a level othello essay

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Poppy T. ★ 5.0 (6)

University of oxford - ba english language and literature.

Friendly English Tutor, Current English Teacher in a Secondary School, Oxford Graduate and Bristol Postgraduate.

Notes || Exam Prep || Character Profiles || Themes || Additional Reading & Videos

This text is included in  Paper 1 . You can find notes and guides for it below.

• Literary Form

Additional Reading & Videos:

• Essay: Homosocial Desire and its Conversion to Homosexual Desire
• Essay: The Symbolic Significance of Desdemona’s Handkerchief
• Essay: Men, Women and War: An Examination of Gender Conflicts within Othello
• Thesis: Courtship, Love, and Marriage in Othello: Shakespeare’s Mockery of Courtly Love
• Essay: Too Gentle: Jealousy and Class in Othello
• Video: Racism in Othello
• Video: The Question of Race in Othello
• Film: Othello (modern-day adaptation, dir. Geoffrey Sax 2001)
• Film: Othello (filmed theatrical production, 1965)

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• Truth and Deception

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Shakespeare’s Othello: Essay Samples - Links & Essential Info

If you want to write a paper on any topic related to Othello , this article will be your life-saver. Our team collected various free samples on one page. See what Othello essay interests you and click on the link to read it.

✍ Othello: Essay Samples

• Theme of Jealousy in Othello by Shakespeare Genre: Research paper Words: 1643 Focused on: The issues of jealousy, manipulation, and jealousy Characters mentioned: Iago, Othello, Roderigo, Desdemona, Brabantio, Cassio
• The Tragedy of Othello Genre: Research paper Words: 1651 Focused on: Othello’s tragedy and whether it was self-inflicted Characters mentioned: Othello, Iago, Cassio, Desdemona, Roderigo, Brabantio, Emilia, Bianca
• Othello by William Shakespeare Genre: Essay Words: 888 Focused on: Catastrophe, race, and misrepresentation Characters mentioned: Othello, Iago, Cassio, Desdemona
• Irony in “Othello” by Shakespeare Genre: Analytical Essay Words: 907 Focused on: How irony drives the plot of Othello Characters mentioned: Othello, Iago, Desdemona, Emilia
• Summary about Shakespeare’s Othello Genre: Essay Words: 837 Focused on: Retelling of Othello Characters mentioned: Othello, Iago, Cassio, Roderigo, Desdemona, Emilia, Brabantio
• Othello by William Shakespeare Genre: Term paper Words: 1141 Focused on: Comparison of the play with Tim Nelson’s 2001 movie O Characters mentioned: Othello, Iago, Desdemona, Cassio
• Shakespeare’s Othello, the Moor of Venice Genre: Research paper Words: 1404 Focused on: Character traits of Iago and Othello, and how they drive the story Characters mentioned: Iago, Othello, Desdemona, Cassio, Roderigo, Emilia
• The Downfall of Othello Genre: Essay Words: 1687 Focused on: Comparison of Othello’s and Oedipus’s downfalls Characters mentioned: Othello, Iago, Brabantio, Cassio, Desdemona
• “Othello” by William Shakespeare Genre: Essay Words: 548 Focused on: The role of minor characters in Othello Characters mentioned: Othello, Iago, Cassio, Emilia
• Character of Iago in “Othello” by Shakespeare Analysis Genre: Essay Words: 1080 Focused on: Character analysis of Iago and his evil nature Characters mentioned: Iago, Othello, Cassio, Desdemona, Emilia, Roderigo,
• Critical Analysis of the Tragedy of Othello Genre: Essay, Critical Writing Words: 971 Focused on: Stage directions , the play’s modernity, and geographical symbolism Characters mentioned: Othello, Iago, Desdemona
• Jealousy in “Othello” by W.Shakespeare Genre: Analytical Essay Words: 1611 Focused on: Good vs. evil as characterized by jealousy Characters mentioned: Othello, Iago, Cassio, Desdemona, Emilia, Roderigo
• Othello as the Outsider Genre: Essay Words: 1356 Focused on: Othello as an outcast in society and how his language and behavior reflect it Characters mentioned: Othello, Iago, Desdemona
• Racism in Play “Othello” by William Shakespeare Genre: Essay Words: 867 Focused on: The theme of racism and how it’s shown in the play Characters mentioned: Othello, Iago, Cassio, Brabantio, Desdemona
• Othello and Desdemona: Emotional Strangers Genre: Essay Words: 1243 Focused on: The relationship between Othello and Desdemona Characters mentioned: Othello, Desdemona, Iago, Cassio
• What Can Lawyers Learn From ‘Othello’? Genre: Essay Words: 692 Focused on: Why lawyers should read Othello Characters mentioned: Othello, Cassio, Iago
• Shakespeare’s Tragedy of Othello: The Words and Actions of Iago Genre: Essay Words: 1421 Focused on: Why Iago is an excellent villain, comparison of Iago and Joker from The Dark Knight Characters mentioned: Iago, Othello, Cassio
• Othello and Snow Country: Personal Opinion Genre: Critical Essay Words: 994 Focused on: Love and passion in Shakespeare’s Othello and Yasunari Kawabata’s Snow Country Characters mentioned: Othello, Desdemona
• Othello’s Fall from Grace and Redemption at the End of the Play Genre: Essay Words: 1145 Focused on: Themes of jealousy and gullibility Characters mentioned: Othello, Desdemona, Iago
• Othello’s tragedy Genre: Essay Words: 830 Focused on: The cause of Othello’s tragedy Characters mentioned: Othello, Desdemona, Iago
• The issue of racial prejudice Genre: Research paper Words: 2198 Focused on: Racial prejudices, discrimination towards Othello and foreigners in general, cultural and historical context Characters mentioned: Othello, Iago, Brabantio, Desdemona
• Humiliation of Iago (Othello) Genre: Essay Words: 589 Focused on: Possible motives of Iago Characters mentioned: Iago, Othello, Desdemona
• Compare and Contrast Shakespeare’s Othello and the Blind Owl by Sedayat Genre: Compare and Contrast Essay Words: 1370 Focused on: Differences and similarities of the plots and themes of Shakespeare’s Othello and the Blind Owl by Sedayat Characters mentioned: Othello, Iago, Desdemona
• Remembrance and Redemption Relationship Genre: Essay Words: 1471 Focused on: Theme of redemption in Othello , Mansfield Park, and A Small Place Characters mentioned: Othello, Iago, Cassio
• Treatment of women by Shakespeare and Sophocles Genre: Essay Words: 1895 Focused on: Different treatments of women in Othello and Oedipus Characters mentioned: Othello, Iago, Desdemona, Emilia, Cassio, Roderigo, Brabantio
• The Feminist critique Genre: Essay Words: 2062 Focused on: The role of women in Elizabethan society as told by Othello Characters mentioned: Desdemona, Emilia, Bianca, Othello, Iago, Cassio, Duke of Venice, Brabantio
• Comparison and Contrast of the Driving Force of Plot in Medea by Euripides, Othello by William Shakespeare, and the Epic of Gilgamesh Genre: Essay Words: 568 Focused on: Heroism in Medea by Euripides, Othello by William Shakespeare, and The Epic of Gilgamesh Characters mentioned: Othello, Iago, Brabantio, Roderigo
• Violence of Shakespeare Genre: Term paper Words: 1701 Focused on: Violent behavior in Titus Andronicus , Hamlet , and Othello Characters mentioned: Othello, Iago, Desdemona
• Philosophy of Literature: Shakespearean Tragedy Genre: Essay Words: 1218 Focused on: How tragic incidences make heroes be villains as shown in Othello and Macbeth Characters mentioned: Othello, Desdemona, Iago
• Machiavelli and Othello’s Leadership Skills Essay Genre: Essay Words: 584 Focused on: Leadership skills in Machiavelli’s The Prince and Shakespeare’s Othello Characters mentioned: Othello, Iago
• The Life And Work Of William Shakespeare: His Contribution To The Contemporary Theater Genre: Research paper Words: 1371 Focused on: The contribution of William Shakespeare’s works to contemporary theater Characters mentioned: Othello, Desdemona, Iago
• Othello and Oedipus Rex Characters’ Traits Genre: Essay Words: 963 Focused on: Character and tragic traits of Othello and Oedipus Characters mentioned: Othello, Iago, Desdemona
• Iago and Othello Relationships Genre: Research paper Words: 1254 Focused on: Iago’s and Othello’s relationships and how it contributes the plot Characters mentioned: Othello, Iago, Desdemona, Emilia
• Cultural Diversity in the Play “Othello” Genre: Essay Words: 822 Focused on: The play’s reflection of society and racial prejudices Characters mentioned: Othello, Desdemona, Iago

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Essay questions on 'Othello'

Seven exam-style essay questions on  Othello , with a range of critics' comments on the text to develop A-level students' understanding of key themes and characters in the play. 

