functionalist perspective on crime and deviance essay

Functionalist Views of Crime and Deviance – Durkheim, Merton & Cohen

Functionalist views of crime and deviance.

By Jason Taylor

Functionalism is a macro-level sociological perspective that seeks to understand how different aspects of society work together as a whole. Advocates of functionalism argue that society is a complex system of interrelated parts, where each part plays a role in maintaining the stability of the entire system. Key areas of focus for functionalist theories are the roles of social institutions such as schools, families, and the media. They look at how these institutions serve functions for society, such as preparing the workforce, socializing children, and upholding social order. Key thinkers in this field, including Émile Durkheim, Talcott Parsons, and Robert K. Merton, were interested in how social institutions uphold societal norms and values.

Functionalists maintain that crime and deviance are a normal part of any society and can serve useful functions. They emphasise the role that crime and deviance play in maintaining social stability and unity. According to functionalists, crime and deviance are not out of the ordinary, but are in fact integral parts of a healthy society. While many may view crime and deviance as harmful, functionalists see them as contributing to social order and cohesion.

Émile Durkheim

A significant part of functionalist theory is influenced by the work of Émile Durkheim. Durkheim suggested that crime is both a normal and functional part of all societies.

Crime is not only observed in most societies of a particular species, but in all societies of all types. There is not one in which criminality does not exist, although it changes in form and the actions which are termed criminal are not everywhere the same. Yet everywhere and always there have been men who have conducted themselves in such a way as to bring down punishment upon their heads. (Durkheim, 1895, p. 98).

…crime is normal because it is completely impossible for any society entirely free of it to exist (Durkheim, 1895, p. 99).

Durkheim believed that shared norms and values are necessary for the ongoing survival of any society. However, there will always be some individuals whose behaviour deviates from these norms and values. Durkheim illustrates this with the example of a ‘community of saints.’ In such a community where everyone tries to adhere perfectly to social norms, minor infractions could be considered as deviant or even criminal.

Imagine a community of saints in an exemplary and perfect monastery. In it crime as such will be unknown, but faults that appear venial to the ordinary person will arouse the same scandal as does normal crime in ordinary consciences (Durkheim, 1895, p, 100).

In this imaginary ‘community of saints,’ everyday actions like sneezing or misspeaking might be considered major crimes.

Durkheim further argued that crime and deviant behaviour are necessary for maintaining social order. These behaviours can highlight societal issues or aspects of society that are not functioning well. For instance, rates of theft could suggest rising economic hardship, and increasing violence could suggest the need for schools to stress non-violent values more.

Thus crime is necessary. It is linked to the basic conditions of social life. but on this very account is useful, for the conditions to which it is bound are themselves indispensable to the normal evolution of morality and law (Durkheim, 1895, 101).

Moreover, public anger against criminal behaviour helps to strengthen social solidarity. When a serious crime happens, like a murder, people often come together to denounce the crime and the criminal. This sense of unity strengthens the community. In this sense, crime can be functional, because the resulting public anger strengthens societal convictions because the resulting outrage and anger … “far from shaking our convictions, has the effect on us of strengthening them even more” (Durkheim, 1893, p. 76).

Robert K. Merton

Robert K. Merton argued that crime often originates from a condition he termed ‘anomie’. Anomie describes a state of ‘normlessness’, which emerges from a mismatch between socially determined goals and the available means achieve them. In a society, for instance, where material success is highly valued but opportunities for achieving it are scarce, crime may become an attractive alternative for some individuals.

Merton (1938) identifies five ‘modes of adaptation’ resulting from this anomie:

• Conformity: This refers to individuals who accept societal goals and strive towards them via legitimate means.
• Innovation: Innovators embrace societal goals but employ illegitimate means to reach them. An individual aiming for wealth who lacks lucrative employment, for example, may resort to crime to accumulate wealth.
• Ritualism: Ritualists embrace the means provided by society but abandon the pursuit of societal goals. This might be someone working in an unfulfilling job who has given up on career advancement.
• Retreatism: Retreatists disengage both from socially accepted goals and the means to achieve them, like a person who, disenchanted with societal norms, succumbs to substance abuse.
• Rebellion: Rebels refuse both societal goals and means, attempting instead to establish a new social order. This may be a person who joins a revolutionary movement, believing the current social order to be unjust.

Albert Cohen

Functionalism was also utilized by Albert Cohen (1955) to develop his theory of subcultural delinquency, linking crime to ‘status frustration’—the feeling of failure in achieving desired societal status. According to Cohen, individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds who strive for the status of the affluent may resort to crime to attain recognition, albeit through non-legal means. Cohen suggests that lower-class boys frustrated with their societal status form subcultures with their own norms and values, potentially glorifying crime and violence as means to achieve status.

Peer pressure significantly influences subcultural delinquency. Youth exposed to a circle of peers involved in crime and violence are more likely to participate in such activities. Peer pressure also reinforces subcultural norms and values, thus making deviation more challenging.

Gangs often exemplify subcultural delinquency, providing belonging and identity to those feeling excluded from mainstream culture. They also offer a way to earn status and respect, although often through illicit means.

Media plays a role in subcultural delinquency, as its portrayal of crime and violence can make such behaviour appealing to young people. The media may inadvertently provide information on how to commit crimes, simplifying youth’s involvement in criminal activities.

Various intervention programs have been devised to deter subcultural delinquency, emphasizing positive role models, opportunities for success, and stress management techniques. While some evidence indicates these programs can lower crime rates, further research is required to assess their long-term effects.

Functionalism has significantly shaped our understanding of crime and deviance, despite criticisms that it oversimplifies issues and overlooks individual motivations. Critics like Cullen and Messner (2007) question the ability of functionalist theories to explain why some individuals commit crimes while others do not.

However, the strength of functionalist theories lies in their macro-level view of crime, helping to understand how society contributes to crime’s creation and persistence. They also highlight the potential positive functions of crime, allowing us to view crime as a complex phenomenon with both negative and positive consequences. As Reiner (2007) suggests, crime can sometimes serve social control, fostering unity and strengthening social bonds. It may also instigate social change by highlighting areas of injustice or dysfunction in the social order.

Cohen, A. K. (1955). Delinquent boys: The culture of the gang. Free Press.

Cullen, F. T., & Messner, S. F. (2007). Theories of crime (5th ed.). Transaction Publishers.

Durkheim, É. (1964). The rules of sociological method. The Free Press.

Hirschi, T. (1969). Causes of delinquency. University of California Press.

Merton, R. K. (1938). Social structure and anomie. American Sociological Review, 3(5), 672-682.

Reiner, R. (2007). Crime and deviance. Oxford University Press.

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The Functionalist View of Crime in Sociology

In sociology, the functionalist perspective is one of the major theoretical frameworks used to understand society and its various components. When it comes to crime, functionalists provide a unique perspective that highlights the role of deviance and its functions within a social system. This viewpoint seeks to analyze how crime and deviance contribute to the overall functioning and stability of society.

Understanding Functionalism

Functionalism is a theoretical approach that views society as a complex system composed of interconnected parts that work together to maintain social order and stability. According to functionalists, every institution and social phenomenon has a specific purpose or function that contributes to the overall functioning of society. Crime and deviance , although seemingly negative, are seen as integral parts of this system.

The Functions of Crime

From a functionalist perspective, crime serves several important functions within society. Firstly, it acts as a boundary-setting mechanism, defining what is considered acceptable behavior and reinforcing social norms and values. By labeling certain behaviors as deviant or criminal, society establishes clear boundaries of acceptable conduct, which helps maintain social order and cohesion.

