example of key decision criteria in case study

Do Your Students Know How to Analyze a Case—Really?

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J ust as actors, athletes, and musicians spend thousands of hours practicing their craft, business students benefit from practicing their critical-thinking and decision-making skills. Students, however, often have limited exposure to real-world problem-solving scenarios; they need more opportunities to practice tackling tough business problems and deciding on—and executing—the best solutions.

To ensure students have ample opportunity to develop these critical-thinking and decision-making skills, we believe business faculty should shift from teaching mostly principles and ideas to mostly applications and practices. And in doing so, they should emphasize the case method, which simulates real-world management challenges and opportunities for students.

To help educators facilitate this shift and help students get the most out of case-based learning, we have developed a framework for analyzing cases. We call it PACADI (Problem, Alternatives, Criteria, Analysis, Decision, Implementation); it can improve learning outcomes by helping students better solve and analyze business problems, make decisions, and develop and implement strategy. Here, we’ll explain why we developed this framework, how it works, and what makes it an effective learning tool.

The Case for Cases: Helping Students Think Critically

Business students must develop critical-thinking and analytical skills, which are essential to their ability to make good decisions in functional areas such as marketing, finance, operations, and information technology, as well as to understand the relationships among these functions. For example, the decisions a marketing manager must make include strategic planning (segments, products, and channels); execution (digital messaging, media, branding, budgets, and pricing); and operations (integrated communications and technologies), as well as how to implement decisions across functional areas.

Faculty can use many types of cases to help students develop these skills. These include the prototypical “paper cases”; live cases , which feature guest lecturers such as entrepreneurs or corporate leaders and on-site visits; and multimedia cases , which immerse students into real situations. Most cases feature an explicit or implicit decision that a protagonist—whether it is an individual, a group, or an organization—must make.

For students new to learning by the case method—and even for those with case experience—some common issues can emerge; these issues can sometimes be a barrier for educators looking to ensure the best possible outcomes in their case classrooms. Unsure of how to dig into case analysis on their own, students may turn to the internet or rely on former students for “answers” to assigned cases. Or, when assigned to provide answers to assignment questions in teams, students might take a divide-and-conquer approach but not take the time to regroup and provide answers that are consistent with one other.

To help address these issues, which we commonly experienced in our classes, we wanted to provide our students with a more structured approach for how they analyze cases—and to really think about making decisions from the protagonists’ point of view. We developed the PACADI framework to address this need.

PACADI: A Six-Step Decision-Making Approach

The PACADI framework is a six-step decision-making approach that can be used in lieu of traditional end-of-case questions. It offers a structured, integrated, and iterative process that requires students to analyze case information, apply business concepts to derive valuable insights, and develop recommendations based on these insights.

Prior to beginning a PACADI assessment, which we’ll outline here, students should first prepare a two-paragraph summary—a situation analysis—that highlights the key case facts. Then, we task students with providing a five-page PACADI case analysis (excluding appendices) based on the following six steps.

Step 1: Problem definition. What is the major challenge, problem, opportunity, or decision that has to be made? If there is more than one problem, choose the most important one. Often when solving the key problem, other issues will surface and be addressed. The problem statement may be framed as a question; for example, How can brand X improve market share among millennials in Canada? Usually the problem statement has to be re-written several times during the analysis of a case as students peel back the layers of symptoms or causation.

Step 2: Alternatives. Identify in detail the strategic alternatives to address the problem; three to five options generally work best. Alternatives should be mutually exclusive, realistic, creative, and feasible given the constraints of the situation. Doing nothing or delaying the decision to a later date are not considered acceptable alternatives.

Step 3: Criteria. What are the key decision criteria that will guide decision-making? In a marketing course, for example, these may include relevant marketing criteria such as segmentation, positioning, advertising and sales, distribution, and pricing. Financial criteria useful in evaluating the alternatives should be included—for example, income statement variables, customer lifetime value, payback, etc. Students must discuss their rationale for selecting the decision criteria and the weights and importance for each factor.

Step 4: Analysis. Provide an in-depth analysis of each alternative based on the criteria chosen in step three. Decision tables using criteria as columns and alternatives as rows can be helpful. The pros and cons of the various choices as well as the short- and long-term implications of each may be evaluated. Best, worst, and most likely scenarios can also be insightful.

Step 5: Decision. Students propose their solution to the problem. This decision is justified based on an in-depth analysis. Explain why the recommendation made is the best fit for the criteria.

Step 6: Implementation plan. Sound business decisions may fail due to poor execution. To enhance the likeliness of a successful project outcome, students describe the key steps (activities) to implement the recommendation, timetable, projected costs, expected competitive reaction, success metrics, and risks in the plan.

“Students note that using the PACADI framework yields ‘aha moments’—they learned something surprising in the case that led them to think differently about the problem and their proposed solution.”

PACADI’s Benefits: Meaningfully and Thoughtfully Applying Business Concepts

The PACADI framework covers all of the major elements of business decision-making, including implementation, which is often overlooked. By stepping through the whole framework, students apply relevant business concepts and solve management problems via a systematic, comprehensive approach; they’re far less likely to surface piecemeal responses.

As students explore each part of the framework, they may realize that they need to make changes to a previous step. For instance, when working on implementation, students may realize that the alternative they selected cannot be executed or will not be profitable, and thus need to rethink their decision. Or, they may discover that the criteria need to be revised since the list of decision factors they identified is incomplete (for example, the factors may explain key marketing concerns but fail to address relevant financial considerations) or is unrealistic (for example, they suggest a 25 percent increase in revenues without proposing an increased promotional budget).

In addition, the PACADI framework can be used alongside quantitative assignments, in-class exercises, and business and management simulations. The structured, multi-step decision framework encourages careful and sequential analysis to solve business problems. Incorporating PACADI as an overarching decision-making method across different projects will ultimately help students achieve desired learning outcomes. As a practical “beyond-the-classroom” tool, the PACADI framework is not a contrived course assignment; it reflects the decision-making approach that managers, executives, and entrepreneurs exercise daily. Case analysis introduces students to the real-world process of making business decisions quickly and correctly, often with limited information. This framework supplies an organized and disciplined process that students can readily defend in writing and in class discussions.

PACADI in Action: An Example

Here’s an example of how students used the PACADI framework for a recent case analysis on CVS, a large North American drugstore chain.

The CVS Prescription for Customer Value*

PACADI Stage

Summary Response

How should CVS Health evolve from the “drugstore of your neighborhood” to the “drugstore of your future”?

Alternatives

A1. Kaizen (continuous improvement)

A2. Product development

A3. Market development

A4. Personalization (micro-targeting)

Criteria (include weights)

C1. Customer value: service, quality, image, and price (40%)

C2. Customer obsession (20%)

C3. Growth through related businesses (20%)

C4. Customer retention and customer lifetime value (20%)

Each alternative was analyzed by each criterion using a Customer Value Assessment Tool

Alternative 4 (A4): Personalization was selected. This is operationalized via: segmentation—move toward segment-of-1 marketing; geodemographics and lifestyle emphasis; predictive data analysis; relationship marketing; people, principles, and supply chain management; and exceptional customer service.

Implementation

Partner with leading medical school

Curbside pick-up

Pet pharmacy

E-newsletter for customers and employees

Employee incentive program

CVS beauty days

Expand to Latin America and Caribbean

Healthier/happier corner

Holiday toy drives/community outreach

*Source: A. Weinstein, Y. Rodriguez, K. Sims, R. Vergara, “The CVS Prescription for Superior Customer Value—A Case Study,” Back to the Future: Revisiting the Foundations of Marketing from Society for Marketing Advances, West Palm Beach, FL (November 2, 2018).

Results of Using the PACADI Framework

When faculty members at our respective institutions at Nova Southeastern University (NSU) and the University of North Carolina Wilmington have used the PACADI framework, our classes have been more structured and engaging. Students vigorously debate each element of their decision and note that this framework yields an “aha moment”—they learned something surprising in the case that led them to think differently about the problem and their proposed solution.

These lively discussions enhance individual and collective learning. As one external metric of this improvement, we have observed a 2.5 percent increase in student case grade performance at NSU since this framework was introduced.

Tips to Get Started

The PACADI approach works well in in-person, online, and hybrid courses. This is particularly important as more universities have moved to remote learning options. Because students have varied educational and cultural backgrounds, work experience, and familiarity with case analysis, we recommend that faculty members have students work on their first case using this new framework in small teams (two or three students). Additional analyses should then be solo efforts.

To use PACADI effectively in your classroom, we suggest the following:

Advise your students that your course will stress critical thinking and decision-making skills, not just course concepts and theory.

Use a varied mix of case studies. As marketing professors, we often address consumer and business markets; goods, services, and digital commerce; domestic and global business; and small and large companies in a single MBA course.

As a starting point, provide a short explanation (about 20 to 30 minutes) of the PACADI framework with a focus on the conceptual elements. You can deliver this face to face or through videoconferencing.

Give students an opportunity to practice the case analysis methodology via an ungraded sample case study. Designate groups of five to seven students to discuss the case and the six steps in breakout sessions (in class or via Zoom).

Ensure case analyses are weighted heavily as a grading component. We suggest 30–50 percent of the overall course grade.

Once cases are graded, debrief with the class on what they did right and areas needing improvement (30- to 40-minute in-person or Zoom session).

Encourage faculty teams that teach common courses to build appropriate instructional materials, grading rubrics, videos, sample cases, and teaching notes.

When selecting case studies, we have found that the best ones for PACADI analyses are about 15 pages long and revolve around a focal management decision. This length provides adequate depth yet is not protracted. Some of our tested and favorite marketing cases include Brand W , Hubspot , Kraft Foods Canada , TRSB(A) , and Whiskey & Cheddar .

Art Weinstein , Ph.D., is a professor of marketing at Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, Florida. He has published more than 80 scholarly articles and papers and eight books on customer-focused marketing strategy. His latest book is Superior Customer Value—Finding and Keeping Customers in the Now Economy . Dr. Weinstein has consulted for many leading technology and service companies.

Herbert V. Brotspies , D.B.A., is an adjunct professor of marketing at Nova Southeastern University. He has over 30 years’ experience as a vice president in marketing, strategic planning, and acquisitions for Fortune 50 consumer products companies working in the United States and internationally. His research interests include return on marketing investment, consumer behavior, business-to-business strategy, and strategic planning.

John T. Gironda , Ph.D., is an assistant professor of marketing at the University of North Carolina Wilmington. His research has been published in Industrial Marketing Management, Psychology & Marketing , and Journal of Marketing Management . He has also presented at major marketing conferences including the American Marketing Association, Academy of Marketing Science, and Society for Marketing Advances.

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Assignments

• Annotated Bibliography
• Analyzing a Scholarly Journal Article
• Group Presentations
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• Types of Structured Group Activities
• Group Project Survival Skills
• Leading a Class Discussion
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Works
• Writing a Case Analysis Paper
• Writing a Case Study
• About Informed Consent
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• Writing a Reflective Paper
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Generative AI and Writing
• Acknowledgments

Definition and Introduction

Case analysis is a problem-based teaching and learning method that involves critically analyzing complex scenarios within an organizational setting for the purpose of placing the student in a “real world” situation and applying reflection and critical thinking skills to contemplate appropriate solutions, decisions, or recommended courses of action. It is considered a more effective teaching technique than in-class role playing or simulation activities. The analytical process is often guided by questions provided by the instructor that ask students to contemplate relationships between the facts and critical incidents described in the case.

Cases generally include both descriptive and statistical elements and rely on students applying abductive reasoning to develop and argue for preferred or best outcomes [i.e., case scenarios rarely have a single correct or perfect answer based on the evidence provided]. Rather than emphasizing theories or concepts, case analysis assignments emphasize building a bridge of relevancy between abstract thinking and practical application and, by so doing, teaches the value of both within a specific area of professional practice.

Given this, the purpose of a case analysis paper is to present a structured and logically organized format for analyzing the case situation. It can be assigned to students individually or as a small group assignment and it may include an in-class presentation component. Case analysis is predominately taught in economics and business-related courses, but it is also a method of teaching and learning found in other applied social sciences disciplines, such as, social work, public relations, education, journalism, and public administration.

Ellet, William. The Case Study Handbook: A Student's Guide . Revised Edition. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Publishing, 2018; Christoph Rasche and Achim Seisreiner. Guidelines for Business Case Analysis . University of Potsdam; Writing a Case Analysis . Writing Center, Baruch College; Volpe, Guglielmo. "Case Teaching in Economics: History, Practice and Evidence." Cogent Economics and Finance 3 (December 2015). doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2015.1120977.

How to Approach Writing a Case Analysis Paper

The organization and structure of a case analysis paper can vary depending on the organizational setting, the situation, and how your professor wants you to approach the assignment. Nevertheless, preparing to write a case analysis paper involves several important steps. As Hawes notes, a case analysis assignment “...is useful in developing the ability to get to the heart of a problem, analyze it thoroughly, and to indicate the appropriate solution as well as how it should be implemented” [p.48]. This statement encapsulates how you should approach preparing to write a case analysis paper.