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AS and A Level: Othello

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Othello is a play of violent contrasts.

'Othello is a play of violent contrasts, of language, character and mood.' Discuss the presentation of these issues in relation to the opening act of Othello. Knight comments that 'in Othello we are faced with the vividly particular rather than the vague and universal1.' Here, he immediately sets up Othello as being a play that, instead of focusing on a broad and more general level, all of the various themes and motifs that it contains converge on this 'particular' focal point - a centre that, particularly in the initial act, breathes with so much literal and symbolic contrast that not only exists between characters, their language and mood, but too within every character, within the mood that the playwright paints. Right from the onset, Shakespeare creates opposition between the characters; he creates such 'unkind' emotion. Roderigo fears that his 'purse' has been taken by Iago, 'as if the strings were thine' - Iago's role as a manipulator, an overriding force whom himself claims to be 'not what' he is, enforcing this concept of negativity, of disillusionment at the heart of the play that, in turn, forebodes the dramatic conflict that is to tear its way into the lives of all. Iago declares that 'our bodies are gardens, to the which our wills are gardeners,' powerfully embodying this emblematic representation of him being a 'gardener', one who is in charge of his own fate,

• Word count: 520
• Level: AS and A Level
• Subject: English

'To what extent does the writer's use of language contribute to the presentation of Albion Gidley Singer and the crime he commits?'

'To what extent does the writer's use of language contribute to the presentation of Albion Gidley Singer and the crime he commits?' This passage is about Albion Gidley Singer who we see in the first paragraph as a loving , caring and responsible father. As we go further into the passage we see him changing for the worse and later he ends up raping his daughter out of frustration and also little bit of jealousy. The story starts with Albion Gidley Singer going to check on his daughter which had become a daily routine as 'I had got into the habit' suggests. This shows him as a loving and caring father going to check on his daughter as usual. On this particular night as he went to check on his daughter instead of receiving a glad smile and some amazing facts about aardvarks, she is shocked and gasps as she hears him come in. The 'instead' shows him as a foreshadowing and disciplinarian father. The glad smile and facts about aardvarks shows innocence in the daughter and the shock shows that she is scared of him. In the second paragraph he mentions about his daughter's 'fluster' which makes him suspicious and his disapproval of the fact that she was not working shows that he had high expectations of her, and also the 'Euclid I had got her' shows that he's fond of academy. When she moves as if to cover her work he thinks 'as well she might' shows his authority and his values.

• Word count: 1371

"Write about Fitzgerald's story-telling methods in chapter 3."

Gatsby Essay. "Write about Fitzgerald's story-telling methods in this chapter." In terms of form in the first chapter Fitzgerald uses the first person retrospective in the main character Nick Carraway. Nick appears to be talking about events that happened two years previously and therefore we receive the information retrospectively and almost in a second hand manner, meaning that it could have been adapted and not in its original form. When using this form of narrative Fitzgerald needs the reader to completely trust the judgement of Nick and his ability to remember what happened in precise enough detail. This trust is created during the first page where Nick himself talks about how people seem to trust him, how de doesn't judge people too quickly and his tolerance of others, "I'm inclined to reserve all judgements... I was privy to the secret griefs of wild, unknown men... boasting this way of my tolerance." The effect of using this first person narrative and having Nick as the central character could mean that the reader considers him as a person who, when re-encountering details of past times, will tell the truth and not have his memory blurred by judgement. The use of layers and shifts in narrative help the structure to stay maintained while bringing other facts and peoples interpretations into the story. For example, when Nick is talking to Myrtle about her first

• Word count: 2004

To what extent does language reflect the disintegration of Othellos character?

To what extent does language reflect the disintegration of Othello's character? Throughout the play, the protagonist's language seems to be an honest portrayal of his state of mind. His language is inconsistent through the play and this reflects the characters downfall and change in nature. In the beginning of the play Othello appears to be a noble man with a calm nature. This is apparent during Othello's disagreement with Brabantio over his marriage to Desdemona. Othello exclaims, 'Keep up your bright swords, for the dew will rust / them.' (Act1,2,58). His use of language demonstrates he is wise as he is being rational rather than responding to physical violence. It is through this calm and rational manner that Othello persuades the Duke to dismiss Brabantio's claims that he has used 'magic' and 'drugs' to woo his daughter. Othello even says, 'Rude am I in my speech', to apologise for any offence he may cause even though he is fully aware that he is speaking in a polite and calm manner. His language here shows control unlike Brabantio who uses abrupt and accusing language: 'O foul thief! Where has thou stow'd my daughter?' (Act1,2,62). Othello's love for his wife is portrayed through his speech: 'I therefore beg it not / To please the palate of my appetite, / Nor to comply with heat the young affects / In my distinct and proper satisfaction, / But to be free and

• Word count: 1330

Examine the ways in which Shakespeare presents the changed character of Othello.

In act 4 scene 1 we see a marked change in Othello since his suspicions of Desdemona were first aroused. Examine the ways in which Shakespeare presents the changed character of Othello here and elsewhere in the play. To be capable to note a change in the character of Othello we must look at his initial behaviour and how Shakespeare presents his personality. A Shakespearean tragedy consists of a 'hero's' life and their downfall, which will ultimately lead to their death. For a character to become a hero he must be respected and noble, to do this Shakespeare creates scenes to raise Othello's status. We expect to have a great deal of respect for the protagonist. In another of Shakespeare's Tragedies Macbeth, the protagonist's status is raised similarly as they are both powerful generals whose success in battle make them respected by the audience because of their service to their country. This is shown in the first acts of both plays for example, King Duncan exclaims, "For brave Macbeth- well he deserves that name" and Othello is refeared to as "valiant moor" by the Duke. The fact that both of the protagonists are respected by people of a high status in the opening scenes is to create standards which the audience will expect to see throughout the remainder of the play. It is significant that both Macbeth and Othello are soldiers because their pasts are referred to throughout

• Word count: 1916

A critical analysis of Iago's second soliloquy.

Othello - Gobbet Question - Iago's Second Soliloquy Iago's second soliloquy is very revealing. It shows him shaping a plan out of the confusion of his emotionally charged thoughts. Iago examines his own thoughts, especially his hatred for Othello: "The Moor, howbeit that I endure him not" He is also suffering from the "poisonous mineral" of jealousy that still swirls around the rumour that Othello has slept with Emilia. Iago could get his revenge by seducing Desdemona: "Now I do love her too ... But partly led to diet my revenge, for that I do suspect the lusty Moor Hath leaped into my seat, the thought whereof doth like a poisonous mineral gnaw my inwards". Iago uses the word "love" here in a very cynical, free way, making it a combination of lust towards Desdemona and seeking power over Othello, Cassio and Desdemona. At first he sees his seduction of Desdemona as his revenge: "Till I am evened with him, wife for wife". Then Iago realizes that the jealousy that torments him is the very weapon he can use against Othello, who will be even more susceptible. Iago will lead Othello, via jealousy, to madness: "Make the Moor thank me, love me, and reward me, for making him egregiously an ass". At the same time, his statements about what motivates him are hazy and confusing. He could be motivated by lust for Desdemona, envy of Cassio, or jealousy over his wife's supposed affair

• Word count: 660

To what extent is Othello considered a tragic hero?

To what extent is Othello considered a tragic hero? Othello has many qualities that a tragic hero should possess, such as a fatal flaw, a discovery and an epiphany. He is also a very noble character and took a fall from grace so to some extent many would consider Othello to be a tragic hero. However, it is also clear that Othello's status as a black man makes him an outsider to Venetian society, therefore, Othello would be lower down on the chain of Being making him a less respectable character. Othello is also an outsider in the Venetian society because he is not from Venice; again this makes him a less respected character in the play, consequently, making him less of a tragic hero. Othello's main aspect that makes him an excellent tragic hero is his role as a general in the army. This is considered an important job and Othello is well respected for it by Venetian society. Othello's respect is evident as many of the characters in the play address him as the "valiant moor." This shows that Othello is seen as a brave courageous person. Othello demonstrates his bravery throughout the play. An example of this occurs when Othello marries Desdemona as the consequence of this action would obviously have a negative outcome, Othello could have been sentenced to prison or even put to death. In spite of this, Othello defends his marriage and tells Brabantio to, "keep up your bright

• Word count: 1491

To what extent is Othello a Hegelian tragedy?

