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Critical Issues in Transportation 2019

Policy snapshot.

INTRODUCTION

Driverless cars maneuvering through city streets. Commercial drones airlifting packages. Computer-captained ships navigating the high seas. Revolutionary changes in technology are taking us to the threshold of a bold and unprecedented era in transportation.

These technologies promise improvements in mobility, safety, efficiency, and convenience, but do not guarantee them. Will the technological revolution reduce congestion, fuel use, and pollution or make them worse by encouraging more personal trips and more frequent freight shipments?

The transportation sector also faces other unprecedented challenges. It needs to (1) sharply curb greenhouse gas emissions to slow the rate of climate change and (2) respond to more climate-related extreme weather. It must serve a growing population and cope with worsening highway congestion. It needs to maintain and upgrade a massive system of roads, bridges, ports, waterways, airports, and public transit and determine how to pay for those improvements. The transportation sector also needs to adapt to shifts in trade, energy, and funding sources that affect all modes of transportation. How will these challenges affect the transportation systems on which consumers and the economy depend?

The answers to these and other questions are critically important. Transportation plays a central role in society and the economy but is frequently taken for granted. Reflect, though, on how much you depend on reliable and affordable transportation to access work, friends and family, recreation, shopping, and worship. Then visualize the transportation networks needed for the daily movement of hundreds of millions of vehicles, ships, planes, and trains to satisfy both personal needs and commercial demands. These networks are enormous and complex. The transportation systems the economy and lifestyles rely on may be challenged dramatically in the coming decades in ways that cannot always be anticipated.

A national conversation among policy makers and citizens about how the country should respond to these challenges is urgently needed. Stakeholders need to debate, discuss, and analyze how transportation can evolve to meet growing and evolving needs and adapt to changes in society, technology, the environment, and public policy.

To spur that conversation, the Transportation Research Board (TRB) identified and organized an array of important issues under 12 key topics. In each of these areas, TRB posed a series of crucial questions to help guide thinking, debate, and discovery during the next 5 to 10 years. These 12 topics are neither comprehensive nor mutually exclusive, and no one can know how the future will unfold. But TRB thinks that asking the right questions, even if they cannot be fully answered, helps to motivate the analysis, discussion, and debate required to prepare for the potentially unprecedented changes ahead. This document is an abbreviated version of a more thorough discussion of the critical issues in transportation. It can be accessed at https://www.nap.edu/download/25314 .

Transformational Technologies and Services: Steering the Technology Revolution

All around the globe, companies are testing automated cars, trucks, ships, and aircraft. Pilot vehicles are already in operation. Some products are almost certain to enter the marketplace in the next few years. Driverless vehicles equipped with artificial intelligence may revolutionize transportation. Perhaps even sooner, vehicles connected to one another with advanced high-speed communication technologies may greatly reduce crashes How will vehicle automation—along with connected vehicles and shared ride, car, bike, and scooter services—transform society? These revolutionary technologies and services can potentially speed deliveries, prevent crashes, and ease traffic congestion and pollution. But they could also cause more congestion and more pollution and exacerbate sprawl and inequity. How do we determine and guide, as necessary, the direction of these changes? How the future unfolds depends on which technologies and services consumers and businesses embrace and how policy makers respond. While we do not know what the future will bring, the changes could be momentous. For example, if we encourage people to pool rides in driverless electric cars, we could see the service, cost, and environment improve. What policies would best reduce traffic congestion and emissions and improve accessibility for the disabled, elderly, and economically disadvantaged? How do we benefit most from the advent of connected and automated vehicles and potentially transformative transportation services?.

Serving a Growing and Shifting Population

The U.S. population is expected to grow about 1 percent annually, with highway use increasing similarly. But this growth will not be spread evenly across the country. Urban areas are growing more quickly, particularly clusters of metro areas known as “megaregions,” while many rural areas decline. At the same time, low-density residential development on the edges of urban areas continues to grow the fastest, which increases traffic and escalates emissions. Although many Millennials are settling in urban centers, more are locating on the edges of cities where Baby Boomers also prefer to live. How do we adjust to and guide travel demand so we are not overwhelmed with more roads, traffic, and emissions as a result of these geographic preferences? Megaregions in the Northeast, Midwest, South, and West have emerged as economic engines for the economy, but they also have the worst traffic congestion. And their traffic volumes continue to grow faster than new transportation facilities can be built. What are the best policies and modes for improving travel within each megaregion? How do we ensure that megaregions are well connected to the rest of the nation and the world? How can rural populations be ensured adequate access to jobs and services? How is that access changing? Which policies are needed to provide adequate rural access?

Energy and Sustainability: Protecting the Planet

The Earth’s changing climate poses one of the most important threats humanity has ever faced. To avoid catastrophic changes, all sectors of the economy need to make drastic cuts in greenhouse gas emissions. Vehicles, planes, ships, and other forms of transport emit more greenhouse gases than any other sector of the economy in the United States. And that share is growing because other sectors of the economy are reducing their emissions faster than transportation. Personal vehicles could rely on electrification using batteries or hydrogen as one way to significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Planes, ships, and trucks pose major obstacles to this objective because of their dependence on fossil fuels that pack more power than alternatives. What are the most effective and cost-effective ways of achieving the drastic reductions needed in fossil fuel consumption? What are the appropriate roles for the public and private sectors in hastening this transition? How can the shift to electric vehicles be accomplished without overwhelming the power grid? Sustainability requires that there be long-term consideration of the implications of decisions and policies on social, economic, and environmental systems. Examples include making decisions based on life-cycle cost considerations and the long-term vitality of communities and key natural environmental systems. How can consideration of long-term sustainability goals be better incorporated into public policy debates and decisions about transportation?

Resilience and Security: Preparing for Threats

Recent floods, storms, fires, and hurricanes have disrupted the lives of millions and caused hundreds of billions of dollars in damage. Extreme weather events are exacerbated by climate change, and scientists predict things will get worse. Extreme weather and other natural disasters pose huge and costly threats to the transportation infrastructure. Public officials face the challenge of making vulnerable highways, bridges, railroads, transit stations, waterways, airports, and ports more resilient to climate change and other threats. What policies and strategies would help them meet this challenge? How do we set priorities, cope with disruptions, and pay for these adaptations? Terrorists often choose transportation facilities as their targets. Airports and airlines have increased security to guard against terrorism, but other modes of transport— buses, trains, and ships—are more vulnerable. How do we protect these forms of transport without unduly slowing the movement of people and goods? We also need to address the risks of new technologies. Drones, for example, can be used by terrorists or drug smugglers. Automated vehicles and aircraft are vulnerable to hackers. And all types of transport depend on Global Positioning Systems (GPSs), for which there is no back-up system. How do we make technological advances more secure and resilient?

Safety and Public Health: Safeguarding the Public

We depend on motorized transportation, but we pay a price with our health with deaths, injuries, and diseases. Routine highway travel is the source of the vast majority of transportrelated deaths and a significant portion of transport-related pollution in the United States. Even though there have been improvements in vehicles and facilities, most crashes are preventable. How do we muster the political will to adopt the most effective measures to reduce casualties and diseases caused by transportation? How do we encourage the use of the safest vehicle and road designs, reduce alcohol- and drug-impaired driving, and manage operator fatigue? Also, how do we curb driver distractions, especially in semi-automated vehicles that do not require full attention except in emergencies when multitasking drivers may be unprepared to respond? Marijuana legalization and opioid addiction may lead to more people driving while impaired. In addition, pedestrian and cyclist deaths are increasing. What can we do to address these problems? What successes from other countries can be applied? Air pollution comes from many sources, but some transport emissions, such as the particulates from burning diesel fuel, are especially harmful to people. People living near roads, ports, distribution centers, railyards, and airports—often the marginalized and the poor—are exposed to more of these types of vehicle emissions. How do we best address these problems?

Equity: Serving the Disadvantaged

The United States is prosperous, but not uniformly. More than 40 million Americans live in poverty. Outside central cities, an automobile is essential for access to jobs and a piece of the American dream, but about 20 percent of households with incomes below $25,000 lack a car. In addition, nearly 40 million Americans have some form of disability, of whom more than 16 million are working age. And the population is aging: the number of people older than 65 will increase by 50 percent from 49 million now to 73 million by 2030. Access to jobs, health care, and other services can be expanded through transportation policies and programs and technology, but these approaches need to be affordable and effective. This is a particular challenge in sparsely populated areas. How do we help disadvantaged Americans get affordable access to work, health care, and other services and to family and friends? What policies would ensure that new technologies and services do not create new barriers to the disadvantaged or to rural residents? Also, as we expand transportation networks, how do we ensure that we are not harming low-income and minority neighborhoods?

Governance: Managing Our Systems

A complex web of institutions manages America’s transportation services. Many levels of government, from local to national, play important roles. Some functions, such as public transit, airports, and ports, are managed by thousands of special authorities across the country. This spider web of governance frequently limits efficiency. For example, urban transport networks often span jurisdictional boundaries, creating disagreement about which agency is responsible for which aspects of planning, funding, and management. Separate funding streams for specific transportation modes impede efforts to provide travelers with multi-modal options. How do we address these challenges, particularly as urban areas grow into megaregions? The federal government is responsible for interstate waterways and airspaces and for interstate commerce. However, federal leadership and funding for transportation supporting interstate commerce are waning, forcing state and local governments to take on a larger role. How do we ensure that there are efficient networks for interstate travel and international trade as the federal role declines? New private transportation services efficiently generate enormous data sets about trips. Such data can be helpful to agencies trying to manage system performance. Connected and automated vehicles will add even more information. How can public agencies gain access to these data streams to improve traffic flow while protecting privacy and proprietary information?

System Performance and Management: Improving the Performance of Transportation Networks

Highway congestion costs the nation as much as $300 billion annually in wasted time. Flight delays add at least another $30 billion. Clearly, demand for travel is outpacing growth in supply and the increasing congestion is costing us dearly. As the population grows, demand will only increase. However, expanding or building new roads, airports, and other facilities in urban areas is costly, time consuming, and often controversial. How can we serve growing demand in a financially, socially, and environmentally responsible manner? Transportation officials also need to squeeze more performance out of the existing networks. One way to do this is by managing demand: Charging drivers for peakperiod travel in congested areas, for example, has the potential to increase ride sharing and generate revenues for transit, bike paths, and sidewalks. While pricing is more effective than other approaches, it is also unpopular. How do we build public and political acceptance for demand management strategies that work? In the face of tight budgets, transportation officials must also figure out how to maintain the condition of roads, bridges, airports, and other assets for as long as possible. What research would help increase the durability of construction materials and designs? How do we speed adoption of new information to improve the life-cycle performance of transportation assets?

Funding and Finance: Paying the Tab

Fuel taxes and other user fees have traditionally paid for highways, bridges, airports, ports, and public transit. These user fees are generally fair and efficient ways to pay for the transportation infrastructure, which is valued in trillions of dollars. However, improving fuel efficiency undermines the revenue potential from the motor fuel taxes that have been the chief funding source for highways and transit. Since 1993, federal officials have not raised the fees that fund the federal share of surface transportation and have instead turned to general revenues. In addition, Congress has declined to raise aviation-related user fees, limiting funds for air traffic control and airports. Although most states have raised motor fuel taxes, state and local government officials are also turning to other sources as the revenues from these taxes decline. One is sales taxes, which can unfairly burden the poor. Also, officials are partnering with businesses to build and maintain roads and other assets. This approach has promising features, but relies on tolls or other charges that are controversial. With advances in technology, officials can charge highway users by the mile traveled. They could also charge more during peak periods to manage demand and more to gas-guzzling vehicles to reduce emissions. But the public is not widely aware of these options and is not enthusiastic about them when it is. Clearly, we need to find new ways to maintain and expand the transportation infrastructure. How do we build understanding of the need to invest in transportation assets, identify the best funding options, and reach consensus for action?

Goods Movement: Moving Freight

The economy and our lifestyles depend on an efficient system for moving freight. Although railroads and pipelines are privately owned, funded, and managed, the freight system also requires adequate public infrastructure—roads, airports, ports, and waterways—for private companies to carry the goods needed. Freight movement is expected to grow dramatically in the coming decades to serve the growing population and economy. Without more spending on public infrastructure, this trend could lead to more traffic bottlenecks and capacity problems, especially as overnight and same-day delivery become more popular. How do we provide additional capacity when and where it is needed and ensure that beneficiaries bear the cost? Government officials face the challenges of providing adequate infrastructure for the freight industry while setting a level playing field for competition among private carriers and across transportation modes. In doing so, they need to account and charge for the costs that trucks, aircraft, ships, and other vehicles impose on public infrastructure. This is a process that is both difficult and controversial. How can officials best foster competition and set fair user fees for the freight industry? Another challenge for the freight industry is how to reduce its large and growing share of greenhouse gas emissions. One way to do this is through technology: improving batteries and fuel cells to speed the shift to electric-powered vehicles and moving to automated vehicles. Another is by improving efficiency, such as ensuring more vehicles are carrying freight on return trips. How do we make these improvements effectively and affordably?

Institutional and Workforce Capacity: Providing a Capable and Diverse Workforce

Government transportation agencies face huge challenges and tight budgets. Their ability to rise to these challenges depends on having capable workers with the tools they need to do their jobs. These agencies have difficulty competing for and keeping talented workers. They simply cannot pay as much as private industry. How can officials attract and retain the best employees despite the pay disparities between the public and private sectors? Also, the changing nature of transportation is creating different requirements for the workforce. As a result, transportation organizations struggle to keep workers up to date in the skills they need. This problem is especially acute at the local government level in dealing with complex issues such as climate change and revolutionary new transportation services. How do we address these challenges? Automated trucks, trains, vessels, and aircraft will disrupt the transportation workforce in both the public and private sectors. What are the likely impacts of these technological changes on transportation jobs? What are the best ways to help displaced workers? With a growing, changing, and aging population, transportation organizations will need to hire new and diverse employees. How can managers attract more members of underrepresented racial and ethnic groups into the transportation field? How can they minimize the loss of expertise and experience when Baby Boomers retire?

Research and Innovation: Preparing for the Future

America is known for innovation. Our discovery and embrace of the new is fueled in large part by public investments in education and research. The revolutionary breakthroughs in transportation-related technology happened because of decades of public spending on basic research. In addition, steady improvements in the design, construction, operation, and management of transportation infrastructures have been spurred by research funded by government agencies. Public funding for research and education has never been more important, nor more uncertain. Many experiments are taking place in transportation across the country to meet the challenges of technological innovation and climate change. How do we record, evaluate, and share the results of these experiences and adopt innovations more quickly into standards and practices? Demands on transportation are growing as public spending on transportation research is declining. At the same time, public officials are often discouraged from taking risks. How do we encourage innovation in transportation agencies? How do we speed the pace of research to keep up with the major challenges transportation faces?

Modern civilization would not be possible without extensive, reliable transportation systems. Technology is poised to transform transportation and impact society and the environment in ways we cannot fully predict but must be prepared to manage. In addition to coping with a technological revolution, we also face hard questions about how to reduce transportation’s greenhouse gas emissions; make it more resilient, efficient, safe, and equitable; and pay the staggering costs of doing so. TRB framed what it thinks are the most important transportation questions to address in the next few years. It hopes this document will help spur and inform an urgently needed national debate about the future of transportation and help researchers frame and inform choices about the most promising paths forward. Join the debate. Analyze the options. Find new solutions. Our future depends on it. For a more thorough discussion of these issues go to https://www.nap.edu/download/25314 .

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Copyright 2019 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved

The Geography of Transport Systems

The spatial organization of transportation and mobility

9.3 – Transport Safety and Security

Authors: dr. jean-paul rodrigue and dr. brian slack.

Safety and security issues concern both transportation modes and terminals that can be either a target for terrorism, a vector to conduct illegal activities, or even a form of warfare.

1. A New Context in Transport Security

While issues of safety and security have regularly preoccupied transport planners and managers, it is only recently that physical security has become an overriding issue. Over this, an important nuance must be provided between criminal activities and terrorism. While both seek to exploit the security weaknesses of transportation, they do so for very different reasons. Terrorism is a symbolic activity seeking forms of destruction and disruption to coerce a political, ideological, or religious agenda. In this context, transportation is mostly a target . Criminal activities seek an economic return from illegal transactions such as drugs, weapons, piracy, and illegal immigration. In this context, transportation is mostly a vector for illicit transactions. Concerns were already being raised in the past. Still, the tragic events of 9/11 thrust the issue of physical security into the public domain as never before and set in motion responses that have reshaped transportation in unforeseen ways. In addition, threats to health, such as the spread of pandemics, present significant challenges to transport planning and operations, as the COVID-19 pandemic underlined.

As locations where passengers and freight are assembled and dispersed, terminals have particularly been a focus of concern about security and safety. Because railway stations and airports are some of the most densely populated sites anywhere, crowd control and safety have been issues that have preoccupied managers for a long time. Access is monitored and controlled, and movements are channeled along pathways that provide safe access to and from platforms and gates. In the freight industry, security concerns have been directed toward worker safety and theft . Traditionally, freight terminals have been dangerous workplaces. With heavy goods being moved around yards and loaded onto vehicles using large mobile machines or manually, accidents were systemic. Significant improvements have been made over the years, through worker education and better organization of operations, but freight terminals are still comparatively hazardous.