Before you begin to write your paper, consider the following analytical procedures:

• Review the case to get an overview of the situation . A case can be only a few pages in length, however, it is most often very lengthy and contains a significant amount of detailed background information and statistics, with multilayered descriptions of the scenario, the roles and behaviors of various stakeholder groups, and situational events. Therefore, a quick reading of the case will help you gain an overall sense of the situation and illuminate the types of issues and problems that you will need to address in your paper. If your professor has provided questions intended to help frame your analysis, use them to guide your initial reading of the case.
• Read the case thoroughly . After gaining a general overview of the case, carefully read the content again with the purpose of understanding key circumstances, events, and behaviors among stakeholder groups. Look for information or data that appears contradictory, extraneous, or misleading. At this point, you should be taking notes as you read because this will help you develop a general outline of your paper. The aim is to obtain a complete understanding of the situation so that you can begin contemplating tentative answers to any questions your professor has provided or, if they have not provided, developing answers to your own questions about the case scenario and its connection to the course readings,lectures, and class discussions.
• Determine key stakeholder groups, issues, and events and the relationships they all have to each other . As you analyze the content, pay particular attention to identifying individuals, groups, or organizations described in the case and identify evidence of any problems or issues of concern that impact the situation in a negative way. Other things to look for include identifying any assumptions being made by or about each stakeholder, potential biased explanations or actions, explicit demands or ultimatums , and the underlying concerns that motivate these behaviors among stakeholders. The goal at this stage is to develop a comprehensive understanding of the situational and behavioral dynamics of the case and the explicit and implicit consequences of each of these actions.
• Identify the core problems . The next step in most case analysis assignments is to discern what the core [i.e., most damaging, detrimental, injurious] problems are within the organizational setting and to determine their implications. The purpose at this stage of preparing to write your analysis paper is to distinguish between the symptoms of core problems and the core problems themselves and to decide which of these must be addressed immediately and which problems do not appear critical but may escalate over time. Identify evidence from the case to support your decisions by determining what information or data is essential to addressing the core problems and what information is not relevant or is misleading.
• Explore alternative solutions . As noted, case analysis scenarios rarely have only one correct answer. Therefore, it is important to keep in mind that the process of analyzing the case and diagnosing core problems, while based on evidence, is a subjective process open to various avenues of interpretation. This means that you must consider alternative solutions or courses of action by critically examining strengths and weaknesses, risk factors, and the differences between short and long-term solutions. For each possible solution or course of action, consider the consequences they may have related to their implementation and how these recommendations might lead to new problems. Also, consider thinking about your recommended solutions or courses of action in relation to issues of fairness, equity, and inclusion.
• Decide on a final set of recommendations . The last stage in preparing to write a case analysis paper is to assert an opinion or viewpoint about the recommendations needed to help resolve the core problems as you see them and to make a persuasive argument for supporting this point of view. Prepare a clear rationale for your recommendations based on examining each element of your analysis. Anticipate possible obstacles that could derail their implementation. Consider any counter-arguments that could be made concerning the validity of your recommended actions. Finally, describe a set of criteria and measurable indicators that could be applied to evaluating the effectiveness of your implementation plan.

Use these steps as the framework for writing your paper. Remember that the more detailed you are in taking notes as you critically examine each element of the case, the more information you will have to draw from when you begin to write. This will save you time.

NOTE : If the process of preparing to write a case analysis paper is assigned as a student group project, consider having each member of the group analyze a specific element of the case, including drafting answers to the corresponding questions used by your professor to frame the analysis. This will help make the analytical process more efficient and ensure that the distribution of work is equitable. This can also facilitate who is responsible for drafting each part of the final case analysis paper and, if applicable, the in-class presentation.

Framework for Case Analysis . College of Management. University of Massachusetts; Hawes, Jon M. "Teaching is Not Telling: The Case Method as a Form of Interactive Learning." Journal for Advancement of Marketing Education 5 (Winter 2004): 47-54; Rasche, Christoph and Achim Seisreiner. Guidelines for Business Case Analysis . University of Potsdam; Writing a Case Study Analysis . University of Arizona Global Campus Writing Center; Van Ness, Raymond K. A Guide to Case Analysis . School of Business. State University of New York, Albany; Writing a Case Analysis . Business School, University of New South Wales.

Structure and Writing Style

A case analysis paper should be detailed, concise, persuasive, clearly written, and professional in tone and in the use of language . As with other forms of college-level academic writing, declarative statements that convey information, provide a fact, or offer an explanation or any recommended courses of action should be based on evidence. If allowed by your professor, any external sources used to support your analysis, such as course readings, should be properly cited under a list of references. The organization and structure of case analysis papers can vary depending on your professor’s preferred format, but its structure generally follows the steps used for analyzing the case.

Introduction

The introduction should provide a succinct but thorough descriptive overview of the main facts, issues, and core problems of the case . The introduction should also include a brief summary of the most relevant details about the situation and organizational setting. This includes defining the theoretical framework or conceptual model on which any questions were used to frame your analysis.

Following the rules of most college-level research papers, the introduction should then inform the reader how the paper will be organized. This includes describing the major sections of the paper and the order in which they will be presented. Unless you are told to do so by your professor, you do not need to preview your final recommendations in the introduction. U nlike most college-level research papers , the introduction does not include a statement about the significance of your findings because a case analysis assignment does not involve contributing new knowledge about a research problem.

Background Analysis

Background analysis can vary depending on any guiding questions provided by your professor and the underlying concept or theory that the case is based upon. In general, however, this section of your paper should focus on:

• Providing an overarching analysis of problems identified from the case scenario, including identifying events that stakeholders find challenging or troublesome,
• Identifying assumptions made by each stakeholder and any apparent biases they may exhibit,
• Describing any demands or claims made by or forced upon key stakeholders, and
• Highlighting any issues of concern or complaints expressed by stakeholders in response to those demands or claims.

These aspects of the case are often in the form of behavioral responses expressed by individuals or groups within the organizational setting. However, note that problems in a case situation can also be reflected in data [or the lack thereof] and in the decision-making, operational, cultural, or institutional structure of the organization. Additionally, demands or claims can be either internal and external to the organization [e.g., a case analysis involving a president considering arms sales to Saudi Arabia could include managing internal demands from White House advisors as well as demands from members of Congress].

Throughout this section, present all relevant evidence from the case that supports your analysis. Do not simply claim there is a problem, an assumption, a demand, or a concern; tell the reader what part of the case informed how you identified these background elements.

Identification of Problems

In most case analysis assignments, there are problems, and then there are problems . Each problem can reflect a multitude of underlying symptoms that are detrimental to the interests of the organization. The purpose of identifying problems is to teach students how to differentiate between problems that vary in severity, impact, and relative importance. Given this, problems can be described in three general forms: those that must be addressed immediately, those that should be addressed but the impact is not severe, and those that do not require immediate attention and can be set aside for the time being.

All of the problems you identify from the case should be identified in this section of your paper, with a description based on evidence explaining the problem variances. If the assignment asks you to conduct research to further support your assessment of the problems, include this in your explanation. Remember to cite those sources in a list of references. Use specific evidence from the case and apply appropriate concepts, theories, and models discussed in class or in relevant course readings to highlight and explain the key problems [or problem] that you believe must be solved immediately and describe the underlying symptoms and why they are so critical.

Alternative Solutions

This section is where you provide specific, realistic, and evidence-based solutions to the problems you have identified and make recommendations about how to alleviate the underlying symptomatic conditions impacting the organizational setting. For each solution, you must explain why it was chosen and provide clear evidence to support your reasoning. This can include, for example, course readings and class discussions as well as research resources, such as, books, journal articles, research reports, or government documents. In some cases, your professor may encourage you to include personal, anecdotal experiences as evidence to support why you chose a particular solution or set of solutions. Using anecdotal evidence helps promote reflective thinking about the process of determining what qualifies as a core problem and relevant solution .

Throughout this part of the paper, keep in mind the entire array of problems that must be addressed and describe in detail the solutions that might be implemented to resolve these problems.

Recommended Courses of Action

In some case analysis assignments, your professor may ask you to combine the alternative solutions section with your recommended courses of action. However, it is important to know the difference between the two. A solution refers to the answer to a problem. A course of action refers to a procedure or deliberate sequence of activities adopted to proactively confront a situation, often in the context of accomplishing a goal. In this context, proposed courses of action are based on your analysis of alternative solutions. Your description and justification for pursuing each course of action should represent the overall plan for implementing your recommendations.

For each course of action, you need to explain the rationale for your recommendation in a way that confronts challenges, explains risks, and anticipates any counter-arguments from stakeholders. Do this by considering the strengths and weaknesses of each course of action framed in relation to how the action is expected to resolve the core problems presented, the possible ways the action may affect remaining problems, and how the recommended action will be perceived by each stakeholder.

In addition, you should describe the criteria needed to measure how well the implementation of these actions is working and explain which individuals or groups are responsible for ensuring your recommendations are successful. In addition, always consider the law of unintended consequences. Outline difficulties that may arise in implementing each course of action and describe how implementing the proposed courses of action [either individually or collectively] may lead to new problems [both large and small].

Throughout this section, you must consider the costs and benefits of recommending your courses of action in relation to uncertainties or missing information and the negative consequences of success.

The conclusion should be brief and introspective. Unlike a research paper, the conclusion in a case analysis paper does not include a summary of key findings and their significance, a statement about how the study contributed to existing knowledge, or indicate opportunities for future research.

Begin by synthesizing the core problems presented in the case and the relevance of your recommended solutions. This can include an explanation of what you have learned about the case in the context of your answers to the questions provided by your professor. The conclusion is also where you link what you learned from analyzing the case with the course readings or class discussions. This can further demonstrate your understanding of the relationships between the practical case situation and the theoretical and abstract content of assigned readings and other course content.

Problems to Avoid

The literature on case analysis assignments often includes examples of difficulties students have with applying methods of critical analysis and effectively reporting the results of their assessment of the situation. A common reason cited by scholars is that the application of this type of teaching and learning method is limited to applied fields of social and behavioral sciences and, as a result, writing a case analysis paper can be unfamiliar to most students entering college.

After you have drafted your paper, proofread the narrative flow and revise any of these common errors:

• Unnecessary detail in the background section . The background section should highlight the essential elements of the case based on your analysis. Focus on summarizing the facts and highlighting the key factors that become relevant in the other sections of the paper by eliminating any unnecessary information.
• Analysis relies too much on opinion . Your analysis is interpretive, but the narrative must be connected clearly to evidence from the case and any models and theories discussed in class or in course readings. Any positions or arguments you make should be supported by evidence.
• Analysis does not focus on the most important elements of the case . Your paper should provide a thorough overview of the case. However, the analysis should focus on providing evidence about what you identify are the key events, stakeholders, issues, and problems. Emphasize what you identify as the most critical aspects of the case to be developed throughout your analysis. Be thorough but succinct.
• Writing is too descriptive . A paper with too much descriptive information detracts from your analysis of the complexities of the case situation. Questions about what happened, where, when, and by whom should only be included as essential information leading to your examination of questions related to why, how, and for what purpose.
• Inadequate definition of a core problem and associated symptoms . A common error found in case analysis papers is recommending a solution or course of action without adequately defining or demonstrating that you understand the problem. Make sure you have clearly described the problem and its impact and scope within the organizational setting. Ensure that you have adequately described the root causes w hen describing the symptoms of the problem.
• Recommendations lack specificity . Identify any use of vague statements and indeterminate terminology, such as, “A particular experience” or “a large increase to the budget.” These statements cannot be measured and, as a result, there is no way to evaluate their successful implementation. Provide specific data and use direct language in describing recommended actions.
• Unrealistic, exaggerated, or unattainable recommendations . Review your recommendations to ensure that they are based on the situational facts of the case. Your recommended solutions and courses of action must be based on realistic assumptions and fit within the constraints of the situation. Also note that the case scenario has already happened, therefore, any speculation or arguments about what could have occurred if the circumstances were different should be revised or eliminated.

Bee, Lian Song et al. "Business Students' Perspectives on Case Method Coaching for Problem-Based Learning: Impacts on Student Engagement and Learning Performance in Higher Education." Education & Training 64 (2022): 416-432; The Case Analysis . Fred Meijer Center for Writing and Michigan Authors. Grand Valley State University; Georgallis, Panikos and Kayleigh Bruijn. "Sustainability Teaching using Case-Based Debates." Journal of International Education in Business 15 (2022): 147-163; Hawes, Jon M. "Teaching is Not Telling: The Case Method as a Form of Interactive Learning." Journal for Advancement of Marketing Education 5 (Winter 2004): 47-54; Georgallis, Panikos, and Kayleigh Bruijn. "Sustainability Teaching Using Case-based Debates." Journal of International Education in Business 15 (2022): 147-163; .Dean,  Kathy Lund and Charles J. Fornaciari. "How to Create and Use Experiential Case-Based Exercises in a Management Classroom." Journal of Management Education 26 (October 2002): 586-603; Klebba, Joanne M. and Janet G. Hamilton. "Structured Case Analysis: Developing Critical Thinking Skills in a Marketing Case Course." Journal of Marketing Education 29 (August 2007): 132-137, 139; Klein, Norman. "The Case Discussion Method Revisited: Some Questions about Student Skills." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 30-32; Mukherjee, Arup. "Effective Use of In-Class Mini Case Analysis for Discovery Learning in an Undergraduate MIS Course." The Journal of Computer Information Systems 40 (Spring 2000): 15-23; Pessoa, Silviaet al. "Scaffolding the Case Analysis in an Organizational Behavior Course: Making Analytical Language Explicit." Journal of Management Education 46 (2022): 226-251: Ramsey, V. J. and L. D. Dodge. "Case Analysis: A Structured Approach." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 27-29; Schweitzer, Karen. "How to Write and Format a Business Case Study." ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/how-to-write-and-format-a-business-case-study-466324 (accessed December 5, 2022); Reddy, C. D. "Teaching Research Methodology: Everything's a Case." Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods 18 (December 2020): 178-188; Volpe, Guglielmo. "Case Teaching in Economics: History, Practice and Evidence." Cogent Economics and Finance 3 (December 2015). doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2015.1120977.