To what extent is Othello a Hegelian tragedy? A Hegelian tragedy must have; a society in conflict and a series of opposing social forces that ultimately destroy themselves. It is argued that a Hegelian tragedy is not about the individual characters but rather what they represent. The beginning of the play Othello is set in Venice and the Venetian society is definitely portrayed to be in conflict. Firstly there is a war going on between Venice and the Turks. Othello is a general and plays a key role on the war. Eventually the venetians beat the Turks and Othello, Desdemona and the rest of the key characters go to stay in Cyprus. Secondly there is the conflict with race within the society. Othello, otherwise known as the moor, originates from North Africa and he is black. Many of the characters call his names such as 'thick lips' and 'black ram' as well as always referring to him as 'the moor'. When Brabantio finds out that his daughter Desdemona is married to Othello, a black man, he thinks it's monstrous and takes Othello straight to the duke. Lastly there are the constant arguments. In the opening scene of the play we see Roderigo and Iago arguing outside Brabantio's house. Roderigo has paid iago a considerable amount of money to spy on Othello for him, since he wishes to take Othello's girlfriend, Desdemona as his own. Roderigo fears Iago has not been telling him

• Word count: 1044

Othello speech. Othello is the ultimate story of doomed love, passion and revenge, and is a story that has been reworked by many producers, writers and directors. One such production is the 1997 Royal Shakespeare Company play titled Othello, directe

CLOSE STUDY OF TEXT - Othello Assessment Task Term 2 Task 1: Oral Presentation Othello is the ultimate story of doomed love, passion and revenge, and is a story that has been reworked by many producers, writers and directors. One such production is the 1997 Royal Shakespeare Company play titled "Othello", directed by Michael Attenborough. The production was presented at the Royal Shakespeare Theatre in Shakespeare's birthplace, Stratford. Throughout it, Attenborough portrays his interpretation of the turbulent tragedy via the communication of the plot and characters that make up the production, lighting and sound techniques, as well as the central themes in it. The play is set in the Edwardian period in the early twentieth century, and opens with Othello standing in the midst of a racist British colonial military camp. The unique context - 'a militaristic world' according to Logan, is thus suggested from the beginning. Furthermore, from looking at a number of photos that were taken of the production, it was clear that Attenborough's play was presented in a very large theatre. There was also one review which said that because of the large, a very big cast was used. Lois Potter suggests that because the production relied on spectacle, 'it was largely through visual rather than verbal means that it achieved poetic quality'. Attenborough presented characters like Desdemona

• Word count: 852

Do you think this is how Shakespeare wanted to portray or present the character?Samuel Taylor Coleridge once wrote that Iago's soliloquies are the "motive-hunting of motiveless malignity".

Samuel Taylor Coleridge once wrote that Iago's soliloquies are the "motive-hunting of motiveless malignity". Do you think this is how Shakespeare wanted to portray or present the character? 'The Arden Shakespeare', argues that Othello is the 'third of greatest tragedies, contains arguably the best plot and two of Shakespeare's most original characters'. Originating from a tale written by Cinthio, Othello is seen as one of the Bard's most passionate and intricate tragedies. The play, originally identified as The Tragedy of Othello-the Moor of Venice, can be easily differentiated from Shakespeare's other plays as Othello explores a sense of cruelty that lacks comic relief. Moreover, Iago's character greatly emphasises on an intense theme of unity of action that is revealed as there are no subplots throughout. A structuralist approach is discovered as the signifier and signified are inversed frequently during the play. Critics have said 'Othello subverts traditional theatrical symbolism, through the presentation of characters Othello and Iago'. The drama of the play is usually driven by Iago's machination to destroy his general. Iago possesses more lines than Othello does throughout the play and moreover uses the speech of soliloquies to communicate with the audience forming a mutual relationship, as the villain reveals other dimensions to his character and schemes. Although

• Word count: 2394

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Aspects of tragedy - exemplar student response and commentary

Below you will find an exemplar student response to a Section B question in the specimen assessment materials, followed by an examiner commentary on the response.

Paper 1A, Section B -  Othello

Sample question.

'Othello's virtue and valour ultimately make him admirable.'

To what extent do you agree with this view?

Remember to include in your answer relevant comment on Shakespeare's dramatic methods.

Band 5 response

It is true that in Act 1 of the play, Othello's actions and behaviour, his virtue and valour can be seen as admirable. He is after all a tragic hero, and his position in the tragedy demands that he begins in a position of greatness before he suffers his tragic fall. Shakespeare establishes Othello's greatness through focusing on his military prowess and his valour at the start of the play before charting his hero's descent as he tumbles into chaos. Othello is a soldier for whom the 'big wars' make 'ambition virtue'.  By Act 3, however, there is little in him to admire: his valour belongs to a seemingly different world and there is nothing virtuous about a husband who colludes in a plot to destroy his wife.

Although Iago is used by Shakespeare at the start of the play to cast doubt on the magnificence of Othello and to test his virtue, when Othello appears he is impressive. Iago tries to persuade him to run away from the raised father whose daughter Othello has married, but Othello has full confidence in himself and the virtue of his actions. In rhythmic and controlled language he tells Iago he must be found: 'My parts, my title, and my perfect soul/ Shall manifest me rightly'. Although it could be claimed that this smacks of arrogance, Othello commands the stage and perhaps the audience's admiration. When Brabantio comes with bad intent, accusing Othello of theft and witchcraft, Othello is unperturbed; he tells his pursuers and accusers to put up their swords for the dew will rust them; they shall command more with their years than their weapons. His measured language is a sign of his confidence, self-discipline and virtue.

When Othello appears before the Duke he is equally impressive. Shakespeare uses the senators to counteract Iago's attempts to defame Othello, by having them refer to the general as 'valiant' (reminding us of his exploits in the field) and the Duke anyway has more interest to employ Othello against the general enemy Ottoman than listen to Brabantio's claims of sorcery. Even so, Othello's virtuous defence of himself and his love for Desdemona is all the more admirable (and certainly from a feminist perspective) because he asks that Desdemona be called to speak for herself. If Othello is found foul in her report, he says, the Duke should not only take away his trust and office but that sentence should fall upon his life. By twenty first century standards, Othello's affording Desdemona a voice and showing her unwavering respect, is virtuous indeed. There is also perhaps something if not admirable then at least mesmerising in his declaration of love and his story of how he wooed her:

                             She loved me for the dangers I had passed,

                             And I loved her that she did pity them.

However, when Shakespeare shifts the scene to Cyprus and the influence of the Venetian state diminishes, Iago, the tragic villain, is able to work his poison on Othello and expose his weaknesses, those aspects of his character that are far from virtuous. Othello's trust in Iago, the ancient he overlooked for lieutenant, shows a terrible lack of judgement. Iago persuades him that Cassio is unworthy and then that Desdemona is unfaithful and from the point that Iago says 'I like not that', Othello's insecurities, raging jealousy and barbaric inclinations are exposed. Having swallowed Iago's poison, Othello damns Desdemona, threatening to 'tear her all to pieces'. It is interesting here to note the dramatic contrast Shakespeare sets up between Othello and the Duke. In Act 1, in Venice, when the Duke is called upon to exercise judgement, he listens to both the accounts of Brabantio and Othello. Here in Cyprus at the outpost of civilization, Othello listens only to the lies of Iago.

There is dramatic contrast too in the different ways Othello speaks. Othello's earlier speeches which contain so much gravitas are now worn down. His love, 'the fountain from the which [his] current runs' is degraded into a 'cistern for foul toads/ to knot and gender in'. He falls under Iago's spell, pulled into the orbit of Iago's filthy linguistic energies and there is not much that is virtuous about his behaviour from now onwards and not much to admire.

His humiliation and public striking of Desemona and his cruel murder of her are all too terrible to forget in the final judgement of him. It is true that when he strikes her there are reminders of his valour and virtue in Lodovico's surprise that he could have misjudged Othello's character so greatly in thinking him good, but these reminders simply intensify the repugnance felt at Othello's actions.  It is also impossible to admire the man who strangles his wife believing that he is an honourable murderer. His pride at enacting the hand of Justice makes him detestable – at a point when he hesitiates, he blames her balmy breath for almost persuading Justice to break its sword.

