et al. (M.M. Czaplewski et al., Central Platte Natural Resources District, unpublished material, August 22, 2003) that was critical of the research conducted by DOI agencies.

7. Were the processes and methodologies used by the USFWS in developing its central Platte River instream-flow recommendations (i.e., species, annual pulse flows, and peak flows) scientifically valid?

Conclusions: The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) used methods described in an extensive body of scientific and engineering literature. Reports of interagency working groups that addressed instream-flow recommendations cite more than 80 references that were in wide use and generally accepted in the river science and engineering community. The committee reviewed that information, as well as oral and written testimony critical of the research conducted by DOI agencies, and it concluded that the methods used during the calculations in the early 1990s were the most widely accepted at that time. Revisions were made as improved knowledge became available. Although the Instream Flow Incremental Method (IFIM) and Physical Habitat Simulation System (PHABSIM) were the best available science when DOI agencies reached their recommendations regarding instream flows, there are newer developments and approaches, and they should be internalized in DOI’s decision processes for determining instream flows. The new approaches, centered on the river as an ecosystem rather than focused on individual species, are embodied in the concepts of the normative flow regime. Continued credibility of DOI instream-flow recommendations will depend on including the new approach.

The instream-flow recommendations rely on empirical and model-based approaches. Surveyed cross sections along the river provided DOI investigators with specific information on the morphology of the river and vegetation associated with the river’s landforms. The portions of the cross sections likely to be inundated by flows of various depths were directly observed. Model calculations to simulate the dynamic interaction of water, geomorphology, and vegetation that formed habitat for species were handled with the prevailing standard software PHABSIM, which has seen wide use in other cases and has been accepted by the scientific community. The software was used by DOI researchers in a specific standard method, IFIM, which permits observations of the results as flow depths are incrementally increased.

The continuing DOI model developments, including the emerging SEDVEG model, are needed because of the braided, complex nature of the Platte River—a configuration that is unlike other streams to which existing models are often applied. The committee did not assess the newer models,

because they have not yet been completed or tested, but it recommends that they be explored for their ability to improve decision making.

The committee also recognizes that there has been no substantial testing of the predictions resulting from DOI’s previous modeling work, 1 and it recommends that calibration of the models be improved. Monitoring of the effects of recommended flows should be built into a continuing program of adaptive management to help to determine whether the recommendations are valid and to indicate further adjustments to the recommendations based on observations.

Primary Sources of Scientific Information: The literature used to support USFWS’s methods ranged from basic textbook sources, such as Dunne and Leopold (1978) and Darby and Simon (1999), to specific applications exemplified by Simons & Associates, Inc. (2000) and Schumm (1998). The committee also considered the interagency working reports (Hydrology Work Group 1989; M. Zallen, DOI, unpublished memo, August 11, 1994) and oral and written testimony exemplified by Parsons (2003), Payne (1995; T.R. Payne and Associates, pers. comm., June 19, 2003), Woodward (2003), and Lewis (2003).

8. Are the characteristics described in the USFWS habitat suitability guidelines for the central Platte River supported by the existing science and are they (i.e., the habitat characteristics) essential to the survival of the listed avian species? To the recovery of those species? Are there other Platte River habitats that provide the same values that are essential to the survival of the listed avian species and their recovery?

Conclusions: The committee concluded that the habitat characteristics described in USFWS’s habitat suitability guidelines for the central Platte River were supported by the science of the time of the original habitat description during the 1970s and 1980s and were consistent with accepted understanding of how the systems function. New ecological knowledge has since been developed. The new knowledge, largely from information gathered over the last 20 years, has not been systematically applied to the processes of designating or revising critical habitat, and the committee recommends that it be done.

The committee also concluded that suitable habitat characteristics along the central Platte River are essential to the survival and recovery of the piping plover and the interior least tern. No alternative habitat exists in the

central Platte that provides the same values essential to the survival and recovery of piping plovers and least terns. Although both species use artificial habitat (such as shoreline areas of Lake McConaughy and sandpits), the quality and availability of sites are unpredictable from year to year. The committee further concluded that suitable habitat for the whooping crane along the central Platte River is essential for its survival and recovery because such alternatives as the Rainwater Basin and other, smaller rivers are used only intermittently, are not dependable from one year to the next, and appear to be inferior to habitats offered by the central Platte River.

Primary Sources of Scientific Information: The committee relied on the following sources in reaching its conclusions: for whooping cranes, the original listing document, recovery plan, and declaration of critical habitat and Howe (1989), EA Engineering, Science and Technology, Inc. (1985), Austin and Richert (2001), and Lutey (2002); for interior least terns and piping plovers, the original listing documents, recovery plans, and declaration of critical habitat for the piping plover (Fed. Regist. 67 (176): 57638 [2002]), Smith and Renken (1990), Sidle and Kirsch (1993), Ziewitz et al. (1992), Ducey (1983), Faanes (1983), Higgins and Brashier (1993), Corn and Armbruster (1993), and Kirsch and Sidle (1999). The committee also considered commentary presented in open sessions and written testimony exemplified by Lingle (G. Lingle, unpublished material, March 22, 2000) and Czaplewski et al. (M.M. Czaplewski et al., Central Platte Natural Resources District, unpublished material, August 22, 2003) that was critical of the research conducted by DOI agencies.

9. Are the conclusions of the Department of the Interior about the interrelationships of sediment, flow, vegetation, and channel morphology in the central Platte River supported by the existing science?

Conclusions: The committee concluded that DOI conclusions about the interrelationships among sediment, flow, vegetation, and channel morphology in the central Platte River were supported by scientific theory, engineering practice, and data available at the time of those decisions. By the early 1990s, when DOI was reaching its conclusions, the community of geomorphologists concerned with dryland rivers had a general understanding of the role of fluctuating discharges in arranging the land forms of the channel, and DOI included this understanding in its conclusions about the river. In the early 1990s, engineering practice, combined with geomorphology and hydrology, commonly used IFIM and PHABSIM to make predictions and recommendations for flow patterns that shaped channels, and this resulted in adjustments in vegetation and habitat. In fact, despite some criticisms, IFIM and PHABSIM are still widely used in the professional

community of river restorationists in 2004. In applying scientific theory and engineering practice, the DOI agencies used the most current data and made additional measurements to bolster the calculations and recommendations. Since the early 1990s, more data have become available, and the USBR has conducted considerable cutting-edge research on a new model (SEDVEG) that should update earlier calculations but is not yet in full operation (and was not reviewed by this committee).

Primary Sources of Scientific Information: Murphy et al. (2001) outline the basic understanding of sediment and vegetation dynamics. Sediment data are obtained by sampling sediment concentrations and multiplying the concentrations by discharges and duration. For flow, gaging records on the Platte River are 50 years in duration or longer, and they are in greater density than on many American rivers; the gages provide quality data on water discharge for the Platte River. Murphy and Randle (2003) review the analyses and other sources of knowledge about the flows that provide a sound basis for DOI decisions. In addition to the review by Murphy et al. (2001) concerning vegetation, several studies over the last 20 years have provided an explanation of vegetation dynamics that the committee found to be correct and that is the basis of DOI decisions. Early work by USFWS (1981a) and Currier (1982) set the stage for an evolution of understanding of vegetation change on the river that was later expanded by Johnson (1994). For channel morphology, there is a long history of widely respected research to draw on, including early geomorphologic investigations by Williams (1978) and Eschner et al. (1983), continuing with the reviews by Simons and Associates (2000), and culminating in recent work by Murphy and Randle (2003). The committee also considered commentary presented in open sessions and written testimony exemplified by Parsons (2003) and Lewis (2003) that was critical of the research conducted by DOI agencies.