Secondly, crime provides a platform for social change. Functionalists argue that deviant behavior and criminal acts often emerge as a response to social inequalities or structural issues within society. By highlighting these problems, crime can act as a catalyst for social reform and improvement. For example, civil rights movements and protests against injustice have often been driven by the recognition of crime and deviance.

Thirdly, crime functions as a mechanism for social solidarity. When a crime is committed, it often leads to a collective response from society. This response can strengthen social bonds and reinforce a sense of community. In times of crisis, such as natural disasters or terrorist attacks, communities come together to support and protect each other, fostering a sense of unity and solidarity.

Deviance as a Safety Valve

Functionalists also argue that deviance and crime can serve as a safety valve for social tensions and frustrations. By allowing individuals to engage in deviant behavior or criminal acts, society provides an outlet for individuals to express their dissatisfaction or discontent with the existing social order. This release of tension can prevent more disruptive forms of social unrest, such as riots or revolutions.

Moreover, functionalists believe that the existence of crime creates a need for social control. The response to deviance and criminal acts often leads to the establishment of formal and informal mechanisms of control, such as law enforcement agencies and community watch programs. These mechanisms not only aim to prevent and punish crime but also create a sense of security and order within society.

Critiques of the Functionalist Perspective

While the functionalist view of crime offers valuable insights into the role of deviance in society, it has also faced criticism. One of the main critiques is that functionalism tends to overlook the negative consequences of crime, such as the harm caused to victims and the perpetuation of social inequalities.

Additionally, functionalism assumes that all social institutions and phenomena work harmoniously to maintain social order. However, this perspective may overlook the conflicts and power imbalances that exist within society , which can contribute to the occurrence of crime and deviance.

The functionalist view of crime provides a unique perspective on the role of deviance in society. It emphasizes the functions that crime serves, such as boundary-setting, social change, social solidarity , and tension release. However, it is important to consider the limitations of this perspective and acknowledge the complexities and negative consequences associated with crime and deviance.

Mr Edwards has a PhD in sociology and 10 years of experience in sociological knowledge

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Functionalist Approach to Deviance and Crime Essay

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Deviance and crime are two very important social problems faced by humanity today. Deviance generally refers to behavior or behaviors which go against what is acceptable by the community. It is action in ways not considered to be normal by the larger society. This is in relevance to the norms established by the society under consideration.

Consequently, what may be considered as an act of deviance in one society may not be so in a different society. Crime on the other hand is utter disobedience to the written laws. It is however true that the written laws are largely influenced by the society’s set of norms. There are different explanations as to why people engage in deviance or crime in the society. This paper looks at the functionalist approach to the explanation of the causes of deviance and crime.

The theory was developed by Durkheim who noticed that traditional societies were better bound by common norms as opposed to the modern societies a condition which he termed as anomie. This being the case, people are at greater liberty to pursue their own interests as opposed to collective interest. Some level of deviance is however healthy as it leads to better adaptation of the society.

The functionalist approach argues that too much individualism leads to increased deviance and crime. This is because a large portion of the society wishes to behave against the established norms as they serve their own interests. Individualism is a selfish approach towards every aspect of life.

The individual is only interested in furthering their selfish interests and often, this approach is in conflict with what is socially acceptable. An example is a case where an adult deprives his/her children of the required necessities of life despite them having them adequately. In such a case, the individual is engaged in deviance as a result of extreme selfishness resulting from individualism.

Secondly, Robert Merton developed the theory by explaining the causes of deviance and crime as a result of strain. Strain here is defined as a condition witnessed within societies whose members cannot access adequate legit channels which enable the achievement of socially defined goals.

This factor is seen as an adequate incentive towards the pursuit of alternative means including deviance and crime. An example of a case where strain causes individuals to be deviant and engage in crime is a case a poor parent faces the challenge of providing for his/her family. The aim of providing for the family is definitely socially defined and acceptable however, they are unable to achieve it in ways which are socially acceptable as they lack the requisite resources and opportunities.

Again, under the functionalist approach deviance and crime are compared to a safety channel. An example is the case of prostitution where the sexual services are availed without significant threat to the concerned person’s marriage. In addition, deviance is seen as being functional due to the fact that it offers the persons charged with the responsibility of managing it with economic and other opportunities.

These views explain the rationale behind the assertion that areas with higher inequality in terms of income and opportunities experience much higher rates of crime and deviance in relation to other societies with high levels of equality. Indeed such trends have been observed across the world.

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Theories of crime and deviance: functionalist

Introduction to Functionalist Theories

• The Functionalist school of thought in sociology views deviance and crime as inevitable and even necessary parts of society.
• Durkheim , a key functionalist thinker, proposed that crime functions to establish boundaries and create social cohesion.

Durkheim’s Theory of Crime and Deviance

• Durkheim proposed that crime is necessary and serves several key functions, such as reinforcing collective values and contributing to social change. He asserts that crime exists in all societies, suggesting a certain level is normal.
• His concept of Anomie (normlessness) explains societal conditions in which individuals are likely to violate norms. Anomie can occur during periods of rapid social change or serious societal disorder.
• He also touched on the issue of society’s collective conscience , comprising widely held beliefs and values in a society. A collective conscience often sets the norms and boundaries of behavior, thereby defining the deviant act.

Merton’s Strain Theory

• Merton’s Strain Theory is a development of Durkheim’s Concept of Anomie. Merton claimed that American society places a strong emphasis on success, yet only a limited number of people can realistically achieve success in socially acceptable ways (i.e., by educational attainment or occupational achievement).
• This discrepancy between cultural goals (what society considers success) and institutionalized means (acceptable ways to achieve success) results in strain, leading individuals to resort to deviant means to reach these goals.
• Merton outlines five possible responses to this strain: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism and rebellion.

Other Functionalist Theories

• Other functionalist theories include Parsons’s ‘sick role’ theory, which proposes that deviant behavior can function as a form of social sanction or warning sign, drawing attention to an area of social life that is not functioning properly.
• Hirschi’s Control Theory suggests that people are deterred from criminal behaviour not by punishment, but by their relationships with others, commitments to conventional activities, involvement in activities and belief in moral validity of social rules.
• Functionalist theories see crime and deviance as not necessarily negative but an integral part of social structure. They provide a lens to understand why certain behaviors are considered deviant and how social change influences these definitions.
• While these theories have been criticised, particularly for their deterministic nature and neglect of power relations, they remain foundational in the study of crime and deviance, encouraging a broader understanding of society’s role in crime and deviance.

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Functionalist Perspective on Deviance

This paper focuses on and summarizes the functionalist perspective of deviance, the function of crimes, and how these perspectives have influenced the development of Durkheim’s work, anomie, for example. In this regard, our aim is to carefully describe the contributions of important functionalist thinkers such as Emile Durkheim and Robert K. Merton, by providing a brief historical discussion that highlights their contributions to deviance and crime research. Further, we are also primarily interested in how the functionalist tradition has influenced contemporary works. In this regard, this paper focuses on the most relevant theories that are related to sources of strain including Robert Merton’s “structural strain theory,” Steven Messner and Richard Rosenfeld’s “institutional anomie” and Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin’s “differential opportunity theory. This paper presents these contemporary thinker’s views and in addition to that it presents a detailed discussion of their major studies published since 2000.