The issue of theft has been one of the most severe problems confronting all types of freight terminals, especially where high-value goods are being handled. Docks have particularly been seen as places where organized crime has established control over local labor unions, particularly in the first half of the 20th century. With containerization, theft at port terminals declined substantially as the contents of containers remained hidden from those handling them. Further, access to freight terminals and distribution centers has been increasingly restricted, with workers screening and the deployment of security personnel helping control thefts. Most cargo thefts now occur during transit and when vehicles are parked in rest areas or streets. Thefts occurring in warehouses and terminals are less common but still significant .

The most visible emerging form of security threat is cybersecurity,  to which transportation infrastructures and organizations are particularly vulnerable. The growth in information technologies and their associated networks has opened new forms of vulnerability as control and management systems can be remotely accessed. This has resulted in complex, interconnected corporate information networks that can be hacked and disrupted. There is a wide variety of reasons behind cyberattacks , but financial gains remain the main objective. In 2017, malware named NotPetya was released from the hacked servers of a Ukrainian software firm servicing a management program used by some of the world’s largest corporations, causing an estimated USD 10 billion in damage. Transportation and logistics firms such as Maersk and TNT were severely disrupted. In some cases, terminals and distribution centers were forced to cease operations because of inoperable computers.

The foundation of transport security includes several dimensions and potential measures:

• Dimensions . Particularly concerning the integrity of the passengers or cargo, the route, and the information systems (IT security) managing the transport chain.
• Measures . The set of procedures that can be implemented to maintain the integrity of the passengers or cargo, namely inspections, the security of facilities and personnel, as well as of the data and the supporting cybersecurity measures.

The expected outcomes of these measures include:

• Reduced risk of travel or trade disruptions in response to security threats.
• Improved security against theft and cargo diversion, with reductions in direct losses (cargo and sometimes the vehicle) and indirect costs (e.g. higher insurance premiums).
• Improved security against illegal transport of passengers and freight such as counterfeits, narcotics, weapons, and migrants.
• Improved reliance on information systems supporting the complex transactions generated by transport activities.
• Reduced risk of evasion of duties and taxes .
• Increased confidence in the international trading system by current and potential shippers of goods.
• Improved screening process (cost and time) and simplified procedures.

Still, despite the qualitative benefits, the setting and implementation of security measures come at a cost that must be assumed by the shippers and, eventually, by the consumers or the passengers. Airport security fees have become a standard component of airfares. It has been estimated that an increase of 1% in the costs of trading internationally would cause a decrease in trade flows in the range of 2 to 3%. Therefore, security-based measures could increase total costs between 1% and 3%, having a negative impact on international trade. Additionally, the impacts are not uniformly assumed as developing economies, particularly export-oriented economies, tend to have higher transport costs. A major goal is, therefore, to comply with security measures in the most cost-effective way.

2. Physical Security of Passengers

Airports have been the focus of security concerns for many decades. High-jacking aircraft came to the fore in the 1970s when terrorist groups in the Middle East exploited the lack of security to commandeer planes for ransom and publicity. Refugees fleeing dictatorships also found taking over aircraft a possible route to freedom. In response, the airline industry and the international regulatory body, ICAO, established screening procedures for passengers and luggage. This process seems to have worked in the short run with reductions in hijackings . However, terrorists changed their tactics by placing bombs in unaccompanied luggage and packages. The Air India crash off Ireland in 1985, the Lockerbie, Scotland, and the crash of Pan Am 103 in 1988 are illustrative. Another unusual issue is the deliberate crash of a flight by pilots committing suicide. In 2015, Germanwings 9525 was crashed by its co-pilot in the French Alps. In the prior year, Malaysia Airlines 370 crashed in the Indian Ocean allegedly through a similar cause. Still, air travel remains the safest transportation mode , with fatalities steadily decreasing over the years.

The growth in passenger traffic and the development of the hub and spoke networks greatly strained the security process. There were wide disparities in the effectiveness of passenger screening at different airports. Because passengers were routed by hubs, the number of passengers in transit through the hub airports grew significantly. Concerns were being raised, but the costs of improving screening and the need to process ever-larger numbers of passengers and maintain flight schedules caused most carriers to oppose tighter security measures.

The situation was changed irrevocably by the events of September 11, 2001 . The US government created the Department of Homeland Security, which established a Transportation Security Authority (TSA) to oversee the imposition of strict new security measures on the industry. Security can now account for between 20 and 30% of the operating costs of an airport. Security involves many steps, from restricting access to airport facilities, fortifying cockpits, and setting no-fly lists, to the more extensive security screening of passengers and their luggage. Screening includes restrictions on what can be personally carried in airplanes, such as gels and liquids. For foreign nationals, inspection employs biometric identification, which at present involves checking fingerprints and facial pattern recognition, but retinal scans may be implemented in the future.

A new system, the Computer Assisted Passenger Prescreening System (CAPPS II), was introduced. It required more personal information from travelers when they book their flights, which is used to provide a risk assessment of each passenger. Passengers considered to be high risk were further screened. However, this program was canceled in 2004, mostly because it created too many false positives. It was replaced by the Secure Flight program working under similar principles but is entirely managed by the TSA. From 2009, all flights originating, bound to, or flying over the United States, had their list of passengers cross-referenced by a central no-fly list managed by the TSA. To further focus on screening procedures, trusted traveler programs were introduced in which individuals who have volunteered information such as fingerprinting and background checks can undergo an expedited security procedure involving customs clearance. For instance, the Global Entry program that began in 2008 allows US citizens and permanent residents as well as citizens of 14 countries (e.g. Canada, South Korea, Netherlands, UK) who have submitted to an interview and background check to use fast processing lanes and kiosks at the majority of US ports of entry. Using kiosks has been expanded through customs, allowing passengers to have their documentation scanned and photos taken automatically, reducing processing time.

The imposition of these measures has come at a considerable cost, estimated to be more than $7.4 billion annually by IATA in 2018. A significant factor has been the screening of passengers with the hiring and training of a workforce, the purchase of improved screening machines, and the re-designing of airport security procedures. More space within transport terminals is required to handle security procedures, including inspection areas and waiting lines. Further, aircraft design and operations have been changed, including the introduction of reinforced cabin doors. These measures also impacted passenger throughput, with an estimated 5% decline attributed to security measures. Clearing security has become the most important source of delays in the passenger boarding process. Passengers are expected to arrive 2 hours before departure at the terminal to clear security. It is therefore not surprising that there has been a modal shift to the road (and to some extent rail where services are available) for air travel involving shorter distances (500 km or less). This shift has been linked with additional road fatalities, an unintended consequence of additional security measures.

Security issues have had a negative effect on the air transport industry as costs increased with delays and inconveniences to passengers increasing as well. However, these delays and inconveniences are now considered part of contemporary air travel, with passengers accustomed to security requirements. Further, airports have developed effective procedures, such as multiple security lanes and high throughput scanning, to speed up the process. The burden imposed by security and customs procedures at major ports of entry has also incited the expansion of customs pre-clearance programs .

The COVID-19 pandemic brought forward a new dimension to passenger transportation security: epidemiological security . This is particularly the case for high-density forms of passenger transportation such as public transit, cruise shipping, and air travel. During the pandemic, people were reluctant to use such modes of transportation because of the perceived risks of being infected. Further, many countries initially prevented the entry of foreign residents and later imposed mandates related to vaccination and testing to be allowed entry. Each mode can be associated with an epidemiological risk that needs to be mitigated. For air transportation, this can involve screening passengers and the ongoing disinfection of facilities such as waiting areas and planes between flights. The outcome is additional costs and a decrease in the performance of air travel because of longer turnovers.

3. Freight Security

Security in the freight industry has always been a major problem. Illegal immigrants, drug smuggling, customs duty evasion,  piracy , and the deployment of sub-standard vehicles (higher propensity to accidents) have been some of the most important concerns. In light of the emergence of global supply chains , the emphasis on freight transport security is gradually shifting into a more comprehensive but complex approach. However, as in the air passenger business, the events of 9/11 highlighted a new set of security issues. The scale and scope of these problems with freight are of an even greater magnitude. The less-regulated and international dimensions of the shipping industry, in particular, have made it vulnerable to security breaches.

A large number of ports, the vast fleet of global shipping and the range of products carried in vessels, and the difficulty of detection have made the issue of security in shipping an extremely difficult one to address. For ports, vulnerabilities (unauthorized access to cargo and facilities) can be exploited from the land side as well as on the maritime side. The container, which has facilitated globalization, makes it extremely difficult to identify illicit and dangerous cargoes . In the absence of scanners that can scan the entire box, manual inspection becomes time-consuming and virtually impossible, considering the large volumes involved. Hubbing compounds the problem, as large numbers of containers are required to be handled with minimum delays and inconvenience.

In the United States, the response was to enact the Maritime Transportation and Security Act in 2002. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted the essential elements of this legislation as the International Ship and Port Security Code (ISPS), which began to be implemented in 2004. There are three important features of these interventions:

• An Automated Identity System (AIS) is required for all vessels between 300 and 50,000 dwt. It requires vessels to have a permanently marked and visible identity number, and there must be a record maintained of its flag, port of registry, and address of the registered owner.
• Each port must undertake a security assessment . This involves an assessment of its assets and facilities and an assessment of the effects of damages that might be caused. The port must then evaluate the risks and identify its weaknesses in features such as physical security, communication systems, and utilities.
• All cargoes destined for the United States must receive customs clearance before the departure of the ship . Besides, biometric identification for seafarers was implemented and maintained in national databases.

The ISPS code has been implemented in ports worldwide as, without certification, a port would have difficulty trading with the United States. Securing sites, undertaking risk assessments, and monitoring ships represent additional costs without commercial return. US ports have been able to tap funding from the Department of Homeland Security, but foreign ports must comply or risk the loss of business. In 2008, legislation in the United States required that all containers being shipped to the United States undergo screening. Foreign ports were expected to purchase expensive scanning equipment and undertake to screen all US-bound containers, regardless of the degree of security threat. This is a further financial and operational complication foreign ports must contend with.

Like its passenger counterpart, the airline freight industry faces stringent security requirements. Since 2010, a TSA regulation has required screening all cargo carried by air within the United States or internationally before loading. The Certified Cargo Screening Program (CCSP) forces airlines, freight forwarders, and shippers to assume the costs of these security measures to establish a secure air freight transport chain. The measure imposed additional costs, delays, and disruptions, undermining the operational effectiveness of air cargo. Still, the air freight industry has adapted to these measures. Security has become an additional element in determining competitive advantage and part of the cost of doing business that carriers and terminal operators are contending with.

Related Topics

• 9.1 – The Nature of Transport Policy
• 9.2 – Transport Planning and Governance
• 9.4 – Transportation, Disruptions and Resilience
• B.19 – Transportation and Pandemics

Bibliography

• Federal Highway Administration (2018) Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation Framework, 3rd Edition, FHWA-HEP-18-020.
• Gillen, D. and W.G. Morrison (2015) “Aviation Security: Costing, Pricing, Finance and Performance”, Journal of Air Transport Management, Vol. 48, pp. 1-12.
• OECD (2011) Future Global Shock – Improving Risk Governance, Paris: OECD Publishing.
• Sivak, M. and M.J. Flannagan (2004) “Consequences for Road Traffic Fatalities of the Reduction in Flying Following September 11, 2001”, Transportation Research E, Vol. 7, pp. 301-305.
• Transportation Research Board (2006) Critical Issues in Transportation, Washington, DC: The National Academies.
• World Economic Forum (2012) New Models for Addressing Supply Chain and Transport Risk.

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• Vania Ceccato   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5302-1698 1 ,
• Nathan Gaudelet 2 &
• Gabin Graf 2  

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This article reviews five decades of English and French literature on transit safety in several major databases, with the focus on Scopus and ScienceDirect. The review explores the nature and frequency of transit crime and passengers’ safety perceptions in transport nodes and along the trip using bibliometric analysis and a systematic review of the literature. The number of retrieved documents was 3137, and 245 were selected for in-depth analysis. Transit safety as a research area took off after the mid-1990s and peaked after the 2010s. The body of research is dominated by the English-language literature (mostly large cities), with a focus on the safety of rail-bound environments and examples of interventions to improve actual and perceived safety for public transportation (PT) users. Highlighting the importance of transit environments along the whole trip, the article also helps advocate for more inclusion of passengers’ safety needs and the involvement of multiple stakeholders in implementing PT policies.

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1 Introduction

When we use public transportation (PT), we spend a part of our travel time waiting at transport nodes (train stations or bus stops) or walking on our way to them. If we feel at risk of crime or feel anxious about something unpleasant happening while in transit, there is a risk we may start avoiding PT and start looking for other travel alternatives. Therefore, feeling safe in transit environments is a fundamental need of all travelers and a guarantee for a sustainable city (UN-Habitat 2019 ).

How safe are we while in transit? Our understanding of the conditions that affect safety is growing, but the international literature lacks an updated systematic review of the research evidence. One of the first reviews in this area was carried out by Smith and Clarke ( 2000 ), followed later by Smith and Cornish ( 2006 ), then in the mid-2010s by Newton ( 2014 ), and more recently with a specific focus on gender issues by Ding et al. ( 2020 ). None of these were systematic reviews (Higgins and Green 2011 ), nor did they incorporate studies devoted to safety interventions. They also reflect scholarly material published in English only, and none performed a bibliometric analysis. We argue for the need of a systematic review of the literature on transit crime and safety. Therefore, in this article we collect and systematize scholarly knowledge on the topic covering five decades of studies, written in English primarily but extending also to the French literature as a benchmark. Although this is not the first literature review on transit safety in English or in French (e.g., Bradet and Normandeau 1987 ; Crossonneau 2003 ; Noble 2015a , b ), this article is the first that covers studies dealing with transit crime (various types) as well as safety perceptions of transit environments, providing:

A special focus on studies that deal with the transit environment (stations and bus stops as well as the last-mile mobility and/or safety door-to-door, the so-called “whole journey perspective”). We still can agree with Smith and Clarke ( 2000 ) who suggest there is a lack of understanding of “how the conditions favoring crime on public transport arise and why they persist. We have limited knowledge of the mix of forces and constraints—political, geographical, economic, engineering, and others—which have combined to shape and form modern public transport.”

Extra attention to studies devoted to safety according to “users’ perspectives” and safety needs. The temporal dimension of these studies is also an interesting feature that has been highlighted in this review but was not pointed out in previous reviews.

Lessons from different research traditions, from English and French, with as many perspectives on the topic as possible. The French literature has been chosen because of the long tradition of research on public transportation and also because French is the fifth most common world language, spoken on nearly every continent, providing therefore a good international overview of this field of research.

1.1 Definitions and delimitation

Transit safety is about safety conditions experienced and perceived by public transportation (PT) users along their trip. This may involve PT travelers’ risk of being victimized by crime or feeling unsafe at a particular place (e.g. a station) or in a combination of environments, situations and contexts. For example, Smith and Clarke ( 2000 ) indicate that crime can occur when a PT traveler is walking from home to a bus stop, or it may occur from or between transportation nodes; it is when the traveler is exposed to environments that are more or less criminogenic. Similarly, safety perceptions may vary along and within these environments. When the PT traveler is waiting for transportation or is on the move between different sections of stations (e.g. on the metro station platform or walking from the ticket area to the platform). Third, when the PT traveler is on board a mode of transport (see e.g. Newton 2004 ).

Transit crime includes offenses and/or safety-disturbing behaviors against PT users, personnel, and property. Moreover, crime targets vary and can include the system itself (e.g. vandalism and fare evasion), employees (e.g. assaults on ticket collectors or guards), and PT users (e.g. pickpocketing or assault). These offences and/or safety-disturbing behaviors may not in a strict sense be a “crime” but they affect PT users’ safety perceptions, such as shouting or what Moore ( 2011 ) calls “low-level behavior,” ranging from groups of young people behaving boisterously to people talking loudly on mobile phones on trains or buses.

Safety perceptions is used here as an umbrella term for fear of crime and other anxieties that are expressed by PT users along the trip and can vary over time. How individuals perceive transit environments depends on their individual characteristics (age, gender, previous victimization) and the features and contexts of these transit environments (transport mode, type of transport node—bus stop or station—and quality of the environments they spend time in, from their home to a transport node).

For the purposes of this article, we adopted the term public transportation (PT) to capture what North American readers may think of as “public transit,” “mass transit,” “rapid transit,” or just “public transport” systems. Note that we use the terms “PT users,” “PT travelers,” “PT riders,” and “PT passengers” interchangeably. As suggested by Newton ( 2014 ), there is no clear consensus of a definition of public transport. PT refers here to “a system used by the public, often a means of transporting passengers in mass numbers, generally a for-hire system that occurs across a fixed route or line,” consisting of a range of transport modes, including rail-bound (railroads, light rail, metro/subway/underground railway, high-speed rail, and intercity rail), buses, trolleybuses, and trams. We limit this literature review to PT only, excluding taxis and Uber services that may be connected to PT. We exclude also studies devoted to events of accidents and suicides and focus instead on crime and safety perceptions only. This perspective includes studies focused on safety during the trip on buses and rail-bound modes, at transport nodes, such as bus stops and stations, and/or on the way to them.