10. What were the key information and data gaps that the NAS identified in the review?

Conclusions: The committee reached its conclusions for the preceding nine questions with reasonable confidence based on the scientific evidence available. However, the committee identified the following gaps in key information related to threatened and endangered species on the central and lower Platte River, and it recommends that they be addressed to provide improved scientific support for decision making.

A multiple-species perspective is missing from research and management of threatened and endangered species on the central and lower Platte River. The interactions of the protected species with each other and with

unprotected species are poorly known. Efforts to enhance one species may be detrimental to another species, but these connections remain largely unknown because research has been focused on single species. One approach is to shift from the focus on single species to an ecosystem perspective that emphasizes the integration of biotic and abiotic processes supporting a natural assemblage of species and habitats.

There is no systemwide, integrated operation plan or data-collection plan for the combined hydrological system in the North Platte, South Platte, and central Platte Rivers that can inform researchers and managers on issues that underlie threatened and endangered species conservation. Natural and engineered variations in flows in one part of the basin have unknown effects on other parts of the basin, especially with respect to reservoir storage, groundwater storage, and river flows.

A lack of a full understanding of the geographic extent of the populations of imperiled species that inhabit the central Platte River and a lack of reliable information on their population sizes and dynamics limit our ability to use demographic models to predict accurately their fates under different land-management and water-use scenarios. Detailed population viability analyses using the most recent data would improve understanding of the dynamics of the populations of at-risk species and would allow managers to explore a variety of options to learn about the probable outcomes of decisions. Continuation of population monitoring of at-risk bird species using the best available techniques, including color-banding of prefledged chicks and application of new telemetry techniques, is recommended.

There is no larger regional context for the central and lower Platte River in research and management. Most of the research and decision making regarding threatened and endangered species in the Platte River Basin have restricted analysis to the basin itself, as though species used its habitats in isolation from other habitats outside the basin. There are substantial gaps in integrative scientific understanding of the connections between species that use the habitats of the central and lower Platte River and adjacent habitat areas, such as the Rainwater Basin of southern Nebraska and the Loup, Elkhorn, and Niobrara Rivers and other smaller northern Great Plains rivers.

The committee is confident that the central Platte River and lower Platte River are essential for the survival and recovery of the listed bird species and pallid sturgeon. However, in light of the habitat it provides and the perilously low numbers of the species, there is not enough information to assess the exact degree to which the Platte contributes to their survival and recovery.

Water-quality data are not integrated into knowledge about species responses to reservoir and groundwater management and are not integrated

into habitat suitability guidelines. Different waters are not necessarily equal, either from a human or a wildlife perspective, but there is little integration of water-quality data with physical or biological understanding of the habitats along the Platte River.

The cost effectiveness of conservation actions related to threatened and endangered species on the central and lower Platte River is not well known. Neither the cost effectiveness nor the equitable allocation of measures for the benefit of Platte River species has been evaluated. The ESA does not impose or allow the implementing agencies to impose a cost-benefit test. Listed species must be protected no matter what the cost, unless the Endangered Species Committee grants an exemption. Cost effectiveness, however, is another matter. The ESA permits consideration of relative costs and benefits when choosing recovery actions, for example. USFWS has adopted a policy that calls for minimizing the social and economic costs of recovery actions, that is, of choosing actions that will provide the greatest benefit to the species at the lowest societal cost (Fed. Regist. 59:3472 [1994]). In addition, persons asked to make economic sacrifices for the sake of listed species understandably want assurances that their efforts will provide some tangible benefit. In the Platte, the direct economic costs of measures taken for the benefit of species appear reasonably well understood. The biological benefits are another matter. For example, the costs of channel-clearing and other river-restoration measures are readily estimated. Their precise value for cranes is more difficult to estimate, although their general use is fairly well established.

The allocation of conservation costs and responsibility also has not been systematically evaluated. USFWS has concentrated its efforts to protect listed species in the Platte system on federal actions, such as the operation of federal water projects. That focus is understandable. Water projects with a federal nexus account for a large and highly visible proportion of diversions from the system. In addition, those actions may be more readily susceptible to regulatory control than others because they are subject to ESA Section 7 consultation. But some nonfederal actions also affect the species. Water users that depend on irrigation water from the federal projects may well feel that they are being asked to bear an inordinate proportion of the costs of recovering the system. A systematic inventory of all actions contributing to the decline of the species could help the parties to the cooperative agreement channel their recovery efforts efficiently and equitably. The National Research Council committee charged with evaluating ESA actions in the Klamath River Basin recently reached a similar conclusion (NRC 2004a).

The effects of prescribed flows on river morphology and riparian vegetation have not been assessed. Adaptive-management principles require that the outcomes of a management strategy be assessed and monitored and

that the strategy be adjusted accordingly, but there has been no reporting of the outcomes of the 2002 prescribed flow, no analysis of vegetation effects of managed flows, no measurement of their geomorphic effects, and no assessment of their economic costs or benefits.

The connections between surface water and groundwater are not well accounted for in research or decision making for the central and lower Platte River. The dynamics of and connections between surface water and groundwater remain poorly known, but they are important for understanding river behavior and economic development that uses the groundwater resource. The effects of groundwater pumping, recently accelerated, are unknown but important for understanding river flows.

Some of the basic facts of issues regarding threatened and endangered species in the central and lower Platte River are in dispute because of unequal access to research sites. Free access to all data sources is a basic tenet of sound science, but DOI agencies and Nebraska corporations managing water and electric power do not enter discussions about threatened and endangered species on the central and lower Platte River with the same datasets for species and physical environmental characteristics. USFWS personnel are not permitted to collect data on some privately owned lands. As a result, there are substantial gaps between data used by DOI and data used by the companies, and resolution is impossible without improved cooperation and equal access to measurement sites.

Important environmental factors are not being monitored. Monitoring, consistent from time to time and place to place, supports good science and good decision making, but monitoring of many aspects of the issues regarding threatened and endangered species on the central and lower Platte River remains haphazard or absent. Important gaps in knowledge result from a lack of adequate monitoring of sediment mobility, the pallid sturgeon population, and movement of listed birds. Responses of channel morphology and vegetation communities to prescribed flows and vegetation removal remain poorly known because the same set of river cross sections is not sampled repeatedly. Groundwater may play an important role in flows, but groundwater pumping is not monitored.

Long-term (multidecadal) analysis of climatic influences has not been used to generate a basis for interpretation of short-term change (change over just a few years). The exact interactions between climate and the system are poorly known because only short-term analyses of climate factors have been accomplished so far. In addition, the relative importance of human and climatic controls remains to be explicitly defined by researchers, even though such knowledge is important in planning river restoration for habitat purposes.