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John Cochran

In Crime and the American Dream, Messner and Rosenfeld contend that culturally and structurally produced pressures to secure monetary rewards, coupled with weak controls from noneconomic social institutions , promote high levels of instrumental crime. Empirically, they suggest that the effects of economic conditions on profit-related crime depend on the strength of noneconomic institutions. This investigation evaluates this proposition with cross-sectional data for U.S. states. In brief; the nonlinear models show considerable, indirect support for Messner and Rosenfeld's institutional anomie theory, revealing that the effects of poverty on property crime depend on levels of structural indicators of the capacity of noneconomic institutions to ameliorate the criminogenic impact of economic deprivation. The implications of these findings are discussed.

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Using strain theory to examine the relationship between sources of personal strain and ethical standards, we study how variations in the self-employed's household income, educational level, associational membership, and trust in institutions link to the extent to which they maintain high ethical standards. We test our hypotheses using data from 3716 self-employed persons across 39 countries. The self-employed's ethical standards relate positively to their household income and trust in institutions but negatively to their educational level and associational membership. A supplementary exploratory analysis provides further insights into how broader cultural and institutional contexts in which the self-employed are embedded might influence the relationship between sources of personal strain and ethical standards.

Scott Lukas , Stuart Henry

"This volume contains recent and cutting-edge articles from leading criminological theorists. The book is organized into ten sections, each representing the latest in the multi-disciplinary orientations representing a cross-section of contemporary criminological theory. These sections include: 1: Classical and Rational Choice; 2: Biological and Biosocial; 3: Psychological; 4: Social Learning and Neutralization; 5: Social Control; 6: Social Ecology, Sub-cultural and Cultural; 7: Anomie and Strain; 8: Conflict and Radical; 9: Feminist and Gender; 10: Critical Criminologies: Anarchist, Postmodernist, Peacemaking. The articles were selected based on their contributions to advancing the field, including ways in which the authors of each chapter understand the current theoretical tendencies of their respective approaches and how they envision the future of their theories. Because of this, the articles focus on theory rather than empirical research. Of particular note is the tendency toward integration of different perspectives, as described by editors, Henry and Lukas, in their original introduction to this volume. Contents: Introduction; Part I Classical and Rational Choice Theories: Rational choice, deterrence, and theoretical integration, David A. Ward, Mark C. Stafford and Louis N. Gray; A crying shame: the over-rationalized conception of man in the rational choice perspective, Willem de Haan and Jaco Vos. Part II Biological and Biosocial Theories: A theory explaining biological correlates of criminality, Lee Ellis; Behavior genetics and anomie/strain theory, Anthony Walsh. Part III Psychological Theories: An alternative psychology of criminal behavior, Julie Horney; A sociocognitive analysis of substance abuse: an agentic perspective, Albert Bandura. Part IV Social Learning and Neutralization Theories: Moral disengagement in the perpetration of inhumanities, Albert Bandura; When being good is bad: an expansion of neutralization theory, Volkan Topalli. Part V Social Control Theories: In defense of self-control, Travis Hirschi and Michael R. Gottfredson; Refining control balance theory, Charles R. Tittle. Part VI Social Ecology, Subcultural and Cultural Theories: Transcending tradition: new directions in community research, Chicago style, Robert J. Sampson; New directions in social disorganization theory, Charis E. Kubrin and Ronald Weitzer. Part VII Anomie and Strain Theories: Anomie, social change and crime, Jon Gunnar Bernburg; Building on the foundation of general strain theory: specifying the types of strain most likely to lead to crime and delinquency, Robert Agnew. Part VIII Conflict and Radical Theories: Revisionist history, visionary criminology, and needs-based justice, Gregg Barak; The state of the criminology of crimes of the state, Dawn L. Rothe and David O. Friedrichs. Part IX Feminist and Gender Theories: Patriarchy, crime, and justice: feminist criminology in an era of backlash, Meda Chesney-Lind; Feminist state theory: applications to jurisprudence, criminology, and the welfare state, Lynne A Haney. Part X Critical Criminologies: Anarchist, Postmodernist, Peacemaking: Constitutive criminology: origins, core concepts, and evaluation, Stuart Henry and Dragan Milovanovic; Against the law: anarchist criminology, Jeff Ferrell; Restorative justice: what is it and does it work?, Carrie Menkel-Meadow. Part XI Conclusion: Interdisciplinary integration: building criminology by stealing from our friends, D. Wayne Osgood; Name Index."

Sociological Forum

Thoroddur Bjarnason

Anomie is a complex, dynamic concept that refers simultaneously to a social state and an individual state of mind. Generations of sociologists have attempted to clarify, extend, and measure the concept at various levels of analysis. This article summarizes these developments around the twin concepts of exteriority and constraint. Exteriority refers to experiencing the social world as an objective, predictable reality, while constraint refers to the extent to which one experiences a personal commitment to the demands and expectations of society. The Anomie Scale of Exteriority and Constraint (ASEC) is presented and tested across various psychological and social outcomes among adolescents in 18 European countries. Exteriority is found to be primarily associated with more depression and less self-esteem, while constraint is associated with a lower probability of daily smoking, illicit drug use, truancy, and suicide attempts. Societal anomie is higher in eastern European countries and it has a strong negative correlation with GDP per capita and a marginally positive correlation with GDP growth. Societal anomie is also associated with higher baseline levels of depression, self-esteem, and illicit drug use. These results lend strong support to the theoretical construct of anomie as exteriority and constraint.

Dr.Rajkumar Nayak

Akers (2000: 159) has operationalized Agnew's version of the Strain Theory, as follows: Failure to achieve positively valued goals: the gap between expectations and actual achievements will derive from short- and long-term personal goals, and some of those goals will never be realized because of unavoidable circumstances including both inherent weaknesses and opportunities blocked by others; and the difference between the view of what a person believes the outcome should be and what actually results increases personal disappointment. Frustration is not necessarily due to any outside interference with valued goals, but a direct effect on anger, and has indirect effects on serious crime and aggression. Agnew and White (1992) have produced empirical evidence suggesting that general strain theory was positively able to relate delinquents and drug users, and that the strongest effect on the delinquents studied was the delinquency of their peers. They were interested in drug use because it did not appear to represent an attempt to direct anger or escape pain, but "is used primarily to manage the negative affect caused by strain." Up to this point, strain theory had been concerned with types of strain rather than sources of strain whereas the stress of events can be shown to interfere with the achievement of natural expectations or just and fair outcomes. These may be significant events or minor "hassles" that accumulate and demoralize over time. Frustration leads to dissatisfaction, resentment, and anger — all the emotions customarily associated with strain in criminology. It is natural for individuals to feel distress when they are denied just rewards for their efforts when compared to the efforts and rewards given to similar others for similar outcomes. Agnew (1992) treats anger as the most critical emotion since it is almost always directed outwards and is often related to breakdowns in relationships. Research shows that the stress/crime relationship appears to hold regardless of guilt feelings, age, and capacity to cope when events occur simultaneously or in close succession.