His final speech, when he perhaps understands the appalling consequences of his folly, is seen by some critics as cathartic, a return of the virtuous and valiant Othello of Act 1. Interestingly, in this speech when he judges himself (and tries to shape how others might think), Othello seems to underplay the significance of his valour and contribution to the state. Though he reminds his stage audience that he has done the state some service, he quickly says 'no more of that'. However, it is clear that as the speech goes on, his assessment of himself is ultimately coloured by his pride and his highly developed sense of self worth and, although he has some dignity, there is not ultimately much honour. His concern at the end is for his public image and, as he has done from the start, he uses language to construct an artifice of his own identity.  He speaks of himself as if he were legendary or part of a defined myth. The use of the definite article is instrumental in achieving this effect – 'the base Indian', 'the Arabian trees'; only fragments of detail are supplied here but he conveys the idea that these images are huge and famous. His final speech is calm and controlled, but it reaches a crescendo of dramatic impact when he does the most dramatic thing he can do, transferring his construction of his identity of himself into the here and now, and suddenly and climactically ends his life. This is the self dramatizing that Leavis so condemns.

So, while it is true that from the moment Othello first appears he is attractive, by ever increasing degrees as the plot develops, he becomes repellent. As we stand back to make our final judgement on whether his valour and virtue ultimately make him admirable, it is surely not possible to overlook his despicable behaviour. What perhaps should be done in the final evaluation is to reconsider the nature of his virtue and valour at the start of the play and question whether it was always founded on sand. From his words early on 'I fetch my life and bearing/ from men of royal siege' to his final words of the play, 'to die upon a kiss' his sense of his own significance is overwhelming.  Othello is certainly not 'ultimately' admirable and the question must be asked, is he ever?  

It is also important to note that even when he is most glorious – and apparently admirable, there are many who cannot countenance his 'pride, pomp and circumstance'.

Examiner commentary

This is a very confident and accomplished response, and although the ideas are a bit overpacked at times and the argument a little overdone, the candidate writes in an assured way.

The response is well structured and the task is always in the candidate's mind. The candidate argues perceptively with a strong and assured personal voice. There is a confident use of literary critical concepts and terminology and the written expression is very secure. Quotation is neatly woven into the argument.

There is perceptive understanding that Shakespeare has constructed this drama to shape meanings. Comment here is often implicit, but there is valid discussion of the structure of the play in relation to the task and on language choices.

Contextual understanding is clear with a sharp focus on military and gender contexts. These are well linked to the tragic genre.

As the candidate fully engages with the task and valour and virtue, there is perceptive exploration of the tragic genre thereby implicitly establishing connections across literary texts.

There is perceptive and confident engagement with the debate here and the candidate clearly knows the text well and selects appropriate material for the argument. The candidate is really thinking about the task and offers some complexity in the answer, well aware of the ambiguities that the play and task set up.

This response seems consistent with the band 5 descriptors.

This resource is part of the Aspects of tragedy resource package .

Document URL https://www.aqa.org.uk/resources/english/as-and-a-level/english-literature-b/teach/tragedy-b-exemplar-student-response-commentary-band-5

Last updated 16 Dec 2022

Tragedy: Othello

One of the underlying strands of the play is tragedy. Othello is a play of personal tragedy, but it is also a tragedy of Venetian society. If the genre of tragedy is characterised by ‘serious’ subject matter, then Othello ticks this box.


• Othello is a great person (he is a general with strategic vision, who has risen from humble origins). 

• 
The assault upon him made by Iago.
• His own blinkered vision of not seeing the truth. 


• One reason why Othello might be particularly ripe for Iago’s plucking is that Iago can exploit his 'otherness' to bring out feelings of insecurity in Othello and encourage other characters to speak in racial slurs.

• As a tragic hero Othello does endures hamartia (a character flaw). 

• Othello’s hamartia is his ability to be easily swayed by the words of another. 

• A key aspect of this tragedy is Iago’s continued assault on Othello. 
- Iago manipulates him so that he believes Desdemona is having an affair with Cassio. 


Consequences of Othello's hamartia

• When we think about this logically, there has barely been any time for Cassio and Desdemona to even see each other, let alone have an affair, and yet Othello’s flaw is to believe what he is told without ever questioning it. 

• His hamartia leads to his own mental and physical breakdown, and the flaw contributes to the death of Desdemona and himself.

Anagnorisis

• Othello very much believes that the tragedy is brought about by other external factors, and not his own flaws. 

• Towards the end of the play Othello finally goes through a process of recognition of his own mistake.
• In this, Othello experiences anagnorisis and sees the error of his ways. 


• However, even then with Othello this moment does not last long. 

• Although he sees it, he actually wallows in self-pity at the end. 
- It is not clear if the learning or knowledge he has gained really helps him. 
- It does, however, help the audience to understand that catharsis is at work.

The Genre of Tragedy

Aristotle's theory about tragedy does seem to work when applied to Othello .

Aristotle's theory

• The play is complex and shows the complicated process of how a character is manipulated through suspicion and jealousy to kill someone they love.
• This process shows much suffering, and when Othello comes to the point of anagnorisis, he truly suffers.

Aristotle cont.

• Othello is a character of high morals (this is shown in his dealings with the Duke of Venice at the start) but Shakespeare presents him knowing that all of these are now questioned by the way that they have acted. 

• The play does offer spectacle because of the terrible and fearful nature of the final scene. 

• The play does culminate in multiple deaths: Othello, Desdemona, Emilia and Roderigo.

Genre of tragedy

• Othello does show that the genre of tragedy is so much more than a play with a ‘sad ending’. 

• As the audience watches the action unfold human experience is pushed to its limits. 


Other characters

• This comes not only from the terrible lack of insight that Othello shows and the way he is manipulated by Iago, but also in the way in which minor characters such as Roderigo are so easily enveloped in the tragedy. 


Dramatic irony

• The audience certainly goes through catharsis as the play progresses; and this feeling is dependant on how well Shakespeare works the dramatic irony of the play. Only the audience is privy to Iago’s plan.

1.1 Introduction

1.1.1 Specifications

1.2 Background

1.2.1 Shakespeare

1.2.3 Tragedy

1.2.4 Historical Context

1.3 Othello

1.3.1 Setting

1.3.2 Social Issues

2 Act One: Summaries & Themes

2.1 Act and Scene Summaries

2.1.1 Structure

2.1.2 The Exam

2.2 Scene One

2.2.1 Key Events

2.2.2 Key Themes

2.2.3 Key Ideas

2.3 Scene Two

2.3.1 Key Events

2.3.2 Key Themes

2.3.3 Key Ideas

2.4 Scene Three

2.4.1 Key Events

2.4.2 Key Events 2

2.4.3 Key Themes

2.4.4 Key Ideas

3 Act Two: Summaries & Themes

3.1 Scene One & Two

3.1.1 Scene One: Events

3.1.2 Key Events 2

3.1.3 Key Ideas: Love & Tragedy

3.1.4 Scene Two: Events

3.2 Scene Three

3.2.1 Key Events

3.2.2 Key Ideas

4 Act Three: Summaries & Themes

4.1 Key Events

4.1.1 Scene One & Two

4.1.2 Scene Three

4.1.3 Scene Three: Key Ideas

4.1.4 Scene Four

5.1 Scene One

5.1.1 Key Events

5.1.2 Key Ideas

5.2 Scene Two

5.2.1 Key Events

5.2.2 Key Ideas

5.3 Scene Three

5.3.1 Key Events

5.3.2 Key Ideas

6.1 Scene One

6.1.1 Key Events

6.1.2 Key Ideas

6.2 Scene Two

6.2.1 Key Events

6.2.2 Key Ideas

7 Character Profiles

7.1 Major Characters

7.1.1 Othello

7.1.3 Desdemona

7.1.4 Emilia

7.1.5 Cassio

7.2 Minor Characters

7.2.1 Roderigo & Brabantio

7.2.2 Other Characters

8 Key Themes

8.1 Love & Tragedy

8.1.2 Love 2

8.1.3 Tragedy

8.1.4 Tragedy 2

8.2 Other Key Themes

8.2.1 Public versus Private

8.2.2 Appearance & Reality

9 Writing Techniques

9.1 Writing Techniques

9.1.1 Structure

9.1.2 Genre

9.1.3 Form & Language

9.1.4 Language & Imagery

10 Critical Debates

10.1 Criticism & Performance

10.1.1 Shakespeare's Legacy

10.1.2 Traditional

10.1.3 Modern & Contemporary

10.2 Approaches

10.2.1 Feminist Approach

10.2.2 Psychoanalytic Approach

10.2.3 Marxist Approach

11 Approaching AQA English Literature

11.1 Specification A

11.1.1 Specification A

11.1.2 Love Through the Ages

11.2 Specification B

11.2.1 Specification B

11.2.2 Aspects of Tragedy

12 Issues of Assessment

12.1 The Exams

12.1.2 Mark Scheme

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William Shakespeare with characters from his tragedies; illustration by John Broadley

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This essay appears, in somewhat different form, as the introduction to Shakespeare Is Hard, But So Is Life (Head of Zeus, 2024).