Direct human influences are likely to be much more important than climate in determining conditions for the threatened and endangered species

of the central and lower Platte River. Potentially important localized controls on habitat for threatened and endangered species on the central and lower Platte River are likely to be related to urbanization, particularly near freeway exits and small cities and towns where housing is replacing other land uses more useful to the species. Off-road vehicle use threatens the nesting sites of piping plovers and interior least terns in many of the sandy reaches of the river. Sandy beaches and bars are inviting to both birds and recreationists. Illegal harvesting has unknown effects on the small remaining population of pallid sturgeon. In each of those cases, additional data are required to define the threats to the listed species.

USFWS faces extraordinary challenges in trying to identify the habitat needs and the critical habitat for listed species on the central and lower Platte River. Lack of data, pressures of tight deadlines for research, lack of a well-defined adaptive-management strategy with effective monitoring, and competing uses for the river’s water and landscape resources complicate decision making. Despite those challenges, the science that explains forms and processes of the ecosystems along the central and lower Platte River of Nebraska is sufficient to support many decisions about the management of threatened and endangered species that use the river’s habitats. In all cases, enough is known about the physical environmental processes that control habitat change to make informed decisions for the survival of the whooping crane, piping plover, interior least tern, and pallid sturgeon. Our scientific knowledge is not yet adequate to contribute to decisions regarding the exact role of the central and lower Platte River in the recovery of the whooping crane and pallid sturgeon. Valid science supports critical habitat designations for the piping plover, but the scientific support of critical habitat designation for the whooping crane is weak. Valid science and engineering related to hydrology, geomorphology, sediment transport, and riparian ecology support the DOI instream-flow recommendations and explanations for the river-channel and vegetation changes. The committee found numerous gaps in knowledge that could inform management of threatened and endangered species along the central and lower Platte River, mostly focused on problems of scientific integration, overrestricted scales of analysis, lack of systemwide connections, and lack of standardized procedures for data collection.

Land, water, and life in the region surrounding the 100th meridian on the Platte River are highly changeable and precariously balanced. Human manipulations of hydrological conditions and land cover have far-reaching consequences for wildlife populations. Policy based on a desired constant, stable, and predictable set of environmental circumstances is unlikely to be

successful. Policy that relies on scientific knowledge about change through time and over geographic space is the most likely avenue to success in the search for accommodation between economic vitality and diverse and sustainable populations of wildlife that are neither threatened nor endangered.

The tension between wildlife protection under the Endangered Species Act and water management in the Platte River Basin has existed for more than 25 years. The Platte River provides important habitat for migratory and breeding birds, including three endangered or threatened species: the whooping crane, the northern Great Plains population of the piping plover, and the interior least tern. The leading factors attributed to the decline of the cranes are historical overhunting and widespread habitat destruction and, for the plovers and terns, human interference during nesting and the loss of riverine nesting sites in open sandy areas that have been replaced with woodlands, sand and gravel mines, housing, and roadways. Extensive damming has disrupted passage of the endangered pallid sturgeon and resulted in less suitable habitat conditions such as cooler stream flows, less turbid waters, and inconsistent flow regimes. Commercial harvesting, now illegal, also contributed to the decline of the sturgeon.

Endangered and Threatened Species of the Platte River addresses the habitat requirements for these federally protected species. The book further examines the scientific aspects of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s instream-flow recommendations and habitat suitability guidelines and assesses the science concerning the connections among the physical systems of the river as they relate to species’ habitats.

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Endangered Species

An endangered species is a type of organism that is threatened by extinction. Species become endangered for two main reasons: loss of habitat and loss of genetic variation.

Biology, Ecology, Geography, Conservation

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An endangered species is a type of organism that is threatened by extinction . Species become endangered for two main reasons: loss of habitat and loss of genetic variation . Loss of Habitat A loss of habitat can happen naturally. Nonavian dinosaurs , for instance, lost their habitat about 65 million years ago. The hot, dry climate of the Cretaceous period changed very quickly, most likely because of an asteroid striking Earth. The impact of the asteroid forced debris into the atmosphere , reducing the amount of heat and light that reached Earth’s surface. The dinosaurs were unable to adapt to this new, cooler habitat. Nonavian dinosaurs became endangered, then extinct . Human activity can also contribute to a loss of habitat. Development for housing, industry , and agriculture reduces the habitat of native organisms. This can happen in a number of different ways. Development can eliminate habitat and native species directly. In the Amazon rainforest of South America, developers have cleared hundreds of thousands of acres. To “clear” a piece of land is to remove all trees and vegetation from it. The Amazon rainforest is cleared for cattle ranches , logging , and ur ban use. Development can also endanger species indirectly. Some species, such as fig trees of the rainforest, may provide habitat for other species. As trees are destroyed, species that depend on that tree habitat may also become endangered. Tree crowns provide habitat in the canopy , or top layer, of a rainforest . Plants such as vines, fungi such as mushrooms, and insects such as butterflies live in the rainforest canopy. So do hundreds of species of tropical birds and mammals such as monkeys. As trees are cut down, this habitat is lost. Species have less room to live and reproduce . Loss of habitat may happen as development takes place in a species range . Many animals have a range of hundreds of square kilometers. The mountain lion ( Puma concolor ) of North America, for instance, has a range of up to 1,000 square kilometers (386 square miles). To successfully live and reproduce, a single mountain lion patrols this much territory. Urban areas , such as Los Angeles, California, U.S.A., and Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, grew rapidly during the 20th century. As these areas expanded into the wilderness, the mountain lion’s habitat became smaller. That means the habitat can support fewer mountain lions. Because enormous parts of the Sierra Nevada, Rocky, and Cascade mountain ranges remain undeveloped, however, mountain lions are not endangered. Loss of habitat can also lead to increased encounters between wild species and people. As development brings people deeper into a species range, they may have more exposure to wild species. Poisonous plants and fungi may grow closer to homes and schools. Wild animals are also spotted more frequently . These animals are simply patrolling their range, but interaction with people can be deadly. Polar bears ( Ursus maritimus ), mountain lions, and alligators are all predators brought into close contact with people as they lose their habitat to homes, farms , and businesses. As people kill these wild animals, through pesticides , accidents such as collisions with cars, or hunting, native species may become endangered.