Homicide and Violent Crime (Sociology of Crime, Law and Deviance)

James Pratt Jr

Abstract Purpose – This chapter problematizes the concept of the “American Dream” – important for Messner and Rosenfeld’s Intuitional Anomie Theory (IAT). Design/methodology/approach – The author uses work from political science, specifically Adcock and Collier in conversation with Gerring to consider if the American Dream concept is “good.” The author continues by contending that the work on the state, its power and reach, can assist with the reconceptualization of IAT and the American Dream concept theoretically and methodologically. Findings – The author finds that the American Dream concept, while not completely inadequate, significantly departs from Adams’ original definition in The Epic of America while also being associated with mixed findings as it relates to race and the likelihood of violence. The author concludes that through critical work (e.g., Moten’s “The Case for Blackness” and Ahmed’s “Phenomenology of Whiteness”) that in order to better develop this basis of desire in the American Dream concept there is a need to integrate a growing body of work that critically engages with the legacy of racial violence and racialized social conditioning. The author concludes that by studying the ontology/phenomenon of race, understandings of cultural desire may be understood in order to inform IAT. Originality/value – This chapter provides a framework for evaluating concepts with interdisciplinary conversations with political science. The author’s findings also add to a body of work that, through cross-disciplinary conversations, work to tease out the socio-ecological and historical conditions that influence the interaction of structure and culture that lead to anomie and ultimately deviance.

Samuel Okey

Sociological theories are focused towards analyzing and explaining situations and circumstances surrounding social phenomenon, interpreting them and predicting their likelihood hence, the relevance of sociological theories in every human society to scholarly evaluate the direction of the society for important action by the members of the society. Among the sociological theories, Anomie theory (Though relatively old) is one of the foundational sociological theories by one of the founding fathers of Sociology which, still hold relevance in the explanation of the modern social institutions. In view of the explaining power of anomie theory about the malfunctioning of the social institutions, this paper draw from the various perspectives on anomie theory such as Durkheimian perspective, Parsonian perspective and Mertons, in examining the healthiness of the Nigerian social institutions such as the political institution, economic institution, religious institution, family institution etc.

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Functionalist perspective on deviance

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Functionalism: Crime and Deviance in Society

The utopian vision of a peaceful world, in which all of the wars would end and violence vanish, has never been realised in practice. Some argue that it is due to contemporary economic and political approaches that prevent people prosperity and promote unethical conduct. Others believe that it is the nature of a human being and of the human interaction as a whole. Functionalists discover and explain the issue by looking at society from a structural and systematic perspective, emphasising the role of order and interdependence within the system (Fourie, 2016). They believe that acts of crime and deviance play a significant role in fulfilling the societal needs and preventing the breakdown of an established structure (Turner, 2017). While the functionalism theory has lost its widespread application and use, its ideas continue to guide many scholars even today. This paper will analyse the functionalist approach towards the role of crime and deviance in society and evaluate its implications in the modern world.

First, it is important to begin with an overall overview of the theory. According to Turner (2017, p.1), “functionalism was sociology’s first major theoretical and methodological approach for understanding the social universe”, which invented the idea of structures and systems of connections not only between humans but also among other organisms. The structure functions to maintain interaction that is necessary for keeping political, economic, and cultural equilibrium in society (Fourie, 2016). In response to the increasing success of engineering and technology, early supporters of functionalism attempted to connect and explain cultural aspects through natural sciences, such as biological theory (Turner, 2017). As a result, three fundamental societal needs were established, which are operation, regulation, and distribution, while governments were meant to enforce them (Turner, 2017). Issues of crime and deviance directly derive from the functionalist system’s components, which are responsible for ensuring continuous functionality and well-being.

Next, notions of crime and deviance themselves need to be categorised and differentiated. Scholars and theorists categorise the two as something that is not related to an established system or does not fit into it. Douglas (1966) (cited in Asquith, 2017, p.1), for instance, described deviance as a “matter out of place”. Similarly, crime is also excess to and a break of social and cultural values, but the difference lies in their perceived harmfulness (Little, 2016). While deviance and crime are often connected together, the second has much more severe outcomes, which cannot be tolerated (Asquith, 2017). The lines that separate these notions are fluid and challenging to draw. It is not only difficult to introduce deviance and crime classifying measures but also impossible to establish a universal norm because of numerous distinct cultures and communities (Little, 2016). However, functionalist scholars were able to unite these norm violations with the theory through social control and order.

Despite the arising controversy, crime and deviance are crucial for the operation of the functionalism system. Many question the relevance of such harmful behaviour with the state of social order as it is presented and believed to be non-sociological and anti-sociological (Cohen, 2018). Although this is true theoretically, people dismiss the practical form of order and control in functionalism, in which crime and deviance help to reinforce the importance of structure and maintain equilibrium (Asquith, 2017). Within the theory, they play a crucial role in society’s regulation and coordination aspects. By allowing for some amount of rule and law violations, governments can shape and control the overall people well-being by fulfilling their obligations to control and coordinate in the forms of various sanctions (Little, 2016). On top of that, some scholars argue that individuals in nature enjoy and gain interest in observing others, breaking the established cultural norms (Little, 2016). Whether in theory or practice, crime and deviance are essential parts of the functionalist system, which cannot be substituted.

Nevertheless, several modern governmental systems challenge the ideas presented in functionalism. Many countries annually report low crime rates and provide an exceptionally safe living environment in general. Iceland, for example, was recently ranked as the safest nation in the world (Craggs and Marcus, 2020). Their main criteria were low numbers in homicide, imprisoned people, and terrorism risk (Craggs and Marcus, 2020). In line with many other governments, Iceland promotes policies of freedom and mutual care, so it is difficult to believe that the country would adopt and accept politics of control through crime and deviance.

Moreover, as the functionalist theory saw a decline in popularity, there are many aspects that it is being criticised for by modern scholars. As seen in practice, supporters of functionalism tried to tie sociology with natural sciences and establish a structure that would identify whether a society is functioning or not (Turner, 2017). However, the modern approach transforms the perspective from transferring the focus from the structure to the society itself (Chattoe-Brown, 2019). It is argued that the theory should not attempt to make the system work within a society but instead develop a system that would respond to the needs of that society (Chattoe-Brown, 2019). Unfortunately, a utopian model of a crime-free planet is impossible to realise in practice. Even the safest countries, such as Iceland, which promote anti-violation policies, experience crime and deviance on a regular basis.

The functionalist idea of interdependence between the functionality and operation of society and notions of crime and deviance can be accepted, which draws many to believe in this approach. As the system promotes order and control, these norm breakings act as a political reinforcement tool. Modern scholars criticise the theory for only caring for the system itself and dismissing the human aspect. Others, however, tend to support functionalism by describing the need for order through the nature of people. While crime and deviance are unlikely to disappear in the future, governments should not allow it only to introduce new laws and sanctions. Although the connection between violations and social order is undeniable, new approaches need to be established to help the world achieve the ideals of sustainable existence free from wars and crime.

Reference List

Asquith, N. L. (2017) ‘Crime and deviance’, The Wiley Blackwell encyclopedia of social theory , pp.1-16. doi: 10.1002/9781118430873.est0609.

Chattoe-Brown, E. (2019) ‘Does sociology have any choice but to be evolutionary?’, Frontiers in sociology . doi:10.3389/fsoc.2019.00006.

Cohen, S. (2018) ‘ Criminology and sociology of deviance in Britain ’, in Rock, P. and McIntosh, M. (eds.) Deviance and social control . Routledge Library Editions: British Sociological Association.

Craggs, R. and Marcus, L. (2020) ‘The 10 safest countries in the world’. Conde Nast Traveler .

Fourie, P. J. (2016) ‘Functionalism’, The international encyclopedia of communication theory and philosophy , pp.1-8. doi:10.1002/9781118766804.wbiect049.

Little, W. (2016) Introduction to sociology: 2nd Canadian edition .

