critical review of qualitative research

• - Google Chrome

Intended for healthcare professionals

• Access provided by Google Indexer
• My email alerts
• BMA member login
• Username * Password * Forgot your log in details? Need to activate BMA Member Log In Log in via OpenAthens Log in via your institution

Search form

• Advanced search
• Search responses
• Search blogs
• Critically appraising...

Critically appraising qualitative research

• Related content
• Peer review
• Ayelet Kuper , assistant professor 1 ,
• Lorelei Lingard , associate professor 2 ,
• Wendy Levinson , Sir John and Lady Eaton professor and chair 3
• 1 Department of Medicine, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre, and Wilson Centre for Research in Education, University of Toronto, 2075 Bayview Avenue, Room HG 08, Toronto, ON, Canada M4N 3M5
• 2 Department of Paediatrics and Wilson Centre for Research in Education, University of Toronto and SickKids Learning Institute; BMO Financial Group Professor in Health Professions Education Research, University Health Network, 200 Elizabeth Street, Eaton South 1-565, Toronto
• 3 Department of Medicine, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre
• Correspondence to: A Kuper ayelet94{at}post.harvard.edu

Six key questions will help readers to assess qualitative research

Summary points

Appraising qualitative research is different from appraising quantitative research

Qualitative research papers should show appropriate sampling, data collection, and data analysis

Transferability of qualitative research depends on context and may be enhanced by using theory

Ethics in qualitative research goes beyond review boards’ requirements to involve complex issues of confidentiality, reflexivity, and power

Over the past decade, readers of medical journals have gained skills in critically appraising studies to determine whether the results can be trusted and applied to their own practice settings. Criteria have been designed to assess studies that use quantitative methods, and these are now in common use.

In this article we offer guidance for readers on how to assess a study that uses qualitative research methods by providing six key questions to ask when reading qualitative research (box 1). However, the thorough assessment of qualitative research is an interpretive act and requires informed reflective thought rather than the simple application of a scoring system.

Box 1 Key questions to ask when reading qualitative research studies

Was the sample used in the study appropriate to its research question, were the data collected appropriately, were the data analysed appropriately, can i transfer the results of this study to my own setting, does the study adequately address potential ethical issues, including reflexivity.

Overall: is what the researchers did clear?

One of the critical decisions in a qualitative study is whom or what to include in the sample—whom to interview, whom to observe, what texts to analyse. An understanding that qualitative research is based in experience and in the construction of meaning, combined with the specific research question, should guide the sampling process. For example, a study of the experience of survivors of domestic violence that examined their reasons for not seeking help from healthcare providers might focus on interviewing a sample of such survivors (rather than, for example, healthcare providers, social services workers, or academics in the field). The sample should be broad enough to capture the many facets of a phenomenon, and limitations to the sample should be clearly justified. Since the answers to questions of experience and meaning also relate to people’s social affiliations (culture, religion, socioeconomic group, profession, etc), it is also important that the researcher acknowledges these contexts in the selection of a study sample.

In contrast with quantitative approaches, qualitative studies do not usually have predetermined sample sizes. Sampling stops when a thorough understanding of the phenomenon under study has been reached, an end point that is often called saturation. Researchers consider samples to be saturated when encounters (interviews, observations, etc) with new participants no longer elicit trends or themes not already raised by previous participants. Thus, to sample to saturation, data analysis has to happen while new data are still being collected. Multiple sampling methods may be used to broaden the understanding achieved in a study (box 2). These sampling issues should be clearly articulated in the methods section.

Box 2 Qualitative sampling methods for interviews and focus groups 9

Examples are for a hypothetical study of financial concerns among adult patients with chronic renal failure receiving ongoing haemodialysis in a single hospital outpatient unit.

Typical case sampling —sampling the most ordinary, usual cases of a phenomenon

The sample would include patients likely to have had typical experiences for that haemodialysis unit and patients who fit the profile of patients in the unit for factors found on literature review. Other typical cases could be found via snowball sampling (see below)

Deviant case sampling —sampling the most extreme cases of a phenomenon

The sample would include patients likely to have had different experiences of relevant aspects of haemodialysis. For example, if most patients in the unit are 60-70 years old and recently began haemodialysis for diabetic nephropathy, researchers might sample the unmarried university student in his 20s on haemodialysis since childhood, the 32 year old woman with lupus who is now trying to get pregnant, and the 90 year old who newly started haemodialysis due to an adverse reaction to radio-opaque contrast dye. Other deviant cases could be found via theoretical and/or snowball sampling (see below)

Critical case sampling —sampling cases that are predicted (based on theoretical models or previous research) to be especially information-rich and thus particularly illuminating

The nature of this sample depends on previous research. For example, if research showed that marital status was a major determinant of financial concerns for haemodialysis patients, then critical cases might include patients whose marital status changed while on haemodialysis

Maximum-variation sampling —sampling as wide a range of perspectives as possible to capture the broadest set of information and experiences)

The sample would include typical, deviant, and critical cases (as above), plus any other perspectives identified

Confirming-disconfirming sampling —Sampling both individuals or texts whose perspectives are likely to confirm the researcher’s developing understanding of the phenomenon under study and those whose perspectives are likely to challenge that understanding

The sample would include patients whose experiences would likely either confirm or disconfirm what the researchers had already learnt (from other patients) about financial concerns among patients in the haemodialysis unit. This could be accomplished via theoretical and/or snowball sampling (see below)

Snowball sampling —sampling participants found by asking current participants in a study to recommend others whose experiences would be relevant to the study

Current participants could be asked to provide the names of others in the unit who they thought, when asked about financial concerns, would either share their views (confirming), disagree with their views (disconfirming), have views typical of patients on their unit (typical cases), or have views different from most other patients on their unit (deviant cases)

Theoretical sampling —sampling individuals or texts whom the researchers predict (based on theoretical models or previous research) would add new perspectives to those already represented in the sample

Researchers could use their understanding of known issues for haemodialysis patients that would, in theory, relate to financial concerns to ensure that the relevant perspectives were represented in the study. For example, if, as the research progressed, it turned out that none of the patients in the sample had had to change or leave a job in order to accommodate haemodialysis scheduling, the researchers might (based on previous research) choose to intentionally sample patients who had left their jobs because of the time commitment of haemodialysis (but who could not do peritoneal dialysis) and others who had switched to jobs with more flexible scheduling because of their need for haemodialysis

It is important that a qualitative study carefully describes the methods used in collecting data. The appropriateness of the method(s) selected to use for the specific research question should be justified, ideally with reference to the research literature. It should be clear that methods were used systematically and in an organised manner. Attention should be paid to specific methodological challenges such as the Hawthorne effect, 1 whereby the presence of an observer may influence participants’ behaviours. By using a technique called thick description, qualitative studies often aim to include enough contextual information to provide readers with a sense of what it was like to have been in the research setting.