Loss of Genetic Variation Genetic variation is the diversity found within a species. It’s why human beings may have blond, red, brown, or black hair. Genetic variation allows species to adapt to changes in the environment. Usually, the greater the population of a species, the greater its genetic variation. Inbreeding is reproduction with close family members. Groups of species that have a tendency to inbreed usually have little genetic variation, because no new genetic information is introduced to the group. Disease is much more common, and much more deadly, among inbred groups. Inbred species do not have the genetic variation to develop resistance to the disease. For this reason, fewer offspring of inbred groups survive to maturity. Loss of genetic variation can occur naturally. Cheetahs ( Acinonyx jubatus ) are a threatened species native to Africa and Asia. These big cats have very little genetic variation. Biologists say that during the last Ice Age , cheetahs went through a long period of inbreeding. As a result, there are very few genetic differences between cheetahs. They cannot adapt to changes in the environment as quickly as other animals, and fewer cheetahs survive to maturity. Cheetahs are also much more difficult to breed in captivity than other big cats, such as lions ( Panthera leo ). Human activity can also lead to a loss of genetic variation. Overhunting and overfishing have reduced the populations of many animals. Reduced population means there are fewer breeding pairs . A breeding pair is made up of two mature members of the species that are not closely related and can produce healthy offspring. With fewer breeding pairs, genetic variation shrinks. Monoculture , the agricultural method of growing a single crop , can also reduce genetic variation. Modern agribusiness relies on monocultures. Almost all potatoes cultivated , sold, and consumed, for instance, are from a single species, the Russet Burbank ( Solanum tuberosum ). Potatoes, native to the Andes Mountains of South America, have dozens of natural varieties. The genetic variation of wild potatoes allows them to adapt to climate change and disease. For Russet Burbanks, however, farmers must use fertilizers and pesticides to ensure healthy crops because the plant has almost no genetic variation. Plant breeders often go back to wild varieties to collect genes that will help cultivated plants resist pests and drought, and adapt to climate change. However, climate change is also threatening wild varieties. That means domesticated plants may lose an important source of traits that help them overcome new threats. The Red List The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) keeps a “Red List of Threatened Species.” The Red List de fines the severity and specific causes of a species’ threat of extinction. The Red List has seven levels of conservation: least concern , near threatened , vulnerable, endangered, critically endangered , extinct in the wild , and extinct. Each category represents a different threat level. Species that are not threatened by extinction are placed within the first two categories—least concern and near-threatened. Those that are most threatened are placed within the next three categories, known as the threatened categories —vulnerable, endangered, and critically endangered. Those species that are extinct in some form are placed within the last two categories—extinct in the wild and extinct. Classifying a species as endangered has to do with its range and habitat, as well as its actual population. For this reason, a species can be of least concern in one area and endangered in another. The gray whale ( Eschrichtius robustus ), for instance, has a healthy population in the eastern Pacific Ocean, along the coast of North and South America. The population in the western Pacific, however, is critically endangered.

Least Concern Least concern is the lowest level of conservation . A species of least concern is one that has a widespread and abundant population. Human beings are a species of least concern, along with most domestic animals , such as dogs ( Canis familiaris ) and cats ( Felis catus ). Many wild animals, such as pigeons and houseflies ( Musca domestica ), are also classified as least concern. Near Threatened A near threatened species is one that is likely to qualify for a threatened category in the near future. Many species of violets , native to tropical jungles in South America and Africa, are near threatened, for instance. They have healthy populations, but their rainforest habitat is disappearing at a fast pace. People are cutting down huge areas of rainforest for development and timber . Many violet species are likely to become threatened. Vulnerable Species The definitions of the three threatened categories (vulnerable, endangered, and critically endangered) are based on five criteria: population reduction rate , geographic range, population size, population restrictions , and probability of extinction . Threatened categories have different thresholds for these criteria. As the population and range of the species decreases, the species becomes more threatened. 1) Population reduction rate A species is classified as vulnerable if its population has declined between 30 and 50 percent. This decline is measured over 10 years or three generations of the species, whichever is longer. A generation is the period of time between the birth of an animal and the time it is able to reproduce. Mice are able to reproduce when they are about one month old. Mouse populations are mostly tracked over 10-year periods. An elephant's generation lasts about 15 years. So, elephant populations are measured over 45-year periods. A species is vulnerable if its population has declined at least 50 percent and the cause of the decline is known. Habitat loss is the leading known cause of population decline. A species is also classified as vulnerable if its population has declined at least 30 percent and the cause of the decline is not known. A new, unknown virus , for example, could kill hundreds or even thousands of individuals before being identified. 2) Geographic range A species is vulnerable if its “ extent of occurrence ” is estimated to be less than 20,000 square kilometers (7,722 square miles). An extent of occurrence is the smallest area that could contain all sites of a species’ population. If all members of a species could survive in a single area, the size of that area is the species’ extent of occurrence. A species is also classified as vulnerable if its “ area of occupancy ” is estimated to be less than 2,000 square kilometers (772 square miles). An area of occupancy is where a specific population of that species resides. This area is often a breeding or nesting site in a species range. 3) Population size Species with fewer than 10,000 mature individuals are vulnerable. The species is also vulnerable if that population declines by at least 10 percent within 10 years or three generations, whichever is longer. 4) Population restrictions Population restriction is a combination of population and area of occupancy. A species is vulnerable if it is restricted to less than 1,000 mature individuals or an area of occupancy of less than 20 square kilometers (8 square miles). 5) Probability of extinction in the wild is at least 10 percent within 100 years. Biologists, anthropologists, meteorologists , and other scientists have developed complex ways to determine a species’ probability of extinction. These formulas calculate the chances a species can survive, without human protection, in the wild. Vulnerable Species: Ethiopian Banana Frog The Ethiopian banana frog ( Afrixalus enseticola ) is a small frog native to high- altitude areas of southern Ethiopia. It is a vulnerable species because its area of occupancy is less than 2,000 square kilometers (772 square miles). The extent and quality of its forest habitat are in decline. Threats to this habitat include forest clearance, mostly for housing and agriculture. Vulnerable Species: Snaggletooth Shark The snaggletooth shark ( Hemipristis elongatus ) is found in the tropical, coastal waters of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Its area of occupancy is enormous, from Southeast Africa to the Philippines, and from China to Australia. However, the snaggletooth shark is a vulnerable species because of a severe population reduction rate. Its population has fallen more than 10 percent over 10 years. The number of these sharks is declining due to fisheries, especially in the Java Sea and Gulf of Thailand. The snaggletooth shark’s flesh, fins, and liver are considered high-quality foods. They are sold in commercial fish markets, as well as restaurants. Vulnerable Species: Galapagos Kelp Galapagos kelp ( Eisenia galapagensis ) is a type of seaweed only found near the Galapagos Islands in the Pacific Ocean. Galapagos kelp is classified as vulnerable because its population has declined more than 10 percent over 10 years. Climate change is the leading cause of decline among Galapagos kelp. El Niño, the natural weather pattern that brings unusually warm water to the Galapagos, is the leading agent of climate change in this area. Galapagos kelp is a cold-water species and does not adapt quickly to changes in water temperature.

Endangered Species 1) Population reduction rate A species is classified as endangered when its population has declined between 50 and 70 percent. This decline is measured over 10 years or three generations of the species, whichever is longer. A species is classified as endangered when its population has declined at least 70 percent and the cause of the decline is known. A species is also classified as endangered when its population has declined at least 50 percent and the cause of the decline is not known. 2) Geographic range An endangered species’ extent of occurrence is less than 5,000 square kilometers (1,930 square miles). An endangered species’ area of occupancy is less than 500 square kilometers (193 square miles). 3) Population size A species is classified as endangered when there are fewer than 2,500 mature individuals. When a species population declines by at least 20 percent within five years or two generations, it is also classified as endangered. 4) Population restrictions A species is classified as endangered when its population is restricted to less than 250 mature individuals. When a species’ population is this low, its area of occupancy is not considered. 5) Probability of extinction in the wild is at least 20 percent within 20 years or five generations, whichever is longer.