Turner, J. H. (2017) ‘Functionalism’, The Wiley Blackwell encyclopedia of social theory , pp.1-9. doi:10.1002/9781118430873.est0135.

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Essay: Critically evaluate functionalist perspective on crime & deviance and its impact on criminology

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This essay seeks to critically evaluate the functionalist perspective on crime and deviance with to its impact on criminology. Functionalists believe that a society is held together by its institutions working in harmony; social consensus, and through common and agreed upon values and beliefs, to produce stability and order. To begin, it is important to analyse the meaning and understanding of crime and deviance and to understand that not all criminals are deviant and not all deviant individuals are criminals which I will further explain during this essay. In other words, to comprehend where such terms as crime and deviance came from, it is essential to further evaluate the definition of criminology and what makes it so important. Émile Durkheim was a French sociologist that was most famous for his views on society and how modern and traditional societies functioned and evolved. I will explore Durkheim’s key ideas and theories of crime and deviance and compare his perspective of social facts and how they varied from other sociologists from his era. In addition, I will examine Durkheim’s three key ideas about crime which he states as; a limited amount of crime is necessary, crime has positive functions and finally, that too much crime can be bad for society. I will also explore Robert Merton’s work on strain theory and anomie. Finally, I will have successfully appraised the functionalist perspective on crime and deviance through a critical evaluation of criminology and various theorists.

According to the ‘Sage Dictionary of Criminology’, criminology is defined as “the study of crime, of attempts to control it, and attitudes to it. Crime is interpreted in its widest sense, so as to include minor as well as major law-breaking, and also conduct which, but for the special status or role of those involved, would be regarded as law breaking; e.g. excessive punishment of children by parents, antisocial practices of commercial undertakings.” (Mclaughlin & Muncie, 2013) In short, criminology studies crimes and criminals from a social perspective including causes of crimes and prevention methods, including many more factors. It is evident that the study of criminology dates back as far as the eighteenth century according to Mary Bosworth in ‘What Is Criminology’. (Bosworth, 2011) Jeremy Bentham was an eighteenth century social theorist and philosopher regarded as the founder of utilitarianism . Bentham also expressed his view on the classical school of criminology that the punishment should be so severe it would outweigh the pleasure of the criminal act. It is evident that many theorists that have contributed to criminology over the years have come from various academic backgrounds including sociology, psychology, philosophy and many more.

‘What is Criminology’ discussed the key issues and common debates in criminology to date. According to that debate, “scholars would prefer to view criminology as no more than a subject of interest to sociologists, lawyers, historians, psychologists etc. For such people, criminology is no more than a ‘rendezvous subject’ that pilfers knowledge and methodologies from the key disciplines that traditionally produced criminologists; namely sociology, psychology, and law.” (Bosworth, 2011) It is evident that it is an ongoing debate whether criminology is a subset of other fields and they also discussed the form of engagement criminology takes; “As a discipline concerned with issues of crime, justice and punishment, criminology by nature would seem to be related to criminal justice policies and state institutions. However, criminologists are by no means agreed on the appropriate form that any engagement with such issues should take.” (Bosworth, 2011) Similarly, in relation to Durkheim’s approach to anti-social behaviour, there has been many criminologists and sociologists before and after him that have tried to find the cause of crime. Durkheim believed that a certain level of crime in society is necessary since without the presence of crime, laws would not evolve. “His crime, namely, the independence of his thought, rendered a service not only to humanity but to his country. Crime, therefore, must no longer be conceived as an evil that cannot be too much repressed. This however, does not lead Durkheim to condone crime or to present an apology for crime. When he stated that crime merely a normal element he viewed the whole of society as reality.” (Lunden, 1958) Durkheim’s contribution to criminology, including the social structure theories and functionalism have evolved our understanding which I will discuss further. “Criminology as a discipline has been described as a rather tenuous area of study. In other words, it is an area of study not defined by a particular unit of social reality, it is defined by its substantive concern: crime.” (Walklate, 1998) That is to say that through the work of Durkheim, it has allowed people to understand crime, perhaps by definition or to recognise that it is not to be constantly feared. In relation to crime, deviance can also be misinterpreted due to various understandings of it.

“Who is doing the disapproving? The functionalist approaches to deviance, for example, have built their work around the assumption of a consensus as the product of socialisation processes. Those outside the posited consensus are then viewed as either deviant themselves, or marginal groups whose opinions are perverse and therefore unimportant.” (Mclaughlin & Muncie, 2013)

To put it another way, a change in society can lead to deviance as new ideas or laws must challenge existing values and norms. This can often lead to protests which is viewed as deviant, however, it is not a criminal act. The ‘Sociology of Deviant behaviour described it as; “Deviance is behaviour that violates a norm beyond the tolerance of a particular group, in such a way that there is a probability that a sanction will be applied.” (Clinard, 1974) Another reference of deviance from ‘Sociology of Deviant Behaviour’ is; “Deviance constitutes norm violations; but the precise nature of the norms violated, who supports them, and the degree of societal reaction to their violation represent major concerns in the definition of deviance. Some people regard certain behaviour as deviant; other do not.” (Clinard, 1974) It is evident that the universal understanding of deviant varies depending on people’s norms and values. I will explain crime and deviance further through the theoretical perspective of functionalism.

Émile Durkheim and Robert Merton are crucial to the functionalist perspective. Functionalism expresses that society consists of inter-connected institutions such as, government, family and education and for society to operate effectively, all these institutions must work in harmony to maintain social equilibrium. “Durkheim argues that a human society is not just made up of social facts, but that it works, as a social system, just like a biological system of biological facts does: this theory is called functionalism.” (Bilton, 1996) “Functionalism explains the existence of any institutionalised aspect of a society in the same way as a biologist explains the presence of an organ in the body- in terms of the function it performs in keeping the system in a stable state.” (Bilton, 1996) For society to function, crime and deviance are also needed, according to Durkheim. For example, in society there needs to be a government that allows schools to run, therefore giving children an education. Over the years crime has altered the laws in society which depict social order and present consequences for ones’ actions. “Durkheim argued that crime (or, by extension, deviance is general) elicits from the group or community: it serves to ‘heighten collective sentiments’, sharpen perceptions of moral imperatives, more tightly integrate the community against the transgressor.” (Downes & Rock, 2016) This allows to reinforce values and norms. “A certain amount of crime is therefore functional, while too little or too much is pathological.” (Downes & Rock, 2016)

Furthermore, Durkheim expresses that even in a ‘society of saints’ deviance would occur and without crime the standards would be so high that if someone acted out of behaviour it would be seriously frowned upon and regarded as a serious offence. However, in a society with social regulation, where the police arrest someone for committing a criminal offence, it shows society that that action is not condoned. This can also be viewed as Durkheim’s theory of social fact, a control technique, that allows individuals in society to know what to do in the everyday life. Whether it be how we work or who we befriend, it is how we think, act and feel. Crime levels can rise and fall due to many different factors; “Varieties of crime rise: Jason Ditton 1979: crime rise can mean a number of things; As a result of new laws, acts that were previously non-criminal now become criminal. More criminal acts are discovered. There is more mass media coverage of crime. More criminal acts are committed.” (Tierney & O’Neill, 2013) Most importantly to Durkheim, he argued that a positive social function is provided by crime as it perpetuates social consensus and clarifies deviant behaviour.