Another technique that is often used is triangulation, with which a researcher uses multiple methods or perspectives to help produce a more comprehensive set of findings. A study can triangulate data, using different sources of data to examine a phenomenon in different contexts (for example, interviewing palliative patients who are at home, those who are in acute care hospitals, and those who are in specialist palliative care units); it can also triangulate methods, collecting different types of data (for example, interviews, focus groups, observations) to increase insight into a phenomenon.

Another common technique is the use of an iterative process, whereby concurrent data analysis is used to inform data collection. For example, concurrent analysis of an interview study about lack of adherence to medications among a particular social group might show that early participants seem to be dismissive of the efforts of their local pharmacists; the interview script might then be changed to include an exploration of this phenomenon. The iterative process constitutes a distinctive qualitative tradition, in contrast to the tradition of stable processes and measures in quantitative studies. Iterations should be explicit and justified with reference to the research question and sampling techniques so that the reader understands how data collection shaped the resulting insights.

Qualitative studies should include a clear description of a systematic form of data analysis. Many legitimate analytical approaches exist; regardless of which is used, the study should report what was done, how, and by whom. If an iterative process was used, it should be clearly delineated. If more than one researcher analysed the data (which depends on the methodology used) it should be clear how differences between analyses were negotiated. Many studies make reference to a technique called member checking, wherein the researcher shows all or part of the study’s findings to participants to determine if they are in accord with their experiences. 2 Studies may also describe an audit trail, which might include researchers’ analysis notes, minutes of researchers’ meetings, and other materials that could be used to follow the research process.

The contextual nature of qualitative research means that careful thought must be given to the potential transferability of its results to other sociocultural settings. Though the study should discuss the extent of the findings’ resonance with the published literature, 3 much of the onus of assessing transferability is left to readers, who must decide if the setting of the study is sufficiently similar for its results to be transferable to their own context. In doing so, the reader looks for resonance—the extent that research findings have meaning for the reader.

Transferability may be helped by the study’s discussion of how its results advance theoretical understandings that are relevant to multiple situations. For example, a study of patients’ preferences in palliative care may contribute to theories of ethics and humanity in medicine, thus suggesting relevance to other clinical situations such as the informed consent exchange before treatment. We have explained elsewhere in this series the importance of theory in qualitative research, and there are many who believe that a key indicator of quality in qualitative research is its contribution to advancing theoretical understanding as well as useful knowledge. This debate continues in the literature, 4 but from a pragmatic perspective most qualitative studies in health professions journals emphasise results that relate to practice; theoretical discussions tend to be published elsewhere.

Reflexivity is particularly important within the qualitative paradigm. Reflexivity refers to recognition of the influence a researcher brings to the research process. It highlights potential power relationships between the researcher and research participants that might shape the data being collected, particularly when the researcher is a healthcare professional or educator and the participant is a patient, client, or student. 5 It also acknowledges how a researcher’s gender, ethnic background, profession, and social status influence the choices made within the study, such as the research question itself and the methods of data collection. 6 7

Research articles written in the qualitative paradigm should show evidence both of reflexive practice and of consideration of other relevant ethical issues. Ethics in qualitative research should extend beyond prescriptive guidelines and research ethics boards into a thorough exploration of the ethical consequences of collecting personal experiences and opening those experiences to public scrutiny (a detailed discussion of this problem within a research report may, however, be limited by the practicalities of word count limitations). 8 Issues of confidentiality and anonymity can become quite complex when data constitute personal reports of experience or perception; the need to minimise harm may involve not only protection from external scrutiny but also mechanisms to mitigate potential distress to participants from sharing their personal stories.

In conclusion: is what the researchers did clear?

The qualitative paradigm includes a wide range of theoretical and methodological options, and qualitative studies must include clear descriptions of how they were conducted, including the selection of the study sample, the data collection methods, and the analysis process. The list of key questions for beginning readers to ask when reading qualitative research articles (see box 1) is intended not as a finite checklist, but rather as a beginner’s guide to a complex topic. Critical appraisal of particular qualitative articles may differ according to the theories and methodologies used, and achieving a nuanced understanding in this area is fairly complex.

Further reading

Crabtree F, Miller WL, eds. Doing qualitative research . 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1999.

Denzin NK, Lincoln YS, eds. Handbook of qualitative research . 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2000.

Finlay L, Ballinger C, eds. Qualitative research for allied health professionals: challenging choices . Chichester: Wiley, 2006.

Flick U. An introduction to qualitative research . 2nd ed. London: Sage, 2002.

Green J, Thorogood N. Qualitative methods for health research . London: Sage, 2004.

Lingard L, Kennedy TJ. Qualitative research in medical education . Edinburgh: Association for the Study of Medical Education, 2007.

Mauthner M, Birch M, Jessop J, Miller T, eds. Ethics in Qualitative Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2002.

Seale C. The quality of qualitative research . London: Sage, 1999.

Silverman D. Doing qualitative research . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2000.

Journal articles

Greenhalgh T. How to read a paper: papers that go beyond numbers. BMJ 1997;315:740-3.

Mays N, Pope C. Qualitative research: Rigour and qualitative research. BMJ 1995;311:109-12.

Mays N, Pope C. Qualitative research in health care: assessing quality in qualitative research. BMJ 2000;320:50-2.

Popay J, Rogers A, Williams G. Rationale and standards for the systematic review of qualitative literature in health services research. Qual Health Res 1998;8:341-51.

Internet resources

National Health Service Public Health Resource Unit. Critical appraisal skills programme: qualitative research appraisal tool . 2006. www.phru.nhs.uk/Doc_Links/Qualitative%20Appraisal%20Tool.pdf

Cite this as: BMJ 2008;337:a1035

• Related to doi: , 10.1136/bmj.a288
• doi: , 10.1136/bmj.39602.690162.47
• doi: , 10.1136/bmj.a1020
• doi: , 10.1136/bmj.a879
• doi: 10.1136/bmj.a949

This is the last in a series of six articles that aim to help readers to critically appraise the increasing number of qualitative research articles in clinical journals. The series editors are Ayelet Kuper and Scott Reeves.

For a definition of general terms relating to qualitative research, see the first article in this series.

Contributors: AK wrote the first draft of the article and collated comments for subsequent iterations. LL and WL made substantial contributions to the structure and content, provided examples, and gave feedback on successive drafts. AK is the guarantor.