Endangered Species: Scimitar -horned Oryx The scimitar-horned oryx ( Oryx dammah ) is a species of antelope with long horns. Its range extends across northern Africa. Previously, the scimitar-horned oryx was listed as extinct in the wild because the last confirmed sighting of one was in 1988. However, the first group of scimitar-horned oryx was released back into the wild in Chad, in August 2016, and the population is growing. Overhunting and habitat loss, including competition with domestic livestock , are the main reasons for the decline of the oryx’s wild population. Captive herds are now kept in protected areas of Tunisia, Senegal, and Morocco. Scimitar-horned oryxes are also found in many zoos . Critically Endangered Species 1) Population reduction rate A critically endangered species’ population has declined between 80 and 90 percent. This decline is measured over 10 years or three generations of the species, whichever is longer. A species is classified as critically endangered when its population has declined at least 90 percent and the cause of the decline is known. A species is also classified as endangered when its population has declined at least 80 percent and the cause of the decline is not known. 2) Geographic range A critically endangered species’ extent of occurrence is less than 100 square kilometers (39 square miles). A critically endangered species’ area of occupancy is estimated to be less than 10 square kilometers (4 square miles). 3) Population size A species is classified as critically endangered when there are fewer than 250 mature individuals. A species is also classified as critically endangered when the number of mature individuals declines by at least 25 percent within three years or one generation, whichever is longer. 4) Population restrictions A species is classified as critically endangered when its population is restricted to less than 50 mature individuals. When a species’ population is this low, its area of occupancy is not considered. 5) Probability of extinction in the wild is at least 50 percent within 10 years or three generations, whichever is longer. Critically Endangered Species: Bolivian Chinchilla Rat The Bolivian chinchilla rat ( Abrocoma boliviensis ) is a rodent found in a small section of the Santa Cruz region of Bolivia. It is critically endangered because its extent of occurrence is less than 100 square kilometers (39 square miles). The major threat to this species is loss of its cloud forest habitat. People are clearing forests to create cattle pastures .

Critically Endangered Species: Transcaucasian Racerunner The Transcaucasian racerunner ( Eremias pleskei ) is a lizard found on the Armenian Plateau , located in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, and Turkey. The Transcaucasian racerunner is a critically endangered species because of a huge population decline, estimated at more than 80 percent during the past 10 years. Threats to this species include the salination , or increased saltiness, of soil . Fertilizers used for agricultural development seep into the soil, increasing its saltiness. Racerunners live in and among the rocks and soil, and cannot adapt to the increased salt in their food and shelter. The racerunner is also losing habitat as people create trash dumps on their area of occupancy. Critically Endangered Species: White Ferula Mushroom The white ferula mushroom ( Pleurotus nebrodensis ) is a critically endangered species of fungus. The mushroom is critically endangered because its extent of occurrence is less than 100 square kilometers (39 square miles). It is only found in the northern part of the Italian island of Sicily, in the Mediterranean Sea. The leading threats to white ferula mushrooms are loss of habitat and overharvesting. White ferula mushrooms are a gourmet food item. Farmers and amateur mushroom hunters harvest the fungus for food and profit. The mushrooms can be sold for up to $100 per kilogram (2.2 pounds). Extinct in the Wild A species is extinct in the wild when it only survives in cultivation (plants), in captivity (animals), or as a population well outside its established range. A species may be listed as extinct in the wild only after years of surveys have failed to record an individual in its native or expected habitat.

Extinct in the Wild: Monut Kaala Cyanea The Mount Kaala cyanea ( Cyanea superba ) is a large, flowering tree native to the island of Oahu, in the U.S. state of Hawai‘i. The Mount Kaala cyanea has large, broad leaves and fleshy fruit. The tree is extinct in the wild largely because of invasive species. Non-native plants crowded the cyanea out of its habitat, and non-native animals such as pigs, rats, and slugs ate its fruit more quickly than it could reproduce. Mount Kaala cyanea trees survive in tropical nurseries and botanical gardens . Many botanists and conservationists look forward to establishing a new population in the wild. Extinct A species is extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that the last remaining individual of that species has died. Extinct: Cuban Macaw The Cuban macaw ( Ara tricolor ) was a tropical parrot native to Cuba and a small Cuban island, Isla de la Juventud. Hunting and collecting the birds for pets led to the bird’s extinction. The last specimen of the Cuban macaw was collected in 1864. Extinct: Ridley’s Stick Insect Ridley’s stick insect ( Pseudobactricia ridleyi ) was native to the tropical jungle of the island of Singapore. This insect, whose long, segmented body resembled a tree limb, is only known through a single specimen, collected more than 100 years ago. During the 20th century, Singapore experienced rapid development. Almost the entire jungle was cleared, depriving the insect of its habitat.

Endangered Species and People When a species is classified as endangered, governments and international organizations can work to protect it. Laws may limit hunting and destruction of the species’ habitat. Individuals and organizations that break these laws may face huge fines. Because of such actions, many species have recovered from their endangered status. The brown pelican ( Pelecanus occidentalis ) was taken off the endangered species list in 2009, for instance. This seabird is native to the coasts of North America and South America, as well as the islands of the Caribbean Sea. It is the state bird of the U.S. state of Louisiana. In 1970, the number of brown pelicans in the wild was estimated at 10,000. The bird was classified as vulnerable. During the 1970s and 1980s, governments and conservation groups worked to help the brown pelican recover. Young chicks were reared in hatching sites, then released into the wild. Human access to nesting sites was severely restricted. The pesticide DDT , which damaged the eggs of the brown pelican, was banned. During the 1980s, the number of brown pelicans soared. In 1988, the IUCN “delisted” the brown pelican. The bird, whose population is now in the hundreds of thousands, is now in the category of least concern.

Convention on Biological Diversity The Convention on Biological Diversity is an international treaty to sustain and protect the diversity of life on Earth. This includes conservation, sustainability, and sharing the benefits of genetic research and resources. The Convention on Biological Diversity has adopted the IUCN Red List of endangered species in order to monitor and research species' population and habitats. Three nations have not ratified the Convention on Biological Diversity: Andorra, the Holy See (Vatican), and the United States.

Lonesome George Lonesome George was the only living member of the Pinta Island tortoise ( Chelonoidis abingdoni ) known to exist. The Pinta Island tortoise was only found on Pinta, one of the Galapagos Islands. The Charles Darwin Research Station, a scientific facility in the Galapagos, offered a $10,000 reward to any zoo or individual for locating a single Pinta Island tortoise female. On June 25, 2012, Lonesome George died, leaving one more extinct species in the world.

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Informative Speech on Animal Conservation

Ai generator.

Good evening, everyone,

Today, I want to discuss a crucial topic that affects the biodiversity and health of our planet: animal conservation. Specifically, I will talk about endangered species and the efforts being made to protect them. Understanding the importance of conservation can help us take action to preserve the incredible diversity of life on Earth.

Understanding Endangered Species

Endangered species are animals and plants that are at significant risk of extinction due to various factors such as habitat loss, poaching, climate change, and pollution. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) maintains the Red List of Threatened Species, which classifies species based on their risk of extinction.

Examples of Endangered Species

1. giant panda.