Writing Tip

Ca se Study and Case Analysis Are Not the Same!

Confusion often exists between what it means to write a paper that uses a case study research design and writing a paper that analyzes a case; they are two different types of approaches to learning in the social and behavioral sciences. Professors as well as educational researchers contribute to this confusion because they often use the term "case study" when describing the subject of analysis for a case analysis paper. But you are not studying a case for the purpose of generating a comprehensive, multi-faceted understanding of a research problem. R ather, you are critically analyzing a specific scenario to argue logically for recommended solutions and courses of action that lead to optimal outcomes applicable to professional practice.

To avoid any confusion, here are twelve characteristics that delineate the differences between writing a paper using the case study research method and writing a case analysis paper:

• Case study is a method of in-depth research and rigorous inquiry ; case analysis is a reliable method of teaching and learning . A case study is a modality of research that investigates a phenomenon for the purpose of creating new knowledge, solving a problem, or testing a hypothesis using empirical evidence derived from the case being studied. Often, the results are used to generalize about a larger population or within a wider context. The writing adheres to the traditional standards of a scholarly research study. A case analysis is a pedagogical tool used to teach students how to reflect and think critically about a practical, real-life problem in an organizational setting.
• The researcher is responsible for identifying the case to study; a case analysis is assigned by your professor . As the researcher, you choose the case study to investigate in support of obtaining new knowledge and understanding about the research problem. The case in a case analysis assignment is almost always provided, and sometimes written, by your professor and either given to every student in class to analyze individually or to a small group of students, or students select a case to analyze from a predetermined list.
• A case study is indeterminate and boundless; a case analysis is predetermined and confined . A case study can be almost anything [see item 9 below] as long as it relates directly to examining the research problem. This relationship is the only limit to what a researcher can choose as the subject of their case study. The content of a case analysis is determined by your professor and its parameters are well-defined and limited to elucidating insights of practical value applied to practice.
• Case study is fact-based and describes actual events or situations; case analysis can be entirely fictional or adapted from an actual situation . The entire content of a case study must be grounded in reality to be a valid subject of investigation in an empirical research study. A case analysis only needs to set the stage for critically examining a situation in practice and, therefore, can be entirely fictional or adapted, all or in-part, from an actual situation.
• Research using a case study method must adhere to principles of intellectual honesty and academic integrity; a case analysis scenario can include misleading or false information . A case study paper must report research objectively and factually to ensure that any findings are understood to be logically correct and trustworthy. A case analysis scenario may include misleading or false information intended to deliberately distract from the central issues of the case. The purpose is to teach students how to sort through conflicting or useless information in order to come up with the preferred solution. Any use of misleading or false information in academic research is considered unethical.
• Case study is linked to a research problem; case analysis is linked to a practical situation or scenario . In the social sciences, the subject of an investigation is most often framed as a problem that must be researched in order to generate new knowledge leading to a solution. Case analysis narratives are grounded in real life scenarios for the purpose of examining the realities of decision-making behavior and processes within organizational settings. A case analysis assignments include a problem or set of problems to be analyzed. However, the goal is centered around the act of identifying and evaluating courses of action leading to best possible outcomes.
• The purpose of a case study is to create new knowledge through research; the purpose of a case analysis is to teach new understanding . Case studies are a choice of methodological design intended to create new knowledge about resolving a research problem. A case analysis is a mode of teaching and learning intended to create new understanding and an awareness of uncertainty applied to practice through acts of critical thinking and reflection.
• A case study seeks to identify the best possible solution to a research problem; case analysis can have an indeterminate set of solutions or outcomes . Your role in studying a case is to discover the most logical, evidence-based ways to address a research problem. A case analysis assignment rarely has a single correct answer because one of the goals is to force students to confront the real life dynamics of uncertainly, ambiguity, and missing or conflicting information within professional practice. Under these conditions, a perfect outcome or solution almost never exists.
• Case study is unbounded and relies on gathering external information; case analysis is a self-contained subject of analysis . The scope of a case study chosen as a method of research is bounded. However, the researcher is free to gather whatever information and data is necessary to investigate its relevance to understanding the research problem. For a case analysis assignment, your professor will often ask you to examine solutions or recommended courses of action based solely on facts and information from the case.
• Case study can be a person, place, object, issue, event, condition, or phenomenon; a case analysis is a carefully constructed synopsis of events, situations, and behaviors . The research problem dictates the type of case being studied and, therefore, the design can encompass almost anything tangible as long as it fulfills the objective of generating new knowledge and understanding. A case analysis is in the form of a narrative containing descriptions of facts, situations, processes, rules, and behaviors within a particular setting and under a specific set of circumstances.
• Case study can represent an open-ended subject of inquiry; a case analysis is a narrative about something that has happened in the past . A case study is not restricted by time and can encompass an event or issue with no temporal limit or end. For example, the current war in Ukraine can be used as a case study of how medical personnel help civilians during a large military conflict, even though circumstances around this event are still evolving. A case analysis can be used to elicit critical thinking about current or future situations in practice, but the case itself is a narrative about something finite and that has taken place in the past.
• Multiple case studies can be used in a research study; case analysis involves examining a single scenario . Case study research can use two or more cases to examine a problem, often for the purpose of conducting a comparative investigation intended to discover hidden relationships, document emerging trends, or determine variations among different examples. A case analysis assignment typically describes a stand-alone, self-contained situation and any comparisons among cases are conducted during in-class discussions and/or student presentations.

The Case Analysis . Fred Meijer Center for Writing and Michigan Authors. Grand Valley State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Ramsey, V. J. and L. D. Dodge. "Case Analysis: A Structured Approach." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 27-29; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2017; Crowe, Sarah et al. “The Case Study Approach.” BMC Medical Research Methodology 11 (2011):  doi: 10.1186/1471-2288-11-100; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 4th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishing; 1994.

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The Case Study Handbook, Revised Edition by William Ellet

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HOW TO ANALYZE DECISION SCENARIO CASES

T he most common type of core scenario you’ll encounter in cases is a decision. The first part of this chapter will define the unique characteristics of a decision analysis and the second will walk you through an analysis of a complete case, using the elements and the questions described in chapter 3 .

The analysis of a decision scenario has six distinct elements:

• Identification of the required decision
• Review or identification of options
• Criteria selection
• Criteria-based analysis
• Recommended decision
• Proposed actions

Your professors probably will not discuss a decision scenario case by asking questions about the six elements. They will have their own way of facilitating the discussion. Nevertheless, ...

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• Introduction
• About Case Study Reports
• Section A: Overview
• Section B: Planning and Researching

Section C: Parts of a Case Study

• Section D: Reviewing and Presenting
• Section E: Revising Your Work
• Section F: Resources
• Your Workspace
• Guided Writing Tools

• About Lab Reports
• Section C: Critical Features
• Section D: Parts of a Lab Report

• About Literature Review
• Section C: Parts of a Literature Review
• Section D: Critical Writing Skills

• About Reflective Writing
• Section B: How Can I Reflect?
• Section C: How Do I Get Started?
• Section D: Writing a Reflection

Case Study Report Prepared by University of Guelph

In this section, we will take a closer look at the common components of case study reports and what readers expect to find in them.

What Will I Learn?

By successfully completing this section, you should be able to:

• analyze the purpose and features of the sections of a case study report,
• develop writing and organization strategies for writing each section, and
• examine a case study report for strengths and weaknesses.

Prepared by

What Do I Need to Include in Each Section?

Each section of the case study report serves a unique purpose and includes key elements. While reports will vary from case to case and course to course, there are some “moves” that you will typically see writers make in each section.

In this part of the guide, we will help you learn what these moves are and how you can make them in your own case study report.

Worksheet: Case Study Report Outline

You were introduced to the Case Study Report Outline Template in Section A of this guide. It contains an outline of the major components of a case study report that you can consider using as a template when completing case study reports. If you haven’t already, it is recommended that you download the template now.

Case Study Report Outline Template

This outline sample of a Case Study Report should serve as a useful guide to help you get started.

Download PDF

Download the Case Study Report Outline Template .

Preview: PDF Worksheet

Tip: The components of a case study report will vary depending on the preferences of your institution and instructor. Be sure to refer to your assignment instructions in order to find out exactly what will be required when it comes to sections as well as formatting requirements for your report.

The Executive Summary

What is the purpose of an executive summary.

An executive summary typically provides a one-page snapshot of the entire report, focusing on the main highlights. It is usually included at the start of a case report before the main text. Depending on the preferences of your instructor and institution, the executive summary can be written in either paragraph- or point-form.

What should be included in an executive summary?

The executive summary of a case study report should include the following:

• Problem statement

Tell readers in 1–2 sentences what the issue at hand is.

Example: The main problem facing Company XYZ is that sales are declining and employee morale is low. Without addressing these concerns, Company XYZ will be in serious trouble and may not be able to regain their standing as an industry leader.

Recommendation

What should be done to address the problem?

Example : In order to solve this problem it is recommended that Company XYZ undergo a change in strategy, structure, and culture. Specifically, it is recommended that Company XYZ

• pursue a strategy that places a high level of importance on innovation;
• restructure the organization so that it is flexible, innovative, and appropriate for the size of the organization; and
• begin to reshape the company’s organizational culture and the way in which day-to-day business is conducted; managers at all levels of Company XYZ will need to emphasize the values of ethics, creativity, and trust.

Supporting arguments and evidence

Summary of all of the major sections of your report, highlighting the arguments and evidence that support your recommendation.

What is the key message you want readers to take away? Why is it important to solve this problem and what do you anticipate the outcomes will be if the recommendations are followed?

Tip: Keep these arguments in the same order they appear in the main text.

What Tips And Strategies Can I Employ to Write the Executive Summary?

The following is a list of tips and strategies for writing the executive summary section of a case study report:

• Write the executive summary after all of the other sections of the report have been written.
• Consider your role. Write from the perspective that you are asked to adopt; for example, did the case instructions ask you to assume the role of an internal organizational member? An external organizational consultant? Some other stakeholder? How will this influence the tone and content of the summary?
• Avoid repeating case facts in detail. There can be a more general, summative opening sentence but the remainder of your executive summary should focus on going beyond the case information that was provided.
• Clearly state and justify the specific recommendation that will solve the problem that is being encountered. Imagine a skeptical audience: Why should they believe you?
• Include only key financial numbers and associated costing information.
• Make the executive summary can stand alone. Readers should be able to understand the Executive Summary even if they don’t read the rest of the report.

Example: Annotated Case Study Report

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The Introduction

What is the purpose of the introduction.

The introduction should briefly introduce the report to the reader and should then clearly, succinctly, and accurately identify the main problem being faced by the key decision-maker.

What Should Be Included In An Introduction?

The introduction of a case study report should include the following:

• Introductory sentence
• Details about the problem (stick to details that relate to your recommendation)
• Who are the most important decision-makers? Stakeholders?
• What are the most important issues?
• Why is this problem occurring? What are the root causes? Underlying factors?
• When does this decision need to be made by? What is the decision timeline? Due date?
• Recommendation: “It is recommended in the current report that [Company XYZ] pursue [this course of action] to address [these issues].”
• Outline or road map of the remainder of the report

What Tips And Strategies Can I Employ to Write the Introduction?

The following is a list of tips and strategies for writing the introduction section of a case study report:

• Avoid repeating case facts in detail and unnecessarily summarizing case facts that are already familiar to the reader.
• State the main problem up front—be as specific and simple as possible.
• Create a sense of urgency and importance associated with the situation by identifying the key stakeholders, problems, underlying factors, and timeline issues. Engage the reader by explaining the tension and complexity underlying the situation.
• State your recommendation so that the reader can consider the rest of your report based on the solution being proposed; this will help to provide context for your analysis and other major report sections.
• Remember: There should be no surprises when the reader gets to the actual recommendation section.

Learn more about writing strategies for the Introduction section of your paper.

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What Is The Purpose Of An Analysis Section?

The analysis section of your case study report is likely to be a very substantial part of your report. In this section you will examine the problem that you identified in the preceding section through a systematic and thorough application of your course and program content.

What Should Be Included?

The analysis section of a case study report should include the following:

• Application of course and/or program content to: examine the problem being faced, and to prepare the reader for the justification and specifics of your Recommendation, Implementation Plan
• References to related exhibits, which are appendices that appear at the end of the report in order to provide further elaboration or evidence regarding your analysis (e.g., graphs, figures, tables, financial documents)

How Should The Analysis Be Structured?