“According to Durkheim, deviance actually contributes to the maintenance of order within society. It does this in several ways. First of all, deviance helps identify the moral boundaries between right and wrong in society. By doing this, it alerts people to what is expected of them. Second, deviance enhances social solidarity by bringing people together against common threat. Third, deviance has an important role to play in allowing for change within society. Finally, deviance has an important role to play in reducing societal tensions, since it allows anxieties to be produced onto those whose behaviours deviates from the norm. All in all, therefore, deviance is functional for society since its existence, by providing something for the majority to react against, enhances shared moral values, thus binding society more tightly together.” (Aggleton, 1982)

According to Durkheim’s functionalist perspective, deviance serves three positive functions which he states as, social regulation; identifies moral boundaries, social integration; a collective conscience of shared belief’s, and finally, social change; Durkheim analyses that once deviance and crime occurs, it allows laws to change and to reflect and benefit the wishes of the population. On the contrary, it is important to assess Durkheim’s theory of anomie, and the result of society breaking down due to behaviours and expectations being unclear. Up until now I have analysed and evaluated how certain levels of crime and deviance can be beneficial to a society where all of its inter-connected parts are working together. Furthermore, this transition phase of anomie, where values and norms are no longer valid, and new ones still have not been formed to take their place. Individuals that have lived during phases of anomie typically feel disconnected from society as their values and norms no longer reflect in society. Robert Merton states that crime and deviance are a result of anomie. “Robert K. Merton’s strain theory, with its notion of the tension between societal means and social goals, and the resultant adaptions to this tension.” (Hayward, 2009) Merton argues that the strain that is places upon people is a result of a lack of jobs for people which consequents deviant behaviour and more people taking up careers in the criminal world to be able to pay bills and survive. “The common-sense assumption that the deviant act occurs because some characteristic of the person who commits it makes it necessary or inevitable that he should.” (Becker, 1928) That said, Merton’s theory only explains economic crimes, not violent crimes.

It must be acknowledged that the functionalist perspective on crime and deviance has impacted criminology in a variety of ways through Durkheim’s theories including anomie and Merton’s strain theory. As I have previously stated, crime is a natural and inevitable part of society. “There are important differences in how people conceive of crime.” (White, 2017) Boundary maintenance and adaptation and change are two functions of crime that Durkheim highlights within any society. Maintaining boundaries in society on shared rules and social solidarity is important. When crimes and the consequents of those actions are publicised, it creates deterrence as individuals are aware of the repercussions. Secondly, when society breaks down or challenge the norms of society they are viewed as deviant. However, Durkheim states that for society to evolve, it must be challenged. Therefore, it is functional in bringing about social change. However, it cannot be denied that there are certain elements to Durkheim’s theory that have not been complete. Durkheim does not state the level of crime that is necessary for society. It is just repeated that too much or too little crime is dangerous for society. This theory also failed to look at an explanation of crime and criminals. Durkheim never focused in on understanding why certain people commit various crimes or what was wrong with deviants and criminals which can be viewed as a positive or a negative as it can be a chosen way of life. “Crime is necessary. It is linked to the basic conditions of social life but on this very account is useful, for the conditions to which it is bound are themselves indispensable to the normal evolution of morality and law.” (Anderson, 2014)

“Criminology is the body of knowledge regarding crime as a social phenomenon. It includes within its scope the processes of making laws, of breaking of laws… The objective of criminology is the development of a body of general and verified principles and of other types of knowledge regarding this process of law, crime, and treatment.” (Wolfgang, 1963)

Wolfgang illustrates the importance of criminology through crime and the impact it has on society. By analysing the work of Robert Merton and Émile Durkheim through the functionalist perspective of crime and deviance it is evident that it has influenced criminology in various ways. Most theories have their positives and negatives, but with regards to Durkheim’s theory of crime and deviance and Merton’s strain theory, they too have weaknesses but the key ideas that they developed have had a much greater impact on criminology and society throughout the years.

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The Sociology Teacher

CRIME & DEVIANCE

The 'nutshells' provide concentrated summaries. use the arrows or swipe across to explore topics in more detail, including key perspectives  and sociologists ..

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Topic 1 - Functionalism & CRIME

In a nutshell

Functionalists believe that crime is inevitable in society; poor socialisation and inequality result in the absence of norms and values being taught. In addition, functionalists believe crime is positive for society because it allows boundary maintenance, and allows a scope for adaptation and change.

Topic 2 - Interactionism theory

Interactionists focus on the social construction of crime, whereby an act only becomes deviant when labelled as such, through societal reaction. However, not every deviant act or criminal is labelled, and labelling theory is selectively enforced against some groups. Some sociologists believe labelling may cause an individual to be defined a master status.

Topic 3 - Class, Power & Crime

Marxists believe crime is inevitable in a capitalist society because it encourages poverty, competition and greed. Although all classes commit crime, the working class are largely criminalised for their actions because the ruling class control the state and can make and enforce laws in their own interests. In this instance, white collar and corporate crimes are often ignored.

Topic 4 - Realist Approaches TO Crime

Right realists see crime as a real problem for society; they see the cause of it as partly biological and party social. Because these causes cannot easily be changed, they focus on deterring offenders. Left realists, on the other hand, believe crime is caused by relative deprivation, subcultures and marginalisation. Their solution for such stems from reducing societal inequality.

topic 5 - GENDER AND CRIME

Official statistics show men commit more crime than women, however sociologists disagree on the reasons why. Some sociologists argue female offending rates go unnoticed and unpunished because the criminal justice system treats women more leniently, through ideas such as the chivalry thesis (Pollak). However, some sociologists believe the gender differences in offending are due to the way women are socialised meaning they have less opportunity or desire to commit crime. On the other hand, other sociologists argue women do commit crime, but men merely commit more due to the idea of ‘masculinity’.

topic 6 - ethnicity and crime

Official statistics highlight that black people are more likely to be stopped, arrested and imprisoned. Some sociologists argue this is because they are more likely to offend, due to poor educational achievement, dysfunctional family structure and racist stereotypes portrayed in the media. However, some sociologists they merely appear more criminal due to discrimination in wider society.

topic 7 - MEDIA AND CRIME

The media give an overly distorted image of crime - for instance, by over-representing violent crimes. This is because the news is a social construction based on news values that explain the media's interest in crime. Some sociologists see media as a cause of crime through imitation and the deviance amplification of moral panics.

topic 8 - GLOBALISATION, GREEN CRIME & STATE CRIME

Globalisation has allowed transnational organised crime to flourish - for instance, the trafficking of arms, drugs and people. We now live in a global risk society where human-made threats include large environmental damage. Green criminology adopts an ecocentric view based on harm rather than the law, and identified both primary and secondary green crimes. The state also contributes to green crime through the exploitation of health and safety laws, for example.

topic 9 - CONROL, PUNISHMENT & VICTIMS

Sociologists believe that the ability to control criminal behaviour takes several different measures - notably, it is targeted at situational crime prevention and environmental crime prevention. In addition, surveillance is another method used to control and punish criminals. Sociologists also focus on victimisation, in which positive victimology focuses on victim proneness or precipitation, whilst critical victimology emphasises structural factors such as poverty.

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Deviance in Sociology: Definition, Theories & Examples

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Deviance in sociology refers to actions or behaviors that violate widely-accepted cultural norms within a society. Since deviance is defined relative to sociocultural standards, what is considered deviant differs across societies and time periods, and is largely determined by those in power. Sociologists study how and why certain behaviors are defined and reacted to as deviant, as well as how labeling of deviance impacts individuals and groups.