• Habitat : The giant panda is native to the mountainous regions of central China. It primarily lives in temperate forests with dense bamboo undergrowth.
• Threats : Habitat loss due to deforestation and agricultural expansion is the primary threat to giant pandas. Climate change also affects bamboo growth, their primary food source.
• Conservation Efforts : Conservation efforts include habitat restoration, the establishment of panda reserves, and captive breeding programs. These initiatives have helped increase the panda population, leading to its status being upgraded from “Endangered” to “Vulnerable.”

2. Sumatran Orangutan

• Habitat : The Sumatran orangutan is found only on the island of Sumatra in Indonesia, living in tropical rainforests.
• Threats : Deforestation for palm oil plantations, illegal logging, and poaching are significant threats to their survival.
• Conservation Efforts : Efforts to protect Sumatran orangutans include anti-poaching patrols, habitat restoration, and promoting sustainable palm oil production. Rehabilitation centers also work to reintroduce rescued orangutans back into the wild.

3. Amur Leopard

• Habitat : The Amur leopard is native to the temperate forests of the Russian Far East and northern China.
• Threats : Poaching for their beautiful fur, habitat destruction, and prey depletion are major threats.
• Conservation Efforts : Conservation measures include anti-poaching initiatives, habitat protection, and the establishment of protected areas. Captive breeding programs aim to boost the population and maintain genetic diversity.

4. Hawksbill Turtle

• Habitat : Hawksbill turtles are found in tropical coral reefs around the world.
• Threats : Illegal trade of their shells, marine pollution, climate change, and habitat loss threaten their survival.
• Conservation Efforts : International laws protect hawksbill turtles from poaching and trade. Efforts also include protecting nesting sites, reducing plastic pollution, and promoting sustainable fishing practices.

Efforts to Protect Endangered Species

1. legal protection.

• International Agreements : Treaties like the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) regulate and restrict trade in endangered species to prevent exploitation.
• National Laws : Many countries have enacted laws to protect endangered species and their habitats, such as the Endangered Species Act in the United States.

2. Habitat Conservation

• Protected Areas : Establishing national parks, wildlife reserves, and marine protected areas helps safeguard critical habitats from destruction and human encroachment.
• Habitat Restoration : Efforts to restore degraded ecosystems, such as reforestation and wetland restoration, help support endangered species populations.

3. Anti-Poaching Initiatives

• Law Enforcement : Strengthening law enforcement to combat poaching and illegal wildlife trade is crucial. This includes training rangers, enhancing surveillance, and imposing stricter penalties.
• Community Involvement : Engaging local communities in conservation efforts and providing alternative livelihoods can reduce dependence on poaching and promote sustainable practices.

4. Captive Breeding and Reintroduction

• Breeding Programs : Captive breeding programs in zoos and conservation centers help increase population numbers and genetic diversity. These programs can be essential for critically endangered species.
• Reintroduction : Successfully bred animals are often reintroduced into their natural habitats to boost wild populations. Careful planning ensures that reintroduction efforts support ecosystem balance and species survival.

5. Public Awareness and Education

• Education Campaigns : Raising awareness about endangered species and the importance of conservation through educational programs, documentaries, and media campaigns can mobilize public support.
• Citizen Science : Encouraging public participation in conservation activities, such as wildlife monitoring and habitat cleanups, fosters a sense of responsibility and involvement.

The conservation of endangered species is vital for maintaining biodiversity and the health of our ecosystems. Through legal protection, habitat conservation, anti-poaching initiatives, captive breeding, and public awareness, we can make significant strides in protecting these vulnerable species. Each of us can contribute to these efforts by supporting conservation organizations, making sustainable choices, and spreading awareness.

By working together, we can ensure that future generations will continue to enjoy the rich diversity of life on our planet.

Thank you for your attention.

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Protecting Endangered Species

This essay will discuss the importance of protecting endangered species. It will cover the reasons species become endangered, including habitat loss, climate change, and human activities. The piece will examine conservation efforts and strategies to protect biodiversity, such as habitat restoration, legal protections, and wildlife conservation programs. It will also discuss the broader ecological implications of species extinction and the role of international cooperation in conservation. PapersOwl showcases more free essays that are examples of Agriculture.

How it works

At the beginning of 2018, researches have calculated 801 different types of animals that have gone completely extinct of which 65 of them are extinct in the wild. Researches have calculated about 3,879 different types of animals that are critically endangered. People say protecting endangered animals is a waste of money, time, and has no benefits for us but here is why we should protect endangered species. Protecting endangered species would help raise environmental awareness to protect and bring order. Being able to bring environmental awareness, could help protect the ecosystem and help restore the number of species that have been endangered over time.

Species being extinct can affect our ecosystem because of the duties each of them may have. For example, there can be a plant that can bring more oxygen than others, a fish that protects underwater organisms for medicine or even for food. The number of species being extinct up to date has increased tremendously. While species are being extinct, we could be missing out on the significance of medicine and cures that are yet to be discovered. If one plant species gets extinct, the possible aids such as medicine will be lost. While many plants may be approaching extinction without our knowledge, these plants could contain a huge number of important compounds that can extend the human lifespan or the cure for deadly diseases. Even though plants are not the only source of medicine, there are multiple animals that are medically used like a scorpion venom is used by researchers for a brain tumor or a viper’s venom to control blood pressure.  In today’s society, some medical practices use fish scales on burned victims to help cure faster and not acquire any infections during the healing process. Agriculture also plays an important role in the protection of species. Farmers are often seen as the original environmentalists because many of them set aside parts of their land as a wildlife habitat for endangered fish and reptiles.

Many species, like bees, contain important inherited material that is needed to maintain crops. With the genes that scientists gathered from the DNAs of plants, they are pest or disease resistance, salt tolerance, and drought-resistant. These relations can be used to guarantee new crops will develop in the future. The opposing argument as to why endangered species should not be protected is it will take more money to save them than to just move on and species endangerment is a part of life. Protecting species should not be about the amount of money being wasted but should come from having the knowledge of what each species role is and how it impacts our everyday life. As for being part of our life and it just being a life cycle, the majority of the endangered species are used for agriculture, ecosystem, and medical purpose that can help save a life. A plan that that would help protect the endangerment of species is to create strict laws and security. Many countries have laws but a lot of them have been broken because they lack enforcement. Researches have calculated about 3,879 different types of animal’s that are critically endangered while people say protecting endangered animals is a waste of money, time, and have no benefits for us. Protecting these species is beneficial to us for medical purposes, agriculture, which majority of our food comes from farms that are needing support from species and evolving the world.

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Essay on Endangered Species in India

Students are often asked to write an essay on Endangered Species in India in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Endangered Species in India

Introduction.

Endangered species are those facing the risk of extinction. India, with its diverse ecosystems, is home to many such species.

Reasons for Endangerment

Habitat destruction, climate change, and poaching are major threats to these animals. Rapid urbanization and deforestation have led to loss of habitats.

Endangered Species in India

India hosts many endangered species like the Bengal Tiger, Asiatic Lion, Indian Rhinoceros, and Great Indian Bustard. Their numbers are dwindling due to human activities.

Conservation Efforts

India has established protected areas and launched projects like Project Tiger to conserve these species. However, more efforts are needed for their survival.