Be sure to check with your instructor to verify whether there is a specific format (e.g., SWOT, PEST) that should be followed. If no format is given, here are some general guidelines:

• Begin with an examination of the problem, highlighting the most important parts. Avoid including unnecessary detail—focus only on the problem and its parts.
• Apply course concepts or theories to the problem to provide insight into causes and effects, using headings to identify each section.
• Conclude with a summary of what your analysis has revealed. Think of this final section as an answer to the question “So what?”

What Tips And Strategies Can I Employ to Write The Analysis Section?

The following is a list of tips and strategies for writing the analysis section of a case study report:

• Use headings to subdivide the section.
• Show your understanding of the course and/or program content by systematically applying what you have been learning to the specific problem.
• Avoid using academic jargon. Instead, explain the concepts in your own words while referencing key sources.
• Only include information that is directly relevant to the problem at hand. Avoid including course and program content that does not relate to the problem that you identified in the preceding section.
• Be sure to discuss course and program concepts that will have an impact on your recommendation and implementation plan.
• Use exhibits strategically to elaborate on ideas in the report; however, ensure that the exhibits expand on ideas you’ve already discussed. Avoid introducing exhibits that don’t tie into the main text.

Learn more about writing strategies for the Analysis section of your paper.

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Alternatives and Decision Criteria

What is the purpose of an alternatives and decision criteria section.

This section helps decision-makers consider all the possible ways they could address the problem by:

• Presenting all viable, mutually exclusive solutions to the problem.
• Outlining the criteria that will be systematically applied to determine the best solution to the problem.

What Are “Mutually Exclusive” Alternatives?

Alternatives are mutually exclusive if choosing one alternative rules out the others. Using mutually exclusive alternatives prevents a situation in which an organization has to implement multiple alternatives.

What Are “Decision Criteria”?

Key requirements that the recommendation will need to meet to successfully solve the problem.

The alternatives and decision criteria section of a case study report should include the following:

• All viable, mutually exclusive alternatives
• Decision criteria including:
• Ranking of importance in terms of which decision criterion is the most important factor in order to be confident that the recommendation will solve the problem, second most important, etc.*
• Weighting in terms of how important each of the decision criteria are in order to be confident that the recommendation will solve the problem.*
• *Not all instructors or institutions will require ranking and weighting information as it is mostly determined in a subjective manner based on your analysis of the problem; nevertheless, it may assist in helping you to decide in a more systematic manner between two or more viable alternatives.

What Tips And Strategies Can I Employ to Write The Alternatives and Decision Section?

The following is a list of tips and strategies for writing the alternatives and decision section of a case study report:

• Your instructor may make the alternatives section of a case study report optional; however, if you can think of at least one reasonable and viable alternative in addition to your recommendation, then this section should be included.
• Be sure to list all reasonable and viable alternatives (including your recommendation).
• Ensure that the alternatives listed are mutually exclusive.
• In the decision criteria section, include the criteria that will be most effective for evaluating the alternative solutions to the problem being faced.
• For a more systematic application of the decision criteria, assign importance and weighting to your decision criteria factors and then apply them to each of the alternatives.
• Be sure to convincingly demonstrate that your recommendation is in fact the best choice compared with the other alternatives. Be explicit about how the criteria apply to the recommendations—do not assume that the reader will see the connection.

Learn more about writing strategies for the Alternatives and Decision Criteria section of your paper.

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Recommendations and Implementation Plan

What is the purpose of the recommendations and implementation plan section.

Although the reader will by now be well aware of your recommendation, in this section you will discuss all of the specifics of the recommendation for solving the problem. Moreover, you should also present a thorough and well thought-out implementation plan for executing the recommendation and ensuring its success.

The recommendations and implementation plan section of a case study report should include the following:

• Detailed explanation of what your recommendation entails. What is it that will be done? What specific steps will be involved? What equipment or expertise will be needed?
• Explanation of your implementation plan, including:
• Who will be responsible for what part of the implementation plan?
• When will the different parts of the recommendation be implemented? Short-, medium-, and long-term implementation plan?
• What will the cost be of these required actions?
• What will the impact of this recommendation be on other parts of the organization?
• What could go wrong, and what contingency plans are in place?

What Tips And Strategies Can I Employ to Write The Recommendations And Implementation Plan?

The following is a list of tips and strategies for writing the recommendations and implementation plan of a case study report:

• Be sure to include all of the details of your recommendation. You have already outlined your more general recommendation to the reader earlier in your report but now is your opportunity to provide the more specific details regarding your recommendation.
• Include a well thought-out implementation plan that includes all of the specifics that an organization would actually require in order to realistically implement your recommendation. Try to put yourself in the mindset of the organizational members responsible for implementing your recommendation; what step-by-step specifics will they need to be aware of in order to take your recommendation and ensure that it is successfully implemented?
• Including a contingency analysis of the possible problems that could arise from your recommendation. What might go wrong? How will you address these problems should they come up in order to still be able to successfully implement your recommendation?
• Also be sure to consider the expected as well as the potentially unexpected impact of your recommendation on the people within the organization.
• A good strategy would be to explain how the organizational leaders will evaluate whether your implementation plan has been successful and whether the recommendation has achieved the desired results. Be specific regarding the evaluation metrics that should be used (e.g., measures of customer satisfaction, measures of employee engagement, profitability analyses)

Learn more about writing strategies for the Recommendations and Implementation Plan section of your paper.

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Conclusion and References

What is the purpose of the conclusion.

The purpose of the conclusion section is to leave your reader with one or two last, powerful statements that will help to reinforce the recommendation that you are proposing.

Some instructors and institutions do not require a conclusion section, but if done effectively, it can end your case report on a strong note.

The conclusion section of a case study report should include the following:

• A summary sentence that explains what we have learned from the report
• One or two impactful and memorable statements to conclude your report (what is the most important thing that the organization should take away from the report?)

What Tips And Strategies Can I Employ to Write The Conclusion?

The following is a list of tips and strategies for writing the conclusion of a case study report:

• Avoid an abrupt ending to your written case report. Provide a few sentences to help draw things to a natural close.
• Persuasively summarize how your recommendation will solve the problem at hand.
• Ensure that you yourself are persuaded and convinced by the concluding statement; for example, would you believe that this solution will work if you were the person reading your report?

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Citing Your Sources

What sources should you cite.

You should use in-text citations for any idea that is not your own. Moreover, these citations should be reflected in your references list, which you will be required to provide at the end of your case study report. Your institution will have their own plagiarism and academic misconduct policies, which you should familiarize yourself with; however, a best practice will be to be cautious and ensure that all of the following are appropriately cited and referenced throughout your work:

• Ideas from sources other than your own thinking
• Direct quotations, which you should use infrequently in your case study reports
• Paraphrasing and/or summarizing the work of others
• Course and/or program specific definitions, theories, models, etc.
• Information from popular press articles
• Data, financial documents, etc. from annual reports, company webpages

What Are The Common Citation Styles?

It is likely that your instructor will let you know what his/her preferences are in terms of a citation style; however, some of the most common citation styles include:

• American Psychological Association (APA)
• Chicago Manual of Style (Chicago)
• Modern Language Association (MLA)

Key Takeaways and References

Key takeaways.

Now that you've completed this section, keep the following things in mind:

• The key to most case study reports is logic. There is usually not just one desired correct response to a case study, but rather, there are more and less logical, practical, and reasonable responses. Incorporating sound and strong logic throughout your report is paramount.
• Ensure that your report is written at a level that would appeal to a business audience rather than an academic one.
• Lastly, can you confidently stand behind, advocate for, and answer questions regarding your case response? If so, then your work is likely in a good position!
• The next steps for this set of modules will involve helping you to take all of the work that has gone into your written report in order to prepare a verbal presentation of your work.

American Psychological Association (2009). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Lipson, C. (2011). Cite right: A quick guide to citation styles—MLA, APA, Chicago, the sciences, professions, and more (2nd ed.). Chicago: The University Of Chicago Press.

Modern Language Association (2008). MLA style manual and guide to scholarly publishing (3rd ed.). New York: Modern Language Association of America.

Modern Language Association (2009). The MLA handbook for writers of research papers (7th ed.). New York: Modern Language Association of America.

University of Chicago Press Staff. (2010). The Chicago manual of style: The essential guide for writers, editors, and publishers (16th ed.). Chicago: The University Of Chicago Press.

University of Guelph. (2015). Case Study Report Outline Template .

University of Guelph. (2015). The Executive Summary. Example: Annotated Case Study Report . (Interactive Activity).

University of Guelph. (2015). The Executive Summary. Example: Annotated Case Study Report . (PDF).

University of Guelph. (2015). The Introduction. Example: Annotated Case Study Report . (Interactive Activity).

University of Guelph. (2015). The Introduction. Example: Annotated Case Study Report . (PDF).

University of Guelph. (2015). Analysis. Example: Annotated Case Study Report . (Interactive Activity).

University of Guelph. (2015). Analysis. Example: Annotated Case Study Report . (PDF).

University of Guelph. (2015). Alternatives and Decision Criteria. Example: Annotated Case Study Report . (Interactive Activity).

University of Guelph. (2015). Alternatives and Decision Criteria. Example: Annotated Case Study Report . (PDF).

University of Guelph. (2015). Recommendations and Implementation Plan. Example: Annotated Case Study Report . (Interactive Activity).

University of Guelph. (2015). Recommendations and Implementation Plan. Example: Annotated Case Study Report . (PDF).

University of Guelph. (2015). Conclusion and References. Example: Annotated Case Study Report . (Interactive Activity).

University of Guelph. (2015). Conclusion and References. Example: Annotated Case Study Report . (PDF).

Next Section Overview

In Section D: Reviewing and Presenting , we will explore understanding and meeting your instructor's expectations for the report and presentation.

Sales CRM Terms

What are Decision Criteria? (Explained With Examples)

Oct 11, 2023

Decision criteria are essential factors that individuals or organizations consider when making a decision. They serve as the basis for evaluating different options and ultimately choosing the best course of action. In this article, we will delve into the definition of decision criteria, explore their advantages and disadvantages, and provide practical examples in various contexts, such as startups, consulting, and digital marketing agencies. We will also utilize analogies to help illustrate the concept further.

1. What are Decision Criteria?

Decision criteria encompass the specific factors that individuals or organizations prioritize when making a decision. These factors can include financial considerations, strategic objectives, customer preferences, technological feasibility, and many other relevant aspects. By establishing decision criteria, individuals or organizations can systematically evaluate different options and determine the best course of action.

When it comes to decision-making, having clear and well-defined criteria is crucial. Decision criteria serve as a set of guidelines or standards that help individuals or organizations assess and compare different alternatives. These criteria can be quantitative or qualitative, depending on the nature of the decision and the available information.

1.1 Definition of Decision Criteria

Decision criteria refer to the specific standards or benchmarks used to assess different alternatives during a decision-making process. These criteria can be quantitative or qualitative and are often tailored to the specific context or goals of the decision-making process.

Quantitative decision criteria involve measurable factors that can be assigned numerical values. For example, in a financial decision, criteria such as return on investment (ROI), net present value (NPV), or payback period may be used. These criteria provide a clear and objective basis for evaluating options.

On the other hand, qualitative decision criteria involve subjective factors that are difficult to quantify but still play a significant role in the decision-making process. These criteria can include factors such as brand reputation, customer satisfaction, or ethical considerations. While they may not have precise numerical values, they are essential for capturing the intangible aspects that influence decision outcomes.

1.2 Advantages of Decision Criteria

Using decision criteria provides several benefits. Firstly, decision criteria help ensure that all relevant aspects are taken into account, leading to more comprehensive and informed decisions. By considering a range of factors, decision-makers can avoid overlooking critical aspects that could impact the success of the chosen option.

Secondly, decision criteria enable individuals or organizations to compare and prioritize different options based on their importance. By assigning weights or rankings to each criterion, decision-makers can objectively assess the pros and cons of each alternative. This allows for a more structured decision-making process and reduces the likelihood of relying on subjective judgments solely.

Lastly, decision criteria facilitate stakeholder collaboration and transparency as they provide a clear framework for evaluating options and aligning diverse perspectives. When decision criteria are well-defined and communicated, stakeholders can understand the rationale behind the chosen option and feel more engaged in the decision-making process.

1.3 Disadvantages of Decision Criteria

While decision criteria offer significant advantages, they are not without their limitations. One potential disadvantage is that decision criteria can oversimplify complex problems or situations. By focusing on specific factors, decision criteria may overlook critical nuances or underlying complexities that could impact the final decision. It is important for decision-makers to be aware of this limitation and consider additional information or expert opinions to supplement the criteria.

Additionally, decision criteria can be influenced by biases or limited perspectives, potentially leading to suboptimal outcomes. For example, if decision criteria heavily prioritize short-term financial gains, long-term sustainability or ethical considerations may be overlooked. To mitigate this risk, decision-makers should strive for a diverse and inclusive decision-making process that incorporates a wide range of perspectives and expertise.