Funding: None.

Competing interests: None declared.

Provenance and peer review: Commissioned; externally peer reviewed.

• ↵ Holden JD. Hawthorne effects and research into professional practice. J Evaluation Clin Pract 2001 ; 7 : 65 -70. OpenUrl CrossRef PubMed Web of Science
• ↵ Hammersley M, Atkinson P. Ethnography: principles in practice . 2nd ed. London: Routledge, 1995 .
• ↵ Silverman D. Doing qualitative research . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2000 .
• ↵ Mays N, Pope C. Qualitative research in health care: assessing quality in qualitative research. BMJ 2000 ; 320 : 50 -2. OpenUrl FREE Full Text
• ↵ Lingard L, Kennedy TJ. Qualitative research in medical education . Edinburgh: Association for the Study of Medical Education, 2007 .
• ↵ Seale C. The quality of qualitative research . London: Sage, 1999 .
• ↵ Wallerstein N. Power between evaluator and community: research relationships within New Mexico’s healthier communities. Soc Sci Med 1999 ; 49 : 39 -54. OpenUrl CrossRef PubMed Web of Science
• ↵ Mauthner M, Birch M, Jessop J, Miller T, eds. Ethics in qualitative research . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2002 .
• ↵ Kuzel AJ. Sampling in qualitative inquiry. In: Crabtree F, Miller WL, eds. Doing qualitative research . 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1999 :33-45.

Rethinking Critical Theory and Qualitative Research

Cite this chapter.

• Joe L. Kincheloe &
• Peter Mclaren  

Part of the book series: Bold Visions in Educational Research ((BVER,volume 32))

5347 Accesses

80 Citations

Some 70 years after its development in Frankfurt, Germany, critical theory retains its ability to disrupt and hallenge the status quo. In the process, it elicits highlycharged emotions of all types—fierce loyalty from its roponents, vehement hostility from its detractors. Such vibrantly polar reactions indicate at the very least that critical theory still matters. We can be against critical theory or for it, but, especially at the present historical uncture, we cannot be without it.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

• Available as PDF
• Read on any device
• Instant download
• Own it forever

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Unable to display preview.  Download preview PDF.

Abdullah, J., & Stringer, E. (1999). Indigenous knowledge, indigenous learning, indigenous research. In L. Semali & J. L. Kincheloe (Eds.), What is indigenous knowledge? Voices from the academy. Bristol, PA: Falmer.

Google Scholar  

Abercrombie, N. (1994). Authority and consumer society. In R. Keat, N. Whiteley, & N. Abercrombie (Eds.), The authority of the consumer . New York: Routledge.

Agger, B. (1992). The discourse of domination; From the Frankfurt school to postmodernism . Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press.

Agger, B. (1998). Critical social theories: An introduction . Boulder, CO: Westview.

Alfino, M., Caputo, J., & Wynyard, R. (Eds.). (1998). McDonaldization revisited: Critical essays on consumer and culture . Westport, CT: Praeger.

Alford, C. (1993). Introduction to the special issue on political psychology and political theory. Political Psychology , 14 , 199–208.

Allison, C. (1998). Okie narratives: Agency and whiteness. In J. L. Kincheloe, S. R. Steinberg,N. M. Rodriguez, & R. E. Chennault (Eds.), White reign: Deploying whiteness in America . New York: St. Martin’s Press.

Anderson, G. (1989). Critical ethnography in education: Origins, current status, and new directions. Review of educational research , 59 , 249–270.

Apple, M. (1996a). Dominance and dependency: Situating the bell curve within the conservative restoration. In J. L. Kincheloe, S. R. Steinberg, & A. D. Gresson III (Eds.), Measured lies: the Bell curve examined . New York: St. Martin’s Press.

Apple, M. (1966). Cultural politics and education . New York: Teacher’s College Press.

Aronowitz, S., & Di Fazio W, (1994). The jobless future . Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.

Aronowitz, S., & Giroux, H. Postmodern education: Politics, culture, and social criticism . Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.

Ashcroft, B., Griffiths, G., & Tiffin, H. (Eds.). (1995). The post-colonial studies reader . New York: Routledge.

Atwell-Vasey, W. (1998). Psychoanalytic feminism and the powerful teacher. In W. F. Pinar (Ed.), Curriculum: Toward new identities . New York: Garland.

Barrows, A. (1995). The ecopsychology of child development. In T. Roszak, M. Gomes, & A, Kanner (Eds.), Ecopsychology: Restoring the earth, healing the mind . San Francisco: Sierra Club Books.

Bartolomé, L. I. (1998). The misteaching of academic discourses: The politics of language in the classroom . Boulder, CO: Westview.

Bauman, Z. (1995). Life in fragments: Essay’s in postmodern morality . Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.

Behar, R. (1993). Translated woman: Crossing the border with Esperanza’s story . Boston: Beacon.

Behar, R., & Gordon, D. A. (Eds.), (1995). Women writing culture . Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Bell, D., & Valentine, G. (1997). Consuming geographies: We are where we eat . New York: Routledge.

Berger, A. A. (1995). Cultural criticism: A primer of key concepts . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Berry, K. (1998). Nurturing the imagination of resistance: Young adults as creators of knowledge. In J. L. Kincheloe & S. R. Steinberg (Eds.), Unauthorized methods: Strategies for critical teaching . New York: Routledge.

Bersani, L. (1995). Loving men. In M. Berger, B. Wallis, & S. Watson (Eds.), Constructing masculinity . New York: Routledge.

Bertman, S. (1998). Hyperculture: The human cost of speed . Westport, CT: Praeger.

Blades, D. (1997). Procedures of power and curriculum change: Foucault and the quest for possibilities in science education . New York: Peter Lang.

Block, A. (1995). Occupied reading: Critical foundations for an ecological theory . New York: Garland.

Boon, J. A. (1982). Other tribes, other scribes: Symbolic anthropology in the comparative study of cultures, histories, religions, arid texts . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Bottomore, T. (1984). The Frankfurt school . London: Tavistock.

Bourdieu, P., & Wacquaat, L. (1992). An invitation to reflexive sociology . Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Brents, B., & Monson, M. (1998). Whitewashing the strip: The construction of whiteness in Las Vegas. In J. L. Kincheloe, S. R. Steinberg, N. M. Rodriguez, & R. E. Chennault (Eds.), White reign: Deploying whiteness in America . New York: St. Martin’s.

Britzman, D. (1991). Practice makes practice: A critical study of learning to teach . Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Britzman, D. (1995). What is this thing called love? Taboo: The Journal of Culture and Education , 1 , 65–93.