Key Takeaways

• Deviant behavior is any behavior that does not conform to societal norms.There are many different types of deviant behavior, including impoliteness, violence, and substance abuse. These behaviors may or may not be criminal.
• While some forms of deviant behavior may be considered harmful or dangerous, others may simply be seen as odd or unusual.
• In some cases, it can be seen as a positive thing. For example, many cultures encourage their members to challenge the status quo and push boundaries in order to create change.
• Durkheim suggested that modern industrial societies were consequently characterized by moral confusion or ‘anomie’. This means that some members of society were more likely to challenge and reject shared values and norms of behavior and this ‘normlessness’ often resulted in crime and deviance.
• Anomie theory has since been further developed by other theorists, such as Robert Merton, who used it to explain deviance in his strain theory.
• The main tenets of modern anomie theories are that: (i) People conform to societal norms in order to gain rewards or avoid punishment; (ii) When there is a discrepancy between the goals people want to achieve and the means available to them to achieve those goals, anomie results, motivating deviance.

What is Deviant Behavior?

Deviance is a behavior, trait, or belief that departs from a social norm and generates a negative reaction in a particular group. In other words, it is behavior that does not conform to the norms of a particular culture or society.

It includes those behaviors that attract negative responses and social controls. It also involves crimes committed in society.

What is considered acceptable or rude varies depending on the culture you are in. For example, eating with your left hand in Arab nations is considered rude.

Some behaviors are acceptable for certain age groups and some activities are illegal for some age groups.

For example, some people who engage in deviant behavior do so in order to challenge existing social norms and bring about change.

Additionally, deviance can also be a way for people to express themselves and their individuality.

Any behavior that breaks the law or goes against societal norms can be considered deviant. One example of deviant behavior is drug use. Using illegal drugs is considered deviant behavior in most social groups.

Committing acts of violence, such as assault or murder, is also considered deviant behavior.

Other examples of deviant behavior include but are not limited to: theft, vandalism, graffiti, public intoxication, loitering, and littering.

Truancy can be considered to be a form of deviance. Truancy is a behavior where a student regularly avoids school without the knowledge of their parents or teachers.

Because deviance is socially constructed (not naturally occurring but created by the society in which it is found), there are no actions which in themselves are inherently abnormal or universally condemned by all societies at all times. Deviance is thus situational and contextual.

For example, while stealing is considered deviant behavior in most societies, it is not considered deviant in some indigenous cultures where “stealing” is seen as a way to redistribute resources.

Similarly, while arranged marriages are the norm in many cultures, they would be considered deviant in Western cultures where individuals have the freedom to choose their own partners.

Ultimately, what is considered deviant behavior varies from culture to culture, and even from one social group to another. While deviance in society often has negative connotations, deviance in culture is not necessarily bad.

Types of Deviant Behavior

Formal deviant behavior.

Formal deviant behavior is defined as behavior that violates formally enacted laws. This type of deviant behavior is often criminal in nature, and can result in punishments such as fines, imprisonment, or even death.

Examples of formal deviant behavior include but are not limited to: murder, robbery, assault, rape, and child molestation (Griffiths et al., 2012).

Informal Deviant Behavior

Informal deviant behavior is defined as behavior that violates informal social norms. This type of deviant behavior is often seen as more minor than formal deviance, and typically does not result in legal punishment.

Instead, people who engage in informal deviant behavior may be ridiculed or ostracized by their peers.

Examples of informal deviant behavior include but are not limited to: littering, jaywalking, public intoxication, and loitering (Griffiths et al., 2012).

Although informal deviant behavior is often seen as less serious than its formal counterpart, it can have serious consequences. Showing up late to work, for example, is an act of informal deviance that can result in dismissal from one”s job.

Subcultural Deviant Behavior

Subcultural deviant behavior is defined as behavior that violates the norms of a particular subculture. A subculture is a social group within a larger culture that has its own distinct values, beliefs, and behaviors.

Examples of subcultural deviant behavior include but are not limited to: gang violence, drug use, and prostitution.

While subcultural deviant behavior is often seen as criminal or harmful, it can also be a way for people to express their identity and solidarity with others in their group.

For example, many gangs use violence as a way to establish their turf and protect their members, as well as to create a shared sense of identity as “strong” and ready to take action (Copes & Williams, 2007).

Serial Deviant Behavior

Serial deviant behavior is defined as a pattern of repeated deviant behavior. For example, being convicted of multiple crimes.

For example, a teenager who shoplifts every time they enter a department store for the excitement is committing serial deviant behavior.

Those who habitually show informally deviant behavior can also be considered to exhibit serial deviant behavior.

For instance, someone who belches loudly and stands unnecessarily close to others may develop an image characterized by this unacceptable behavior, resulting in social punishment (Chercourt, 2014).

Situational Deviance

Situational deviance is defined as behavior that is considered deviant in a particular situation but not in others.

For example, public nudity is considered deviant in most public places, but is expected on nude beaches. Similarly, using profanity is only considered deviant when it occurs in settings where cursing is not allowed or frowned upon, such as at work or school (Chercourt, 2014).

Even within these settings, the attitudes of those around the person committing the deviant act influence how deviant the behavior is considered to be.

While some forms of situational deviance may be seen as harmless or even humorous, others can have serious consequences.

For example, while being inebriated in many situations may be interpreted as entertaining or humorous by others, driving under the influence of alcohol can result in accidents, injuries, and even death.

Sociological Explanations Of Deviance

Social strain typology (robert k. merton).

The social strain typology is a theory of deviance that was developed by sociologist Robert K. Merton. The theory suggests that there are four types of deviant behavior: subcultural, serial, situational, and cultural.

Merton”s theory is based on the idea that there is a tension between goals and means in society. Goals are the things that people want to achieve, such as wealth or success. Means are the ways in which people go about achieving these goals, such as working hard or getting an education.

When people cannot achieve their goals through legitimate means, they may turn to deviant behavior in order to get what they want. For example, someone who wants to be wealthy but cannot legitimately earn enough money may turn to theft or robbery.

The social strain typology is a helpful way of understanding why people engage in deviant behavior. It also helps to explain why some forms of deviance are more common than others.

For example, subcultural deviance is more likely to occur in poor neighborhoods where legitimate means of achieving goals are limited. Serial deviance is more likely to occur in individuals who have a history of engaging in deviant behavior.

And situational deviance is more likely to occur when people find themselves in situations where they are tempted to break the rules.

Structural Functionalism

Structural functionalism is a sociological theory that views society as a system of interconnected parts that work together to promote stability and order.

The theory is based on the idea that societies are organized in a way that allows them to meet the needs of their members.

Durkheim suggested that modern industrial societies were consequently characterized by moral confusion or ‘ anomie ’ – some members of society were more likely to challenge and reject shared values and norms of behavior and this ‘normlessness’ often resulted in crime and deviance.

The functionalist perspective argues that deviant behavior serves a positive function for society by providing a safety valve for people who cannot cope with the demands of everyday life.

For example, people who engage in minor deviant behaviors, like rudeness or angry outbursts, may be less likely to commit more serious crimes, such as murder or rape (Parsons, 1985).

The functionalist perspective also argues that deviant behavior can lead to social change. For example, people who challenge the status quo and push boundaries may help to bring about positive changes, such as increased equality or improved working conditions.

Gandhi, for example,  is often credited with helping to end British rule in India through his deviant behavior of leading peaceful protests and civil disobedience.

The public punishment of criminals also reinforces social conformity by reminding members of society about what counts as acceptable and unacceptable behavior. In other words, it functions to socially control society by reinforcing the rules.