1.2 Research questions

The study is based on materials from an open search from several databases (Scopus, ScienceDirect, Google scholar) which were later split into two parts (a bibliometric analysis and an in-depth analysis of materials both in English and French from 1970). We used the software VOSviewer ( https://www.vosviewer.com ) to organize and visualize the vast material spanning five decades. This literature review aims to respond to the following questions:

When and where have most studies on transit safety been published?

Which are the main research domains in transit safety?

What are the most common characteristics of transit research in English and French?

What is the nature and extent of crime in transit environments?

How do temporal, environmental, and other contextual factors influence transit safety?

How do the physical and social characteristics of transit environments affect safety perceptions of PT travelers?

How does safety vary by different types of PT users?

How does technology affect safety in transit environments?

Which are the safety interventions used to tackle safety problems in transit environments?

Which are the recommendations for future research and practice?

This study is composed of six parts. First, we briefly present the methodology, then we report the results by answering the above questions. In the final section, we identify gaps in the literature and suggest a research agenda as well as policy implications of the current knowledge.

2 Methodology

We used two complementary methods: (1) one was the systematic review using Scopus, Science Direct and Google Scholar database (in French) and (2) the other was a list of publication from the Transit crime network.

We conducted a comprehensive search for academic publications (focus was on articles but a bit over 30% were other relevant publications, such as reports and conference papers). We used a variety of bibliographic databases, Scopus and ScienceDirect in particular because they are reliable sources of internationally published research in English language (note that duplets were excluded). In French, because the literature in this area is composed of a mixture of articles and reports distributed in different databases, we used Google Scholar as a search engine to capture multiple sources (Cairn.info, Erudit, Persée, Hal, etc.). A list of keywords used during this process is shown in “ Appendix ” Table 3 .

In addition, the literature review used a pre-selected list publication from transit safety researchers provided by a user list Transit crime network ( https://maillist.sys.kth.se/mailman/listinfo/abe.kth.se_tcr-network ). This sample of references is a convenient sample based on the contributions of experts that actively participate in a forum that discusses transit safety. Although the decision of including the literature in a specialized research forum such as this user list might have created a bias in the sample since many members were experts in the area, we believe that the benefits outweigh the problems. Eventually, we included a few articles by hand during the finalizing process to include newly published articles, resulting in 3137 publications (Fig.  1 ).

The methodological steps to perform the literature search based on five criteria of selection

From these 3137 publications, 245 were selected (Fig.  1 ), first eliminating duplicates and later excluding those that were not relevant. We adopted the systematic review protocol of type PRISMA-P 2015 (Moher et al. 2015 ) to support inclusion based on five criteria of importance:

Studies aiming at explaining the link between the transit environment, the perceived safety of riders, and the actual crime occurrences in PT. By “transit environment” we mean the design (e.g. size and layout of platform, lighting, visibility), the technology (e.g. CCTV, apps, RTI), the users (flow, crowdedness), the personnel (e.g. patrols), and the immediate context of the PT node (safety door-to-door).

Studies should preferably show temporal patterns of crime and users’ safety perceptions (hours, days, and seasons).

Studies that distinguish safety perception and victimization in transit by individual and socio-demographic characteristics, in particular by gender but also by age, ethnic background, disabilities, and socio-economic status. Studies that analyze fear of crime in transit from the user’s perspective.

Studies with a focus on crime prevention initiatives. Studies that show qualitative and quantitative evaluation of the impacts of programs or environmental changes that tackle crime and/or perceived safety and/or crime rates in PT.

Studies that provide perspectives on the topic that are as varied as possible, in different contexts. We cover therefore publications from 1970 to 2020, in English and in French. Because there is less material in French and a large part consists of reports resulting from surveys (often having a looser structure compared to English-language journal articles). We made the criteria 1–4 more flexible. For instance, we accepted reports from the French Ministry of Transport that were relevant to the topic (e.g. Barjonet et al. 2011 ).

2.1 Bibliometric analysis

The bibliometric analysis included all English-language articles obtained through the user list and in the data collection process in *.ris (Scopus, Sciencedirect and the TCR network; the French publications were too few to produce meaningful visualization on their own). We used VOSviewer version 1.6.12 ( https://www.vosviewer.com ) to create bibliometric maps based on the terms cited in the titles of each article and to group the terms in clusters according to their linkages. With these clusters, we were able to visualize several topics. The co-occurrence analysis was performed using the terms in titles adopting the full counting method. For VOSviewer mapping of most frequent terms in titles, a minimum occurrence of two was used as a cutoff point for inclusion of the terms in mapping analysis. From a total of 675 terms, only 106 met the threshold of the minimum number of two occurrences/repetitions. This criterion of a minimum of two repetitions was selected to avoid terms without links or with weak links to the topic and at the same time to ensure the coverage of the terms and representativeness of the articles. The final selection resulted in 62 items out of the 106 keywords. We did not apply any filter based on the software “score relevance.” Instead, we selected the relevant terms ourselves to fit our subject. The map of words was created using a minimum cluster size of 10 to maximize the readability of the map; the rest of the parameters were the default ones. Output files from the database were used to produce informative network maps by topic and a heat map showing the frequency of keywords indicating potential research domains. An example of each is discussed in the section “ Findings .”

2.2 In-depth analysis

The bibliometric analysis supports the selection of “research domains” that are discussed in detail. The in-depth analysis was guided by our research questions, namely our interest in knowing about studies on the nature and extent of crime in transit environments, the temporal, spatial, and other factors influencing these crimes, and the potential impact of physical and social environments on safety perceptions of travelers. We also investigated using the literature review to determine whether and how safety perceptions vary by different types of users as well as how technology affects safety in transit environments. In addition, we collected literature about safety door-to-door as well as the types of strategies and interventions that are used to reduce crimes and improve perceived safety in transit environments. From the initial 245, about two thirds are discussed in detail in a set of tables and appendices referenced in the next section.

3.1 Bibliometric analysis

3.1.1 number and types of retrieved documents.

From 245 eligible publications that constitute the base for the analysis, 70% are articles and the remainder are reports, chapters, and conference papers; 77% are in English, and 23% in French. Figure  2 a shows the annual share of total publications on transit safety (N = 245). The same is shown in Fig.  2 b but divided by language.

Annual share of total publications on transit safety, 1970–2020 in percentage, a Total and b by language. Source: Selection from Scopus, ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, TCR users list (in percentage). Up to June 2020 only

3.1.2 Evolution of the field over time

The earliest publication within the defined time period was written by the National Technical Information Service (SRI - Stanford Research Institute 1970 ). This study discussed the nature and causes of robbery and assault of bus drivers and suggested solutions. One of the most recent articles was published by Jun et al. ( 2020 ) and was devoted to the gap between users’ needs and the practitioners’ prioritization of accessibility features. A focus on users’ perspectives on safety, particularly on women’s safety, became more common in the last decade. From 1970 to 2010, the number of publications grew slowly, but note that 56% of publications (131) came out in the last 10 years, 37% of the total in the last 5 years (86 publications). The maximum number of publications was recorded in 2017. In addition, 24 papers were published in 2017, and a double special issue in “Crime Prevention and Community Safety” on this theme contributed to almost half of these publications.

The literature is dominated by the English literature. While publications in English are characterized by academic articles published in peer-reviewed journals, the French publications are often reports directed at security professionals, organizations, and practitioners. Therefore, it is no surprise that the French documents follow a looser structure than the English publications do. The target of publications in French is mostly the transit system in France (38 publications), while four reports focus on Canada (Montréal only) and two focus on Belgium. The remainder is about different transit systems in cities around the world.

In terms of content, there are differences between the English and French literature. While the English-language literature has focused more on the causalities between transit environments and crime, the French literature has a more sociological/psychological nature, focusing on travelers’ surveys and users’ behaviors and perspectives on safety (e.g. Barjonet et al. 2010 ; Noble 2015a , b ; Wilow 2015 ; Vanier and D'arbois 2018a ). Examples of the French literature include the seminal work of Bradet and Normandeau ( 1987 ) and one of the latest by Noble and Fussy ( 2020 ) on feelings of insecurity in public transit. A few deal with issues of safety and governance, including the interplay between public and private sectors (Malochet 2015 ; Castagnino 2016 ; Hamelin 2010 ; Bonnet 2008 , 2006 ). Reports written in French are mostly about safety perceptions, with a strong focus on sexual crimes and sexual harassment in PT (e.g. d’Arbois de Jubainville and Vanier 2017 ; HCEEFH 2015 ; Debrincat et al. 2016 ; Colard 2018 ; Alessandrin et al. 2016 ).

3.1.3 Most active countries

Most publications are based on examples from the United States (Table 1 ), with nearly twice as many as in France, followed by the United Kingdom, Sweden, and Canada. However, the United Kingdom is in second position if we exclude reports and count the number of published articles only. More recently, the literature has been expanded by contributions from Latin America (Brazil, Colombia, Mexico), Australia, India, Norway, Malaysia, Japan, and Hong Kong, with more than three publications each (e.g. Shibata et al. 2014 ; Javier and Ceccato 2020 ; Otu and Agugua 2020 ; Chowdhury and van Wee 2020 ; Fillone and Mateo-Babiano 2018 ).

3.1.4 Publications by type of geographical area

Public transit systems such as metro, commuting trains, and bus lines in global and capital cities are often the focus of transit safety studies (44% of all publications). Cities such as New York, London, Paris, Tokyo, Los Angeles, Sao Paulo, New Delhi, and Santiago belong to this group. Next, studies that are devoted to an entire country, such as the United Kingdom, United States, France, and Sweden, account for 28% of the publications, followed by transportation systems in cities, such as Liverpool, Lucknow, Manchester, Lyon, and Milan. Thus, 6% of the papers focus on other areas and 10% do not specify the location of their study.

3.1.5 Visualization of author keywords

The visualization map of author keywords from the English literature shows that “crime,” “safety,” “public transport,” “environment,” “fear,” and “transit” were the most frequently encountered keywords (Fig.  3 a). These maps show how keywords in the papers’ titles are linked to each other and their occurrences in our sample. The maps are divided into four clusters, which show families of terms based on their co-occurrences in titles. In the density visualization (Fig.  3 b) the strength of each keyword is shown in different shades. The words “crime” and “public transport” are linked to many other keywords and have many occurrences.

a Network visualization map of words contained in the titles of the English publications, b Density visualization map and c Network visualization map for the English selected publications (N = 188), centered in the words “crime” ( c ) and “public transport” ( d )

Note that “crime,” “public transport,” “environment,” “fear,” “safety,” “crime prevention,” “bus,” and “women/woman” are recurrent terms in these publications; in particular, the word “crime” constitutes the major hotspot. The keywords “women/woman” signal a growing literature on sexual transit crime, a safety problem that is largely underreported (e.g. Ding et al. 2020 ; Solymosi and Newton 2018 ; Newton et al. 2020 ; Priya Uteng et al. 2019 ; Chowdhury and van Wee 2020 ; Jun et al. 2020 ; Whitzman et al. 2020 ; Dunckel-Graglia 2013 , 2016 ; Natarajan 2016 ; Moreira and Ceccato 2020 ). These keywords in the titles are also represented when the network visualization map is created for the selected English publications (N = 188), centered on the words “crime” (Fig.  3 c) and “public transport” (Fig.  3 d). In the next section, we discuss the interconnections between these terms as research domains.

3.1.6 The nature of studies in transit environments

Based on a title search of 245 articles, we found that 81 (33%) publications were about crime, 29 (12%) were about fear and/or safety perceptions, 129 (53%) both crime and safety perceptions, 6 on other topics (2%).

Among those articles that were devoted to the analysis of crime, 70% focused on violence, 18% on property crimes with aggravated violence, such as robberies, 2% on property crimes only, and 10% on vandalism and other types of crime. Vandalism is often associated with the analysis of other crimes (either violent or property crimes), rarely studied by itself. Studies that are devoted to violent crimes, assaults of all types, such as fights and attacks, are common, followed by gendered and sexual crimes and terrorism, which are a minority. With regards to transport mode, as many as 76% (188) of the publications deal with rail-bound PT; of these, about half relate to trains and the other half the metro. About 65% are related to buses, while 8% (22) of these focus on other types of transportation, such as ride-hailing services  “Tourist Vehicle with Driver” (Weber 2019 ) or Vikram transports in India (Tripathi et al. 2017 ). In other words, many publications deal with both buses and rail-bound modes.

3.1.7 The types of methods

Quantitative analyses (descriptive or confirmatory statistical analyses) are used in 63% (155) of all 245 publications, 19% (47) are qualitative publications, and 18% (43) used mixed methods. Among the quantitative analyses, the majority used descriptive statistics, such as frequency analysis of crimes and/or perceived safety, cross-tables, and different types of regression models. These publications are often in English and intend to assess the impact of traveling conditions of one or more aspects of the environment on crime and/or safety. As many as 17% (33) of these quantitative publications use regression models. Among them, half (17) were classical multivariate linear regressions and half (15) were logistic regressions (nine binomial, three multinomial, and three ordinal). Publications using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and interstitial analyses have appeared at the end of the twentieth century and represent 12% (25 out of 198) of quantitative papers. None of them are from the French literature. These methods are useful to study certain aspects of transit safety and crime, such as socio-economic characteristics (e.g. Buckley 1996 ; Sung-suk 2009 ) and transit surroundings (e.g. Liggett et al. 2001 ; Newton et al. 2014b ). Out of 47 qualitative publications, half were in French. These findings show the dominance of qualitative analyses in the French literature, while the English publications are denominated by more quantitative approaches. Exceptions are publications in French from Canada that follow an Anglo-Saxon tradition of taking a more quantitative approach to analyze transit safety (Grandmaison and Tremblay 1997 ; Ouimet and Tremblay 2001 ; Browne 2010 ). The studies based on mixed methods are varied in nature and often aim at producing results relevant for practice; see for instance Newton et al. ( 2004 ).

3.2 In-depth analysis by research domains

3.2.1 the temporal patterns of crime and perceived safety.

The flow of passengers both at peak and off-peak times create the necessary conditions for crime, namely the presence of a possible motivated offender, a desirable target, and a lack of people ready to intervene if anything happens (Cohen and Felson 1979 ). This temporal dimension has been recognized by the international literature as key to understanding safety conditions in transit environments. Of the total publications, 22% investigate one or several dimensions of the temporal variations of crime and/or safety perceptions in transit environments. Nearly all publications refer to hourly patterns of crime and/or perceived safety, often differences between peak and off-peak hours. These “time windows” are important for transit safety conditions because crowded environments tend to attract certain types of offenses, such as pickpocketing (Zahnow and Corcoran 2019 ; Ceccato et al. 2015 ), while empty stations or bus stops tend to promote crimes that demand anonymity, such as robbery. “ Appendix ” Table 4 summarizes findings from these studies split into different time windows.

Studies show that morning peak hours attract robberies (Block and Davis 1996 ; Newton et al. 2014b ), assaults, thefts, public disorder (Stringer 2007 ; Ceccato 2018 ), and sexual crimes (Ceccato and Paz 2017 ), while Smith ( 1986 ) finds fewer crimes in the early morning hours. Research suggests that people feel unsafe during morning rush hours, especially women (Mitra-Sarkar and Partheeban 2011 ), which is when sexual crimes can take place (Ceccato et al. 2011 , 2017 ). As exemplified by Vanier and D'arbois ( 2018b ), seven articles deal with peak hours in the mornings, a time that is both “anxiety-inducing” and criminogenic. However, almost half of the papers focusing on the nighttime describe it as the time of day when most people feel the least safe, especially women (e.g. Austin 1984 ; d’Arbois de Jubainville and Vanier 2017 ). This feeling is stronger when travelers have to wait for transportation (Chowdhury and van Wee 2020 ; Mahmoud and Currie 2010 ), or when the location is associated with a particular land use, such as being near nightclubs (Gosselin 2012 ). Fear may reflect the risk of different crimes. For instance, violent crimes are said to be prevalent after rush hour, after 6:00 pm (Moreira and Ceccato 2020 ; Newton 2014 ), while robberies seem to occur more often late at night than in the early evening (Block and Davis 1996 ; Chaiken et al. 1974 ; Clarke et al. 1996 ).