In conclusion, decision criteria play a vital role in the decision-making process. They provide a structured framework for evaluating alternatives and help ensure that all relevant aspects are considered. However, decision criteria should be used judiciously, taking into account the limitations and potential biases they may introduce. By combining decision criteria with broader considerations and expert insights, individuals and organizations can make more informed and effective decisions.

2. Examples of Decision Criteria

Examining practical examples will further illuminate the concept of decision criteria. Let's explore how decision criteria can be applied in different contexts:

2.1 Example in a Startup Context

In a startup context, decision criteria could include factors such as market potential, cost-effectiveness, scalability, and alignment with the company's vision and mission. By prioritizing these criteria, startup founders can evaluate potential business opportunities and make data-driven decisions that maximize chances of success.

For example, let's consider a tech startup that is developing a new mobile app. The decision criteria for this startup could involve analyzing the size of the target market, assessing the potential demand for the app, and evaluating the competition in the app market. Additionally, the startup may consider the cost-effectiveness of developing and maintaining the app, as well as its scalability potential in terms of user growth and revenue generation.

By carefully considering these decision criteria, the startup can make informed choices about whether to proceed with the app development, how to allocate resources, and how to position the app in the market.

2.2 Example in a Consulting Context

When working on a consulting project, decision criteria might involve client requirements, industry best practices, profitability, and long-term sustainability. By utilizing these criteria, consultants can assess alternative solutions and recommend the most suitable strategy to address the client's challenges and achieve their goals.

For instance, let's imagine a consulting firm that is tasked with helping a manufacturing company optimize its production processes. The decision criteria in this context could include analyzing the client's specific requirements, benchmarking against industry best practices, evaluating the potential profitability of proposed solutions, and considering the long-term sustainability of the implemented changes.

By carefully evaluating these decision criteria, the consulting firm can provide the client with a well-informed recommendation on how to streamline their production processes, improve efficiency, and ultimately achieve their desired business outcomes.

2.3 Example in a Digital Marketing Agency Context

In the context of a digital marketing agency, decision criteria could include factors such as target audience reach, cost per acquisition, return on investment, and campaign performance metrics. By incorporating these criteria, digital marketers can make data-informed decisions on the optimal marketing channels, strategies, and campaigns to maximize client's online presence and achieve desired business outcomes.

For example, let's consider a digital marketing agency that is working with an e-commerce client to increase their online sales. The decision criteria for this agency could involve analyzing the potential reach of different marketing channels, calculating the cost per acquisition for each channel, evaluating the expected return on investment for various marketing strategies, and monitoring campaign performance metrics such as click-through rates and conversion rates.

By carefully considering these decision criteria, the digital marketing agency can develop a tailored marketing plan that focuses on the most effective channels, strategies, and campaigns to drive targeted traffic to the client's website, increase conversions, and ultimately boost online sales.

2.4 Example with Analogies

To grasp the concept of decision criteria further, let's consider an analogy. Imagine you are choosing a holiday destination. The decision criteria might encompass factors such as travel costs, weather preferences, available activities, and cultural experiences. By evaluating these criteria, you can prioritize destinations that align with your preferences and make an informed decision on the best holiday spot.

For instance, let's say you are planning a vacation and have several potential destinations in mind. The decision criteria you might consider could include analyzing the cost of travel and accommodation, assessing the weather conditions and climate preferences, evaluating the availability of activities and attractions, and considering the cultural experiences each destination offers.

By carefully evaluating these decision criteria, you can narrow down your options and choose a holiday destination that suits your budget, weather preferences, desired activities, and cultural interests.

In conclusion, decision criteria play a crucial role in the decision-making process. They allow individuals or organizations to assess alternatives systematically, considering crucial factors and aligning decisions with their goals. While decision criteria have advantages such as comprehensiveness and clarity, it is important to be aware of their limitations and use them judiciously alongside broader considerations. By examining practical examples and analogies, we can better understand how decision criteria apply in various contexts and enhance our decision-making capabilities.

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20 – Recommendation Reports

Decision-Making and Criteria

David McMurrey; Jonathan Arnett; Kalani Pattison; and Nicole Hagstrom-Schmidt

The previous parts of this chapter have dealt mostly with expectations regarding the sections of a recommendation or feasibility report. However, underlying the report as a whole, a decision-making process is taking place. Presenting a clear recommendation or suggestions to your audience depends on clearly informing your readers how you reached your decision.

Depending on the structure of your report and the delineation of your research tasks within your results, conclusions, recommendations, or all of these sections, you will have to justify evaluations, comparisons, and decisions that you made in the course of your research. Below are several common places where you may make crucial decisions that affect the content and results of your entire report:

• If one of your research tasks is to determine the best product to buy, and another task is to determine where to install it, you will have to evaluate multiple options as part of the results of those tasks.
• If you administer a survey, conduct interviews, and find secondary resources about website builders, you may have to determine the most important information to include in your conclusion in order to draw your results or findings together into logical conclusions.
• If you find that a suggested course of action isn’t actually going to improve a situation, a decision-making tree or a decision matrix in the recommendation might help support your recommendation of keeping the status quo.

In all of these cases, and in almost all recommendation or feasibility reports, you need to be able to clearly explain your decision-making processes to your audience in an objective way. Three tools that you can use to do so are criteria, decision matrices, and decision trees.

Criteria (singular: criterion) are the quantitative and qualitative categories and standards you use to judge something. If your technical report requires you to make a judgment of some sort—is the project feasible? What is the best option? Did the item pass or fail a test?—you should describe and define the factors that guide your decision. Common examples of decision-making criteria include costs, schedules, popular opinions, demonstrated needs, and degrees of quality. Here are some examples:

• If you are recommending a tablet computer for use by employees, your requirements are likely to involve size, cost, hard-disk storage, display quality, durability, and battery life.
• If you are looking into the feasibility of providing every student at Austin Community College with an ID on the ACC computer network, you need to define the basic requirements of such a program: what it would be expected to accomplish, problems that it would have to avoid, and so on.
• If you are evaluating the logistics of the free bus public transportation program in Bryan/College Station for Texas A&M students, you need to know what is expected of the program and then explore costs, locations, and other factors in relation to those requirements.

Criteria may need to be defined on a very specific level. For example, “chocolate flavor” may be a criterion for choosing among brands of chocolate truffles, but what defines a desirable chocolate flavor? Do you want a milk chocolate flavor? A dark chocolate flavor? White chocolate? A high or low percentage of cacao? Sweet, bitter, or spicy? Single-origin cacao beans or a blend? If single-origin, do you want Ghanian, Venezuelan, Honduran, Ecuadorian, or Filipino? The more you know about a criterion, the more precise you can be in your evaluation.

Criteria may also be referred to as requirements and can be defined in three basic ways:

• Numerical values. Many requirements are stated as maximum or minimum numerical values. For example, there may be a cost requirement, such as the tablet computer for employees should cost no more than $900.
• Yes/no values. Some requirements are simply a yes-no question. For instance, does the tablet come equipped with Bluetooth? Is the car equipped with voice recognition?
• Ratings values. In some cases, key considerations cannot be handled either with numerical values or yes/no values. For example, your organization might want a tablet that has an ease-of-use rating of at least “good” by some nationally accepted ratings group. In other situations, you may have to assign ratings yourself.

The criteria section should also discuss how important the individual requirements are in relation to each other. Picture the typical situation where no one option is best in all categories of comparison. One option is cheaper; another has more functions; one has better ease-of-use ratings; another is known to be more durable. Set up your criteria so that they dictate a “winner” from a situation where there is no obvious winner.

Decision Matrices

One useful tool for decision-making based on criteria of varying importance is a decision matrix (plural: matrices). Decision matrices allow for numerical calculations and comparisons of different choices with criteria that have varying levels of importance.

To create a decision matrix, you start with the options to be compared, the criteria to be used to evaluate the options, and the relative weight or importance of each criterion in the decision. Table 20.2 [1] shows how a generic decision matrix would be set up.

Table 20.2. Generic decision matrix example.

In the weight column, each criterion would be given a number within a certain range—from 1 (least important) to 5 (most important), or 1 to 10, depending on how much the levels differ in importance. Some writers may be more comfortable with using percentages out of 100 when considering weight. Criteria can share the same weight or importance. The options would then be scored along a similar scale according to how well they perform in the particular criterion. The weight and score would then be multiplied and the whole column added together to give a total.

The following Table 20.3 [2] is a decision matrix reflecting different options for communicating to students in an online course. The weights are given in the shaded columns, the score each option earns for each criterion are shown in bold, and the maroon multiplication next to the score shows how the weight and score are multiplied. These totals are then added for a total of the whole column.

Table 20.3. Example decision matrix with randomly generated data.

As you can see in Table 20.3, if you went strictly by the number of criteria that an option excelled in, you might determine that emails are the best way to contact students. However, if you use the more nuanced decision matrix, then you could conclude that Canvas Announcements are the best way to communicate with students. The varying weights of each criterion and the score each option earns should be based on solid research. This matrix, then, allows you to quantify the reasons for choosing one option over another, despite the weights and scores being a little subjective.

Decision Trees

In addition to making a recommendation based on criteria or on weighted criteria, sometimes recommendations can be made after following a decision tree. Creating a visual representation of a decision tree can be useful in illuminating your thought process so that readers can follow your reasoning. Such decision trees can also be useful in communicating procedures for others to follow, especially in problem-solving situations.

The following decision tree in Figure 20.12 [3] illustrates how to determine whether to hire a professional to complete a household project or to do it yourself. As you can see, most decision trees are based on a series of Yes/No, Either/Or limited choices. There may be a choice out of three or four options at a particular step, but that isn’t as common, and so it is not depicted in the example.

This text was derived from

McMurrey, David and Jonathan Arnett, “Recommendation and Feasibility Reports,” in Tiffani Reardon, Tamara Powell, Jonathan Arnett, Monique Logan, and Cassandra Race, with contributors David McMurrey, Steve Miller, Cherie Miller, Megan Gibbs, Jennifer Nguyen, James Monroe, and Lance Linimon. Open Technical Communication . 4th ed. Athens, GA: Affordable Learning Georgia, n.d. https://alg.manifoldapp.org/projects/open-tc . Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License .

• Kalani Pattison, “Generic Decision Matrix Example,” 2020. This image is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License . ↵
• Kalani Pattison, “Example Decision Matrix with Randomly Generated Data,” 2020. This image is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License . ↵
• Kalani Pattison, “Example of Decision Tree,” 2020. This image is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License . ↵

The quantitative and qualitative categories and standards used to evaluate something. (singular: criterion)

Decision-Making and Criteria Copyright © 2022 by David McMurrey; Jonathan Arnett; Kalani Pattison; and Nicole Hagstrom-Schmidt is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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All You Wanted to Know About How to Write a Case Study

What do you study in your college? If you are a psychology, sociology, or anthropology student, we bet you might be familiar with what a case study is. This research method is used to study a certain person, group, or situation. In this guide from our dissertation writing service , you will learn how to write a case study professionally, from researching to citing sources properly. Also, we will explore different types of case studies and show you examples — so that you won’t have any other questions left.

What Is a Case Study?

A case study is a subcategory of research design which investigates problems and offers solutions. Case studies can range from academic research studies to corporate promotional tools trying to sell an idea—their scope is quite vast.

What Is the Difference Between a Research Paper and a Case Study?

While research papers turn the reader’s attention to a certain problem, case studies go even further. Case study guidelines require students to pay attention to details, examining issues closely and in-depth using different research methods. For example, case studies may be used to examine court cases if you study Law, or a patient's health history if you study Medicine. Case studies are also used in Marketing, which are thorough, empirically supported analysis of a good or service's performance. Well-designed case studies can be valuable for prospective customers as they can identify and solve the potential customers pain point.

Case studies involve a lot of storytelling – they usually examine particular cases for a person or a group of people. This method of research is very helpful, as it is very practical and can give a lot of hands-on information. Most commonly, the length of the case study is about 500-900 words, which is much less than the length of an average research paper.

The structure of a case study is very similar to storytelling. It has a protagonist or main character, which in your case is actually a problem you are trying to solve. You can use the system of 3 Acts to make it a compelling story. It should have an introduction, rising action, a climax where transformation occurs, falling action, and a solution.

Here is a rough formula for you to use in your case study:

Problem (Act I): > Solution (Act II) > Result (Act III) > Conclusion.

Types of Case Studies

The purpose of a case study is to provide detailed reports on an event, an institution, a place, future customers, or pretty much anything. There are a few common types of case study, but the type depends on the topic. The following are the most common domains where case studies are needed:

• Historical case studies are great to learn from. Historical events have a multitude of source info offering different perspectives. There are always modern parallels where these perspectives can be applied, compared, and thoroughly analyzed.
• Problem-oriented case studies are usually used for solving problems. These are often assigned as theoretical situations where you need to immerse yourself in the situation to examine it. Imagine you’re working for a startup and you’ve just noticed a significant flaw in your product’s design. Before taking it to the senior manager, you want to do a comprehensive study on the issue and provide solutions. On a greater scale, problem-oriented case studies are a vital part of relevant socio-economic discussions.
• Cumulative case studies collect information and offer comparisons. In business, case studies are often used to tell people about the value of a product.
• Critical case studies explore the causes and effects of a certain case.
• Illustrative case studies describe certain events, investigating outcomes and lessons learned.