In his best-selling biography of Elon Musk, Walter Isaacson tries to explain how a man who attempts such “epic feats” can also be “an asshole.” He finds himself seeking help from William Shakespeare: “As Shakespeare teaches us, all heroes have flaws, some tragic, some conquered, and those we cast as villains can be complex.” How better to fill the gap between epic and asshole than with the lesson Shakespeare was apparently trying to teach us when he wrote Hamlet and King Lear ? The only other time the word “tragic” appears in Isaacson’s book is when Musk is regretting his choice of outfit for an audience with the pope: “My suit is tragic.” When tragedy encompasses such trivialities, it’s not so hard to believe that those great plays really are trying to teach us something as trite as the possibility that humans are complex or that powerful people may have some serious defects. Who knew?

Isaacson is not unusual in making such statements about what Shakespeare’s tragedies mean: they exist to instruct us, and their main lesson is that everything would be OK if only we could “conquer” our shortcomings. We can read in The Guardian , of the Harry Potter novels, that “some of the most admirable adult characters, as in Shakespeare, are also revealed to have a tragic flaw that causes them to hesitate to act, to make foolish errors of judgment, to lie, or even to commit murder.” The New York Times informs us that

with Marlowe’s Doctor Faustus or Shakespeare’s Hamlet, their tragic flaws, enacted, became the definition of tragedy. It may be angst (Hamlet), or hubris (Faustus), but it’s there and we know, watching, that the ruinous end will be of their own making.

The former British prime minister Boris Johnson, who has supposedly been writing a book about Shakespeare, and who compared himself in the dying days of his benighted regime to Othello beset by malign Iago, claims that “it is the essence of all tragic literature that the hero should be conspicuous, that he should swagger around and that some flaw should lead to a catastrophic reversal and collapse.”

Also in The New York Times Stephen Marche tells us that

we go to tragedy to watch a man be destroyed. Macbeth must be destroyed for his lust for power, Othello for his jealousy, Antony for his passion, Lear for the incompleteness of his renunciation. They are tragic precisely because their flaws are all too human.

In a review of a biography of Andrew Jackson, the president is called a “‘Shakespearean tragic hero,’ inflexible as Coriolanus, whose tragic flaw was ‘his incessant pursuit of virtue in the political realm.’” Maureen Dowd notes that Barack Obama “has read and reread Shakespeare’s tragedies” and “does not want his fatal flaw to be that he compromises so much that his ideals get blurred out of recognition.”

This stuff is part of the language. Like most clichés, it perpetuates assumptions, not just about Shakespeare but about the world: your ruinous end is of your own making. Tragedies happen not because human beings are dragged between large historical, social, and political forces that are wrenching them in opposite directions, but because individuals are branded from birth with one or another variant of original sin. In seeking to understand ourselves, we can forget the epic and think of the assholes—who receive satisfyingly just deserts. As Johnson put it in 2011, Shakespeare “was, frankly, the poet of the established order” because the troublemakers in his plays “get their comeuppance.” The tragically flawed heroes meet the gory deaths their flaws deserve. Alongside “many insights into the human heart,” Johnson tells us, Shakespeare provides “such ingenious defences for keeping things as they are, and keeping the ruling party in power.”

The most obvious problem with all that is, even if it were true, it would be crushingly dull. Moral tales in which people do bad things because they have wicked instincts and then get their comeuppance are ten a penny. The clichés shrink Shakespeare to the level of Miss Prism in The Importance of Being Earnest , the author of a three-volume novel of “more than usually revolting sentimentality” who explains that in her book “the good ended happily, and the bad unhappily. That is what Fiction means.” If the definition of tragedy lies in the tragic flaw of the protagonist, we are reduced to a monotonous game of matching the shortcoming to the character: Hamlet = angst; Macbeth = ambition; Othello = jealousy; Lear = reckless vanity.

Fortunately none of this bears even a passing resemblance to the experience of seeing or reading a Shakespeare play. It is terrifyingly clear to us as we encounter these dramas that we are not in a moral universe of comeuppances and rewarded virtue. “As flies to wanton boys are we to th’ gods:/They kill us for their sport,” says Gloucester in King Lear . Macduff’s children are slaughtered. Ophelia is driven to drown herself. At the end of Othello , there are two innocent corpses on the stage: Desdemona’s and Emilia’s. Lear’s terrible question over the dead body of Cordelia echoes through these tragedies: “Why should a dog, a horse, a rat have life,/And thou no breath at all?” Much of the time in Shakespeare, there is no answer.

There is nothing in Cordelia’s or Ophelia’s or Desdemona’s or Emilia’s characters that has led them to extinction. It is simply that in this cruel world, while the bad may indeed end unhappily, so may the good. At the end of King Lear , we have the rather pitiful Albany doing a Miss Prism act: “All friends shall/Taste the wages of their virtue and all foes/The cup of their deservings.” This assurance of just deserts is immediately undercut by one of the most devastating images of absurd injustice, Lear raging at a universe in which his blameless daughter will not take another breath, in this world or the next: “Never, never, never, never, never!”

If the tragedies are supposed to show us the playing out of the innate flaws of their protagonists, they are not very good . Does anyone ever come out of the theater thinking that if only Hamlet had been less angsty, nothing would have been rotten in the state of Denmark? If Macbeth is already consumed by a lust for power, why does his wife have to goad him into killing Duncan? If Othello has an innate instinct for psychotic jealousy, why does Iago have to stage such elaborate plots to get him to believe that Desdemona is cheating on him? Lear may indeed be old and foolish, but he was surely not always thus—the shock of his decision at the beginning of the play to divest himself of the kingdom stems from his having ruled successfully for a very long time. (In the traditional story that Shakespeare adapted and that his audience would have known, Lear had reigned for sixty years.)

As for Shakespeare being “the poet of the established order,” it is certainly true that he was extremely adept in his navigation of a treacherous political landscape in which his greatest predecessor, Christopher Marlowe, was most probably murdered by the state and another fellow dramatist Thomas Kyd died after torture. He did so largely by avoiding references to contemporary England and setting his plays either in distant Catholic countries (where of course they do things no good Protestant ruler would countenance) or in the past. His political skill was rewarded. As of May 1603, after James I’s accession to the throne, Shakespeare was an official of the court as Groom of the Chamber. He and his fellow shareholders in the King’s Men (as they were now called) were each issued with four and a half yards of red cloth for the royal livery in which they were allowed to appear on state occasions. It is hard to think of Shakespeare as a liveried servant, but for him that red coat was surely also a suit of armor that protected him from the violence of his surroundings.

The wonder, though, lies in what he did with that position. He took his royal master’s obsessions and made unprecedented dramas out of them. James was interested in witches, so they appear in Macbeth . The king was—after the Gunpowder Plot in which Catholic conspirators tried to blow him up, along with his entire court and Parliament—worried about the way Catholic suspects under interrogation gave equivocal answers to avoid incriminating themselves. So the Porter in Macbeth , imagining himself as the gatekeeper to Hell, says, “Faith, here’s an equivocator that could swear in both the scales against either scale, who committed treason enough for God’s sake, yet could not equivocate to heaven.” As a Scot, James was anxious to establish the idea of Britain as a political union, with himself as “emperor of the whole island.” So Shakespeare shows in King Lear the terrors of a disunited kingdom. James was fascinated by demonic possession, so Shakespeare brushed up on its alleged symptoms in contemporary accounts and has Edgar, in his guise as Poor Tom, enact them on the blasted heath. *

But if these plays start with the need of the King’s Man to suck up to his royal patron, they emphatically do not end there. A hack propagandist of the kind that Boris Johnson imagines Shakespeare to be would have shown, in Macbeth , that equivocation is just what you might expect from traitorous Catholics. Instead he makes the slipperiness of words and the inability to trust people universal aspects of life under rulers who imagine their power to be absolute. Almost everyone in Macbeth plays games with truth and lies, because that’s what you have to do in a murderous polity.