Among the publications that deal with the temporal dimension of crime or perceived safety in transit environments, 43% made a distinction between crime occurring on weekdays or on weekends. Seven of these (30%) suggest that more crimes occur on weekends (e.g. Ceccato et al. 2011 , 2017 ). The end of the week (Thursday to Saturday) witnesses increases in robbery (Newton 2018a ). Finally, one article (Smith 1986 ) suggests that maybe there are fewer crimes during weekends in absolute numbers but, after the author compares the number of crimes with the number of travelers, crime rates are actually higher. In addition, despite the fact that Monday is posited as a low-crime day (TCRP 2001 ; Capasso da Silva and Rodrigues da Silva 2020 ), 22% of the publications suggest that most crimes happened on a weekday, especially on Wednesday (e.g. Chaiken et al. 1974 ; Le Grâet and Vanier 2016 ). There are indications that lack of surveillance and fewer patrols affect crime during weekends (Ouimet and Tremblay 2001 ). Also, trains are less frequent on weekends, the density of passengers decreases and waiting times increase, affecting safety perceptions (Yavuz and Welch 2010 ; Mahmoud and Currie 2010 ). Weekends tend to be perceived as unsafe, especially by women (Vanier and d’Arbois 2017 ). “ Appendix ” Table 4 summarizes the remaining time windows.

3.2.2 The influence of environment on transit safety

According to Smith and Clarke ( 2000 ) “crimes cannot be properly explained, nor effectively prevented, without a thorough understanding of the environments in which they occur. Nowhere is this more apparent than in urban public transport.” (page 169). Transit environments can be planned in a way that reduces the possibility of crime occurring, by stimulating surveillance, fostering territoriality, and reducing areas of conflict by controlling access and improving overall perceived safety. These principles are based on what is called Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) and on situational crime prevention theory (Clarke 1983 ) that, among other things, seek to enhance natural surveillance through planning and modifying the environment. CPTED asserts “that the physical environment can encourage or discourage opportunities for crime by its very design and management” (Cozens et al., 2003a , b , c ). Research shows that crime and safety in transit environments depend on the physical and social environmental attributes at the transport node, either bus stops or train/subway stations, the characteristics of the immediate environment and neighborhood, and the relative position of both the station and neighborhood in the city (Loukaitou-Sideris et al. 2001 ; Ceccato 2013 ). Yet, how do the physical and the social characteristics of transit environments affect safety perceptions of PT travelers? Below we discuss the importance of the quality of transit environments, in particular, design, layout, obstacles and hiding spots that affect visibility and surveillance; maintenance and lighting conditions, CCTV cameras; the presence and flow of passengers over time, specially crowdedness, and the quality of immediate areas.

3.2.2.1 Visibility, obstacles and hiding spots

Elements of the station, such as elevators, pillars or facilities should not hinder visibility for PT users. Instead, elevators with large glass side panels should be endorsed (La Vigne 1996 ). Similarly, columns no wider than necessary, glassed internal walls and ticketing in one central location in the station (Felson et al. 1996 ) should be encouraged. In an underground station with long corridors, often with sharp corners and restricted sight lines, a solution is the establishment of corner convex mirrors that increase visibility and natural surveillance (Crime-Concern 2004 ; Felson et al. 1996 ). Moreover, it is important to ensure visibility from any point in a station (Umaña-Barrios and Gil 2017 ; Mohamed and Stanek 2020 ); high-domed and/or white ceilings in the station are encouraged (e.g.: Felson et al. 1996 ; Sham et al. 2013 ) as is avoiding spiral ramps (Atkins 1990 ). Moreover, the design of bus stops is important. Transparent bus shelters are recommended by seven articles (27%) focusing on buses and bus stops. They insist on the avoidance of enclosed brick shelters; indeed, the lack of visibility is an opportunity for offenders to commit crimes (Noble 2015a ; Sham et al. 2013 ). Moreover, curved shelter structures can be a solution that gives the feeling of an open and secure space for users (Diec et al. 2010 ). Finally, bus stops should be located in front of a place that provides natural visibility (Liggett et al. 2001 ). Regarding the interior of the buses, large, transparent windows are encouraged, while dark-tinted windows reduce visibility from the outside during daylight and should be avoided (Levine and Wachs 1985 ). Thus, the same article suggests that seats in the back could be arranged in a circular pattern to allow better visibility between passengers and to cut down on pickpockets. Overall, the internal design of the bus should maximize clear sight lines and visibility for both driver and passengers (Sham et al. 2013 ).

The external and internal design of the stations are essential elements that can promote visibility and opportunities for surveillance. Uittenbogaard ( 2015 ) suggests that visibility as the possibilities (promoted by the environment) a person has for observing others or situations while surveillance , in contrast, relates to the possibilities for others to observe a person, an object or a place. It can also be carried out by CCTV cameras or involving a diverse array of agents in a train station, for example: from police, security guards, safety hosts to drivers, shop owners, passengers and residents. More recently, with the wide use of cameras in mobile phones, ‘surveillance’ (‘eye-in-the-sky’ watching from above) gives room to the process of ‘sousveillance’ which denotes bringing the camera or other means of observation down to a human level (Ceccato 2019 ).

Impaired visibility is clearly associated with fear of crime (e.g.: Cozens et al. 2003b , 2004 ; Ceccato and Paz 2017 ). Having control of where others are, the capacity to see and be seen by others, increases the confidence of travelers (Umaña-Barrios and Gil 2017 ). When passengers feel isolated, they feel themselves becoming an easy target for criminals (Noble 2015b ; Buckley 1996 ). Research shows that underpass platforms are often related to higher rates of disorder and crime (e.g. Ceccato 2013a ; Loukaitou-Sideris et al. 2002 ). However, the literature shows unexpected findings when vandalism is often associated with increased visibility, perhaps because it reflects the size of passenger flows (Ceccato and Uittenbogaard 2013 ). Ten articles (45%) raise the question of visibility inside stations. These focus on the importance of a wide-open design, which straightening sight lines provides, and avoiding obscured areas, corners, hiding spots, and enclosed spaces (e.g. CEMT 2003 ; Ceccato et al. 2011 ). In addition, plants should not become obstacles and impede the field of view (Mohamed and Stanek 2020 ; Crime-Concern 2004 ; Diec et al. 2010 ).

3.2.2.2 Management and maintenance

Mechanisms linking poor management and maintenance of transit environments to crime and poor safety perceptions have long been associated with Wilson and Kelling’s broken window syndrome (Wilson and Kelling 1982 ), which suggests that unrepaired damage to property encourages further vandalism and other types of crime. We argue that poor management and maintenance of transit environments indicate other types of underlying problems that can have a direct effect on safety perceptions and also lead to victimization (see also Eck 2019 ). The effect of poor management and maintenance is well documented in the international literature. It may reflect poor cleaning practices in and around transit nodes (e.g. Liggett et al. 2001 ; Ceccato and Masci 2017 ; Loukaitou-Sideris 2012 ) or poor lighting conditions, as further discussed below.

3.2.2.3 Lighting

The effect of illumination (either artificial or sunlight) is documented in the international literature on transit environments with 71 publications out of 245 publications: 60 in English and 11 in French. From 245 articles, 27 publications deal directly with the effect of illumination of bus stops and/or stations. Out of these publications, 17% deal with the effect of illumination on crime, 76% on perceived safety, and 7% on both. For example, according to La Vigne ( 1996 ) suggested that stations well-lit and well-maintained contribute to the overall feeling of safety among Metro users in Washington, DC. Overall, lighting seems to have a reductive effect on crime: as many as 66% of publications that focus on crime state that good illumination decreases crime, while 11% have found that lighting can increase crime or fear in certain conditions (e.g. a Canadian study shows that good lighting should extend from the bus stops to the adjacent streets so that bus stops avoid the passengers to be exposed to the ‘fishbowl effect’ (Women’s Centre/METRAC 1991 ). As many as 14% have found inconclusive results in the sense that lighting can increase or decrease crime, and 9% found that illumination shows no significant effect on crime. For a summary of these findings on safety perceptions, see Appendix Table 5 .

3.2.2.4 Crowdedness

The literature lacks quantitative reference for what would be a ‘crowded’ station ( Appendix Table 6 ). Evidence shows that nearly empty transit environments (e.g. platforms, stations, bus stops) increase certain types of crimes in western countries, such as exhibitionism and sexual assaults (e.g. Beller et al. 1980 ; Colard 2018 ; Mohamed and Stanek 2020 ), but also robberies (Clarke et al. 1996 ), social disorder (Ceccato et al. 2011 ), and violent assaults (Noble 2015b ). These findings show that the absence of informal surveillance motivates offenders to consider crime as an alternative. People are worried about empty transit places, especially women (Vanier and d’Arbois 2017 ), perhaps because, as suggested by Ball and Wesson ( 2017 ), unwanted sexual behavior is perceived to be more severe in empty transit environments.

However, crowdedness also has an impact on transit safety. Some studies show an increase in fights, insults, and pickpocketing in crowded transit environments (Ceccato et al. 2015b ; Noble 2015b ). Pickpocketing in particular occurs at overcrowded spots at which offenders can take advantage of a high density of people who are close together (Loukaitou-Sideris et al. 2001 ; Ceccato et al. 2015 ). Research shows that these conditions are affected by the transit environment, for instance, Solymosi et al. ( 2015 ) refer to a pedestrian motion analysis that found that in crowded environments safety problems occur due to bottlenecks, which are areas in which there is a significant capacity drop in pedestrian movement, such as a narrow doorway in a corridor, when jamming occurs when the incoming flow exceeds the capacity of the bottleneck. Other studies found a diminution of overall crime under crowded circumstances (e.g. violence, and vandalism) or just inconclusive results (Marteache et al. 2015 ; Ceccato et al. 2011 ).

In very crowded transit environments, sexual harassment and especially groping are recurrent problems since they are observed in 54% (6) of the 11 selected publications. Crowdedness in transit environments facilitates women’s sexual harassment (Beller et al. 1980 ; Alessandrin et al. 2016 ; Colard 2018 ), and unwanted sexual behavior appears to be more ambiguous for men (Ball and Wesson 2017 ). Poor safety conditions in crowded places impact women’s behavior and force them either to avoid crowded transportation (Mitra-Sarkar and Partheeban 2011 ) or to use women-only carriages (Bachok et al. 2014 ; Horii and Burgess 2012 ; Dunckel-Graglia 2013 ) in India, Malaysia, and Japan. In South America, Kash ( 2019 ) found that even if women experience high stress in crowded transports, they have no choice but to commute in them. However, Gaylord and Galljher ( 1991 ) found that crowdedness decreases crime in the Hong Kong transit system.

3.2.3 The technology and safety in transit environments

From 245 articles, 18 (7%) directly deal with some aspect of transport technology and how it has influenced safety. Only six publications are quantitative. Most articles fall within the spectrum of Information Communication Technology (ICT), access control systems, smartphone apps, emergency alarms, crime-resistant materials, ITM machines, RTI, apps, and social media. As a target of crime, mobile phones are said to be the first target by theft offender in transit environments in the United Kingdom and the United States (Newton 2016 , 2018a ; Newton et al. 2014a ; Gentry 2015 ). They may also facilitate certain types of transit crimes, such as cyber-theft, thanks to Wi-Fi or cyber-harassment (Newton 2016 ). On the other hand, technological innovations might decrease transit crime and enhance perceptions of safety. For instance, researchers found that emergency alarms and ICT are efficient in preventing and controlling crime (Debrincat et al. 2017 ; Shen 1997 ). The use of big data analysis in PT is a growing research area; for instance, a recent study shows how passengers’ routine mobility patterns can be analyzed using information from subway travel cards and how pickpocketing suspects can be detected by matching abnormal cardholder trajectories and occurred crime locations (Gu et al. 2019 ).

To prevent vandalism, the use of new resistant materials has been suggested by previous research (La Vigne 1997 ; Shen 1997 ), while some access control systems and exact fare transaction machines may decrease fare evasion to the detriment of perceived safety (Weidner 1996 ; La Vigne 1997 ). More recent technologies such as safety apps (McCarthy et al. 2016 ; Debrincat et al. 2017 ) and real-time information (RTI) (Abenoza et al. 2018 ; Newton 2016 ) increase safety perceptions at transport nodes. However, technologies used to prevent the occurrence of crime may not be efficient everywhere in transit environments (Shen 1997 ; Swain 2015 ) and has to be adapted to different types of users. For instance, Sochor ( 2012a ) presents the use of ICT to enhance mobility in a case of a navigation system for visually impaired users in Sweden [see also (Sochor 2012b )]. Modern analytical tools and visualization software, such as Geographical Information Systems (GIS), free of charge software, and virtual reality (VR) have the potential to improve communication when implementing safety intervention, in particular between practitioners, researchers, and/or PT users and to create a better basis for improving transit safety (Cozens and Hillier 2002 ; Cozens et al. 2003a , c ; Newton 2007 ; Smith et al. 2013 ; Ceccato et al. 2015 ). Finally, big data and social media provide useful data for the analysis of passenger flow and safety (Marteache et al. 2015 ; Casas and Delmelle 2017 ; Zahnow and Corcoran 2019 ). For more in-depth discussion of the effects of technology on transit safety, see the next section.

3.2.3.1 CCTVs in transit environments and BWCs

Closed-circuit television (CCTV) is associated with a modest but significant decrease in crime, particularly property crime, vehicle crime, and drug crime in public places in general (Piza et al. 2019 ).We found 30 publications (12%) focusing on CCTV. Findings show conflicting evidence. CCTVs can reduce the risk of violence in metro stations in Sao Paulo, Brazil (Moreira and Ceccato 2020 ) and car crimes, such as breaking into cars in parking lots in the United Kingdom (Tilley 1993 ; Webb and Laycock 1992 ). They are also depicted as being efficient in increasing perceived safety in several studies (Cozens et al. 2003b ; Debrincat et al. 2017 ). On the other hand, CCTV impact on crime reduction and/ perceived safety was not evident in transit systems in Sweden or in the United States (e.g. Priks 2009 ; Shellow et al. 1974 ). The reason is most likely that, most of the time, CCTV cameras are installed together with other interventions, making it difficult to know which intervention influenced the outcome (Tilley 1993 ). Other studies show no significant impact on safety, such as in Los Angeles (Loukaitou-Sideris and Fink 2008 ), mostly when they are implemented alone, with no other intervention (Ceccato 2013a ; Newton and Bowers 2007 ).

Women are the most skeptical about CCTV (e.g. Vanier and D'arbois 2018a ; Yavuz and Welch 2010 ). Indeed, CCTV may be seen as an intrusion of privacy (Ceccato 2013a ) or even voyeurism (Smith and Clarke 2000 ). Yet, studies claim that when they are visible, CCTV may enhance perceived safety (Ceccato 2013a ; Riley and Dean 1985 ). They claim that the preventive effect of a camera is greater if it is positioned in a visible place (e.g. Mariotte et al. 2004 ; Burrows 1980 ). In addition, publicity and communication around the installation of these devices may help users to feel safer and may have discouraged potential criminals (e.g. Richards 1980 ; Tilley 1993 ). People cannot feel safer if they do not know that the cameras exist (Vanier and D'arbois 2018a ). It is interesting to note that CCTV may have a greater positive impact on older adults’ perceived safety than on other riders’ (Wallace et al. 1999 ).

The way CCTV is implemented is important. Grandmaison and Tremblay ( 1997 ) suggest that to improve the effect of CCTV, the systems must be “credible”, meaning that the products of the system must have good resolution, agents must be trained to use this tool, and specific objectives should be identified (Mariotte 2004 ). If someone is monitoring the live feed, CCTV can be useful to find the criminals or suspects, especially if the camera’s sight field is continuous, in a tight mesh (Malochet and Le Goff 2013 ). In addition, the effectiveness of CCTV depends on the situation (Riley and Dean 1985 ), for instance, on how much potential criminals fear the system and see in it an increased risk of getting caught (Webb and Laycock 1992 ). Scholars have claimed that the effectiveness of CCTV as a deterrent of crime has to do to some extent with its novelty in a station, even if the cameras are “fake” (Burrows 1980 ). Cameras with face-recognition software might be used in the future (Nourani et al. 2020 ) to the detriment of personal privacy.

Another technological development is the use of Body Worn Cameras (BWC). These systems seem to generate fewer use-of-force reports and complaints from citizens, yet there is little research as yet in the use of BWC in transit environments. In one of the few studies in transit systems, Ariel et al. ( 2019 ) indicate that BWC reduce assaults on staff members unequipped, yet working close to equipped colleagues and the cameras also provide train operating company staff with an effective protection that reduces physical aggression toward them.

3.2.4 Location and surrounding areas

A transportation node, such as a train station, is often planned to facilitate the movement of as many passengers as possible. It tends to be within walking distance of a residential area, working place, industrial area, or commercial center. This centrality feature of transportation nodes has criminogenic implications. Different types of land use affect the social interactions at those places and, consequently, their geographies of crime (Ceccato 2018 ). The literature also indicates that transport nodes can become crime attractors, crime generators, crime absorbers, or crime radiators (Brantingham and Brantingham 1995 ; Bowers 2014 ; Sedelmaier 2003 ; Newton 2018 ) partially because they contain or are close to risky facilities. Clarke and Eck ( 2007 ) suggest that certain facilities can be called risky and affect crime occurrence at their locations as well as within their vicinities. Examples of risky facilities are bars, restaurants, stores, shopping malls, ATMs, bus stops, railway stations, parking lots, apartment buildings, mobile home parks, libraries, hospitals, schools, public swimming pools, and marinas. Adams et al. ( 2015 ) suggest that these different land uses interact to form what they call “malignant mixes” because individually or in combination, they engender a greater risk of crime and according to La Vigne ( 2015 ) should be approached by crime prevention initiatives in a different way. These areas are important because they embody the safety needs of travelers along the trip from home to the closest transport node and vice-versa (what is also called the safety in the “last mile.”).What makes these areas unsafe?