Need a compelling case study? EssayPro has got you covered. Our experts are ready to provide you with detailed, insightful case studies that capture the essence of real-world scenarios. Elevate your academic work with our professional assistance.

Case Study Format

The case study format is typically made up of eight parts:

• Executive Summary. Explain what you will examine in the case study. Write an overview of the field you’re researching. Make a thesis statement and sum up the results of your observation in a maximum of 2 sentences.
• Background. Provide background information and the most relevant facts. Isolate the issues.
• Case Evaluation. Isolate the sections of the study you want to focus on. In it, explain why something is working or is not working.
• Proposed Solutions. Offer realistic ways to solve what isn’t working or how to improve its current condition. Explain why these solutions work by offering testable evidence.
• Conclusion. Summarize the main points from the case evaluations and proposed solutions. 6. Recommendations. Talk about the strategy that you should choose. Explain why this choice is the most appropriate.
• Implementation. Explain how to put the specific strategies into action.
• References. Provide all the citations.

How to Write a Case Study

Let's discover how to write a case study.

Setting Up the Research

When writing a case study, remember that research should always come first. Reading many different sources and analyzing other points of view will help you come up with more creative solutions. You can also conduct an actual interview to thoroughly investigate the customer story that you'll need for your case study. Including all of the necessary research, writing a case study may take some time. The research process involves doing the following:

• Define your objective. Explain the reason why you’re presenting your subject. Figure out where you will feature your case study; whether it is written, on video, shown as an infographic, streamed as a podcast, etc.
• Determine who will be the right candidate for your case study. Get permission, quotes, and other features that will make your case study effective. Get in touch with your candidate to see if they approve of being part of your work. Study that candidate’s situation and note down what caused it.
• Identify which various consequences could result from the situation. Follow these guidelines on how to start a case study: surf the net to find some general information you might find useful.
• Make a list of credible sources and examine them. Seek out important facts and highlight problems. Always write down your ideas and make sure to brainstorm.
• Focus on several key issues – why they exist, and how they impact your research subject. Think of several unique solutions. Draw from class discussions, readings, and personal experience. When writing a case study, focus on the best solution and explore it in depth. After having all your research in place, writing a case study will be easy. You may first want to check the rubric and criteria of your assignment for the correct case study structure.

Read Also: ' WHAT IS A CREDIBLE SOURCES ?'

Although your instructor might be looking at slightly different criteria, every case study rubric essentially has the same standards. Your professor will want you to exhibit 8 different outcomes:

• Correctly identify the concepts, theories, and practices in the discipline.
• Identify the relevant theories and principles associated with the particular study.
• Evaluate legal and ethical principles and apply them to your decision-making.
• Recognize the global importance and contribution of your case.
• Construct a coherent summary and explanation of the study.
• Demonstrate analytical and critical-thinking skills.
• Explain the interrelationships between the environment and nature.
• Integrate theory and practice of the discipline within the analysis.

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Case Study Outline

Let's look at the structure of an outline based on the issue of the alcoholic addiction of 30 people.

Introduction

• Statement of the issue: Alcoholism is a disease rather than a weakness of character.
• Presentation of the problem: Alcoholism is affecting more than 14 million people in the USA, which makes it the third most common mental illness there.
• Explanation of the terms: In the past, alcoholism was commonly referred to as alcohol dependence or alcohol addiction. Alcoholism is now the more severe stage of this addiction in the disorder spectrum.
• Hypotheses: Drinking in excess can lead to the use of other drugs.
• Importance of your story: How the information you present can help people with their addictions.
• Background of the story: Include an explanation of why you chose this topic.
• Presentation of analysis and data: Describe the criteria for choosing 30 candidates, the structure of the interview, and the outcomes.
• Strong argument 1: ex. X% of candidates dealing with anxiety and depression...
• Strong argument 2: ex. X amount of people started drinking by their mid-teens.
• Strong argument 3: ex. X% of respondents’ parents had issues with alcohol.
• Concluding statement: I have researched if alcoholism is a disease and found out that…
• Recommendations: Ways and actions for preventing alcohol use.

Writing a Case Study Draft

After you’ve done your case study research and written the outline, it’s time to focus on the draft. In a draft, you have to develop and write your case study by using: the data which you collected throughout the research, interviews, and the analysis processes that were undertaken. Follow these rules for the draft:

• Your draft should contain at least 4 sections: an introduction; a body where you should include background information, an explanation of why you decided to do this case study, and a presentation of your main findings; a conclusion where you present data; and references.
• In the introduction, you should set the pace very clearly. You can even raise a question or quote someone you interviewed in the research phase. It must provide adequate background information on the topic. The background may include analyses of previous studies on your topic. Include the aim of your case here as well. Think of it as a thesis statement. The aim must describe the purpose of your work—presenting the issues that you want to tackle. Include background information, such as photos or videos you used when doing the research.
• Describe your unique research process, whether it was through interviews, observations, academic journals, etc. The next point includes providing the results of your research. Tell the audience what you found out. Why is this important, and what could be learned from it? Discuss the real implications of the problem and its significance in the world.
• Include quotes and data (such as findings, percentages, and awards). This will add a personal touch and better credibility to the case you present. Explain what results you find during your interviews in regards to the problem and how it developed. Also, write about solutions which have already been proposed by other people who have already written about this case.
• At the end of your case study, you should offer possible solutions, but don’t worry about solving them yourself.

Use Data to Illustrate Key Points in Your Case Study

Even though your case study is a story, it should be based on evidence. Use as much data as possible to illustrate your point. Without the right data, your case study may appear weak and the readers may not be able to relate to your issue as much as they should. Let's see the examples from essay writing service :

‍ With data: Alcoholism is affecting more than 14 million people in the USA, which makes it the third most common mental illness there. Without data: A lot of people suffer from alcoholism in the United States.

Try to include as many credible sources as possible. You may have terms or sources that could be hard for other cultures to understand. If this is the case, you should include them in the appendix or Notes for the Instructor or Professor.

Finalizing the Draft: Checklist

After you finish drafting your case study, polish it up by answering these ‘ask yourself’ questions and think about how to end your case study:

• Check that you follow the correct case study format, also in regards to text formatting.
• Check that your work is consistent with its referencing and citation style.
• Micro-editing — check for grammar and spelling issues.
• Macro-editing — does ‘the big picture’ come across to the reader? Is there enough raw data, such as real-life examples or personal experiences? Have you made your data collection process completely transparent? Does your analysis provide a clear conclusion, allowing for further research and practice?

Problems to avoid:

• Overgeneralization – Do not go into further research that deviates from the main problem.
• Failure to Document Limitations – Just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study, you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis.
• Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications – Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings.

How to Create a Title Page and Cite a Case Study

Let's see how to create an awesome title page.

Your title page depends on the prescribed citation format. The title page should include:

• A title that attracts some attention and describes your study
• The title should have the words “case study” in it
• The title should range between 5-9 words in length
• Your name and contact information
• Your finished paper should be only 500 to 1,500 words in length.With this type of assignment, write effectively and avoid fluff

Here is a template for the APA and MLA format title page:

There are some cases when you need to cite someone else's study in your own one – therefore, you need to master how to cite a case study. A case study is like a research paper when it comes to citations. You can cite it like you cite a book, depending on what style you need.

Citation Example in MLA ‍ Hill, Linda, Tarun Khanna, and Emily A. Stecker. HCL Technologies. Boston: Harvard Business Publishing, 2008. Print.

Citation Example in APA ‍ Hill, L., Khanna, T., & Stecker, E. A. (2008). HCL Technologies. Boston: Harvard Business Publishing.

Citation Example in Chicago Hill, Linda, Tarun Khanna, and Emily A. Stecker. HCL Technologies.

Case Study Examples

To give you an idea of a professional case study example, we gathered and linked some below.

Eastman Kodak Case Study

Case Study Example: Audi Trains Mexican Autoworkers in Germany

To conclude, a case study is one of the best methods of getting an overview of what happened to a person, a group, or a situation in practice. It allows you to have an in-depth glance at the real-life problems that businesses, healthcare industry, criminal justice, etc. may face. This insight helps us look at such situations in a different light. This is because we see scenarios that we otherwise would not, without necessarily being there. If you need custom essays , try our research paper writing services .

Get Help Form Qualified Writers

Crafting a case study is not easy. You might want to write one of high quality, but you don’t have the time or expertise. If you’re having trouble with your case study, help with essay request - we'll help. EssayPro writers have read and written countless case studies and are experts in endless disciplines. Request essay writing, editing, or proofreading assistance from our custom case study writing service , and all of your worries will be gone.

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What Is A Case Study?

How to cite a case study in apa, how to write a case study.

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is a seasoned educational writer focusing on scholarship guidance, research papers, and various forms of academic essays including reflective and narrative essays. His expertise also extends to detailed case studies. A scholar with a background in English Literature and Education, Daniel’s work on EssayPro blog aims to support students in achieving academic excellence and securing scholarships. His hobbies include reading classic literature and participating in academic forums.

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Related Articles

Case Study Research Method in Psychology

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

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Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

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Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Case studies are in-depth investigations of a person, group, event, or community. Typically, data is gathered from various sources using several methods (e.g., observations & interviews).

The case study research method originated in clinical medicine (the case history, i.e., the patient’s personal history). In psychology, case studies are often confined to the study of a particular individual.

The information is mainly biographical and relates to events in the individual’s past (i.e., retrospective), as well as to significant events that are currently occurring in his or her everyday life.

The case study is not a research method, but researchers select methods of data collection and analysis that will generate material suitable for case studies.

Freud (1909a, 1909b) conducted very detailed investigations into the private lives of his patients in an attempt to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses.

This makes it clear that the case study is a method that should only be used by a psychologist, therapist, or psychiatrist, i.e., someone with a professional qualification.

There is an ethical issue of competence. Only someone qualified to diagnose and treat a person can conduct a formal case study relating to atypical (i.e., abnormal) behavior or atypical development.

 Famous Case Studies

• Anna O – One of the most famous case studies, documenting psychoanalyst Josef Breuer’s treatment of “Anna O” (real name Bertha Pappenheim) for hysteria in the late 1800s using early psychoanalytic theory.
• Little Hans – A child psychoanalysis case study published by Sigmund Freud in 1909 analyzing his five-year-old patient Herbert Graf’s house phobia as related to the Oedipus complex.
• Bruce/Brenda – Gender identity case of the boy (Bruce) whose botched circumcision led psychologist John Money to advise gender reassignment and raise him as a girl (Brenda) in the 1960s.
• Genie Wiley – Linguistics/psychological development case of the victim of extreme isolation abuse who was studied in 1970s California for effects of early language deprivation on acquiring speech later in life.
• Phineas Gage – One of the most famous neuropsychology case studies analyzes personality changes in railroad worker Phineas Gage after an 1848 brain injury involving a tamping iron piercing his skull.

Clinical Case Studies

• Studying the effectiveness of psychotherapy approaches with an individual patient
• Assessing and treating mental illnesses like depression, anxiety disorders, PTSD
• Neuropsychological cases investigating brain injuries or disorders

Child Psychology Case Studies

• Studying psychological development from birth through adolescence
• Cases of learning disabilities, autism spectrum disorders, ADHD
• Effects of trauma, abuse, deprivation on development

Types of Case Studies

• Explanatory case studies : Used to explore causation in order to find underlying principles. Helpful for doing qualitative analysis to explain presumed causal links.
• Exploratory case studies : Used to explore situations where an intervention being evaluated has no clear set of outcomes. It helps define questions and hypotheses for future research.
• Descriptive case studies : Describe an intervention or phenomenon and the real-life context in which it occurred. It is helpful for illustrating certain topics within an evaluation.
• Multiple-case studies : Used to explore differences between cases and replicate findings across cases. Helpful for comparing and contrasting specific cases.
• Intrinsic : Used to gain a better understanding of a particular case. Helpful for capturing the complexity of a single case.
• Collective : Used to explore a general phenomenon using multiple case studies. Helpful for jointly studying a group of cases in order to inquire into the phenomenon.

Where Do You Find Data for a Case Study?

There are several places to find data for a case study. The key is to gather data from multiple sources to get a complete picture of the case and corroborate facts or findings through triangulation of evidence. Most of this information is likely qualitative (i.e., verbal description rather than measurement), but the psychologist might also collect numerical data.

1. Primary sources

• Interviews – Interviewing key people related to the case to get their perspectives and insights. The interview is an extremely effective procedure for obtaining information about an individual, and it may be used to collect comments from the person’s friends, parents, employer, workmates, and others who have a good knowledge of the person, as well as to obtain facts from the person him or herself.
• Observations – Observing behaviors, interactions, processes, etc., related to the case as they unfold in real-time.
• Documents & Records – Reviewing private documents, diaries, public records, correspondence, meeting minutes, etc., relevant to the case.

2. Secondary sources

• News/Media – News coverage of events related to the case study.
• Academic articles – Journal articles, dissertations etc. that discuss the case.
• Government reports – Official data and records related to the case context.
• Books/films – Books, documentaries or films discussing the case.