250 Words Essay on Endangered Species in India

India, a country with diverse ecosystems, is home to a plethora of wildlife species. However, rapid urbanization, deforestation, and climate change have led to a significant rise in the number of endangered species in India.

Threats to Wildlife

The primary threats to wildlife in India include habitat loss due to deforestation and urbanization, poaching, and climate change. These factors have resulted in a dramatic decline in the population of many species, pushing them towards extinction.

Endangered Species

Species like the Bengal Tiger, Indian Rhinoceros, and Asiatic Lion are on the brink of extinction. The Great Indian Bustard, one of the world’s heaviest flying birds, is critically endangered with fewer than 150 individuals remaining. The Ganges River Dolphin, India’s national aquatic animal, is also in danger due to pollution and dam construction.

India has taken several steps to conserve its biodiversity. The Indian Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, Project Tiger, and Project Elephant are notable initiatives. Moreover, the establishment of numerous national parks and wildlife sanctuaries has provided safe havens for these species.

While the efforts to conserve endangered species in India are commendable, much more needs to be done. It is crucial to balance development with conservation, ensuring that the rich biodiversity of India is preserved for future generations. The survival of these species is not just a matter of national pride, but also an ecological necessity.

500 Words Essay on Endangered Species in India

Endangered species are those at risk of extinction due to a rapid decrease in their population or a loss of their critical habitat. India, with its diverse ecosystems ranging from the Himalayas in the north to the evergreen rain-forests of the south, the desert sands of the west to the marshy mangroves of the east, is home to numerous species, many of which are endangered.

Causes of Endangerment

The primary causes of species endangerment in India are habitat destruction, climate change, overexploitation, disease, and pollution. Rapid industrialization and urbanization have led to deforestation and habitat fragmentation, pushing many species to the brink of extinction. Climate change, with its unpredictable weather patterns and rising temperatures, is altering habitats, thereby affecting species’ survival. Overexploitation, especially in the case of medicinal plants and animals, has also contributed to the decline in biodiversity.

Notable Endangered Species

The Bengal Tiger, Asiatic Lion, Indian Rhinoceros, Great Indian Bustard, and the Ganges River Dolphin are among the critically endangered species in India. Each of these species is a symbol of the rich biodiversity of India, and their potential loss would not only be a biological disaster but also a blow to the country’s natural heritage.

India has taken significant steps towards the conservation of its endangered species. The Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 provides for the protection of wild animals, birds, and plants. The Act also empowers the Central and State governments to declare any area a wildlife sanctuary, national park, or closed area. Additionally, India is a signatory to various international conventions aimed at biodiversity conservation, such as the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, and the Ramsar Convention.

Project Tiger, Project Elephant, and the Crocodile Conservation Project are some of the successful conservation efforts undertaken by the Indian government. These projects have not only helped in conserving the respective species but have also brought attention to the plight of other endangered species.

The Way Forward

While the efforts taken so far have been commendable, a lot more needs to be done to ensure the survival of endangered species in India. Enhanced legal enforcement, habitat restoration, community engagement, and scientific research are crucial for effective conservation. In addition, the integration of biodiversity conservation into developmental policies is imperative for sustainable development.

It is also essential to raise public awareness about the importance of biodiversity and the consequences of species extinction. This can be achieved through education and outreach programs, which can foster a sense of responsibility towards the environment and motivate individuals to participate in conservation efforts.

The survival of endangered species is a shared responsibility. It is not just about preserving biodiversity for its own sake, but also about maintaining the health and balance of our ecosystems, which ultimately impact human survival. As we continue to strive for economic progress, it is crucial that we also prioritize the conservation of our natural heritage. The loss of any species is a loss for us all, and it is our duty to ensure that we do not let this happen.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

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Is Shrimp Good for You? It’s Complicated.

Americans love their prawns. So how healthy are they — for us and for the planet?

Credit... Yasu & Junko/Trunk Archive

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By Erik Vance

Erik Vance has spent years reporting on the fishing industry and many hours on shrimping boats of all sizes, especially in Mexico.

• Published May 28, 2024 Updated May 29, 2024

Americans aren’t particularly enthusiastic about seafood. We eat less than half of what a Japanese or Indonesian person does. Less than a third of the average Icelander . But there is one big exception: shrimp.

Our appetite for the fat little crustacean has increased for decades, with the average American now eating almost six pounds per year, far more than any other ocean product. Just ask Red Lobster: The struggling seafood chain declared bankruptcy this month, citing, among other things, an all-you-can-eat shrimp scheme that cost the company $11 million when it underestimated how much people would eat.

But how healthy is our favorite seafood? Is it good for our bodies? What about the world’s mangrove forests and sea turtle populations? And how do you know what to buy the next time you are at the seafood counter?

Human health

Shrimp is a good source of protein, on par with, say, a rib-eye steak. It’s high in calcium and vitamin B12. It’s low in saturated fat, which makes it heart-healthy. And while shrimp is high in cholesterol, experts no longer worry as much about dietary cholesterol’s effect on health.

But if you are looking for the other nutritional benefits we expect from seafood, you will be disappointed. Shrimp tails aren’t particularly high in omega-3 fatty acid, iron or iodine. “From a nutritional perspective,” said Zach Koehn, a nutrition researcher at Stanford University’s Center for Ocean Solutions, “it’s kind of like the white meat of the sea.”

Most seafoods are richer in nutrients than land-based meat , but the shrimp species that Americans consume are low on that list, near the bottom with cod and tilapia. Chicken has more protein, and seafood like sardines, salmon and oysters are far more nutrient rich.

However, because they’re near the bottom of the food chain, shrimp don’t generally tend to accumulate the environmental toxins , like mercury or dioxins, found in big predators such as tuna or swordfish. This puts them on the Food and Drug Administration’s “best choices” list for pregnant women and children, meaning they’re considered safe to eat two or three times a week.

So are there any health downsides to shrimp? A few. Frozen shrimp may contain preservatives like sodium tripolyphosphate and sodium bisulfite , which people with sulfite or phosphate sensitivities may want to avoid. And farmed shrimp can pose a few issues of their own, depending on their country of origin and the condition of individual farms.

Mercury and arsenic can build up in the sludge under shrimp ponds, said José Antonio Rodríguez Martín, a biologist who has studied the issue for the National Institute for Agricultural and Food Research and Technology in Spain. However, even the highest levels of heavy metals Dr. Martín has found in Ecuadorean farmed shrimp were half of what one sees in the least contaminated tuna. He said that meant they posed “no excessive risk” for most people.

In many countries, shrimp farms also use large amounts of antibiotics to keep the animals healthy. Some of the drugs, like nitrofurans, can cause liver damage and are linked to cancer, and almost all are banned in the United States.

Shipments that comply with U.S. law are safe — but not all shipments do, said Julie Lively, a crustacean expert and associate professor at the Louisiana State University AgCenter. Her research , and that of others, has found banned antibiotics in imported shrimp, as well as unlabeled preservatives.

While contaminated imported shrimp is a problem that needs more research, she said it was probably not a grave health risk, comparing it to that posed by plastic packaging. “It kind of comes down to personal choice,” she said. However, she added, antibiotics can cause an allergic reaction in people who are sensitive to them.