The location of transport nodes in cities also has an independent impact on crime levels and geography (Newton et al. 2014a ; Phillips and Sandler 2015 ; Liggett et al. 2003 ). While Newton et al. ( 2014b ) found that terminal stations were at lower risk, Marteache et al. ( 2015 ) showed that central stations and one terminal station are more criminogenic than others. Ceccato et al. ( 2011 ) found more crime happens in inner city areas (where the central station is located) but also in the so-called “end stations.” On the other hand, Ihlanfeldt ( 2003 ) found no evidence that transit in suburbs increases crime. The size of transport nodes may also matter for the safety of passengers. For instance, Marteache ( 2018 ) found that smaller airports experience higher theft rates than larger ones, while Ceccato et al. ( 2011 ) suggested that larger subway stations attract more crime, controlling for station and neighborhood contexts. More interestingly, there seem to be gender differences in victimization by station location. Moreira and Ceccato ( 2020 ) found that women are at higher risk of victimization than men in central metro stations, while men run a higher risk of violence at end stations—both notably during late-night periods. Some suggest that it is the surrounding contexts that affect crime and/or the perceived safety of riders. While Abenoza et al. ( 2018 ) showed that mixed land use tends to increase perceived safety of users at night, two other studies found that liquor stores, bars, and pawnshops near transit increased robberies (Liggett et al. 2001 ; Sung-suk 2009 ). They also found that transport nodes near vacant lots had higher property crime rates. It appears that the direct surroundings of transport nodes have great influence on transit crime (Buckley 1996 ), but also the other way around, namely research suggests that crime concentrates in close proximity to public bus stop locations. Hart and Miethe ( 2014 ) noted that robberies around bus stops occur when specific combinations of risk factors are present, and Gerell ( 2018 ) found that for violent victimization the risk was highest in local centers of disadvantaged neighborhoods having low collective efficacy, but such a risk was dependent on temporal and city contexts.

Out of 245 publications, 15% (36) deal with the safety conditions around transportation nodes. Evidence of transport nodes functioning as crime absorbers is found in the literature (Pearlstein and Wachs 1982 ; Newton 2008 ). Scholars have found crime on bus routes mostly associated with high crime neighborhoods. Similarly, Loukaitou-Sideris et al. ( 2002 ) suggest that crimes at subway stations are related to overall crime in the neighborhood, as a crime absorber. There are also examples of transportation nodes that radiate crime. Several studies showed that transit environments seem to radiate crime to their surroundings (Block and Davis 1996 ; Buckley 1996 ; Kooi 2013 ; Piza and Kennedy 2003 ; Liu et al. 2020 ; Poister 1996 ). In addition, Spicer and Song ( 2017 ) demonstrated how the perception of crime increased and intensified over 10 years: as a public transit hub grew in size and ridership, crime increased and became more concentrated. Transit nodes might have a positive effect on safety. For instance, Billings et al. ( 2011 ) found that the opening of a transit line led to a decrease of property crimes. It seems that the link between transit systems and crime is dependent on multiple factors (Ihlanfeldt 2003 ). For instance, Sedelmaier ( 2003 ) found that a new small transit system had not generated more crime than usual, and this was confirmed by Sedelmaier ( 2014 ). Liu et al. ( 2017 ) found that only the bus stops with high capacities attracted property crimes. More recently, Gómez et al. ( 2020 ) suggested that the development of major highways benefitted mobility in a metropolitan area but compromised the sustainability of particular places and called for a more holistic approach when assessing the effects of transit nodes on urban environments.

3.2.5 Safety perceptions by types of user

Victimization and safety perceptions are often influenced by gender and other individual characteristics (Whitzman 2007 ; Madan and Nalla 2015 ), but it is the intersection of some individual and contextual characteristics that determines an individual’s vulnerability to crime and fear of crime (Crenshaw 1989 ). For instance, scholars have indicated that previous victimization continues to be an important determinant of perceived safety in public places (Otis 2007 ; Hirtenlehner and Farrall 2014 ; Yates and Ceccato 2020 ; Hale 1996 ). The risk of victimization is expected to vary across types of individuals (age, gender, (dis)ability, LGBTQI status, IT literacy, previous victimization, frequency of use of public transportation, length of trip, etc.) (Gekoski et al. 2015 ).

The level of service appears to be linked to people’s perceptions of safety. Indeed, a high frequency of service—especially at late hours- increases perceived safety and consequently, people rely more on public transportation when they feel safe (e.g. Reed et al. 2000 ). The gender dimension is the one that is by far the most studied in transit safety studies. Not only PT passengers but also transit personnel express a variety of safety perceptions (Browne 2010 ); some personnel refrain from coming to work because of previous experience with crime (Bradet and Normandeau 1987 ).

From our analysis, 40% of the publications (100) deal with the issue of perceived safety by type of user. Among them, 72 publications focus on women’s safety perceptions. Women feel less safe than men while transiting (e.g.: Cozens et al. 2003b ; Levine and Wachs 1986 ); some researchers argue that women feel three times less safe than men (Wilow 2015 ) and express greater precautionary behavior than men (Ingalls et al. 1994 ; Newton et al. 2020 ; Ceccato and Nalla 2020 ). Women are far from being a uniform group of passengers. Vanier and d’Arbois ( 2017 ) distinguished four types of female PT users: daily workers (63% of whom feel unsafe), young women (66% of whom feel unsafe), inactive women (who feel the safest) and casual users (the most unsafe, 70% of them do not feel safe). Safety perceptions are affected by whether or not women are alone (Ceccato et al. 2017 ; Crime-Concern 2004 ). Worldwide, women are often “transit captives” (Yu and Smith 2014 ; Ceccato 2017a , b ; Guimarães et al. 2019 ), which means they do not have any other choice of transport than PT. It is also this group who is overrepresented among those who feel unsafe (D'Arbois 2019 ; Vanier and D'arbois 2018a ), compared to non-captives. Gender status is another determinant of perceived transit safety. LGBTI + (and especially ethnic minorities) feel particularly unsafe and fear the reactions of other PT users (Lubitow et al. 2020 ; Nourani et al. 2020 ), as do disabled people, who declare that their transit safety needs are not entirely satisfied (e.g. Currie et al. 2013 ; Barjonet et al. 2011 ; Jun et al. 2020 ; Iudici 2015 ; Iudici et al. 2017 ).

The ages of users also influence the declared transit safety. Young people’s safety seems not to be a priority (but see e.g. Wiebe et al. 2014 ; Mahmoud and Currie 2010 ; Currie et al. 2013 ). Young people, especially women, are often said to feel particularly unsafe while in transit, especially those who fear sexual harassment and violence (e.g. Natarajan et al. 2017 ; Nourani et al. 2020 ; Gekoski et al. 2015 ; Wiebe et al. 2014 ). Interestingly, the elderly feel less safe in transit environments than the rest of the population (e.g.Loukaitou-Sideris 2009 ; Bon et al. 2009 ) even if they have never previously been victimized (Bradet and Normandeau 1987 ), perhaps because, as suggested by Delbosc and Currie ( 2012 ), age and gender have an indirect effect on safety.

Another characteristic that influences users’ transit safety is the neighborhood context in which they are exposed along the trip. The relationship between surrounding land uses and crime incidents at stations tends to be statistically significant, as certain environmental features either attract offenders (i.e. offer good opportunities) or influence criminal activities by concentrating potential offenders and encouraging anti-social behavior (Loukaitou-sideris 1999 ). Poor perceived safety may reflect more than crime. Evidence from the United States shows that ethnic minorities are more likely to declare they feel unsafe when using public transport, in particular Asians, who show more safety concerns than members of other ethnic groups (e.g.Buckley 1996 ; Loukaitou-Sideris and Eck 2007 ). In addition, travelers from poor neighborhoods have higher levels of fear of crime and property damage in public environments (e.g. Loukaitou-Sideris 2006 ; Vilalta 2011 ). Finally, despite these relationships, keep in mind that social groups are not uniform or stereotypical and that every user is different from another (Loukaitou-Sideris and Fink 2008 ). Hong and Chen ( 2014 ) suggest that residents in safe and high-density areas are more likely to walk and that the built environment is significantly related to walking behavior as well as people’s perception of safety.

3.2.6 Safety door-to-door: the whole journey approach

When we refer to transit safety, the journey not only involves the bus ride or the trip by train; it includes safety throughout the whole trip, from door to door (e.g. Ceccato and Newton 2015 ), for instance, safety in the environments to which an individual is exposed when walking to the bus stop, waiting for the bus to come, inside the carriage on the trip, changing transportation modes, arriving at a destination, and returning back home. Empirical studies are now being informed by this “whole journey approach” dealing with victimization and safety perceptions. Kim et al. ( 2007 ) analyzed factors that influence the mode choice for trips between home and light rail stations and found that the risk of crime made women more likely to be picked up and dropped off at the station, especially when it was dark. Recent research shows that the perceived “walk accessibility” of metro stations was found to be highly influenced by micro-aspects of the landscape, such as streetlights, police patrols, and traffic signs and signals (Bivina et al. 2019 , 2020 ). There are a number of studies that deal with barriers that disrupt mobility, such as gated communities (e.g. Smit et al. 2015 ; Landman 2012 ). In a study by Cao and Duncan ( 2019 ), they show that park-and-riders are willing to walk longer if they experience safer intersections, better pedestrian infrastructure, and an attractive building appearance. Other studies that focused on youth safety, in particular women’s safety, showed different degrees of perceived safety along the trip and by transportation mode (see e.g. Ceccato and Loukaitou-Sideris 2020 ; Evans 2009 ; Natarajan et al. 2017 ).

3.2.7 Strategies and interventions in transit safety

Ensuring transit safety is not a task for a single stakeholder. There is a range of actors that are supposed to share the responsibility of dealing with safety problems together with the major actors in public safety. Recent research recognizes that safety depends on the coordinated cooperation of transportation service providers, safety experts (security guards, security hosts), municipalities, the private sector, and NGOs (e.g. Levin 2015 ; Uittenbogaard and Ceccato 2014 ). Despite the rapid proliferation of these constellations, few efforts have been made to determine their effectiveness in reducing either crime or its related fear in transit environments. Out of the 245 publications, 167 publications deal with interventions or make suggestions for better preventing crime and/or improving safety perceptions. Some of these interventions have their effectiveness tested, while the great majority of authors state them as potential solutions for the pressing safety problems dealt with in their studies. These recommendations can be split into five types: design of transport nodes, policy/cooperation, campaigns/education, data/knowledge, and technology (Table 2 ). Note that our initial intention was to split these interventions into two categories, against crime and for safety perceptions, but this was not possible for two reasons. First, many interventions belonged to a program or package with multiple interventions. Second, there was an overlap of the intention to prevent crime and, at the same time, improve safety perceptions of PT users. Table 2 also lists examples of the most important recommendations.

As much as 26% of the publications suggested improving the knowledge base by building up better data and knowledge. These involve better statistics, codes, surveys, and consultations with groups of users (e.g. d’Arbois de Jubainville and Vanier 2017 ; Smith 2008 ; Riley and Dean 1985 ). Because many of these problems go beyond the transport nodes, also involving the surrounding areas, establishing a better cooperation between public and private actors (e.g. multi-agency police cooperation) is pointed out in 26% of these studies (e.g. Church et al. 2000 ; Ceccato et al. 2020 ; Kenney 1986 ). Other policy changes include female police forces, more patrols, increased supply of public transportation/schedule, women-only carriages/spaces, and stop on demand, as exemplified by Chantal ( 2011 ), Gilbert and Schultz ( 1996 ), or Horii and Burgess ( 2012 ).

Recommendations emphasize that safety is a serious problem often linked to the environment of bus stops and train and subway stations as well as their design. As many as 19% of publications mention crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED), which is largely based on the principles of situational crime prevention and seeks to enhance natural surveillance by modifying the transit environment (e.g. Noble 2015a ; La Vigne 1996 ). They suggest improvement of lighting, enhanced visibility and surveillance via design through mirrors and transparent shelters, and also improving maintenance and changes in the internal land use of these transport nodes. Additional ideas include, for instance, adjustable sizes for carriages and platforms to fit passenger density (e.g. Vanier and d’Arbois 2017 ; Shellow et al. 1974 ), and lighting, because 11 articles agree that sufficient lighting increases the perceived safety but that the fishbowl effect must be taken into account (e.g. Nordfjærn et al. 2014 ; Reed et al. 2000 ). Eight articles claim that visibility should be enhanced by promoting transparent materials, mirrors, a minimum of blind spots, and high arched ceilings (e.g. Mohamed and Stanek 2020 ; Cozens et al. 2004 ). Finally, 19 articles suggest improvements in the environment, such as locating bus stops far from alcohol retailers and high crime streets (Levine and Wachs 1986 ; Liggett et al. 2001 ) Re-plan vegetation, because such cover increases the fear of assault and robbery for women (Cozens et al. 2003b ; Rišová and Madajová 2020 ). Other suggestions are focusing on facilities, claiming that if there are no tables, bathrooms, benches, people do not have the opportunity to loiter in the public space, affecting safety positively (e.g. Gaylord and Galljher 1991 ; Turner 2012 ). Authors also suggest putting more emergency buttons and alarms in transit environments (Debrincat et al. 2017 ; Mahmoud and Currie 2010 ) to facilitate reporting. However, there is some controversy about implementing women-only solutions to tackle sexual crime in transit environments (Shibata 2020 ; Dunckel-Graglia 2013 ).

Although the need for campaigns, education, and information was highlighted by 19% of the publications, limited evidence exists to evaluate their effectiveness. Studies often suggest educational programs, information, media, and awareness campaigns to communicate the level of risk and to sensitize users to the important issues in transit environments (e.g. Loukaitou-Sideris 2006 ; Marteache et al. 2015 ), with particular emphasis on sexual violence (Ceccato and Paz 2017 ; HCEEFH 2015 ). They insist that these campaigns should focus on changing people’s perceptions of other users’ attitudes and not the image of the public transport itself (Fyhri and Backer-Grøndahl 2012 ; Currie et al. 2013 ) or the role of bystanders (Orozco-Fontalvo et al. 2019 ; Lubitow et al. 2020 ). Levin ( 2015 ) mentions the need of developing work on gender mainstreaming and gender impact assessment in transport planning, and in particular more interdisciplinary research as a basis for an increased cooperation between different types of professionals. There are suggestions that focus on agents’ training (e.g. CEMT 2003 ; SRI - Stanford Research Institute 1970 ) and on the promotion of safety and security policies, reminders that the station is under surveillance (Richards 1980 ; Mariotte et al. 2004 ). Finally, 10% of recommendations involve security technology solutions, from CCTV and telephone hotlines, to RTI and newer technologies, such as online platforms and smartphone apps, for example, to encourage people to report transit crimes (e.g. Lea et al. 2017 ). As some of these technologies may have the potential to follow riders door-to-door, ICT technologies can be a useful tool to promote safety along the whole journey. Concerns with staff safety have been globally recognized across professions, and transit staff members are no exception. BWC are assumed to have a “calming effect” on personnel and reduce crime in rail-bound transit (Ariel et al. 2019 ).

4 Conclusion

This article reviewed and analyzed a growing literature on transit safety. We carried out this review covering five decades of studies from 1970 to 2020 written in English primarily, but extending also to the French literature as a benchmark.

Although records of research on transit safety are found in the early 1970s and 1980s, this field of knowledge truly took off in the mid-1990s with simultaneous efforts from disciplines such as Criminology/Psychology and Urban planning/Architecture, especially with efforts by scholars in the United States. Transit safety as a research field steadily developed, to peak after the 2010s, covering a variety of subjects. However, a shift in focus has been noticed, from research on crime and victimization at bus stops and train stations, to the perceived safety of PT users (and to a lesser extent of personnel), focusing on gender and the intersectionality of safety and particular groups. More recently, transportation and ICT are also becoming a distinct field of research. Following different theoretical traditions, transit safety is nowadays an interdisciplinary field of research and is executed by a mixture of sociologists, criminologists, safety experts, architects, urban planners, psychologists, economists, geographers, engineers, computer scientists, and others. The body of research is dominated by the English literature (mostly from large cities, often more “quantitative pieces” using situational crime prevention approaches), with a particular focus on rail-bound environments. While the English-language literature is focused more on the relationship between crime and features of transit environments, the French literature has more of a qualitative nature. French studies adopt a more sociological approach, focusing on individuals’ perspectives on safety (mostly on sexual crimes) as well as the governance of transit safety, in particular the relationship of public and private sectors in delivering transportation/safety services.