Poor Tom, in King Lear , may be there to flatter the sovereign’s desire to see a man who is (or is pretending to be) possessed by demons. But we don’t care about that because his performance becomes a heartbreakingly real enactment of mental distress: “The foul fiend haunts poor Tom in the voice of a nightingale. Hoppedance cries in Tom’s belly for two white herring. Croak not, black angel. I have no food for thee.” What begins with a brilliant opportunist keeping an eye out for what will appeal to his new master ends as some of the strangest, most searingly painful language ever spoken on the stage.

And even though Shakespeare undoubtedly started King Lear as a fable on the dangers of splitting up the kingdom, he lets it run off into the most devastating mockery of all arbitrary political power. Lear tells Gloucester that the “great image of authority” is a cur biting the heels of a beggar. It is perhaps not surprising that someone who thought Lear’s declaration that “a dog’s obeyed in office” is Shakespeare supporting the established order proved to be such a dog in office himself.

So what does Shakespeare teach us? Nothing. His tragic theater is not a classroom. It is a fairground wall of death in which the characters are being pushed outward by the centrifugal force of the action but held in place by the friction of the language. It sucks us into its dizzying spin. What makes it particularly vertiginous is the way Shakespeare so often sets our moral impulses against our theatrical interests. Iago in Othello is perhaps the strongest example. Plays, for the audience, begin with utter ignorance. We need someone to draw us in, to tell us what is going on. A character who talks to us, who gives us confidential information, can earn our gratitude. Even when that character is, like Iago, telling us how he is going to destroy a good man, we are glad to see him whenever he appears. Within the plot he is a monster. Outside it, talking to us, he is a charming, helpful presence. Drawn between these two conditions, we are not learning something. We are in the dangerous condition of unlearning how we feel and think.

Hamlet talks to us too. He is entertaining, brilliant, sensitive, charismatic, startlingly eloquent—and he has a filial purpose of vengeance that we understand. So what are we to do with his astonishing cruelties—his cold-blooded mockery of the corpse of a man (Polonius) he has just killed by mistake, his mental torturing of Ophelia, his casual dispatch of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, announced to us as a fleeting afterthought? How far would the play have to tilt on its axis for Hamlet to be not its hero but its resident demon?

Shakespeare can, when he chooses, turn our attitudes to characters upside down and inside out. In the first act of Macbeth , Lady Macbeth is bold, vigorous, and supremely confident that she can “chastise with the valor of my tongue” a husband whom we already know to be a fearsome warrior. She makes herself “from the crown to the toe top-full/Of direst cruelty!” In the second act she takes charge while her husband is breaking down under the strain of Duncan’s murder—it is Lady Macbeth who returns the daggers to the chamber and smears the sleeping grooms with blood. In the third act she is still a commanding presence, able to deal with the disaster of the royal banquet and dismiss the courtiers when Macbeth is freaked out by Banquo’s ghost.

We then lose sight of her until the fifth act, when she is suddenly almost a ghost herself, a somnambulist reenacting in tormented sleep the moments after the murder. There is no transition, nothing to lead us gradually from the direly cruel and potent murderer to the fragile shell of a person, floating in “this slumbery agitation”—a phrase that almost cancels itself and thus captures her descent to nothingness.

Even as the action of the play continues to hurtle forward, we are thrown back into this gap between the dynamic woman we last saw and the strange creature she is now, in this liminal state between life and death. We have to try to fill that gap for ourselves, but we can’t quite do it because the stage is suddenly filled with drums and flags and Birnam Wood is about to come to Dunsinane and we have no time to think. Nor do we know quite what to feel—should we still despise her for her ruthless malice or give ourselves over to the poignancy of her mental dissolution?

Usually, if a dramatist shows us an act of extreme violence perpetrated by a character, it is a point of no return. After the enactment of butchery there can be no way back to emotional delicacy and poetic grace. Yet Hamlet stabs Polonius to death, calls the dead man a fool and a knave, tells his mother, in one of Shakespeare’s most brutal phrases, that “I’ll lug the guts into the neighbor room,” and exits dragging the body along like the carcass of an animal. It makes no sense that even after this shocking display of callousness, Hamlet still gets to be the tender philosopher considering the skull of Yorick. But he does. He is still the “sweet prince.”

Lady Macduff’s young son is stabbed to death before our eyes by Macbeth’s thugs. We watch a child—perhaps the most intelligent, charming, and engaging child ever seen onstage—being slaughtered in front of his mother. Yet fifteen or twenty minutes later we have the psychokiller Macbeth at his most affecting, playing the still, sad music of humanity: “And all our yesterdays have lighted fools/The way to dusty death. Out, out, brief candle.”

Othello wakes the sleeping Desdemona and twice calls her a strumpet. We listen to her heartbreaking plea: “Kill me tomorrow; let me live tonight.” In most productions, she tries to run away and Othello has to manhandle her back onto the bed. Then he takes a cushion and, as she continues to struggle for life, begins to smother her. But this is not quick. A short, staccato phrase of Othello’s, “So, so,” suggests that, as she continues to fight him, he either stabs her or pushes the cushion down even more violently on her face. But still Shakespeare prolongs the agony, for her and for us. Emilia appears at the door and gives Othello the news of Rodrigo’s murder. All the while Othello is still trying to kill his wife. We hear Desdemona’s voice again. Emilia opens the curtains and sees Desdemona dying. She gets two more lines and then expires. As Othello says himself: “I know this act shows horrible and grim.”

It is hard to think how Shakespeare could have made it more horrible. Depending on the production, it can take around ten minutes from start to finish. What could we feel except loathing and disgust? And yet Shakespeare forces us also, within just a few more minutes, to feel compassion for “one that loved not wisely, but too well;/…one not easily jealous but, being wrought,/Perplexed in the extreme.” It is not just Othello who is perplexed in the extreme. As audiences or as readers, we are left in a no-man’s-land where what we feel does not map onto what we have seen, and where extreme ugliness of action alternates with extreme beauty of language.

And all the while that language is unsettling us further. Some of this is accidental: the passage of time has altered meanings, making the effects even stranger and more disconcerting than Shakespeare meant them to be. Words become treacherous because we think we understand them but in fact do not. In the opening scene of Hamlet alone, “rivals” means companions and “extravagant” means wandering. In the first scene of Othello , “circumstance” means circumlocution, “spinster” means someone who spins wool, “peculiar” means personal, and “owe” means own. We can never be quite sure of the linguistic ground beneath our feet. Especially as we experience these words aurally in the theater, stepping stones turn out to be trip hazards.

This effect may be unintended in itself (Shakespeare cannot have known how the English language would evolve over four centuries), but it merely exaggerates what Shakespeare is doing anyway: simultaneously offering and withholding meaning. One way he does this is with a figure of speech that is peculiar in his own sense, personal to him. A distinctive strand of his writing is his fondness for expressing one concept with two words, joined together by “and.” No one has ever made such a humble three-letter word so slippery.

For example, when Hamlet thinks of Fortinbras’s army going off to invade Poland, he remarks that the warriors are willing to die “for a fantasy and trick of fame.” Laertes warns Ophelia against “the shot and danger of desire.” Shakespeare uses this device sixty-six times in Hamlet , twenty-eight times in Othello (“body and beauty”), eighteen times in Macbeth (“sound and fury”) and fifteen times in King Lear (“the image and horror of it”). With these conjunctions, every take is a double take. When we hear “and,” we expect the two things being joined together either to be different yet complementary (the day was cold and bright) or obviously the same (Musk is vile and loathsome).

Shakespeare does use such obvious phrasing, but often he gives us conjunctions that are neither quite the same nor quite different. A trick and a fantasy are alike but not exactly. The shot and the danger are closely related but separate concepts, as are sound and fury. Sometimes our brains can adjust fairly easily: “The image and horror” can be put back together as a horrible image. The “shot and danger” is a dangerous shot. But sometimes they can’t. When Hamlet tells the players that the purpose of theater is to show “the very age and body of the time,” we get the overall idea: they should embody the life of their own historical period. But the individual pieces of the phrase don’t cohere. The time does not have a body—it is the thing to be embodied by the actors. The “age of the time” borders on tautology. When Hamlet talks of his father’s tomb opening “his ponderous and marble jaws,” we must work quite hard to get to what is being signified, which is the heavy marble construction of the tomb. That banal little word “and” leaves us in a place somewhere between comprehension and mystery.