Britzman, D., & Pitt, A. (1996). On refusing one’s place: The ditchdigger’s dream. In J. L. Kincheloe, S. R. Steinberg, & A. D. Gresson III (Eds.), Measured lies: The bell curve examined . New York: St. Martin’s.

Brock-Utne, B. (1996). Reliability and validity in qualitative research within Africa. International Review of Education , 42 , 605–621.

Article   Google Scholar  

Brosio, R. (1994). The radical democratic critique of capitalist education . New York: Peter Lang.

Buckingham, D. (1989). Television literacy: A critique. Radical Philosophy , 51 , 12–25.

Butler, M. (1998). Negotiating place: The importance of children’s realities. In S. R. Steinberg &J. L. Kincheloe (Eds.), Students as researchers: Creating classrooms that matter (pp. 94–112). London: Taylor, & Francis.

Cannella, G. (1997). Deconstructing early childhood education: Social justice and revolution . New York: Peter Lang.

Carlson, D. (1997). Teachers in crisis . New York: Routledge.

Carlson, D. & Apple, M. (Eds.). (1998). Power/knowledge/pedagogy: The meaning of democratic education in unsettling times . Boulder, CO: Westview.

Carson, T. R. & Sumara, D. (Eds.). (1997). Action research as a living practice . New York: Peter Lang.

Carspecken, P. F. (1993). Power, truth, and method: Outline for a critical methodology . Unpublished manuscript.

Carspecken, P. F. (1996). Critical ethnography in educational research: A theoretical and practical guide . New York: Routledge.

Carspecken, P. F. (1999). Four scenes for posing the question of meaning and other essays in critical philosophy and critical methodology . New York: Peter Lang.

Carter, V. (1998). Computer-assisted racism: Toward an understanding of cyber-whiteness. In J. L. Kincheloe, S. R. Steinberg, N. M. Rodriguez, & R. E. Chennault (Eds.), White reign: Deploying whiteness in America . New York: St. Martin’s.

Cary, R. (1996). IQ as commodity: The “new” economics of intelligence. In J. L. Kincheloe, S. R. Steinberg, & A. D. Gresson III (Eds.), Measured lies: The bell curve examined . New York: St. Martin’s.

Christian-Smith, L., & Keelor, K. S. (1999). Everyday knowledge and women of the academy: Uncommon truths . Boulder, CO: Westview.

Clatterbaugh, K. (1997). Contemporary perspectives on masculinity: Men, women, and politics in modern society . Boulder, CO: Westview.

Clifford, J. (1992). Traveling cultures. In L. Grossberg, C. Nelson, & P. A. Treichler (Eds.), Cultural studies (pp. 96–116). New York: Routledge.

Clough, P. T. (1994). Feminist thought: Desire, power and academic discourse . Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.

Clough, P. T. (1992). The end(s) of ethnography: From realism to social criticism . Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Clough, P. T. (1998). The end(s) of ethnography: From realism to social criticism (2nd ed.). New York: Peter Lang.

Coben, D. (1998). Radical heroes: Gramsci, Freire and the politics of adult education . New York: Garland.

Codd, J. (1984). Introduction. In J. Codd (Ed.), Philosophy, common sense, and action in educational administration (pp. 8–28). Geelong, Victoria, Australia: Deakin University Press.

Collins, J. (1995). Architectures of excess: Cultural life in the information age . New York: Routledge.

Comaroff, J., & Comaroff, J. (1992). Ethnography and the historical imagination . Boulder, CO: Westview.

Connor, S. (1992). Theory and cultural value . Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.

Cooper, D. (1994). Productive, relational, and everywhere? Conceptualizing power and resistance within Foucauldian feminism. Sociology , 28 , 435–454.

Corrigan, P. (1979). Schooling the Smash Street kids . London: Macmillan.

Crapanzano, V. (1990). Afterword. In M. Manganaro (Ed.), Modernist anthropology: From fieldwork to text (pp. 300–308). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Daniel, E. V. (1996). Charred lullabies: Chapters in an anthropology of violence . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Deetz, S. A. (1993, May). Corporations, the media, industry, and society: Ethical imperatives and responsibilities . Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Washington, DC.

Denzin, N. K. (1992). Symbolic interactionism and cultural studies . Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Denzin, N. K. (1994). The art and politics of interpretation. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 500–515). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education . New York: Free Press.

Douglas, S. (1994). Where the girls are: Growing up female in the mass media . New York: Times Books.

Drummond, L. (1996). American dreamtime: A cultural analysis of popular movies, and their implications for a science of humanity . Lantham, MD: Littlefield Adams.

du Gay, P., Hall, S., Janes, L., MacKay, H., & Negus, K. (1997). Doing cultural studies: The story of the Sony Walkman . London: Sage.

Ebert, T. (1991). Political semiosis in/or American cultural studies. American Journal of Semiotics , 8 , 113–135.

Elliot, A. (1994). Psychoanalytic theory: An introduction . Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.

Ellis, J. (1998). Interpretive inquiry as student research. In S. R. Steinberg, & J. L. Kincheloe (Eds.), Students as researchers: Creating classrooms that matter (pp. 49–63). London: Taylor, & Francis.

Fehr, D. (1993). Dogs playing cards: Powerbrokers of prejudice in education, art, and culture . New York: Peter Lang.

Ferguson, M. & Golding, P. (Eds.). (1997). Cultural studies in question . London: Sage.

Finders, M. (1997). Just girls: Hidden literacies and life in junior high . New York: Teachers College Press.

Fine, M., Powell, L. C., Weis, L., & Wong, L. M. (Eds.). (1997). Off white: Readings on race, power and society . New York: Routledge.

Fiske, J. (1993). Power works, power plays . New York: Verso.

Flossner, G. & Otto, H. (Eds.). (1998). Towards more democracy in social services: Models of culture and welfare . New York: de Gruyter.

Foster, H. (Ed.). (1983). The anti-aesthetic: Essays on postmodern culture . Port Townsend, WA: Bay.

Frankenbeng, R. (1993). White women, race matters: The social construction of whiteness . Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.

Franz, C. & Stewart, A. (Eds.). (1994). Women creating lives . Boulder, CO: Westview.

Fraser, N. (1995). Politics, culture, and the public sphere: Toward a postmodern conception. InL. J. Nicholson & S. Seidman (Eds.), Social postmodernism: Beyond identity politics . New York: Cambridge University Press.

Freire, A. M. A. (2000). Foreword by Ana Maria Araujo Freire. In P. McLaren, Che Guevara, Paulo Freire, and the pedagogy of revolution . Boulder, CO: Rowman and Littlefield.