A research domain that is recurrent is the one devoted to the transit environment at micro-scale, for example, links between bus stop features and crime. Research over the five decades shows definitive links between the type and quality of lighting and crime and/or perceived safety. Physical features, obstacles, and transparency are all elements associated with passengers’ opportunities to exercise guardianship in transit environments. It is important to notice, however, that targeting the microenvironments of crime (e.g. Ding et al. 2020 ; Cozens et al. 2005 ), may not be enough to adequately address issues of transit safety. Findings from research clearly show that the quality of the social environment, both in the transit nodes and surrounding areas (also their location in the urban environment, i.e. center-periphery), have an impact together on levels of crime and fear of crime experienced by PT users (Smith and Cornish 2006 ). The literature review shows many examples of a multi-pronged approach to tackle these safety problems in transit environments.

Many studies are devoted to the understanding of how passenger flow affects temporal variations in crime and/or perceived safety, because transit nodes, such as bus stops and train stations, vary in the amount of people they concentrate. Thus, it is expected that crime and safety perceptions would also vary over time. However, drawing conclusions from the results in temporal patterns of crime is not an easy task, because findings vary by crime type, hour of the day, day of the week, as well as seasonally—and, not least, in relation to their urban and country contexts. It is worth pointing out that many of the current studies lack data to directly capture the flow of passenger numbers, which means they often rely on proxy measures. Despite a relatively large body of literature we lack a strong empirical evidence base that demonstrates the association between more passengers and more crime. Crowdedness at peak hours tends to facilitate violence, sexual crimes, and pickpocketing. Desolated transit spaces may trigger feelings of insecurity and perhaps create the necessary conditions for crimes that demand anonymity, such as robbery and rape.

Overall, more than half of the publications are devoted to the study of both crime and safety perceptions, followed by publications about crime in transit environments. The remaining studies are about safety perceptions or other topics, such as safety interventions. We identify five common research domains, some with overlapping features.

The relationship between transit environments (type, size, design, social environment) and a wide variety of crimes (assault, rape, robbery, pickpocketing, vandalism, terrorism). Issues of context are also considered here, as well as how to tackle safety problems. Environmental criminology theories (e.g. situational crime prevention, CPTED and routine activity) often provide the theoretical bases for these studies.

Safety perceptions of PT users with a recent clear dominance of women’s transit safety though covering a wide group of riders, including “transit captives.” Fear of crime, overall anxieties related to surveillance, and, more recently, the “whole journey approach” characterize studies working with surveys and a more individualized, psychological perspective.

Temporal aspects of crime and perceived safety —These studies attempt to identify the relationship between passenger flow and safety over time, in particular peak and off-peak hours, seasonal variations, and between weekdays and weekends/holidays/special events. Some identify the potential effects of transport nodes in a neighborhood.

Technology and safety —These studies follow the evaluation of a wide range of products and systems, some not necessarily related to safety, from CCTV cameras to smart cards (e.g. electronic ticketing), real-time information (RTI) systems, body-worn cameras (BWC), and safety apps. This domain also includes “technology” as a crime target, such as mobile phones.

Management practices and crime and safety interventions —These studies covered the effects of interventions, roles of stakeholders, types of cooperation, legal systems, campaigns, and overall performance of crime prevention practices. It is difficult to draw conclusions on specific measures, as “what works” is often dependent on the types of safety problems as well as transportation modes and contexts.

Caution should be exercised when conclusions are drawn from findings. Our search of the literature was limited to the set of keywords (see “ Appendix ” Table 3 ) reflecting the concept of crime and disorder but also the ones related to fear and other overall anxieties. There is a chance that publications on terrorism and minor events, such as fare evasion, may not be captured by the search. Other words that turned out to be relevant during the execution of the study were not part of the initial pool of keywords and may have been misrepresented in the sample of publications, an example was ‘personal security’ or ‘personal safety’. In addition, there is a risk of bias using a combination of systematic search of the English literature (from Scopus and Science direct) complemented by a list of studies provided by expert members of a user list (TCR-network) specialized in the topic. However, we believe that the benefits of having a list of studies from this group of expertise outweigh the risk of bias. In addition, the French literature was mostly collected using Google scholar. Moreover, conclusions are drawn here based on hundreds of publications, but it is important to remember that these publications are more likely to show positive “expected” results than results that are uncertain, negative, or “unexpected.” It is therefore a difficult task to estimate how many studies had negative or unexpected results and were not published, which means it is virtually impossible to estimate the “dark figure” of unpublished materials. Finally, the studies used different methods, which makes it difficult to compare findings. Various studies showed, for instance, that the effect of transit environments on safety was dependent on crime types, levels, and contexts, but it is unclear to what extent these differences might be merely an artefact of the types of employed methods.

Despite the limitations, a literature review of this type can be helpful for researchers, as it provides an up-to-date structured review of the relevant research domains in public transit safety. The review itself “adds value” (Wee and Banister 2016 ), because research gaps have been revealed, it is hoped, functioning as guidance for researchers who plan to do research in this area. A systematic international review of topics of this type can inform practitioners about the most common safety transit problems as well as the types of interventions that have been implemented around the world.

5 Recommendations

Our review of the literature points to several areas where more research is needed on the topic of crime and safety in transit environments, so we conclude this article with recommendations for further research and policy in specific areas.

First, we need to recognize that the literature is quite definitive about the complexity of transit environments and their impact on safety. Our findings show that it is not possible to find a single “physical (or social) characteristic of these environments” that, if tackled, will solve a safety problem. There is no doubt that transit safety demands a situational and dynamic perspective that is framed to the different stages of the trip at micro-level—the bus stop, the station, within the station, and so on—and at particular times. Conditions at any time will affect PT riders, environments, and contexts in different ways, against different types of problems—this is essential to the quality of both research and policy in the future. Another important area for future research is the testing of rigorous longitudinal methodologies that can provide assessments over time and be applied in contexts other than those that were initially tested. In addition, a minority of studies dealt with acts of terrorism in transit environments—an area of research that deserves more attention in the future. In particular for the French literature, more research that would inform planners and transit operators about the importance of understanding the relationship between crime and transit environments is desirable. Data permitting, a more quantitative take on this subject by French researchers would allow a generalization of the results in other contexts.

Second, safety conditions in transport nodes are not the same as the ones experienced or perceived on the way to them. Additionally, if policies are to be tailored to attend to the safety needs of those who declare they are most in fear, “fixing” the problem of victimization does not solve issues related to poor perceived safety. This distinction between crime and safety perception remains, yet it is still treated as unproblematic in transit environment research. Despite a growing literature on women’s safety (Ding et al. 2020 ; Gekoski et al. 2015 ; Kunieda and Gauthier 2007 ; Law 1999 ; Kirchhoff et al. 2007 ; Keane 1998 ), there is still a lack of research on the practical implementation of programs tackling the safety needs of vulnerable groups of PT users (e.g. disabled individuals, elderly, LBQTI status) or, if they exist, they disregard an intersectional perspective. In addition, more research is needed in a variety of areas that include the implications of excessive concern for safety expressed by vulnerable groups, the costs of “women’s safety work” in different country contexts, the normalization of inappropriate behaviors while in transit as well as an in-depth characterization of victims’ agency. There is also the need to further investigate the role of bystanders in PT environments and beyond (applying a “whole journey approach” to safety), and precautionary measures and their long-term impact on life opportunities for transit captives, particularly in contexts where the supply of public transportation is limited, for other suggestions see Ding et al. ( 2020 ). For policy, it is essential that personnel recruitment in transit systems aims at reducing safety inequalities among PT rider groups. Mobility and safety are essential qualities of sustainable cities. Yet, women around the world declare being victims of sexual harassment on a daily basis. Therefore, tailored education programs for university students in Architecture, Engineering, Urban Planning, Transport Sciences—to name a few—are essential to sensitize new generations to the omnipresent problem of unequal transit safety and to make them aware of possible ways to combat it.

Third, the quality of the cooperation between actors (transport operators, police, municipalities, crime prevention councils, NGOs, and private citizens) in tackling transit safety is worth investigation. The role of municipalities is fundamental, because they are responsible for day-to-day spatial planning decisions, ranging from designing a new residential area or subway station, to placing and maintaining physical infrastructure (e.g. streets and sidewalks)—all of high relevance for individuals’ safety and accessibility to public transportation. Safety and mobility with a “whole journey approach” require understanding the barriers of governance that lead to poor cooperation between actors within and across sectors and organizational scales. It is often unclear who is in charge of the safety conditions in the immediate vicinities of transportation nodes or in environments that are privately owned but are public, such as a station. The safety of PT travelers is compromised when the assignment of tasks between these stakeholders is unclear, creating a gray zone in which few actors are willing to take charge of problems or share costs beyond their predefined roles. This demands more than quick fixes to the physical environment at transportation nodes. Despite encouraging results with multi-pronged approaches to transit and safety, research is needed to inform “what works and what does not work” in terms of cooperation between public and private sectors and overall governance of PT. At the same time, achieving cooperation should not be the main goal of getting together. Partnership should be a means to support different actors to solve safety problems at transportation nodes—not an end in itself. Safety as an individual right and a public good needs to be further investigated in the context of mobility.

Fourth, we echo Newton ( 2004 ) on the need for studies that investigate if certain paths on the public transport network facilitate crime. In the past, the work by Belanger ( 1999 ) has investigated this subject by examining how far offenders traveled from their place of residence to the place where they committed subway crimes. The use of big data analysis in PT systems is a growing research area. Information from travel cards can provide information about erratic travel patterns that can be associated with criminal behavior or suicides  (Ceccato et al. 2020 ), yet these research areas are in their infancy. Future research can work out how passengers’ routine mobility patterns can be analyzed using information from travel cards and better detect hotspots of crime by time slices, such as minutes—crucial information for crime prevention. By having the total number of passengers, measures of risk can be more precise in comparison with the traditional traveler-flow estimates. These types of measures will certainly allow us to implement a place-oriented public health perspective to transit safety (e.g. Branas et al. 2018 ) in which crime in PT can be treated as any other preventable harm, such as fall incidents, self-harm/suicides, or acts of terrorism.

Finally, transit safety research will open up research questions for a wider spectrum of sciences, from ethics to computer science. With the use of current technologies (e.g. CCTV, information from travel smart cards, apps, MaaS mobility as a service), on top of the new technologies under way (e.g. micromobility vehicles, virtual reality (VR), artificial intelligence (AI), autonomous vehicles (AV)), solutions as well new safety challenges will appear. One area of research is related to the potential impact of AVs on current PT supply, while prioritizing and accommodating the safety needs of travelers. Assessments of the efficiency of autonomous buses in ensuring the safety of PT riders along the trip and in “the last mile” are already opening a new research frontier. When autonomous buses are implemented, issues of trust and safety by passengers, particularly vulnerable users, will be relevant for further investigation. Not least, concerns about trust and data privacy are bound to become more important than they are today. When they do, it is important to evaluate the opportunities and risks for all types of users. Moreover, there is a need to promote in-depth critical discussions with city planners, transit operators, policy makers, real estate developers, architects, and designers about the impact of AVs on future cities’ designs and PT infrastructures. Research that examines the impact of new technologies on PT users is vital to ensuring mobility and safety for all.

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Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Dr Yuan Pang Wang for sharing his knowledge and experience of systematic literature overviews with the authors. Authors would also like to thank the Swedish Transport Administration for funding this research via the project “The impact of station’s environments on crime and passenger safety”, Grant number TRV 2020/22903.

Open Access funding provided by Royal Institute of Technology. This study was carried out as part of the research project “The impact of station’s environments on crime and passenger safety”, funded by the Swedish Transport Administration, Grant number TRV 2020/22903.

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Ceccato, V., Gaudelet, N. & Graf, G. Crime and safety in transit environments: a systematic review of the English and the French literature, 1970–2020. Public Transp 14 , 105–153 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12469-021-00265-1

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Saving lives in road traffic—ethical aspects

Jessica nihlén fahlquist.

1 Department of Philosophy, Delft University of Technology, P.O. Box 5015, 2600 GA Delft, The Netherlands

2 Division of Philosophy, Royal Institute of Technology, Teknikringen 78B, SE-100 44 Stockholm, Sweden

This article aims at giving an overview of five ethical problem areas relating to traffic safety, thereby providing a general framework for analysing traffic safety from an ethical perspective and encouraging further discussion concerning problems, policies and technology in this area.

Subjects and methods

The problems presented in the article are criminalisation, paternalism, privacy, justice and responsibility, and the reasons for choosing these are the following. First, they are all important areas in moral philosophy. Second, they are fairly general and it should be possible to categorise more specific problems under these headings. Ethical aspects of road traffic have not received the philosophical attention they deserve. Every year, more than 1 million people die globally in traffic accidents, and 20 to 50 million people are injured. Ninety per cent of the road traffic fatalities occur in low- and middle-income countries, where it is a growing problem. Politics, economics, culture and technology affect the number of fatalities and injuries, and the measures used to combat deaths in traffic as well as the role of road traffic should be ethically scrutinised. The topics are analysed and discussed from a moral-philosophical perspective, and the discussion includes both theory and applications.

Results and conclusion

The author concludes with some thoughts on how the ethical discussion can be included in the public debate on how to save lives in road traffic. People in industrialised societies are so used to road traffic that it is almost seen as part of nature. Consequently, we do not acknowledge that we can introduce change and that we can affect the role we have given road traffic and cars. By acknowledging the ethical aspects of road traffic and illuminating the way the choices society makes are ethically charged, it becomes clear that there are alternative ways to design the road traffic system. The most important general conclusion is that discussion concerning these alternative ways of designing the system should be encouraged.

Introduction

In the month of September 2001, more people died in car crashes in the United States than in the terrorist attacks (Husak 2004 ). Every year, more than 1 million people die globally in road crashes, and 20 to 50 million people are injured. Ninety per cent of the road traffic fatalities occur in low- and middle-income countries, where it is a growing problem. Road traffic accidents are the ninth leading cause of disease in the world (Peden et al. 2004 ). In spite of the gravity of the problem of traffic fatalities, it is seldom discussed as an ethical problem or as giving rise to ethical questions. It is the aim of this paper to provide a general overview of ethical aspects of traffic safety, the focus being on the fatalities and injuries road traffic causes and some major ethical aspects of the measures used to save lives.

The main purpose is to show that just as transportation is analysed and discussed from economic, technological, political and geographical perspectives, its ethical dimensions should be thoroughly and continuously analysed and discussed. Philosophers have not extensively discussed ethical problems relating to transport, although there are some exceptions (Nihlén Fahlquist 2006 ; Husak 2004 ; Husak 1994 ; Zeitler 1997 ), nor have ethics been comprehensively incorporated in the transportation safety discourse, although there are exceptions (Evans 2008 ; Evans 2004 ; Hokstad and Vatn 2008 ; Elvik 2006 ; Elvik 1999 ). In transportation as well as in health care, people die and are prevented from dying due to actions and omissions of individuals as well as functioning and dysfunctional systems and policies. Accordingly, a continuous ethical discussion concerning road traffic is needed. The areas discussed in the following are criminalisation, paternalism, privacy, justice and responsibility. 1 The reasons for this focus is that these are five important areas in moral philosophy and together they provide a rough list according to which many of the more specific ethically relevant issues arising in traffic safety can be categorised.

Criminalisation

In the intersection between law and moral philosophy the question arises of what acts should be considered criminal and in need of punishment. Obviously there are a number of acts in road traffic that are criminalised, and there is a constant discussion in many societies about which acts should be punished and how.

There are two major philosophical perspectives on punishment: retributivists argue that we punish because offenders deserve to be punished and consequentialists argue that punishment is justified only if it is likely to have more advantageous consequences than refraining from punishing would. The law and public debates about law are often a mix of these two perspectives, and this is the case when it comes to traffic legislation.

Social and cultural beliefs, norms and conventions affect the way people view the severity of different traffic offences. Some of the traffic offences are considered less severe by a majority of people, whereas others are seen as more serious. Speeding is an example of an offence that is often not considered a major breach of the law, even though speeding is said to be one of the most important causes of traffic mortality (Corbett 2000 ). In spite of this, about 50% of Swedish car drivers exceed speed limits. High speed contributes substantially to collisions, and the speed that vehicles have in a collision is crucial to the severity of resulting injuries (Vägverket/Swedish National Road Administration 2005 ). It is estimated that about 150 lives could be saved in Sweden every year if everyone stopped exceeding the speed limits. 2 Against this background, the general acceptance of speeding appears quite peculiar. In contrast, drunk driving is considered immoral, and road crashes involving intoxicated drivers resulting in fatality often spur emotionally laden debates concerning how to punish drunk drivers. This example shows that there are conventions about what is right and wrong in road traffic, and these conventions should be questioned in light of what traffic safety researchers find out about the causes of fatalities and injuries. The two philosophical views on punishment become clear when some people suggest long prison sentences and compare driving after drinking to murder, whereas others express their doubts as to whether this is effective, i.e. focussing on the consequences.