Conflict Theory

Conflict theory is a sociological theory that views society as a system of power relationships that are in conflict with one another. The theory is based on the idea that social order is maintained through coercion and force, rather than consent or agreement.

Conflict theorists argue that deviant behavior is a result of social inequality. They believe that people who have less power in society are more likely to engage in deviant behavior as a way of challenging the existing order.

For example, people who are poor or members of minority groups may turn to crime as a way to get the resources they need to survive (Bartos & Wehr, 2002).

This theory originates from the work of Karl Marx , who argued that social conflict is a necessary part of economic change. Marx believed that capitalism would eventually lead to a revolution in which the working class would overthrow the ruling class and establish a more egalitarian society.

While conflict theory has its origins in Marxism, it has been adapted and expanded by other sociologists, such as Max Weber and Randall Collins.

Conflict theory is now used to explain a wide variety of social phenomena, including crime, violence, and discrimination (Bartos & Wehr, 2002).

Labeling Theory

Labeling theory is a sociological theory that views deviance as a result of the way society labels people. The theory is based on the idea that people who are labeled as deviant are more likely to engage in deviant behavior.

Lemert was one of the first to define the concept of primary and secondary deviance (1951). Primary deviance is deviant acts that occur without labels put on the person commiting the act.

For example, a teenager who drinks alcohol socially at a party and is caught, but only gently reprimanded by their parents, has committed primary deviance.

Secondary deviance , meanwhile, is a result of the labels that are put onn someone for committing deviant acts.

A person moves from primary deviance (the thing that gets him/her labeled in the first place) to secondary deviance (a deviant identity or career).

The importance of the distinction between primary and secondary deviance is that everyone commits primary deviance acts from time to time, with few social consequences.

Labeling theory argues that the act of labeling someone as deviant causes them to be seen as different from others. This difference can lead to discrimination and social exclusion, which can in turn lead to further deviant behavior.

For example, someone who is labeled as a criminal may have difficulty finding a job or housing. As a result, they may turn to crime in order to make ends meet.

Or, someone who is labeled as mentally ill may be excluded from social activities and have difficulty making friends. This isolation can lead to further mental health problems (Becker, 2018).

Labeling theory has been used to explain a wide variety of deviant behaviors, including crime, mental illness, and drug use. The theory has been criticized for its lack of empirical evidence, but it remains an influential perspective in sociology.

Frequently Asked Questions

What are some of the main causes of deviant behavior.

Some of the main theoretical perspectives that sociologists use to explain deviance include functionalism, conflict theory, and labeling theory.

Sociologists have found that deviant behavior is often a result of social inequality.

For example, people who are poor or members of minority groups may turn to crime as a way to get the resources they need to survive.

Additionally, people who are labeled as deviant by society may be more likely to engage in deviant behavior due to discrimination and social exclusion.

What is the difference between deviant and criminal behavior?

Deviance is behavior that violates social norms and arouses negative social reactions. Crime is behavior that is considered so serious that it violates formal laws prohibiting such behavior.

Not all deviant behavior is criminal. For example, social norms around clothing styles for hairstyles may vary from place to place. So, someone who wears unconventional clothes or has an unconventional haircut may be considered deviant in one community but not in another.

Similarly, people who break minor laws, such as jaywalking or littering, may be considered deviant but not criminal.

Similarly, not all criminal behavior is deviant. For example, breaking a law against selling alcohol on a Sunday does not involve committing an act of deviance in a society where selling and consuming alcohol is acceptable.

Is deviant behavior a form of non-conformity?

Deviance is a concept that describes non-conformity to social norms, values and civic expectations. Hence, it is a form of non-conformity.

Nonetheless, not all non-conformity is deviant.

Social norms vary from place to place, so what is considered deviant in one society may not be considered deviant in another. Additionally, social norms change over time, so something that was once considered deviant may become acceptable (and vice versa).

For example, tattoos and piercings were once considered deviant but are now widely accepted. Nonetheless, in a place where they remain uncommon, they may be non-conformist.

Bartos, O. J., & Wehr, P. (2002). Using conflict theory . Cambridge University Press.

Becker, H. S. (2018). Labeling theory reconsidered 1. In Deviance and social control (pp. 41-66). Routledge.

Chercourt, M. (2014). Encyclopedia of Social Deviance. Reference & User Services Quarterly, 54 (2), 83.

Cohen, A. K. (1955). Delinquent Boys: The Culture of the Gang. New York: Free Press.

Cohen, A. K. (2016) Kriminelle Subkulturen. In: Klimke, D. & Legnaro, A. (Hrsg.) Kriminologische Grundlagentexte. Springer VS: Wiesbaden. S. 269-280 .

Cohen, A. K. (1957) Kriminelle Subkulturen. In: Heintz, P. & König, R. (Hrsg.) Soziologie der Jugendkriminalität. Studien zur Sozialwissenschaft. Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag. S. 103-117.

Cohen, Albert K. and Short, J. (1968). Research in Delinquent Subcultures. In: Journal of Social Issues , S.20–37.

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Merton, R.K. (1949). Social structure and anomie: revisions and extensions. In: Anshen, R.N. (Ed.), The Family: Its Functions and Destiny . Harper, New York, pp. 226–257.

Merton, R.K. (1957). Social structure and anomie. In: Merton, R.K. (Ed.), Social Theory and Social Structure . The Free Press, New York, pp. 185–214.

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Merton, R.K. (Ed.), Social Theory and Social Structure . The Free Press, New York, pp. 215–248.

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Two reasons Green Crime might be difficult to control

Table of Contents

Last Updated on June 6, 2024 by Karl Thompson

Two reasons green crime might be difficult to control are:

This is a possible 10 mark question for the AQA’s A-level sociology paper 3 (7192/3).

A very similar question came up in June 2022 as a short answer, 4 mark question.

Question: analyse two reasons green crime may be difficult to control (10)

One of the problems with controlling green crime is that there is no single agreed definition of what kind of acts constitute green crime. Another reason is that Green Crimes are global in nature and often perpetuated by the powerful. 

Using material from Item A and elsewhere analyse two reasons why green crime is difficult to control (10) .

Analyse two reasons why green crimes are difficult to control: answer

Point 1: green crimes are socially constructed.

The first reason green crime is difficult to control is because there is no internationally agreed definition about what counts as green crime.  What counts as green crime is socially constructed and definitions of what environmental harms are allowed (and are NOT criminal) vary from country to country. People within countries also disagree.

However it might be difficult for Tanzania to control the green crimes being committed in Kenya because Kenya might not have any laws banning the dumping of toxic waste in rivers, thus the act isn’t illegal there. Thus Kenya would have no record of it doing anything illegal. 

Point 2: the powerful commit green crimes

A second reason green crime (defined as environmental harm) may be difficult to control is that the rich and powerful often benefit from committing green crime while it is the poor who suffer the harms. 

For example, look at Shell in Nigeria. Shell and the Nigerian elite didn’t see pollution in the Niger Delta as illegal. This was because the pollution didn’t harm them, it only harmed the poor locals.

It is only in the last few decades that people have started to campaign to make the worst acts of environmental harm illegal, but it is cheaper for corporations and countries to not regenerate land after they’ve extracted it, and to not bother clearing up their waste.

Companies have to pay fines if they pollute today. However, companies often choose to carry on polluting and just pay the fines. Companies can make more profit this way because fines are rarely high enough. There is no political will to impose high fines for pollution because the political class think profit is more important.

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