Freire, P. (1985). The politics of education: Culture, power, and liberation . South Hadley, MA: Bergin, & Garvey.

Fuchs, M. (1993). The reversal of the ethnological perspective: Attempts at objectifying one’s own cultural horizon. Dumont, Foucault, Bourdieu? Thesis Eleven , 34 , 104–125.

Gabbard, D. (1995). NAFTA, GATT, and Goals 2000: Reading the political culture of post-industrial America. Taboo: The Journal of Culture and Education , 2 , 184–199.

Gadamer, H. G. (1989). Truth and method (2nd Rev. ed., J. Weinsheimer & D. G. Marshall, Eds. & Trans.). New York: Crossroad.

Gall, J., Gall, M., & Borg, W. (1999). Applying educational research: A practical guide . New York: Longman.

Gallagher, S. (1992). Hermeneutics and education . Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Garnham, N. (1997). Political economy and the practice of cultural studies. In M. Ferguson & P. Golding (Eds.), Cultural studies in question . London: Sage.

Gee, J. (1996). Social linguistics and literacies: Ideology in discourses (2nd ed.). London: Taylor, & Francis.

Gee, J., Hull, G., & Lankshear, C. (1996). The new work order: Behind the language of the new capitalism . Boulder, CO: Westview.

Gergen, K. J. (1991). The saturated self: Dilemmas of identity in contemporary life . New York: Basic Books.

Gibson, R. (1986). Critical theory and education . London: Hodder, & Stroughton.

Giroux, H. (1983). Theory and resistance in education: A pedagogy for the opposition . S outh Hadley, MA: Bergin, & Garvey.

Giroux, H. (1988). Critical theory amid the politics of culture and voice: Rethinking the discourse of educational research. In R. Sherman & R. Webb (Eds.), Qualitative research in education: Focus and methods (pp. 190–210). New York: Palmer.

Giroux, H. (1992). Border crossings: Cultural workers and the politics of education . New York: Routledge.

Giroux, H. (1997). Pedagogy and the politics of hope: Theory, culture, and schooling . Boulder, CO: Westview.

Giroux, H., & Searles, S. (1996). The bell curve debate and the crisis of public intellectuals. InJ. L. Kincheloe, S. R. Steinberg, & A. D. Gresson III (Eds.), Measured lies: The bell curve examined . New York: St. Martin’s.

Godzich, W. (1992). Afterword: Reading against literacy. In J. F. Lyotard (Ed.), The postmodern explained . Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.

Goldie, T. (1995). The representation of the indigene. In B. Ashcroft, C. Griffiths, & H. Tiffin (Eds.), The post-colonial studies reader . New York: Routledge.

Goldman, R., & Papson, S. (1994). The post-modernism that failed. In D. Dickens & A. Fontana (Eds.), Postmodernism and social inquiry . New York: Guilford Press.

Goodson, I. (1997). The changing curriculum: Studies in social construction . New York: Peter Lang.

Goodson, I., & Mangan, J. (1996). Exploring alternative perspectives in educational research. Interchange , 2 7(1), 41–59.

Gresson, A. (1995). The recovery of race in America . Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.

Gresson, A. (2000). America’s atonement: Racial pain, recovery discourse and the psychology of healing . New York: Peter Lang.

Griffin, C. (1985). Typical girls? Young women from school to the job market . London: Routledge, & Kegan Paul.

Grondin, J. (1994). Introduction to philosophical hermeneutics (J. Weinsheimer, Trans.). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Gross, A., & Keith, W. (Eds.). (1997). Rhetorical hermeneutics: Invention and Interpretation in the age of science . Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Grossberg, L. (1995). What’s in a name (one more time)? Taboo: The Journal of Culture and Education , 1 , 1–37.

Grossberg, L. (1997). Bringing it all back home: Essays on cultural studies . Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

Hall, S. (Ed.), (1997). Representation: Cultural representations and signifying practices . London: Sage.

Hall, S. & du Gay, P. (Eds.). (1996). Questions of cultural identity. London: Sage.

Hebdige, D. (1979). Subculture: The meaning of style . London: Methuen.

Hedley, M. (1994). The presentation of gendered conflict in popular movies: Affective stereotypes, cultural sentiments, and men’s motivation. Sex Roles , 31 , 721–740.

Held, D. (1980). Introduction to critical theory: Horkheimer to Habermas . Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Heshusius, L. & Ballard, K. (Eds.). (1996). From positivism to interpretivism and beyond: Tales of transformation in educational and social research . New York: Teachers College Press.

Hicks, D. E. (1999). Ninety-five languages and seven forms of intelligence . New York: Peter Lang.

Hinchey, P. (1998). Finding freedom in the classroom: A practical introduction to critical theory . New York: Peter Lang.

Horkheimer, M. (1972). Critical theory . New York: Seabury.

Howell, S. (1998). The learning organization: Reproduction of whiteness. In J. L. Kincheloe,S. R. Steinberg, N. M. Rodriguez, & R. E. Chennault (Eds.), White reign: Deploying whiteness in America . New York: St. Martin’s.

Jardine, D. (1998). To dwell with a boundless heart: Essays in curriculum theory, hermeneutics, and the ecological imagination . New York: Peter Lang.

Jay, M. (1973). The dialectical imagination: A history of the Frankfurt school and the Institute of Social Research 1923–1950 . Boston: Little Brown.

Jipson, J., & Paley, N. (1997). Daredevil research: Recreating analytic practice . New York: Peter Lang.

Johnson, C. (1996). Does capitalism really need patriarchy? Some old issues reconsidered. Women’s Studies International Forum , 19 , 193–202.

Joyrich, L. (1996). Reviewing reception: Television, gender, and postmodern culture . Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.

Kellner, D. (1989). Critical theory, Marxism, and modernity . Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Kellner, D. (Ed.). (1994). Baudrillard: A critical reader . Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.

Kellner, D. (1995). Media culture: Cultural studies, identity and politics between the modern and the postmodern . New York: Routledge.

Kellogg, D. (1998). Exploring critical distance in science education: Students researching the implications of technological embeddedness. In S. R. Steinberg & J. L. Kincheloe (Eds.), Students as researchers: Creating classrooms that matter (pp. 212–227). London: Falmer.

Kelly, L. (1996). When does the speaking profit us? Reflection on the challenges of developing feminist perspectives on abuse and violence by women. In M. Hester, L. Kelly, & J. Radford (Eds.), Women, violence, and male power . Bristol, PA: Open University Press.

Kincheloe, J. L. (1991). Teachers as researchers: Qualitative paths to empowerment . London: Falmer.