An important aim of criminalising an act is to prevent people from performing that act. Whether criminalisation will actually lead to prevention is an empirical question, and it has been argued that this is an often-neglected fact. Schonsheck argues that philosophers and lawyers implicitly assume that if an act is criminalised, people will automatically conform to the new law. In other words, ‘prohibition’ and ‘prevention’ are used interchangeably (Schonsheck, 1994 ). Furthermore, he argues, if we instead talk about criminal prohibition as an attempt to prevent, this forces us to consider failure and alternative ways to prevent the unwanted act. The discussion of whether to criminalise a certain act must take the consequences of enactment and enforcement as well as side effects and costs into account (Schonsheck 1994 ).

To illustrate, consider driving under the influence of alcohol. This is an offence in most countries, and it is sometimes argued that a case of drunk driving resulting in a fatality should be compared to murder. According to Schonsheck’s argument above, even before criminalising driving under the influence of alcohol we ought to consider alternative ways and carefully analyse whether criminalising the act of drunk driving is the most effective way to achieve this result. One alternative method for managing the problem of drunk driving is the so-called alcohol interlock. This is a device that makes it impossible to drive after drinking. The driver has to prove her sobriety through an exhalation sample before starting the car. The interlock is connected to the car’s ignition, and if the measured level is above the maximum level set, the car will not start. Obviously, to force all vehicles to install such a device represents a completely different way of dealing with drunk driving and is likely to meet substantial resistance. Moreover, potential ethical aspects of mandatory alcohol interlocks should be addressed (Grill and Nihlén Fahlquist, forthcoming ). The point is that there are different ways of solving the problem of drunk driving, and criminalisation is one of several methods. Before criminalising an act, or when confronting the question of whether to make the punishment more severe than previously, alternative methods should be discussed before a decision is made. If it is possible to solve a problem like drunk driving without raising the penalties or criminalising more acts, we should at least consider these other methods and treat them as potential alternatives.

The argument above is, of course, a consequentialist one. However, we do not punish solely to prevent unwanted actions. Drunk driving may be criminalised and punished because it is simply seen as morally wrong to risk people’s lives by drinking and driving. Douglas Husak, who sets out to determine the seriousness of drunk driving, has discussed this line of thought. The idea is that the offender should be punished in proportion to her desert, which is a function of how serious the offence is (Husak 1994 ). According to Husak, drunk driving per se is not a very serious crime, but a hierarchy of drunk driving offences should be created that distinguishes between aggravated drunk driving, which is considered a serious offence, and ordinary drunk driving, which is not. Whereas ordinary drunk driving does not create a substantially higher risk of injury compared to sober driving, drunk driving with BAC 0.2% does (Husak 1994 ).

Paternalism

Accusations of paternalism are common in the history of traffic safety debates, for example, about the mandatory use of seatbelts, bicycle helmets and motorcycle helmets. It is argued that individual freedom and responsibility are diminished when people are not allowed to decide for themselves whether to accept a certain risk.

There are two major justifications for laws requiring people to use such potentially liberty-limiting devices. First, there is an economic incentive to reduce the costs of saving lives and rehabilitating people. Second, and more controversial, it may be argued that people should be forced to, for example, use a seatbelt for their own good.

Mill, in his famous defence of anti-paternalism, asserts that the only justified interference with the liberty of individuals is that which is aimed at protecting other individuals from harm, the so-called Harm Principle (Mill 1985 ). Since then, many theorists have contributed to the debate on paternalism.

It is possible to argue for the mandatory use of seatbelts from a paternalistic viewpoint or merely from an economic perspective or to combine the two. The proponent of paternalism has two potential justifications for such a law, namely the cost to others and the harm to the individual not using a seatbelt (Schonsheck 1994 ). The only liberal argument for such a law is to point at the economic cost for others created by those not using a seatbelt (Schonsheck 1994 ). The discussion on the potentially paternalistic justification for seatbelts is only applicable to the driver, since the driver can be said to be responsible for not harming her passengers. It could be argued that requiring the driver to make sure that her passengers use seatbelts is an implication of the Harm Principle rather than an instance of paternalism. It has been suggested that accepting Mill’s anti-paternalist view does not necessarily entail refraining from interfering with activities like driving with unbelted passengers (Hansson 2006 ).

As argued by Dworkin concerning the law requiring motorcyclists to wear a helmet, if the economic cost is the only reason to require helmets, that could be achieved by requiring that motorcyclists purchase a medical insurance to cover that cost as a condition for licensing (Dworkin 1983 ). Because motorcycling is such a risky activity and the law requiring motorcyclists to wear a helmet appears to be quite a reasonable law, it has been said to be an “embarrassment” to the liberal and to make the strongest case for hard paternalism (Feinberg 1986 ).

Often, in real cases, it is not completely clear whether potentially paternalistic measures are introduced purely for paternalistic reasons or because of the societal costs associated with not implementing the new policy. Discussions concerning potentially liberty-limiting devices will surely continue to arise in the context of traffic safety. However, road traffic is very different from, for example, smoking in that driving a car exposes others to substantial risks. The best defence for making alcohol interlocks mandatory in all cars, for instance, is probably that the driver who drinks before driving her car exposes others to a substantial risk. A smoker who does not smoke outside her own free-standing house does not directly cause harm to others, so a prohibition on smoking would arguably be more paternalistic than a law on alcohol interlocks.

During the twentieth century, car driving became a central feature of the social, economic and cultural development of the Western world. Culturally, it is strongly associated with the values of autonomy, independence and freedom of movement. Surely, this is one important reason for the unwillingness of people to be exposed to surveillance cameras and other kinds of control of their driving. There is an inherent tension in the conception of road traffic between the idea of a freedom of movement and an accessible transportation system on the one hand and safety on the other. We want to be able to move freely without restrictions, but we also want to be safe. Those who argue that privacy is merely a prima facie right could possibly argue that safety is a more fundamental value, whereas those embracing a more liberal approach would advocate the value of individual freedom and privacy. The association between the automobile and such values is very strong. It has even been argued that “automobility” complements autonomy and that automobiles enhance privacy (Lomasky 1997 ).

Due to technological development there are a number of new possibilities that either force road users, primarily car drivers, to behave in a certain way to increase safety or that control the behaviour of road users. Alcohol interlocks are an example of the former and surveillance cameras an example of the latter. The development of information technology provides helpful tools that can be used to enhance safety, but sometimes at the possible expense of the privacy of individuals. Vehicle safety technology has been developed with the aim to connect vehicles with roadside infrastructure, and this is likely to have substantial safety benefits, but also to increase the risk of extensive surveillance (Zimmer 2005 ). This raises questions concerning the problem of “privacy in public”. Nissenbaum argues that although lawyers and philosophers have discussed privacy frequently, the focus has been on personal and sensitive information. The problem today is that a large part of the information that can be and is collected is from the previously more or less ignored public sphere. Hence, theories concerning the right to privacy should address the problem of privacy in public (Nissenbaum 1998 ).

Nissenbaum suggests that the problem of privacy in public should be addressed by conceptualising privacy as “contextual integrity”, which essentially means that every context has its own norms of appropriateness and distribution, meaning that what information it is appropriate to share and how this information is to be distributed vary in different contexts (Nissenbaum 2004 ). Zimmer applies these ideas to highway travel, attempting to establish what the existing norms of appropriateness and distribution are in the context of highway travel. He suggests that while it is considered appropriate to share information that is easily observed, for example, the license plate number, it is not in accordance with existing norms to share information about the identity of the vehicle’s occupants. Furthermore, while it is appropriate to share information about license plate numbers, prevailing norms of distribution restrict the ability to receive additional information that is based on the license plate number (Zimmer 2005 ).

Whereas it is important to take existing norms into consideration, it should be acknowledged that we run the risk of adjusting to less and less privacy, meaning that the existing norms equal what we have come to accept because of this adjustment. We should not merely focus on existing norms, but also on critically examined norms.

With new technology being developed at an impressive rate, there is hope that vehicle and road safety will improve substantially. However, since a considerable part of that new technology entails some form of information gathering, its potential threat to privacy should be acknowledged. What is essentially at issue is how to balance the values of individual liberty and safety. Moreover, is what we do as road users private or public? In the developed part of the world, we are used to having access to a private space when driving a car, and many people drive their cars in order to escape the public sphere for a while. However, against the background of the high number of fatalities and injuries, driving a car is noticeably different than, for example, being in one’s home, and it could be questioned whether the private space we now seem to believe we have a right to is reasonable, given the human and economic cost of road traffic. It may not be reasonable to expect the same kind of privacy in our cars as we do in our homes. On the other hand, a considerable number of women die every year due to domestic violence, which would indicate that the argument of people dying is not adequate to defend privacy intrusions in road traffic, but not in our homes. To what extent we should trade privacy for safety is clearly a difficult question, but it is an important ethical question to ask in relation to road traffic.

Traditionally, the departments of transport and their related agencies have managed traffic safety. Consequently, mobility has been the main focus with an emphasis on infrastructure and vehicles, neglecting the safety of non-motorized road users (Peden et al. 2004 ). This is problematic for several reasons. Children, young adults and the elderly are disproportionately exposed to the risk of being injured or killed in a road crash, especially if they are pedestrians (Malek et al. 1990 ; Fontaine and Gourlet 1997 ; Yee et al. 2006 ). Pedestrians and cyclists are generally exposed to a greater risk than car drivers. Intuitively, there appears to be a morally relevant difference between different groups of road users. 3 Clearly, there are substantial differences between child pedestrians and risk-seeking adults who, for instance, choose to ride a motorcycle after having contemplated the risks of doing that. The problem is how to apply this intuition to policy-making and to what extent. It has recently been argued that fewer resources should be spent on “deliberate traffic offenders” in favour of “innocent” road users, for reasons of fairness (Hokstad and Vatn 2008 ).

Since vulnerable road users have a high risk exposure and have to use the roads every day, perhaps they should be the primary focus of safety interventions in areas they are unable to avoid. It could be argued that they have a right to move around outside in a way that does not correspond to a right to drive a car. These groups are not merely the most vulnerable, but in addition they sometimes lack the ability to influence infrastructure, and this should be taken into account in policy-making. Acknowledging the differences of risk exposure and the imbalance of power and responsibility between different groups of road users illuminates the following question. For which group of road users is the road system and the infrastructure designed? Partly this is a practical question and a question of how the road transport system has evolved gradually since the introduction of the automobile, but the way the system works today should be analysed from the perspective of justice as well. It has been argued that the modern road transport system primarily is designed for car drivers, for example due to the fact that enormous amounts of money are spent on highways and the safety of automobiles as opposed to walking paths and the safety of pedestrians and cyclists. Moreover, as mentioned above, the automobile has been given priority at the cost of pedestrians, and it has been argued that this should be changed for environmental and public health reasons (Gunnarsson 2005 ).

If society’s resources were unlimited it might be thought imperative to save all road users from dying or being injured in road traffic, or rather that it would be imperative to save as many lives as possible as long as measures to enhance safety do not carry with them an unreasonable “ethical cost” in terms of, for instance, intrusions of privacy. However, resources are limited, and priorities have to be set. The question then becomes how resources should be used.

A common device used to decide whether certain road safety measures should be introduced is cost-benefit analysis, which implies that a measure should be taken if the benefits outweigh the costs, but if the opposite is true it should not. Cost-benefit analysis is “an operational definition of what public policy based on a utilitarian calculus implies” (Elvik 2006 ). The benefits are often based on the notion of willingness-to-pay (WTP), which refers to the maximum amount of money a person is willing to pay for that benefit. There are a number of problems with WTP, for instance, that wealthy people often are willing to pay more for two reasons. First, the marginal utility of money declines as a function of the wealth, meaning that the difference between 10 and 20 is greater than the difference between 100 and 120. If a person is wealthy she is likely to be willing to pay more since it does not make a big difference to her financial situation, whereas it could make a big difference for someone who is not as well off. Second, it has been argued that poor people, having to choose more carefully because of lack of resources, may prefer other kinds of benefits at the cost of increased safety (Hokstad and Vatn 2008 ).

Another concept that is used in this approach is value of statistical life (VSL), which is a monetary measure of the benefits to people from small risk reductions that arise from safety projects (Hokstad and Vatn 2008 ). Critics have argued that it is not acceptable to put a monetary value on human life (Elvik 2001 ; Frank 2000 ; Hansson 2007 ; Hauer 1994 ).

Hokstad and Vatn argue that instead of treating utility as the overriding rule for allocation of resources for risk reduction, fairness should be the guiding rule, even if cost-benefit analysis could be one useful tool in the process of arriving at good and fair priorities (Hokstad and Vatn 2008 ).

Following this line of thought, perhaps additional resources should be spent on vulnerable road users, such as child pedestrians, even if it is not the most cost-efficient way to spend public funds. Instead, there are tendencies to assume that children, the elderly and disabled people have less value than non-disabled grown-ups. The concept of disability-adjusted life year (DALY) is used to compare the burden of disease in different countries. It puts a numerical number on mortality and morbidity and counts the years lost due to premature death and the years lived with disabilities. Different disabilities have different numerical values according to how much they are estimated to affect quality of life. This model has been criticised, and one of the objections to it is that the life year lost for a child or an individual older than 55 is counted less than a life year lost for a grown-up individual under the age of 55. Furthermore, the DALY approach assumes that people with a disability have less quality of life than people who do not have a disability and that people with a disability are less entitled to health resources (Arnesen and Nord 1999 ). This, of course, goes against the intuition that vulnerable groups should be protected and perhaps even be the standard measure when designing the infrastructure. Moreover, the very assumption that the quality of an individual’s life can be measured objectively at all and that the only relevant criterion to judge the quality of an individual’s life is whether she has a disability or not and how big of an impairment that particular disability is, from an objective standpoint, raises concern. Surely, most people would be offended by the idea that their quality of life is judged by people who do not know them and determined according to an allegedly objective list with numbers attached to disabilities. Moreover, as noticed by Arnesen and Nord, to assume that the healthier a person is the more valuable their life is to themselves and to society is contrary to the Declaration of Human Rights and its basic notion that all people are equal (Arnesen and Nord 1999 ).

Another problem is how groups with different risk proneness should be treated. For example, motorcyclists have a substantially higher risk of being killed or injured than any other vehicle user (Elliott et al. 2007 ). It has been estimated that the risk of being injured when travelling by motorcycle is about ten times as high as when travelling by car (Aare and von Holst 1999 ). The question is whether motorcycling should be seen as a choice to expose oneself to a greater risk and hence something for which one has to bear a larger proportion of responsibility and possibly cost than for driving a car.

There are local and global socio-economic patterns that entail problems of justice. Poor countries and poor people in all countries bear a disproportionate burden of disease and fatalities. Apart from the cost in terms of human suffering, the economic cost is substantial. It has been estimated that the direct cost due to road crashes is about 1–2 per cent of GNP in low- and middle-income countries and that the total cost to these economies is about US$ 65 billion, which is more than the total annual amount of development assistance they receive (Jacobs et al. 2000 ; Nantulya and Reich 2003 ). Furthermore, there is a growing gap between high-income countries and low- and middle-income countries, with the former experiencing improved safety, whereas the latter experience increasing rates of traffic mortality and injuries (Jacobs et al. 2000 ). Concerning health and safety, studies have shown that socio-economic factors affect the severity of injury (Zambon and Hasselberg 2006 ). Furthermore, socio-economic differences affect injuries even when individuals from different socio-economic groups drive cars that are equally safe (Laflamme et al. 2005 ).

The fact that poor people in all countries and regions are exposed to a greater risk is partly due to the fact that they cannot afford to drive a car. Instead, they have to walk, ride a bicycle or motorized two-wheeler or go by public transport. This has implications for the way technology and safety policies are exported from high-income countries. In high-income countries, more car occupants are killed in crashes, which is due to the higher degree of motorization, hence the focus on vehicle safety. Obviously, a focus on vehicle safety would not be the most effective way to reduce the number of fatalities and injuries in countries where vulnerable road users like pedestrians and cyclists are more frequently killed and injured than car occupants (Ameratunga et al. 2006 ).

The problem of the unequal global burden of road traffic fatalities and injuries is related to the philosophical debate on how theories of distributive justice and human rights should incorporate aspects of health and health care (Daniels 2001 ). It has been argued that health inequalities are worse than other kinds of inequalities and that health is of special moral importance (Daniels et al. 2004 ). Furthermore, the concept of health equity should not merely include the distribution of health care, but also the capability to achieve good health (Sen 2004 ). If I have a right to health or a right not to be killed or severely injured in a car crash when I go to the grocery store to buy some milk, whose duty is it to substantiate that right? Is it the government’s duty or, against the background of global inequalities, is it an international duty that should be fulfilled by the United Nations? The concept of a right is not unproblematic in relation to risk exposure. Moral philosophy has traditionally focussed on cases where alternatives for action are given beforehand and where the consequences of these actions are well known. This is often not the case, and whereas a majority of people would agree that killing is wrong, they might be less certain when confronted with a case of exposing someone to a risk of getting killed or injured. Whereas most people would agree that it is not acceptable for me to expose someone else to the risk of being run over by my car if the probability is 1 in 10, it is less clear whether it is permissible if the risk is 1 in 1,000,000. (Hansson 2003 ). If we have an absolute right not to be exposed to the risk of being killed or severely injured by traffic, this would effectively mean that road traffic, in its current shape, would not be allowed. In this case, that right is severely infringed upon everywhere in the world. Most people would probably not approve of such a right since it would dramatically reduce mobility and have serious effects on the economy. So either the concept of a right is not appropriate for road traffic safety or it has to be modified. Perhaps the right could be said to be a right to live in a society where everything that is practically and economically possible has been done to reduce the risk of being killed or severely injured, especially for vulnerable road users. But this becomes a rather vaguely formulated right because it is difficult to determine what “everything that is practically and economically possible” means.