The environmental and human costs of shrimp

Now for the really bad news: When it comes to the health of the oceans, many experts say shrimp is among the most damaging foods you can eat. That’s not because shrimp are endangered — most species are resilient — but because of what we have to do to get them.

Most prawns on American plates are imported, primarily from Asia and Latin America. More than half of them are raised in farms: sprawling networks of densely packed coastal ponds, often next to the ocean. Building them destroys crucial coastal habitats like mangrove swamps and other wetlands. And once built, farms can further pollute the coasts with runoff like fertilizers and antibiotics.

Wild-caught shrimp also come with an enormous ecological price: bycatch. Because shrimp are so small, the nets used to catch them tend to catch everything else in their path. In some countries, as much as 90 percent of what comes up in a shrimp net isn’t shrimp. Those sharks, turtles, baby snappers and hundreds of other species tend to die in the nets or on the deck of the boat.

In some places, shrimp production has been downright horrific for humans as well. In 2015, The Associated Press revealed the wide use of slave labor in the Thai shrimp industry . The U.S. Department of Labor has also called out shrimp production in Bangladesh, Myanmar and Cambodia for using child or forced labor.

More recently, investigative reporting from The Outlaw Ocean Project offered a damning look at shrimp farming in India, the biggest shrimp importer to the United States, that raised concerns not just about labor practices, but also banned antibiotics and environmental damage.

How to buy shrimp that’s good for you and the world

Buying healthy and sustainable shrimp is possible — but it takes some work.

To begin with, you need to know where your prawns came from and how they were produced, said Corbett Nash, a spokesman for Monterey Bay Aquarium’s Seafood Watch, an online resource to help consumers make informed seafood choices.

If you are worried about your effect on the environment, farmed shrimp probably has a slight edge, Mr. Nash said. The most sustainable products come from the United States and Canada. But they represent less than 1 percent of the U.S. market and can be hard to find.

Ecuador, the second biggest source of shrimp in the United States, is a good alternative, Mr. Nash said. Honduras and Thailand have relatively strong environmental regulations, too, despite Thailand’s poor human rights record. Avoid most shrimp from India, Indonesia and Mexico, he added.

Wild-caught shrimp are more expensive but also tastier and less likely to be contaminated with environmental toxins. If you’re buying them, fishing practices in the United States and Canada again tend to be less harmful to ocean life than they are elsewhere. Otherwise, look for shrimp certified by the Marine Stewardship Council.

Beyond that, good advice gets complicated quickly, as it varies by country, species and fishing practices. You are best off consulting an online guide .

But experts said the most important thing you can do is simply ask about sustainable options. Even if your waiter or fishmonger has no idea where the shrimp came from — or whether, say, the boat used a turtle excluder device — the question puts pressure on the industry.

“That signifies that there is a desire for sustainable seafood,” Mr. Nash said, “and we can hope that that trickles up to the retailers, that’ll go to the buyers, that’ll go to producers.”

In the end, decisions around shrimp come down to your values about what you eat. Dr. Rodriguez Martín and Dr. Lively said they eat shrimp, as does Mr. Nash, though rarely, and he reads the packaging meticulously. Dr. Lively generally eats shrimp only from the United States.

Dr. Koehn doesn’t eat shrimp, but he tries not to lecture friends and family. Recently his niece had a first communion that included an all-you-can-eat shrimp buffet.

“Do I talk about the labor abuses and the impact on the oceans?” he asked, shaking his head. “They’re 10 years old. Let them enjoy it, and break it to them later.”

An earlier version of this article misidentified the relative of Zach Koehn who was having a first communion. It was his niece, not his nephew.

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Erik Vance is a staff editor for The Times’s Well desk, where he focuses on coverage of fitness and a healthy lifestyle. More about Erik Vance

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Zoos for Conservation of Endangered Species Essay

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The last several decades could be characterized by the increased number of environmental problems that resulted in the alteration of climate and landscapes. These processes also had a great pernicious impact on animals living in different areas. For this reason, zoos became almost the only hope for the preservation and conservation of endangered species. If to compare with the past century, their role has altered greatly. In the 50s, zoos used to be fun centers where animals were kept just for entertainment. However, at the moment, they could be considered important scientific and research centers that investigate the current situation related to species and create conditions needed for their survival and further preservation. Moreover, zoos also perform a great educating role by providing important information about endangered species to people and teaching them how to save animals. Therefore, they are also important conservation centers as a significant number of animals could be found only here.

Nevertheless, even though zoos are crucial for the modern world, they also face some challenges that might impact the final result and make their conservation efforts less efficient. For instance, the preservation of endangered species is rather costly, and not all zoos could afford it. There is a great need for space, specific conditions, investigations, care, etc. (Keulartz, 2015). The combination of all these aspects contributes to the increased complexity of the main task and zoos might experience economic pressure from the government or sponsors. However, it is crucial to remember that their functioning is vital in the modern environment and there should be no limits related to their development (Kobilinsky, 2016). If we want to see some species, we should sponsor zoos.

Therefore, we have already stated that zoos are responsible for the preservation of animals included in the Endangered Species List. Certain criteria are used when considering the character of a certain animal, population size, peculiarities of the area, etc. Besides, the first thing that is taken into account is the number of animal units and the tendencies that are observed at the moment. Therefore, scientists also consider the way they might impact endangered species. This process is extremely important as it helps people to preserve some kinds of animals and guarantee their survival.

For instance, in the Reid Park Zoo in Arizona, we can watch elephants.

The given chart demonstrates their main activities and distribution of time. We could see that elephants are not very active, but they still have some social life (“ Zoo cams ,” n.d.). They also like bathing, playing, and, of course, eating.

Altogether, I should say that my attitude to elephants has not changed. I am sure that they are wonderful animals that should be protected by all means. Unfortunately, people are killing them for their tooth. It is a horrible practice, and it should be stopped for our children to be able to enjoy these animals.

However, I used to see these animals before. That is why my feelings were not unique. Therefore, I believe that for those who have never seen elephants it could be a great experience and have a great impact on their feelings towards wildlife and conservation. They will be able to understand that a great threat exists at the moment and all efforts should be devoted to the attempts to save them.

Keulartz, J. (2015). Captivity for conservation? Zoos at a crossroads . Web.

Kobilinsky, D. (2016). New live cam technology might help conservation . Web.

Zoo cams . (n.d.). Web.

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IvyPanda. (2020, September 17). Zoos for Conservation of Endangered Species. https://ivypanda.com/essays/zoos-for-conservation-of-endangered-species/

"Zoos for Conservation of Endangered Species." IvyPanda , 17 Sept. 2020, ivypanda.com/essays/zoos-for-conservation-of-endangered-species/.

IvyPanda . (2020) 'Zoos for Conservation of Endangered Species'. 17 September.

IvyPanda . 2020. "Zoos for Conservation of Endangered Species." September 17, 2020. https://ivypanda.com/essays/zoos-for-conservation-of-endangered-species/.

1. IvyPanda . "Zoos for Conservation of Endangered Species." September 17, 2020. https://ivypanda.com/essays/zoos-for-conservation-of-endangered-species/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Zoos for Conservation of Endangered Species." September 17, 2020. https://ivypanda.com/essays/zoos-for-conservation-of-endangered-species/.