Shakespeare also does this with the basic construction of his sentences. As readers or members of an audience, we are hungry for information, and exposition is one of the basic skills of the playwright. But Shakespeare loves to spool out facts like someone gradually feeding out the line of a kite, adjusting to the tug and tension of the words. He leaves us waiting even while we are being informed. A sentence has a subject, a verb, and an object. Shakespeare delights in separating them from one another to the point where they are almost cut adrift. Early in Hamlet , Horatio is giving us some important backstory: how Old Hamlet acquired Norwegian lands and how Fortinbras is trying to get them back. He starts simply: “Our last king…” He then takes eight words to get to the verb “was” and then another fifteen words to get to “dared to the combat.” And then we have another fifteen words before we find out that Old Hamlet killed Old Fortinbras in this duel.

Or in the second scene of Macbeth , we need to know that Macbeth has triumphed against the rebels on the battlefield. The Captain, bringing the news, tells us that “brave Macbeth…carved out his passage” through the ranks of the enemy. But between “brave Macbeth” and “carved out his passage” there are nineteen words. Lear, in the crucial caprice that catalyzes the tragedy, demands: “Tell me, my daughters…Which of you shall we say doth love us most.” Except what he actually says is:

Tell me, my daughters, Since now we will divest us both of rule, Interest of territory, cares of state, Which of you shall we say doth love us most.

We have to hang on for the dramatic point. This happens again and again in these plays: the language is used to keep us in states of suspended animation. The propulsive rhythms keep the words moving forward with a relentless energy. (Otherwise, we would lose patience and conclude that Shakespeare is really quite a bad writer.) But the import of the words lags behind. This is Shakespeare’s marvelous kind of syncopation: the meter is regular but the meaning is offbeat.

Frank Kermode, riffing on T.S. Eliot, wrote of how a strange piece of language opens up “the bewildering minute, the moment of dazzled recognition” for which all poetry searches. These plays work toward those bewildering minutes when we both recognize something as profoundly human and are at the same time so dazzled by it that we cannot quite take it in. Some of these moments are elaborately linguistic: Hamlet’s contemplations of whether or not he should continue to exist, Macbeth’s articulation of the ways in which his violence has utterly isolated him from humanity itself. But some are almost wordless. There is Lear’s terrible “Oh, Oh, Oh, Oh!” over the body of his dead daughter and Othello’s “Oh, Oh, Oh!” when he realizes that he has murdered his wife for no reason. Shakespeare can make his eternal minutes from the most exquisite artifice or from the most primitive of sounds, knowing as he does that when words fail, after all the astounding articulacy we have been experiencing, the failure is itself unfathomably expressive.

None of this has anything to do with moral instruction. Moral destruction may be more like it: creating the “form and pressure” of the times through a great unraveling, in which what we know becomes un-known. If we have to go back to Aristotle’s theories of tragedy to understand what Shakespeare is doing, the place to go is not his idea of the fatal flaw—a concept Aristotle drew from Greek plays that could hardly be more different from Shakespeare’s. It is, rather, to Aristotle’s identification of the emotions that tragedy seeks to draw out of us: pity and terror. In Shakespeare’s tragedies, we have to supply the pity ourselves because there is precious little of it on offer to the people caught up in the violence of arbitrary power. But there is an abundance of terror. “Security,” says one of the witches in Macbeth , “is mortals’ chiefest enemy.” To feel secure is to be unprepared for the duplicity of reality. Shakespeare gives us crash courses in every kind of insecurity: physical, emotional, psychological, cognitive, even existential.

Ross, in the same play, explains to the soon to be murdered Lady Macduff:

But cruel are the times when we are traitors And do not know ourselves; when we hold rumor From what we fear, yet know not what we fear, But float upon a wild and violent sea…

This could be applied to all these tragedies, in which fear itself cannot be defined or contained. The plays are wild and violent seas on which even the boundaries of terror cannot be charted. If you had to live in one of them, your best course would be to listen to what a messenger tells Lady Macduff: “If you will take a homely man’s advice,/Be not found here; hence with your little ones.”

These violent wildernesses are not created by the flaws in Shakespeare’s characters. The jumpy guards on the battlements at Elsinore as Hamlet begins are not watching out for ghosts: war is already coming, as Young Fortinbras threatens to invade if the lands Old Hamlet seized from Norway are not returned. Before Macbeth even meets the witches, Scotland is beset by civil war and invasion. The play proper opens with the question: “What bloody man is that?” The still-bleeding Captain delivers gory descriptions of a man being cut in two and of his severed head being displayed on the battlements. Macbeth and Banquo are said “to bathe in reeking wounds.” As the action of Othello is beginning, messages are already arriving in Venice with news of the coming Turkish assault on Cyprus—war has begun. The only one of the four protagonists in the tragedies who can be said to unleash large-scale violence by his own actions is Lear—but even then, the speed with which his kingdom falls apart after his abdication makes us wonder whether it would not have descended into chaos anyway if he had merely died of old age.

What we encounter, then, is nothing so comforting as imperfect men causing trouble that will be banished by their deserved deaths. It is men who embody the hurly-burly that, contrary to the predictions of the witches at the start of Macbeth , is never going to be “done.” Hamlet and Macbeth, Othello and Lear are distinguished in these dramas by the illusion that they can determine events by their own actions. They have, they believe, the power to say what will happen next. But no amount of power can ever be great enough in an irrational world. The universe does not follow orders. That, as Miss Prism might have said, is what Tragedy means.

It is nice to imagine a time when these plays could be loved for their poetry alone. It would be a delight to think that their pleasure would be that they speak, as Horatio has it at the end of Hamlet , to an “unknowing world/How these things came about.” But there is not yet a world that does not know the violence of these plays or the fury with which reality responds to all attempts to force it to obey one man’s will. There is no place in history where “Be not found here” is not good advice for millions of vulnerable people. We return to the tragedies not in search of behavioral education but because the wilder the terror Shakespeare unleashes, the deeper is the pity and the greater the wonder that, even in the howling tempest, we can still hear the voices of broken individuals so amazingly articulated. They do not, when they speak, reduce the frightfulness. They allow us, rather, in those bewildering moments, to be equal to it.

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Fintan O’Toole is the Advising Editor at The New York Review and a columnist for The Irish Times . His most recent book is We Don’t Know Ourselves: A Personal History of Modern Ireland . (June 2024)

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AQA Love and Relationships A-level 12 Othello exam questions for 2024 revision

Subject: English

Age range: 16+

Resource type: Worksheet/Activity

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16 May 2024

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A one page sheet for Othello revision before the exam. There are 12 questions and the students have to local an appropriate extract for each question.

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The Intrigue of Villain Characters in Literature and Film

This essay is about the significance of villain characters in literature and film. It explores how villains add complexity to stories by presenting moral ambiguities and psychological depth. Villains highlight heroes’ virtues by challenging them, creating tension and suspense that keep audiences engaged. The essay discusses how well-crafted villains can evoke empathy, reflect societal fears, and explore themes like power, corruption, and redemption. It also notes the evolution of villains from simple evil figures to nuanced characters, demonstrating how they enrich narratives and provoke critical thinking about morality and human nature.

How it works

Villain characters have always captivated audiences, providing a compelling counterpoint to the heroes in stories. Their roles are crucial in driving plots, creating tension, and exploring complex themes. The fascination with villains stems from their multifaceted personalities, motivations, and the moral ambiguities they present. Unlike straightforward heroes, villains often embody the darker aspects of human nature, making them intriguing and memorable.

One of the primary reasons villains are so compelling is their complexity. While heroes are typically defined by their noble qualities, villains often possess a mix of traits that make them more relatable and human.

This complexity can be seen in characters like Shakespeare’s Iago from “Othello,” who is driven by jealousy and ambition, or Darth Vader from “Star Wars,” whose transformation from hero to villain adds depth to his character. These villains are not evil for the sake of being evil; their actions are motivated by personal grievances, desires, and flaws, which resonate with audiences on a psychological level.

Villains also play a vital role in highlighting the virtues of the heroes. By presenting significant obstacles and moral dilemmas, they force protagonists to grow and evolve. For instance, the Joker in “The Dark Knight” challenges Batman’s ethical boundaries, pushing him to confront the limits of his own moral code. Similarly, in “Harry Potter,” Voldemort’s relentless pursuit of power and immortality starkly contrasts with Harry’s values of friendship and self-sacrifice, emphasizing the themes of love and loyalty.