3. Archival records

Searching historical archives, museum collections and databases to find relevant documents, visual/audio records related to the case history and context.

Public archives like newspapers, organizational records, photographic collections could all include potentially relevant pieces of information to shed light on attitudes, cultural perspectives, common practices and historical contexts related to psychology.

4. Organizational records

Organizational records offer the advantage of often having large datasets collected over time that can reveal or confirm psychological insights.

Of course, privacy and ethical concerns regarding confidential data must be navigated carefully.

However, with proper protocols, organizational records can provide invaluable context and empirical depth to qualitative case studies exploring the intersection of psychology and organizations.

• Organizational/industrial psychology research : Organizational records like employee surveys, turnover/retention data, policies, incident reports etc. may provide insight into topics like job satisfaction, workplace culture and dynamics, leadership issues, employee behaviors etc.
• Clinical psychology : Therapists/hospitals may grant access to anonymized medical records to study aspects like assessments, diagnoses, treatment plans etc. This could shed light on clinical practices.
• School psychology : Studies could utilize anonymized student records like test scores, grades, disciplinary issues, and counseling referrals to study child development, learning barriers, effectiveness of support programs, and more.

How do I Write a Case Study in Psychology?

Follow specified case study guidelines provided by a journal or your psychology tutor. General components of clinical case studies include: background, symptoms, assessments, diagnosis, treatment, and outcomes. Interpreting the information means the researcher decides what to include or leave out. A good case study should always clarify which information is the factual description and which is an inference or the researcher’s opinion.

1. Introduction

• Provide background on the case context and why it is of interest, presenting background information like demographics, relevant history, and presenting problem.
• Compare briefly to similar published cases if applicable. Clearly state the focus/importance of the case.

2. Case Presentation

• Describe the presenting problem in detail, including symptoms, duration,and impact on daily life.
• Include client demographics like age and gender, information about social relationships, and mental health history.
• Describe all physical, emotional, and/or sensory symptoms reported by the client.
• Use patient quotes to describe the initial complaint verbatim. Follow with full-sentence summaries of relevant history details gathered, including key components that led to a working diagnosis.
• Summarize clinical exam results, namely orthopedic/neurological tests, imaging, lab tests, etc. Note actual results rather than subjective conclusions. Provide images if clearly reproducible/anonymized.
• Clearly state the working diagnosis or clinical impression before transitioning to management.

3. Management and Outcome

• Indicate the total duration of care and number of treatments given over what timeframe. Use specific names/descriptions for any therapies/interventions applied.
• Present the results of the intervention,including any quantitative or qualitative data collected.
• For outcomes, utilize visual analog scales for pain, medication usage logs, etc., if possible. Include patient self-reports of improvement/worsening of symptoms. Note the reason for discharge/end of care.

4. Discussion

• Analyze the case, exploring contributing factors, limitations of the study, and connections to existing research.
• Analyze the effectiveness of the intervention,considering factors like participant adherence, limitations of the study, and potential alternative explanations for the results.
• Identify any questions raised in the case analysis and relate insights to established theories and current research if applicable. Avoid definitive claims about physiological explanations.
• Offer clinical implications, and suggest future research directions.

5. Additional Items

• Thank specific assistants for writing support only. No patient acknowledgments.
• References should directly support any key claims or quotes included.
• Use tables/figures/images only if substantially informative. Include permissions and legends/explanatory notes.
• Provides detailed (rich qualitative) information.
• Provides insight for further research.
• Permitting investigation of otherwise impractical (or unethical) situations.

Case studies allow a researcher to investigate a topic in far more detail than might be possible if they were trying to deal with a large number of research participants (nomothetic approach) with the aim of ‘averaging’.

Because of their in-depth, multi-sided approach, case studies often shed light on aspects of human thinking and behavior that would be unethical or impractical to study in other ways.

Research that only looks into the measurable aspects of human behavior is not likely to give us insights into the subjective dimension of experience, which is important to psychoanalytic and humanistic psychologists.

Case studies are often used in exploratory research. They can help us generate new ideas (that might be tested by other methods). They are an important way of illustrating theories and can help show how different aspects of a person’s life are related to each other.

The method is, therefore, important for psychologists who adopt a holistic point of view (i.e., humanistic psychologists ).

Limitations

• Lacking scientific rigor and providing little basis for generalization of results to the wider population.
• Researchers’ own subjective feelings may influence the case study (researcher bias).
• Difficult to replicate.
• Time-consuming and expensive.
• The volume of data, together with the time restrictions in place, impacted the depth of analysis that was possible within the available resources.

Because a case study deals with only one person/event/group, we can never be sure if the case study investigated is representative of the wider body of “similar” instances. This means the conclusions drawn from a particular case may not be transferable to other settings.

Because case studies are based on the analysis of qualitative (i.e., descriptive) data , a lot depends on the psychologist’s interpretation of the information she has acquired.

This means that there is a lot of scope for Anna O , and it could be that the subjective opinions of the psychologist intrude in the assessment of what the data means.

For example, Freud has been criticized for producing case studies in which the information was sometimes distorted to fit particular behavioral theories (e.g., Little Hans ).

This is also true of Money’s interpretation of the Bruce/Brenda case study (Diamond, 1997) when he ignored evidence that went against his theory.

Breuer, J., & Freud, S. (1895).  Studies on hysteria . Standard Edition 2: London.

Curtiss, S. (1981). Genie: The case of a modern wild child .

Diamond, M., & Sigmundson, K. (1997). Sex Reassignment at Birth: Long-term Review and Clinical Implications. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine , 151(3), 298-304

Freud, S. (1909a). Analysis of a phobia of a five year old boy. In The Pelican Freud Library (1977), Vol 8, Case Histories 1, pages 169-306

Freud, S. (1909b). Bemerkungen über einen Fall von Zwangsneurose (Der “Rattenmann”). Jb. psychoanal. psychopathol. Forsch ., I, p. 357-421; GW, VII, p. 379-463; Notes upon a case of obsessional neurosis, SE , 10: 151-318.

Harlow J. M. (1848). Passage of an iron rod through the head.  Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, 39 , 389–393.

Harlow, J. M. (1868).  Recovery from the Passage of an Iron Bar through the Head .  Publications of the Massachusetts Medical Society. 2  (3), 327-347.

Money, J., & Ehrhardt, A. A. (1972).  Man & Woman, Boy & Girl : The Differentiation and Dimorphism of Gender Identity from Conception to Maturity. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Money, J., & Tucker, P. (1975). Sexual signatures: On being a man or a woman.

Further Information

• Case Study Approach
• Case Study Method
• Enhancing the Quality of Case Studies in Health Services Research
• “We do things together” A case study of “couplehood” in dementia
• Using mixed methods for evaluating an integrative approach to cancer care: a case study

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Qualitative Data Coding

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What Is Internal Validity In Research?

Research Methodology , Statistics

What Is Face Validity In Research? Importance & How To Measure

Criterion Validity: Definition & Examples

Finding the Forest in the Trees: The Challenge of Combining Diverse Environmental Data (1995)

Chapter: appendix a: case study evaluation criteria, a case study evaluation criteria.

In order to facilitate fact-finding for the case studies, the committee developed a set of criteria to function as a framework for identifying and analyzing issues involved in interfacing disparate data types. The criteria are intended to assist in learning lessons from past experiences and in developing general principles for future data integration efforts in support of environmental research.

The committee has identified five subject areas to consider in its assessments. These are:

User needs,

Study design,

Data characteristics and quality,

Data management, and

Institutional issues.

The specific criteria in each area derive from basic data management and data integration issues. Since these five areas represent a somewhat arbitrary separation of issues, there is some overlap among the specific criteria proposed for each area. In addition, these criteria and their related questions are intended to encompass as wide a range of issues as possible. Therefore, not all of them are equally relevant to every study.

Identifying all the users of data and their various needs is vitally important to the successful development and implementation of any data management plan. Given the interdisciplinary nature of much global change research, and the high cost of developing data sets, it is very likely that the user community will include not only existing study participants, but also additional future users. These future users may want to use the data for novel purposes and to interface them with data types beyond those originally envisioned. This requires defining user needs in the broadest sense possible. The term "user needs," as used here, refers to needs to find, evaluate, access, transfer, and/or combine data. It also refers to requirements for manipulating, processing, analyzing, or otherwise working with the data. Finally, it refers to the necessity for users to respond to institutional or cultural constraints, motivations, or pressures. Questions to consider include the following.

Identifying Users

Was there a clear definition of users and user groups at the inception of the research project?

Were users at each step of the data path, from initial data collection to final analysis and archiving, clearly defined?

Understanding Users' Requirements

Were the specific requirements of users at each step of the data path clearly defined?

Were future potential users' needs predicted and accommodated?

Were there incompatibilities or conflicts among different user groups?

Were institutional structures and management mechanisms (committees, working groups) established to identify users' needs and resolve conflicts?

Did users feel as if their needs were accommodated? If not, why not?

Technical Aspects

Did the study create specialized algorithms, routines, data management procedures, or database structures to accommodate users' needs? If so, how successful were they?

Did the study, as originally envisioned, require interfacing disparate databases?

Were interfacing requirements and issues understood and allowed for?

STUDY DESIGN

There are many design principles related to the conceptual and statistical validity of scientific research. Here the committee considers only those related to interfacing among different data types. Considering potential data interfacing issues in the original study design usually lessens the problems associated with the integration of data. This section considers strictly technical study design issues. Other design issues related to program structure and management are listed below in the section ''Institutional Issues." Technical questions to consider include the following.

Conceptual Framework

Was the study based on an overall conceptual model that described the relationships (both theoretical and functional) among different data types?

Was the conceptual framework pursued to a level of detail that helped identify data interfacing issues?

Was the conceptual framework explicitly multidisciplinary and multimedia?

Methodological Issues

Was the study an interdisciplinary one involving multiple data types?

Were all relevant disciplines and data types identified at the beginning of the study, or were midcourse adjustments required?

Were pilot studies performed to assess potential data integration issues and solutions?

Were data integration issues identified and planned for in the initial phase of the study? If not, at what stage of the study were they considered?

Were methodological differences among study components that created difficulties in later integration identified at the outset of the study?

What changes would the participants make in the study design if they had the opportunity to begin over again?

Data Integration

Did the study design involve using preexisting data? If so, what problems were encountered? Were enough metadata available?

Were there technical differences among disciplines that created data integration problems, e.g., requirements for different spatial scales or levels of detection?

What kind of data integration did the study's data analyses require? Were these based on the study's underlying conceptual model and were they allowed for in the study design?

DATA CHARACTERISTICS AND DATA QUALITY

Issues related to data characteristics and quality will arise from a variety of sources. Some studies will combine both new and historical data. Historical data may contain numerous errors, often lack adequate documentation, may be collected or processed inconsistently from place to place or over time, may lack critical quality control information, and may be stored in incompatible formats. New data may represent a wide variety of data types, as well as spatial and temporal scales. Data volumes are typically large for climate change studies. Quality control is of paramount importance, since errors can occur not only at the time of collection and initial processing, but also at any time the data are accessed and used. Questions to consider include the following.

Data Characteristics

Were data characteristics sufficiently documented in the metadata? If not, how difficult was it to find needed information about the data?

Quality Control

If historical data were used, what quality control problems were encountered and how were they resolved?

Were potentially problematic data characteristics known beforehand or discovered in the data integration process?

How were differences in data quality among data sets handled?

Were data quality procedures considered an integral part of data integration?

How were data verified and validated?

What specific data characteristics created data interfacing problems?

What was the source(s) of these problems?

Were there data formatting or quality standards that proved useful?

What lessons were learned that would be applicable to other studies?

DATA MANAGEMENT

Data management refers to the provisions for handling the data at each step of the data path, from initial study design, through data collection, accessing, and analysis, to final reporting and archiving. It refers not only to specific technical procedures, but also to the overall plan for ensuring the original quality of the data and preventing their degradation over time. Data management plans should include organizational plans that specify data management functions and who has responsibility for data quality at each step of the data path. Relevant questions include the following.

Up-Front Planning

Was there an overall data management plan that supported the data integration process?

What provisions were made for data access, retrieval, and manipulation?

Were data management procedures designed to relate directly to technical issues involved in data integration?

Were quality control issues considered in all data management procedures?

Were archival needs considered at the beginning of the study?

Data Management Procedures

Were specific database tools developed to aid the database interfacing process?

Are there readily identifiable authorized versions of the different data sets? If so, how are these maintained?

What provisions were made to make metadata available to users?

Did data management requirements related to database interfacing add to project overhead?

Did data integration directly benefit project participants?

How accessible were the data?

Were there any restrictions on use of the data? If so, what was the source of these restrictions?

Planning for the Future

Did data management procedures and systems explicitly consider future potential needs?

What arrangements were made for archiving the data for future uses?

Where are the data now and are they easily accessible? Are metadata readily available for future users?

How easy would it be to transfer existing data to different database systems?

What changes would the participants make in the data management plan if they had the opportunity to begin again?

INSTITUTIONAL ISSUES

Institutional issues often have an overriding influence on the success of data integration efforts, yet they can be difficult to identify and resolve. These issues arise, for example, from differences in agency missions and mandates, from funding restrictions, from differences in time horizons and constituencies, and from differences in organizational cultures. Relevant questions include the following.