Kincheloe, J. L. (1993). Toward a critical politics of teacher thinking: Mapping the postmodern . Granby, MA: Bergin, & Garvey.

Kincheloe, J. L. (1995). Toil and trouble: Good work, smart workers, and the integration of academic and vocational education. New York: Peter Lang.

Kincheloe, J. L. (1998). Critical research in science education. In B. Fraser & K. Tobin (Eds.), International handbook of science education (Pt. 2). Boston: Kluwer.

Kincheloe, J. L. (1999). How do we tell the workers? The socioeconomic foundations of work and vocational education . Boulder, CO: Westview.

Kincheloe, J. L., & Pinar, W. F. (1991). Introduction. In J. L. Kincheloe & W. F. Pinar (Eds.), Curriculum as social psychoanalysis: Essays on the significance of place (pp. 1–23). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Kincheloe, J. L., & Steinberg, S. R. (1993). A tentative description of postformal thinking: The critical confrontation with cognitive theory. Harvard Educational Review , 63 , 296–320.

Kincheloe, J. L., & Steinberg, S. R. (1997). Changing multiculturalism: New times, new curriculum . London: Open University Press.

Kincheloe, J. L., Steinberg, S. R., & Hinchey, P. (Eds.), (1999). The postformal reader: Cognition and education . New York: Palmer.

Kincheloe, J. L., Steinberg, S. R., Rodriguez, N. M., & Chennault, R. E. (Eds.). (1998). White reign: Deploying whiteness in America . New York: St. Martin’s.

Kincheloe, J. L., Steinberg, S. R., & Tippins, D. J. (1999). The stigma of genius: Einstein, consciousness and Education . New York: Peter Lang.

Kincheloe, J. L., Steinberg, S. R., & Villaverde, L. (Eds.). (1999). Rethinking intelligence: Confronting psychological assumptions about teaching and learning . New York: Routledge.

King, J. (1996). Bad luck, bad blood, bad faith: Ideological hegemony and the oppressive language of hoodoo social science. In J. L. Kincheloe, S. R. Steinberg, & A. D. Gresson III (Eds.), Measured lies: The bell curve examined . New York: St. Martin’s.

King, J., & Mitchell, C. (1995). Black mothers to sons . New York: Peter Lang.

Knobel, M. Everyday literacies: Students, discourse, and social practice . New York: Peter Lang.

Kogler, H. (1996). The power of dialogue: Critical hermeneutics after Gadamer and Foucault . Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Lacey, C. (1970). Hightown Grammar: The school as a social system . London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Lash, S. (1990). Learning from Leipzig. or politics in the semiotic society. Theory, Culture, & Society , 7 (4), 145–158.

Lather, P. (1991). Getting smart: Feminist research and pedagogy with/in the postmodern . New York: Routledge.

Lather, P. (1993). Fertile obsession: Validity after poststructuralism. Sociological Quarterly , 34 , 673–693.

Leistyna, P., Woodrum, A., & Sherblom, S. (1996). Breaking free: The transformative power of critical pedagogy . Cambridge, MA: Harvard Educational Review.

Lemke, J. (1993). Discourse, dynamics, and social change. Cultural Dynamics , 6 , 243–275.

Lemke, J. (1995). Textual politics: Discourse and social dynamics . London: Taylor, & Francis.

Lemke, J. (1998). Analyzing verbal data: Principles, methods, and problems. In B. Fraser & K. Tobin (Eds.), International handbook of science education (Pt. 2). Boston: Kluwer.

Lugg, C. (1996). Attacking affirmative action: Social Darwinism as public policy. In J. L. Kincheloe, S. R. Steinberg, & A. D. Gresson III (Eds.), Measured lies: The bell curve examined . New York: St. Martin’s.

Lugones, M. (1987). Playfulness, “world”-traveling, and loving perception. Hypatia , 2 (2), 3–19.

Luke, T. (1991). Touring hyperreality: Critical theory confronts informational society. In P. Wexler (Ed.), Critical theory now (pp. 1–26). New York: Falmer.

Lull, J. (1995). Media, communication, culture: A global approach . New York: Columbia University Press.

Macedo, D. (1994). Literacies of power: What Americans are not allowed to know . Boulder, CO: Westview

Madison, G. B. (1988). The hermeneutics of postmodernity: Figures and themes . Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.

Maher, F., & Tetreault, M. (1994). The feminist classroom: An inside look at how professors and students are transforming higher education for a diverse society . New York: Basic Books.

Manganaro, M. (1990). Textual play, power, and cultural critique: An orientation to modernist anthropology. In M. Manganaro (Ed.), Modernist anthropology: From fieldwork to text (pp. 3–47). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Marcus, G. E., & Fischer, M. M. J. (1986). Anthropology as cultural critique: An experimental moment in the human sciences . Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Martin, H., & Schuman, H. (1996). The global trap: Globalization and the assault on democracy and prosperity . New York: Zed Books.

McGuigan, J. (1996). Culture and the public sphere . New York: Routledge.

McLaren, P. (1992a). Collisions with otherness: “Traveling” theory, post-colonial criticism, and the politics of ethnographic practice—the mission of the wounded ethnographer. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education , 5 , 77–92 .

McLaren, P. (1992b). Literacy research and time postmodern turn: Cautions from the margins. In R. Beach, J. Green, M. Kamil, & T. Shanahan (Eds.), Multidisciplinary perspectives on research . Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.

McLaren, P. (l995a). Critical pedagogy and predatory culture: Oppositional politics in a postmodern era . New York: Routledge.

McLaren, P. (1995b). Life in schools (3rd ed.). New York: Longman.

McLaren, P. (1997). Revolutionary multiculturalism: Pedagogies of dissent for the new millennium . New York: Routledge.

McLaren, P. (1998). Revolutionary pedagogy in Post-revolutionary times: Rethinking the political economy of critical education. Educational Theory , 48 , 431–462.

McLaren, P. (1999). Schooling as a ritual performance: Toward a political economy of educational symbols and gestures (3rd ed.). Boulder, CO: Rowman & Littlefield.

McLaren, P. (2000). Che Guevara, Paulo Freire, and the pedagogy of revolution . Boulder, CO: Rowman & Littlefield.

McLaren, P., & Hammer, R. (1989). Critical pedagogy and the post-modern challenge. Educational Foundations , 3 (3), 29–69.

McLaren, P., Hammer, R., Reilly, S., & Sholle, D. (1995). Rethinking media literacy: A critical pedagogy of representation . New York: Peter Lang.