Moreover, the presence of a well-crafted villain enhances the narrative by adding layers of tension and suspense. The unpredictability of villainous actions keeps audiences engaged, as they wonder what the antagonist will do next and how the hero will respond. This dynamic is essential in maintaining the momentum of the story and ensuring that the conflict remains engaging. In J.K. Rowling’s “Harry Potter” series, the looming threat of Voldemort creates an atmosphere of suspense that permeates the entire storyline, keeping readers invested in the outcome.

The best villains often evoke a sense of empathy or understanding from the audience, despite their malicious actions. This ability to blur the lines between good and evil is a testament to the depth of their characterization. Characters like Walter White from “Breaking Bad” start as sympathetic figures whose descent into villainy is gradual and understandable. Viewers witness his transformation driven by circumstances and personal choices, making his character arc both tragic and compelling.

In addition to their narrative functions, villains often serve as a reflection of societal fears and issues. They can symbolize real-world anxieties, making stories resonate on a deeper level. For example, the character of Nurse Ratched in “One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest” represents the oppressive nature of institutional power and the dehumanization of individuals within such systems. Her villainy is not just personal but also ideological, critiquing broader societal structures.

Villains also allow for the exploration of themes such as power, corruption, and redemption. Their stories can serve as cautionary tales about the dangers of unchecked ambition or the moral cost of revenge. The character of Macbeth, from Shakespeare’s play of the same name, illustrates how a once honorable man can be corrupted by ambition and the lust for power. His tragic downfall serves as a powerful commentary on the destructive nature of unchecked desires.

Furthermore, the evolution of villain characters over time reflects changing cultural attitudes and values. Early literary villains, like the straightforwardly evil characters in fairy tales, often lacked depth and complexity. However, modern storytelling tends to favor more nuanced portrayals, recognizing that real human motivations are rarely black and white. This shift allows for richer, more engaging stories that challenge audiences to think critically about morality and human nature.

In conclusion, villain characters are indispensable to storytelling, providing essential conflict, highlighting the hero’s qualities, and allowing for the exploration of complex themes. Their multifaceted personalities and moral ambiguities make them compelling and relatable, while their actions drive the narrative forward and keep audiences engaged. By reflecting societal fears and examining the darker aspects of human nature, villains add depth and richness to literature and film, ensuring their lasting appeal in the cultural imagination.

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Michael Emerson Still Reigns as TV’s King of Creepy

The actor has played unsettling men on shows like “Lost” and “Fallout.” In the new season of “Evil,” he might be raising the Antichrist.

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By Esther Zuckerman

On one wall of the actor Michael Emerson’s Manhattan apartment hangs a large self portrait he drew about 40 years ago. In the intentionally distorted image, Emerson peers out menacingly from behind his circular glasses. His wife, the actor Carrie Preston, thinks it serves as a fitting summation of his career.

“You know, Carrie brought this up recently saying, ‘There’s the template for so much of what you have done as an actor,’” he said. “For me it was just a laugh. It’s still the same mix of having fun and yet being a little, what’s the word, terrifying.”

It’s true: If you want someone to be creepy on television, you call Michael Emerson. The 69-year-old actor had his breakout role in 2000 playing a serial killer in “The Practice,” a performance so memorably distressing it won him a guest actor Emmy. He went on to unsettle viewers for years as the unpredictable Ben Linus in “Lost,” and as the computer wizard Harold Finch on “Person of Interest.” This year he showed up for one episode of the Prime Video series “Fallout,” from the “Person of Interest” creator Jonathan Nolan, as a quietly menacing scientist. They aren’t all bad guys, but you’re never quite sure.

Emerson is currently inhabiting his most ghoulish role yet, in the aptly named Paramount+ show “Evil,” returning for its fourth and final season on May 23. Emerson plays Leland Townsend, a demonic emissary who constantly torments the heroes, a group of investigators played by Mike Colter, Katja Herbers and Aasif Mandvi. This trio works for the Roman Catholic Church to determine whether various strange goings-on are the result of satanic forces or more mundane phenomena. Leland’s main goal is to promote the forces of darkness by any means possible.

In Emerson’s hands, Leland is a captivating, often frightening agent of chaos who is surprisingly goofy for someone who is OK with child murder. In the new season, he is raising his biological son — he nefariously arranged the baby’s conception earlier in the series — and believes the child is the Antichrist.

“I don’t know anyone that does unsettling better than Michael Emerson,” Michelle King, who created “Evil” with her husband, Robert, said in a video interview.

It’s a skill he can evidently turn on. On a sunny afternoon in April, he invited a reporter into his home and was happy to discuss his décor, which includes a series of vintage-style “Lost” posters and Preston’s collection of “energy rocks.” A small, elderly dog named Chumley was curled up on the couch after a bit of early suspicion regarding the intruder.

“I don’t think I’ve ever worked with an actor who was more different than the character they were playing than Leland and Michael,” King said. “It’s hard to imagine where he’s pulling that from, because he is so very different from that in life.”

Christine Lahti, one of Emerson’s “Evil” co-stars, concurred. “He’s the opposite of Leland,” she said, describing him as “gentlemanly, kind, sensitive.”

Emerson said he has been drawn to “grotesquerie” since he first started acting, in school plays in Iowa where he grew up. “I was always the bespectacled little guy with the shrill voice who would play the old man or the clown or the wizard,” he said. He would do drawings of “ghoulish figures that have no eyeballs.”

There’s still a taste of the macabre in his otherwise very pleasant penthouse: There’s a large drawing, by Emerson, of a cat skull he found under a house he was working on in St. Augustine, Fla. Florida was one of the detours Emerson took during his lengthy journey to a thriving acting career.

“When young actors ask me ‘What advice do you have?’ I say, ‘Can you answer this question: Could I wait 20 or 30 years to be a success as an actor?’” he said. “Because that’s what it took me.”

He moved to New York to act after college but found it hard to break into the business, and eventually pivoted to magazine illustration after taking weekend classes at Parsons while doing retail jobs. His first marriage, which ended in divorce, brought him to Jacksonville, Fla., where he did regional theater. A graduate acting program took him to the Alabama Shakespeare Festival, which is where he met Preston when she came to town to play Ophelia in a production of “Hamlet.” Emerson was Guildenstern.

Preston now stars in the CBS procedural “Elsbeth,” also created by the Kings. It’s a family business, although the cheery sleuth Elsbeth could not be more different from the disconcerting Leland. (Emerson marvels at Preston’s work on “Elsbeth”: “Where does she come up with that? It’s just so great.”)

Emerson credits his Shakespearean training — twice he played Iago, the chatty schemer of “Othello” — for his ability to keep viewers on edge. “Iago forces the audience to collaborate with him and makes them complicit in his mischief,” he said.

When Emerson reads a script for “Evil,” he starts to imagine how unpredictable he can be. “Is the line maybe secretly funnier than anyone imagined? Let’s try that,” he said. “Or playing a counter strategy: Being gleeful about a thing that the audience expects you to be glum about. Or be upset about something that no one else in the world would be upset about.”

Herbers, who plays the forensic psychologist Kristen Bouchard on “Evil,” said acting opposite Emerson is like a game of “high-level chess.” He delivers a line about, say, murdering her character’s children as if he were offering “a bouquet of flowers.”

“We meet in the scene, and we surprise each other, and I think we excite each other,” she said.

Emerson said the “Evil” crew is thrilled when there is a Leland scene to shoot. (Herbers confirmed this.) “They rather delight in Leland,” Emerson said. “They just know it’s going to be scenes that are just dangerous and have a little crackle and also sly humor and many comical upsets or frustrations.”

Over the course of the four seasons, Leland has confessed his troubles to a devil therapist, posed as a video game character to threaten Kristen’s daughters and danced in a wheat field in a particularly hilarious dream sequence. He’s been drenched in blood and pelted with Antichrist vomit. In one scene, Leland sings the song “Kids” from “Bye Bye Birdie.” Emerson sometimes feels as if the Kings are testing him: “Can we make it so dopey that Emerson won’t do it? But I’ve defeated them.”

Michelle King said Emerson is “willing to do anything, no matter how crazy it is.”

“That’s been completely freeing,” she added. “He understands how to make the rhythms odd, and that makes the character odd.”

So would Emerson want to play someone kindhearted for a change? Not necessarily. He doesn’t have a bucket list of roles, but has considered one challenge he’d like to tackle.

“I play such talkers that I’ve often thought I’ll be interested someday if somebody offers me a role that is kind of silent, or nonverbal, or mute somehow,” he said.

His voice grew quieter as he finished that sentence. It was, yes, somewhat unsettling.

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