Participants

Who were the key participants and what were their roles, responsibilities, and authority?

What was the nature of the key participants, e.g., private, governmental?

Were key players or data sources missing from the study?

Did any participants place special conditions on their participation and/or on access to data, e.g., proprietary data?

Organization and Management

What was the project's management structure, especially with regard to database interfacing? Was there a lead entity?

Did the study's organizational structure support or impede database interfacing?

What arrangements were made among the participants with regard to database interfacing? Were these formal or informal?

What was the decision-making process, again especially with regard to database interfacing?

What kinds of arrangements were made for acquiring data from other organizations?

Was adequate funding available and committed for the duration of the study?

Was there a long-term commitment to database updating and other maintenance?

Who can access the data now and are there any restrictions on this

What agency, if any, was given responsibility for long-term management and maintenance of the data?

Did all participants agree with the need for data integration?

What mechanisms were established for cooperation and data integration? Were any of these novel?

Were potential conflicts and disagreements clearly identified and negotiated at the beginning of the study?

Did agency missions, mandates, and policies restrict participation or otherwise impede database interfacing?

Did existing data management practices impede data integration?

During the last few decades of the 20th century, the development of an array of technologies has made it possible to observe the Earth, collect large quantities of data related to components and processes of the Earth system, and store, analyze, and retrieve these data at will. Over the past ten years, in particular, the observational, computational, and communications technologies have enabled the scientific community to undertake a broad range of interdisciplinary environmental research and assessment programs. Sound practice in database management are required to deal with the problems of complexity in such programs and a great deal of attention and resources has been devoted to this area in recent years. However, little guidance has been provided on overcoming the barriers frequently encountered in the interfacing of disparate data sets. This book attempts to remedy that problem by providing analytical and functional guidelines to help researchers and technicians to better plan and implement their supporting data management activities.

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What is decision making?

Decisions, decisions. When was the last time you struggled with a choice? Maybe it was this morning, when you decided to hit the snooze button—again. Perhaps it was at a restaurant, with a miles-long menu and the server standing over you. Or maybe it was when you left your closet in a shambles after trying on seven different outfits before a big presentation. Often, making a decision—even a seemingly simple one—can be difficult. And people will go to great lengths—and pay serious sums of money—to avoid having to make a choice. The expensive tasting menu at the restaurant, for example. Or limiting your closet choices to black turtlenecks, à la Steve Jobs.

Get to know and directly engage with senior McKinsey experts on decision making

Aaron De Smet is a senior partner in McKinsey’s New Jersey office, Eileen Kelly Rinaudo  is McKinsey’s global director of advancing women executives and is based in the New York office, Frithjof Lund is a senior partner in the Oslo office, and Leigh Weiss is a senior adviser in the Boston office.

If you’ve ever wrestled with a decision at work, you’re definitely not alone. According to McKinsey research, executives spend a significant portion of their time— nearly 40 percent , on average—making decisions. Worse, they believe most of that time is poorly used. People struggle with decisions so much so that we actually get exhausted from having to decide too much, a phenomenon called decision fatigue.

But decision fatigue isn’t the only cost of ineffective decision making. According to a McKinsey survey of more than 1,200 global business leaders, inefficient decision making costs a typical Fortune 500 company 530,000 days  of managers’ time each year, equivalent to about $250 million in annual wages. That’s a lot of turtlenecks.

How can business leaders ease the burden of decision making and put this time and money to better use? Read on to learn the ins and outs of smart decision making—and how to put it to work.

Learn more about our People & Organizational Performance Practice .

How can organizations untangle ineffective decision-making processes?

McKinsey research has shown that agile is the ultimate solution for many organizations looking to streamline their decision making . Agile organizations are more likely to put decision making in the right hands, are faster at reacting to (or anticipating) shifts in the business environment, and often attract top talent who prefer working at companies with greater empowerment and fewer layers of management.

For organizations looking to become more agile, it’s possible to quickly boost decision-making efficiency by categorizing the type of decision to be made and adjusting the approach accordingly. In the next section, we review three types of decision making and how to optimize the process for each.

What are three keys to faster, better decisions?

Business leaders today have access to more sophisticated data than ever before. But it hasn’t necessarily made decision making any easier. For one thing, organizational dynamics—such as unclear roles, overreliance on consensus, and death by committee—can get in the way of straightforward decision making. And more data often means more decisions to be taken, which can become too much for one person, team, or department. This can make it more difficult for leaders to cleanly delegate, which in turn can lead to a decline in productivity.

Leaders are growing increasingly frustrated with broken decision-making processes, slow deliberations, and uneven decision-making outcomes. Fewer than half  of the 1,200 respondents of a McKinsey survey report that decisions are timely, and 61 percent say that at least half the time they spend making decisions is ineffective.

What’s the solution? According to McKinsey research, effective solutions center around categorizing decision types and organizing different processes to support each type. Further, each decision category should be assigned its own practice—stimulating debate, for example, or empowering employees—to yield improvements in effectiveness.

Here are the three decision categories  that matter most to senior leaders, and the standout practice that makes the biggest difference for each type of decision.

• Big-bet decisions are infrequent but high risk, such as acquisitions. These decisions carry the potential to shape the future of the company, and as a result are generally made by top leaders and the board. Spurring productive debate by assigning someone to argue the case for and against a potential decision can improve big-bet decision making.
• Cross-cutting decisions, such as pricing, can be frequent and high risk. These are usually made by business unit heads, in cross-functional forums as part of a collaborative process. These types of decisions can be improved by doubling down on process refinement. The ideal process should be one that helps clarify objectives, measures, and targets.
• Delegated decisions are frequent but low risk and are handled by an individual or working team with some input from others. Delegated decision making can be improved by ensuring that the responsibility for the decision is firmly in the hands of those closest to the work. This approach also enhances engagement and accountability.

In addition, business leaders can take the following four actions to help sustain rapid decision making :

• Focus on the game-changing decisions, ones that will help an organization create value and serve its purpose.
• Convene only necessary meetings, and eliminate lengthy reports. Turn unnecessary meetings into emails, and watch productivity bloom. For necessary meetings, provide short, well-prepared prereads to aid in decision making.
• Clarify the roles of decision makers and other voices. Who has a vote, and who has a voice?
• Push decision-making authority to the front line—and tolerate mistakes.

Introducing McKinsey Explainers : Direct answers to complex questions

How can business leaders effectively delegate decision making.

Business is more complex and dynamic than ever, meaning business leaders are faced with needing to make more decisions in less time. Decision making takes up an inordinate amount of management’s time—up to 70 percent for some executives—which leads to inefficiencies and opportunity costs.

As discussed above, organizations should treat different types of decisions differently . Decisions should be classified  according to their frequency, risk, and importance. Delegated decisions are the most mysterious for many organizations: they are the most frequent, and yet the least understood. Only about a quarter of survey respondents  report that their organizations make high-quality and speedy delegated decisions. And yet delegated decisions, because they happen so often, can have a big impact on organizational culture.

The key to better delegated decisions is to empower employees by giving them the authority and confidence to act. That means not simply telling employees which decisions they can or can’t make; it means giving employees the tools they need to make high-quality decisions and the right level of guidance as they do so.

Here’s how to support delegation and employee empowerment:

• Ensure that your organization has a well-defined, universally understood strategy. When the strategic intent of an organization is clear, empowerment is much easier because it allows teams to pull in the same direction.
• Clearly define roles and responsibilities. At the foundation of all empowerment efforts is a clear understanding of who is responsible for what, including who has input and who doesn’t.
• Invest in capability building (and coaching) up front. To help managers spend meaningful coaching time, organizations should also invest in managers’ leadership skills.
• Build an empowerment-oriented culture. Leaders should role model mindsets that promote empowerment, and managers should build the coaching skills they want to see. Managers and employees, in particular, will need to get comfortable with failure as a necessary step to success.
• Decide when to get involved. Managers should spend effort up front to decide what is worth their focused attention. They should know when it’s appropriate to provide close guidance and when not to.

How can you guard against bias in decision making?

Cognitive bias is real. We all fall prey, no matter how we try to guard ourselves against it. And cognitive and organizational bias undermines good decision making, whether you’re choosing what to have for lunch or whether to put in a bid to acquire another company.

Here are some of the most common cognitive biases and strategies for how to avoid them:

• Confirmation bias. Often, when we already believe something, our minds seek out information to support that belief—whether or not it is actually true. Confirmation bias  involves overweighting evidence that supports our belief, underweighting evidence against our belief, or even failing to search impartially for evidence in the first place. Confirmation bias is one of the most common traps organizational decision makers fall into. One famous—and painful—example of confirmation bias is when Blockbuster passed up the opportunity  to buy a fledgling Netflix for $50 million in 2000. (Actually, that’s putting it politely. Netflix executives remember being “laughed out” of Blockbuster’s offices.) Fresh off the dot-com bubble burst of 2000, Blockbuster executives likely concluded that Netflix had approached them out of desperation—not that Netflix actually had a baby unicorn on its hands.
• Herd mentality. First observed by Charles Mackay in his 1841 study of crowd psychology, herd mentality happens when information that’s available to the group is determined to be more useful than privately held knowledge. Individuals buy into this bias because there’s safety in the herd. But ignoring competing viewpoints might ultimately be costly. To counter this, try a teardown exercise , wherein two teams use scenarios, advanced analytics, and role-playing to identify how a herd might react to a decision, and to ensure they can refute public perceptions.
• Sunk-cost fallacy. Executives frequently hold onto underperforming business units or projects because of emotional or legacy attachment . Equally, business leaders hate shutting projects down . This, researchers say, is due to the ingrained belief that if everyone works hard enough, anything can be turned into gold. McKinsey research indicates two techniques for understanding when to hold on and when to let go. First, change the burden of proof from why an asset should be cut to why it should be retained. Next, categorize business investments according to whether they should be grown, maintained, or disposed of—and follow clearly differentiated investment rules  for each group.
• Ignoring unpleasant information. Researchers call this the “ostrich effect”—when people figuratively bury their heads in the sand , ignoring information that will make their lives more difficult. One study, for example, found that investors were more likely to check the value of their portfolios when the markets overall were rising, and less likely to do so when the markets were flat or falling. One way to help get around this is to engage in a readout process, where individuals or teams summarize discussions as they happen. This increases the likelihood that everyone leaves a meeting with the same understanding of what was said.
• Halo effect. Important personal and professional choices are frequently affected by people’s tendency to make specific judgments based on general impressions . Humans are tempted to use simple mental frames to understand complicated ideas, which means we frequently draw conclusions faster than we should. The halo effect is particularly common in hiring decisions. To avoid this bias, structured interviews can help mitigate the essentializing tendency. When candidates are measured against indicators, intuition is less likely to play a role.

For more common biases and how to beat them, check out McKinsey’s Bias Busters Collection .

Learn more about Strategy & Corporate Finance consulting  at McKinsey—and check out job opportunities related to decision making if you’re interested in working at McKinsey.

Articles referenced include:

• “ Bias busters: When the crowd isn’t necessarily wise ,” McKinsey Quarterly , May 23, 2022, Eileen Kelly Rinaudo , Tim Koller , and Derek Schatz
• “ Boards and decision making ,” April 8, 2021, Aaron De Smet , Frithjof Lund , Suzanne Nimocks, and Leigh Weiss
• “ To unlock better decision making, plan better meetings ,” November 9, 2020, Aaron De Smet , Simon London, and Leigh Weiss
• “ Reimagine decision making to improve speed and quality ,” September 14, 2020, Julie Hughes , J. R. Maxwell , and Leigh Weiss
• “ For smarter decisions, empower your employees ,” September 9, 2020, Aaron De Smet , Caitlin Hewes, and Leigh Weiss
• “ Bias busters: Lifting your head from the sand ,” McKinsey Quarterly , August 18, 2020, Eileen Kelly Rinaudo
• “ Decision making in uncertain times ,” March 24, 2020, Andrea Alexander, Aaron De Smet , and Leigh Weiss
• “ Bias busters: Avoiding snap judgments ,” McKinsey Quarterly , November 6, 2019, Tim Koller , Dan Lovallo, and Phil Rosenzweig
• “ Three keys to faster, better decisions ,” McKinsey Quarterly , May 1, 2019, Aaron De Smet , Gregor Jost , and Leigh Weiss
• “ Decision making in the age of urgency ,” April 30, 2019, Iskandar Aminov, Aaron De Smet , Gregor Jost , and David Mendelsohn
• “ Bias busters: Pruning projects proactively ,” McKinsey Quarterly , February 6, 2019, Tim Koller , Dan Lovallo, and Zane Williams
• “ Decision making in your organization: Cutting through the clutter ,” McKinsey Quarterly , January 16, 2018, Aaron De Smet , Simon London, and Leigh Weiss
• “ Untangling your organization’s decision making ,” McKinsey Quarterly , June 21, 2017, Aaron De Smet , Gerald Lackey, and Leigh Weiss
• “ Are you ready to decide? ,” McKinsey Quarterly , April 1, 2015, Philip Meissner, Olivier Sibony, and Torsten Wulf.

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