McWilliam, E. & Taylor, P. (Eds.). (1996). Pedagogy, technology, and the body . New York: Peter Lang.

Miller, S., & Hodge, J. (1998). Phenomenology, hermeneutics, and narrative analysis: Some finished methodological business . Unpublished manuscript.

Molnar, A. (1996). Giving kids the business: The commercialization of America’s schools . Boulder, CO: Westview.

Morgan, W. (1996). Personal training: Discourses of (self) fashioning. In E. McWilliam & P. Taylor (Eds.), Pedagogy, technology, and the body . New York: Peter Lang.

Morley, D. & Chen, K. H. (Eds.), (1996). Stuart Hall: Critical dialogues in cultural studies . New York: Routledge.

Morrow, R. (1991). Critical theory, Gramsci and cultural studies: From structuralism to post-structuralism. In P. Wexler (Ed.), Critical theory now (pp. 27–69). New York: Falmer.

Mullen, C. (1999). Whiteness, cracks, and ink stains: Making cultural identity with Euro-american preservice teachers. In P. Diamond & C. Mullen (Eds.), The postmodern educator: Arts-based inquiries and teacher development . New York: Peter Lang.

Myrsiades, K. & Myrsiades, L. (Eds.). (1998). Race-ing representation: Voice, history, and sexuality . Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

Newton, J., & Stacey, J. (1992–1993). Learning not to curse, or, feminist predicaments in cultural criticism by men: Our movie date with James Clifford and Stephen Greenbatt. Cultural Critique , 23 , 51–82.

Nicholson, L. J. & Seidman, S. (Eds.). (1995). Social postmodernist critics: Beyond identity politics . New York: Cambridge University Press

Pailliotet, A. (1998). Deep Viewing: A critical look at visual texts. In J. L. Kincheloe & S. R. Steinberg (Eds.), Unauthorized methods: Strategies for critical teaching . New York: Routledge.

Peters, M. (1993). Against Finkielkraut’s la defaite de la pensee: Culture, postmodernism and education . Unpublished manuscript.

Peters, M., & Lankshear, C. (1994). Education and hermeneutics: A Freirean interpretation. InP. McLaren & C. Lankshear (Eds.), Politics of liberation: Paths from Freire . New York: Routledge.

Pfeil, F. (1995). White guys: Studies in post-modern domination and difference . New York: Verso.

Pieterse, J., & Parekh, B. (1995). Shifting imaginaries: Decolonization, internal decolonization, and postcoloniality. In J. Pieterse & B. Parekh (Eds.), The decolonialization of imagination: Culture, knowledge, and power . Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Zed.

Pinar, W. F. (1994). Autobiography, politics, and sexuality: Essays in curriculum theory, 1972–1992 . New York: Peter Lang.

Pinar, W. F. (Ed.). (1998). Curriculum: Toward new identities . New York: Garland.

Pinar, W. F., Reynolds, W., Slattery, P., & Taubman, P. (1995). Understanding curriculum . New York: Peter Lang.

Poster, M. (1989). Critical theory and poststructuralism: In search of a context . Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

Prakash, M., & Esteva, C. (1998). Escaping education: Living as learning within grassroots cultures . New York: Peter Lang.

Pruyn, M. (1994). Becoming subjects through critical practice: How students in an elementary classroom critically read and wrote their world. International Journal of Educational Reform , 3 (1), 37–50.

Pruyn, M. (1999). Discourse wars in Gotham-West: A Latino immigrant urban tale of resistance and agency . Boulder, CO: Westview.

Quantz, R. A. (1992). On critical ethnography (with some postmodern considerations). In M. D. LeCompte, W. L. Millroy, & J. Preissle (Eds.), The handbook of qualitative research in education (pp. 447–505). New York: Academic Press.

Quail, C. B., Razzano, K. A., & Skalli, L. H. (2000). Tell me more: Rethinking daytime talk shows . New York: Peter Lang.

Rabinow, P. (1977). Reflections on fieldwork in Morocco . Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Rains, F. (1998). Is the benign really harmless? Deconstructing some “benign” manifestations of operationalized white privilege. In J. L. Kincheloe, S. R. Steinberg, N. M. Rodriguez, & R. E. Chennault (Eds.), White reign: Deploying whiteness in America . New York: St. Martin’s.

Rand, E. (1995). Barbie’s queer accessories . Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

Rapko, J. (1998). Review of The power of dialogue: Critical hermeneutics after Gadamer and Foucault. Criticism , 40 (1), 133–138.

Ritzer, C. (1993). The McDonaldization of society . Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge.

Robins, D., & Cohen, P. (1978). Knuckle sandwich: Growing up in the working—class city . Harmondsworth: Penguin.

Robinson, W. (1998). Beyond nation-state paradigms: Globalization, sociology, and the challenge of transnational studies. Sociological Forum , 13 , 561–594 .

Rodriguez, N. M., & Villaverde, L. (2000). Dismantling whiteness . New York: Peter Lang.

Roman, L. & Eyre, L. (Eds.). (1997). Dangerous territories: Struggles for difference and equality in education . New York: Routledge.

Rosen, S. (1987). Hermeneutics as politics . New York: Oxford University Press.

Rosenau, P. M. (1992). Post-modernism and the social sciences: Insights, inroads, and intrusion . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Samuels, A. (1993). The political psyche . New York: Routledge.

San Juan, E., Jr. (1992). Articulations of power in ethnic and racial studies in the United States . Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press.

San Juan, E., Jr. (1996). Mediations: From a Filipino perspective . Pasig City, Philippines: Anvil.

Scheurich, J. J., & Young, M. (1997). Coloring epistemologies: Are our research epistemologies racially biased? Educational Researcher , 26 (4), 4–16.

Scott, J. W (1992). Experience. In J. Butler & J. W Scott (Eds.), Feminists theorize the po litical (pp. 22–40). New York: Routledge.

Sedgwick, E. (1995). Gosh, Boy George, you must be awfully secure in your masculinity? In M. Bergen, B. Wallis, & S. Watson (Eds.), Constructing masculinity . New York: Routledge.

Semali, L. (1998). Still crazy after all these years: Teaching critical media literacy. In J. L. Kincheloe & S. R. Steinberg (Eds.), Unauthorized methods: Strategies for critical teaching . New York: Routledge.

Semali, L., & Kincheloe, J. L. (1999). What is indigenous knowledge? Voices from the academy . New York: Falmer.

Shelton, A. (1996). The ape’s IQ. In J. L. Kincheloe, S. R. Steinberg, & A. D. Gresson III (Eds.), Measured lies: The bell curve examined . New York: St. Martin’s.

Shohat, E., & Stam, R. (1994). Unthinking Eurocentrism: Multiculturalism and the media . New York: Routledge.

Shor, I. (1996). When students have power: Negotiating authority in a critical pedagogy . Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Silverman, E. K. (1990). Clifford Geertz: Towards a more “thick” understanding? In C. Tilley (Ed.), Reading material culture (pp. 121–159). Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.

Slattery, P. (1995). Curriculum development in the postmodern era . New York: Garland.

Slaughter, R. (1989). Cultural reconstruction in the post-modern world. Journal of Curriculum Studies , 3 , 255–270 .

Sleeter, C. & McLaren, P. (Eds.), (1995). Multicultural education, critical pedagogy, and the politics of difference . Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Smith, D. G. (1999). Interdisciplinary essays in the Pedagon: Human sciences, pedagogy and culture . New York: Peter Lang.

Smith, R. & Wexler, P. (Eds.). (1995). After Post-modernism: Education, politics, amid identity . London: Falmer.

Smyth, J. (1989). A critical pedagogy of classroom practice. Journal of Curriculum Studies , 21 (6), 483–401.

Soto, L. (1998). Bilingual education in America: In search of equity and just-ice. In J. L. Kincheloe &S. R. Steinberg (Eds.), Unauthorized methods: Strategies for critical teaching . New York: Routledge.

Stallabrass, J. (1996). Gargantua: Manufactured mass culture . London: Verso.

Steinberg, S. R. (1997). Kinderculture: The cultural studies of childhood. In N. Denzin (Ed.), Cultural studies: A research volume (Vol. 2, pp. 17–44). Greenwich, CT: JAI.

Steinberg, S. R. (Ed.). (2000). Multi/intercultural conversations . New York: Peter Lang.

Steinberg, S. R. (1997). The bitch who has everything. In S. R. Steinberg & J. L. Kincheloe (Eds.), Kinderculture: The corporate construction of childhood . Boulder, CO: Westview.

Steinberg, S. R. & Kincheloe, J. L. (Eds.), (1997). Kinderculture: Corporate constructions of childhood . Boulder, CO: Westview.

Steinberg, S. R. & Kincheloe, J. L. (Eds.), (1998). Students as researchers: Creating classrooms that matter . London: Taylor, & Francis.

Stewart, K. (1996). A space on the side of the road: Cultural poetics in an “other”America . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Sünker, H. (1998). Welfare, democracy, and social work. In G. Flosser & H. Otto (Eds.), Towards more democracy in social services: Models of culture and welfare . New York: deGruyter.

Surber, J. (1998). Culture and critique: An introduction to the critical discourses of cultural studies . Boulder, CO: Westview.

Taussig, M. (1987). Shamanism, colonialism, and the wild man: A study in terror and healing . Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Taylor, M., & Saarinen, E. (1994). Imagologies: Media philosophy . New York: Routledge.

Thomas, S. (1997). Dominance and ideology in cultural studies. In M. Ferguson & P. Golding (Eds.), Cultural studies in question . London: Sage.

Trueba, E. T., & McLaren, P. (in press). Critical ethnography for the study of immigrants. In E. T. Trueba & L. I. Bartolomé (Eds.), Immigrant voices: In search of educational equity . Boulder, CO: Rowman, & Littlefield.

Vattimo, G. (1994). Beyond interpretation: The meaning of hermeneutics for philosophy . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

Viergever, M. (1999). Indigenous knowledge: An interpretation of views from indigenous peoples. In L. Semali & J. L. Kincheloe (Eds.), What is indigenous knowledge? Voices from the academy . Bristol, PA: Falmer.

Villaverde, L., & Kincheloe, J. L. (1998). Engaging students as researchers: Researching and teaching Thanksgiving in the elementary classroom. In S. R. Steinberg & J. L. Kincheloe (Eds.), Students as researchers: Creating classrooms that matter (pp. 149–166). London: Falmer.

Visweswaran, K. (1994). Fictions of feminist ethnography . Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.

Weil, D. (1998). Towards a critical multi-cultural literacy: Theory and practice for education for liberation . New York: Peter Lang.

Weiler, K. (1988). Women teaching for change: Gender, class, and power . South Hadley, MA: Bergin, & Garvey.

Weinstein, M. (1998). Robot world: Education, popular culture, and science . New York: Peter Lang.

Welch, S. (1991). An ethic of solidarity and difference. In H. Giroux (Ed.), Postmodernism, feminism, and cultural politics: Redrawing educational boundaries (pp. 83–99). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

West, C. (1993). Race matters . Boston: Beacon.

Wexler, P. (1991). Preface. In P. Wexler (Ed.), Critical theory now . New York: Falmer.

Wexler, P. (1996a). Critical social psychology . New York: Peter Lang.

Wexler, P. (1996b). Holy sparks: Social theory, education, and religion . New York: St. Martin’s.

Wexler, P. (1997). Social research in education: Ethnography of being . Paper presented at the international conference on the Culture of Schooling, Halle, Germany.

Willis, P. E. (1977). Learning to labour: How working class kids get working class jobs . Farnborough, UK: Saxon House.

Women’s Studies Group, Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies. (1978). Women take issue: Aspects of women’s subordination . London: Hutchinson, with Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies, University of Birmingham.

Woodward, K. (Ed.). (1997). Identity and difference . London: Sage.

Yates, T. (1990). Jacques Derrida: “There is nothing outside of the text”. In C. Tilley (Ed.), Reading material culture (pp. 206–280). Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.

Young, I. (1990). The ideal of community and the politics of difference. In L. J. Nicholson (Ed.), Feminism/postmodernism (pp. 300–323). New York: Routledge.

Zavarzadeh, M., & Morton, D. (1991). Theory, (post)modernity, opposition . Washington, DC: Maison-nieuve.

Zizek, S. (1990). The sublime object of ideology . London: Verso.

Download references

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and affiliations.

Montclair State University, United States

Kecia Hayes

University of Calgary, Canada

Shirley R. Steinberg

City University, New York, USA

Kenneth Tobin

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2011 Sense Publishers

About this chapter

Kincheloe, J.L., Mclaren, P. (2011). Rethinking Critical Theory and Qualitative Research. In: Hayes, K., Steinberg, S.R., Tobin, K. (eds) Key Works in Critical Pedagogy. Bold Visions in Educational Research, vol 32. SensePublishers. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6091-397-6_23

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6091-397-6_23

Publisher Name : SensePublishers

Online ISBN : 978-94-6091-397-6

eBook Packages : Humanities, Social Sciences and Law Education (R0)

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Societies and partnerships

• Find a journal
• Track your research