Against the background of the global inequalities in road traffic mortality and injuries, a central question to be addressed is what high-income countries can and should do in order to assist low- and middle-income countries to build infrastructure and vehicles in a way that promotes safety. Although successful strategies in high-income societies could sometimes be transferred, this should be done with caution since the social, cultural and political contexts are different (Nantulya and Reich 2003 ).

Responsibility

Traditionally, driving a car has been seen as associated with the individual and her autonomy and independence. Consequently, accidents have largely been considered an individual responsibility, and a collision has been seen as the result of either unfortunate circumstances or individuals acting wrongly. Increasingly, road safety is instead seen as a joint effort and responsibility as distributed between different actors. Traditionally, the focus of traffic safety policy has been the backward-looking responsibility of the individual road users (Peden et al. 2004 ). The question has been who caused a road crash, and it has been assumed that if A caused the event E, if someone is worthy of blame for it, it would be A, and A has been an individual road user. The focus on individual causal responsibility and blameworthiness is probably connected to the assumption that the most important cause of road crashes is human error (Petridou and Moustaki 2000 ). However, a recent study shows that inadequate road design is the most important cause of people dying in road crashes (Stigsson 2006 ).

Changing the view of causation may be part of a new emerging perspective on responsibility and traffic safety. In 1997 the Swedish Parliament adopted a governmental bill that introduced the so-called Vision Zero as the long-term goal for all traffic safety projects in the country. It received substantial attention, and critics accused the proponents of setting unrealistic and possibly naïve targets. Vision Zero also entailed a fundamentally new view on responsibility and traffic safety. The so-called system designers (e.g, vehicle-producing companies and road maintainers) were assigned a forward-looking responsibility, and it was said that the most important safety-increasing measure was to improve the systems. Hence, the focus shifted from the individual road user to the system designers and from backward-looking responsibility to forward-looking responsibility. Emphasising the systems also entails a shift of focus from the triggering causal factors to the underlying ones. According to Vision Zero individuals are still responsible for following traffic rules, but if they do not live up to these expectations, the system designers must take measures (Nihlén Fahlquist 2006 ). 4

So, what could this mean in practice? As an example, consider a road crash. Let us say that individual A had been drinking alcohol previous to her driving. She obviously did not take responsibility, since she did not follow the rules prohibiting drunk driving. Regardless of how we deal with the causal responsibility and potential blame, the system designers are ascribed responsibility in the forward-looking sense. In practice, this could imply legislation on alcohol interlocks, installing an alcohol interlock in her car, etc. This represents a more pragmatic outlook since it asks what the system designers can do about the more general problem of drunk driving, given that many individual road users do not take responsibility. It is a more realistic approach than the previous one because it acknowledges the facts, in this case that people sometimes ignore traffic legislation. Hopefully what we achieve by blaming (and establishing legal liability) A is that she does not do it again, and if she is also an alcoholic we can hope that she will get help for her disease. However, this does not solve the general problem of drunk driving. To focus on forward-looking responsibility appears to be an effective approach particularly in cases where there are technological devices, like alcohol interlocks, that can solve that general problem. To what extent the automobile industry should be considered responsible, for example, for how they promote new cars is another important aspect to be taken into account. Wetmore describes a change in perspective in the USA that occurred gradually during the twentieth century. In the first part of the century, drivers were considered to be completely responsible, and safety was perceived as being a matter of collision-avoidance. This was eventually replaced in the 1950s–1960s by the so-called crashworthiness approach that emphasised the “second collision”, i.e. what happened after the collision in the phase where injuries occur. This conception of safety put focus on the responsibility of automobile producers who, it was argued, should develop technology that protects people inside their cars. They were supposed to compensate for the shortcomings of the drivers, whose errors and mistakes would always be a fact. This perspective redistributed responsibility from the driver to the vehicle and those who develop technology (Wetmore 2004 ).

When analysing issues of responsibility it is useful to compare road traffic and other modes of transportation, e.g. aviation. The question is how conventions of responsibility distributions have been developed in different areas. It goes without saying that there are differences between road traffic and aviation as modes of transportation and perhaps the different conventions of responsibility are completely justifiable. However, there may also be similarities that should be acknowledged. One of the differences between road traffic and air traffic is that the pilot, besides being the one who flies the plane, is often employed by an airline company and that her passengers in these cases are also customers. This contractual situation has consequences for the issue of responsibility. In cases of commercial aviation, the contract between the employer and the employee and the one between the customers/passengers and the pilot as well as the airline affects the distribution of responsibility. The contracts oblige the pilot to take certain safety measures and to adopt a cautious attitude to flying. A question that may be asked is why the explicit pilot-in-command’s responsibility which makes the pilot responsible for everyone’s, safety on board the aeroplane, does not apply to the car driver.

It is increasingly being acknowledged that road safety is not merely about individual behaviour and that institutional actors should take responsibility in order to decrease the number of fatalities. For example, the European Union has set the target to halve the number of traffic fatalities by 2010.

I would like to end this overview of ethical problem areas in traffic safety with some concluding thoughts on how these five ethical topics can be included and inform policy.

Attempts should be made to analyse the problem at hand carefully and as open-mindedly as possible before rushing to the conclusion that the best way to reduce or eliminate an unwanted and harmful behaviour is to criminalise and punish. Alternatives should be considered and creativity in problem solving encouraged. A good example is drunk driving where the alcohol interlock is a device worth considering as an alternative or at least additional measure to punishment.

Most measures to increase safety in road traffic can be motivated by the notion of protecting others against harm, which means that even a liberal can endorse them. However, there are some measures where the most beneficial to society may be to ignore it, for example motorcyclists not wearing a helmet, but where most people still believe society should protect individuals against harm by legislation or technology. It should be acknowledged that this is the case, and it would be helpful to carefully analyse and discuss new measures, keeping in mind the distinction between harming others and harming oneself. In some cases, most people share an intuition that a measure is justifiable even though it is paternalistic, but in other cases paternalistic measures appear unjustifiable. By acknowledging and discussing such issues freely and publicly we make sure that new laws and technologies are at least closer to being ethically justifiable.

There appears to be a fundamental difference between privacy in our own homes and privacy on the road. The reasons we are equally attached to the notion of privacy in our cars as we are to privacy in our homes are tradition, culture and habits. We should recognise that the great degree of risk-exposure associated with driving may imply that the expectation of privacy on the road is not reasonable.

A humane society protects vulnerable human beings. A humane infrastructure protects vulnerable road users, for example children, the elderly and disabled people. This implies that we should not count their lives or the quality of their lives less than others. It may even mean that additional attention should be directed at protecting such groups. A minimal requirement should be that potential damaging effects on vulnerable groups should always be taken into account when planning infrastructural projects.

The traditional view of responsibility for traffic safety is closely attached to the notion that safety is about individuals driving safely and that accidents are caused by drivers. While this is true to some extent, the emerging view that a major role can and should be played by institutions, for example governments and vehicle-producing companies, is useful and reasonable. The implied notion is that responsibility has to be distributed and shared between different actors if a safer road traffic environment is to be achieved.

People in industrialised societies are so used to road traffic that it is almost considered a part of nature. Consequently, we do not acknowledge that we can introduce change and that we can affect the role we have given road traffic and cars. By acknowledging the ethical aspects of road traffic and illuminating the way the choices society makes are ethically charged, it becomes clear that there are alternative ways to design the road traffic system. The most important general conclusion is that discussion concerning these alternative ways of designing the system should be encouraged. Here are some examples of questions to address in public debates:

• What are the reasons for prohibiting certain behaviour or requiring a certain safety device—to protect the individual from herself, to protect others or to save money? Which of these reasons are valid?
• Should society criminalise unsafe behaviour or use technology (when possible) to eliminate the unwanted behaviour?
• To what extent is it reasonable to expect privacy on the road?
• Should additional measures be used to protect vulnerable road users?
• Should safety be seen as the result of individuals behaving responsibly or the system designers designing safe systems?

Acknowledgements

This article was written when the author carried out research financed by The Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (Vinnova) at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm. It was further developed when the author was conducting research at Delft University of Technology for the research program Moral Responsibility in R&D Networks, which is supported by The Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO) under grant no. 360-20-160.

Conflict of interest

The author discloses any associations that might pose a conflict of interest.

Open Access

This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Noncommercial License which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited.

1 The environmental problems associated with road traffic are not discussed in this particular paper, but it should be acknowledged that they too imply important ethical problems. The focus in this paper is on the prevention of road traffic fatalities and injuries.

2 The road traffic death toll in Sweden is about 400-500 lives a year.

3 A recent survey confirmed that many people have this concern, i.e. that more money should be spent on saving children due to their vulnerability, Hokstad and Vatn ( 2008 ), p. 1445.

4 Norway adopted Vision Zero in 2001. The “Sustainable Traffic Safety” approach in The Netherlands stresses that the unpredictable and fallible nature of human beings as the weakest link in the transport system should be taken into account as a reason to build safer, sustainable systems to be able to cope with human error [Pieter van Vliet and Govert Schemers ( 2000 ) “Sustainable safety” Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management ( http://www.rws-avv.nl/pls/portal30/docs/1771.PDF ), p. 9]. These are similar examples of a changing perspective focussing more on systemic improvement than individual errors and blame.

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Essay on Road Safety: Sample Essay In 100,300 Words

• Updated on  
• Sep 28, 2023

Essay on Road Safety: Road safety is an imperative concern globally, with millions of lives at stake annually due to traffic accidents. This blog delves into the multifaceted issue of road safety, highlighting its pressing importance, the contributing factors behind accidents, and the pivotal measures required to create safer road environments for all.

Must Read: Essay on Education System

Table of Contents

• 1 The Importance of Road Safety
• 2 Factors Contributing to Road Safety
• 3 Innovations for Prevention
• 4 Essay on Road Safety in 100 Words
• 5 Essay on Road Safety in 300 Words

The Importance of Road Safety

Road safety is of paramount importance, safeguarding lives and ensuring the well-being of communities worldwide. Firstly, it prevents tragedies by reducing the risk of accidents and the resulting loss of life and limb. Road accidents inflict immeasurable pain on families and strain healthcare systems. Secondly, road safety plays a pivotal role in economic prosperity. It enables efficient transportation of goods and services, bolstering economic growth. Moreover, reduced accident rates translate to lower healthcare costs and productivity losses. Thus, prioritizing road safety is not just a moral duty but also a sound economic and social investment that fosters a safer, more prosperous society.

Factors Contributing to Road Safety

The following factors contribute to road safety:: 

• Driver Behavior: Responsible driving habits, adherence to speed limits, and avoiding distractions like texting or impaired driving are crucial. Defensive driving techniques help reduce accidents.
• Road Infrastructure: Well-maintained roads with clear signage, proper lighting, and road markings enhance safety. Infrastructure improvements like roundabouts and traffic calming measures can reduce accidents.
• Vehicle Safety: Modern vehicles equipped with advanced safety features, such as ABS brakes, airbags, and collision avoidance systems, contribute to road safety.
• Enforcement: Stringent law enforcement and penalties for traffic violations act as deterrents and encourage compliance with road rules.
• Education and Awareness: Public awareness campaigns, driver education programs, and initiatives to promote responsible road behaviour are essential in fostering a culture of road safety.

Innovations for Prevention

Innovations in road safety are pivotal for preventing accidents and minimizing their severity. One such innovation is the development of Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS). These systems utilize technologies like sensors, cameras, and AI algorithms to provide real-time feedback to drivers. They offer features such as lane-keeping assistance, adaptive cruise control, and automatic emergency braking, which can prevent collisions and reduce the impact of accidents.

Another significant innovation is the emergence of Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) communication. V2X technology enables vehicles to exchange data with each other and with infrastructure like traffic lights. This communication enhances situational awareness, enabling vehicles to anticipate potential hazards and take preventive actions, ultimately making our roads safer for everyone.

Essay on Road Safety in 100 Words

Road safety is a paramount concern for communities worldwide. It encompasses a range of measures and precautions aimed at reducing the risks of accidents and ensuring the well-being of all road users. Adhering to traffic rules, avoiding distractions while driving, and responsible speeding are essential aspects of individual road safety. Moreover, robust road infrastructure, including clear signage and well-maintained roads, plays a pivotal role in accident prevention.

Ultimately, prioritizing road safety is not just a matter of compliance but a collective responsibility to protect lives and promote safe, efficient transportation systems for our societies.

Must Read: Essay On Gender Discrimination

Essay on Road Safety in 300 Words

Road safety is an issue of paramount importance, affecting individuals and communities worldwide. The ever-increasing number of vehicles on the road and the complex dynamics of modern traffic demand a concerted effort to prevent accidents and safeguard lives.

One of the fundamental pillars of road safety is responsible driver behaviour. Adhering to traffic rules, avoiding distractions such as texting or using a phone while driving, and respecting speed limits are essential aspects of individual road safety. 

Furthermore, road infrastructure is a critical factor in ensuring road safety. Well-maintained roads with clear signage, proper lighting, and road markings are essential to guide drivers safely. Innovations in road design, such as the implementation of roundabouts and traffic-calming measures, have been proven to reduce accidents and their severity.

Vehicle safety is another key component. Modern vehicles equipped with advanced safety features, such as anti-lock braking systems (ABS), airbags, electronic stability control (ESC), and collision avoidance systems, significantly contribute to road safety. These technologies can prevent accidents or mitigate their consequences when they do occur.

Law enforcement and penalties for traffic violations are also crucial in promoting road safety. Strict enforcement acts as a deterrent, encouraging compliance with road rules and regulations. Drunk driving, speeding, and reckless behaviour should be met with punitive measures to discourage risky conduct on the road.

Education and awareness campaigns play a vital role in fostering a culture of road safety. They aim to educate the public about the risks associated with irresponsible driving and encourage responsible behavior. These campaigns target drivers, pedestrians, and cyclists alike, emphasizing their shared responsibility for road safety.

Road safety is not merely a matter of compliance; it is a moral and societal duty to protect lives and promote responsible road use.

Road safety is vital to prevent accidents, save lives, reduce injuries, and ensure the orderly flow of traffic.

The most crucial rule is to follow speed limits, as excessive speed is a leading cause of accidents.

A road safety essay discusses measures, behaviours, and strategies to prevent accidents and promote safe road usage for all.

We hope this blog gave you an idea about how to write and present an essay on road safety that puts forth your opinions. The skill of writing an essay comes in handy when appearing for standardized language tests. Thinking of taking one soon? Leverage Edu provides the best online test prep for the same via Leverage Live . Register today to know more!

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361 Transportation Essay Topics: Public Transport, Safety, Sustainability

On deathbed, most people regret having traveled too little. But this article is not about grim thoughts. It is about the joy of crossing countries and continents.

We will suggest 361 topics about transportation for creative writing or in-class discussion. In addition, you will learn which questions can be raised in an essay on the importance of transportation. Keep reading if you want to know what to discuss in various types of transportation essays.

• 📌 Top 15 Transportation Topics
• 🚔 Transportation Essay
• 🚢 Topics about Transportation History

🚆 Types of Transportation Essay Topics

✈ public transportation essay titles.

• ♻️ Sustainable Transportation
• 🤖 The Future of Transportation

✔ References

📌 top 15 transportation essay topics.

• What will be the next era in the history of transportation?
• Why is globalization the main engine of transport development?
• How would you change large cities’ infrastructure to reduce CO2 emissions?
• What is the most romantic transport to travel?
• Why cannot public transport be free?
• Electric or hybrid: Which cars will dominate the market?
• Private transport is the worst solution for urban mobility.
• Clean mobility Vs. Dirty transport: How to create a sustainable city?
• Electric trucks are the new generation of ecological solutions.
• Water transport is the most ancient and most contemporary technology.
• Better driver education or heavier punishment: Which is more efficient?
• Why do people enjoy traveling now more than ever before?
• Gender inequality in driving special transport persists.
• Do self-driving vehicles threaten public safety?
• Should military vehicles be safe for their operators or dangerous for the enemy?

🚔 Transportation Research Paper

History is the best way to study all the changes in transport in time and space.

Transport allowed different territories to develop. Spain is good at producing veal and olives. Why should it spend resources cultivating bananas, which grow better in African countries? It can export veal and olives and earn money to buy African bananas.

But the main issue for all the students remains: what should I include in my research? The following explanation of the types of transportation essay answers this question.

• explain why the infrastructure of your city is good for tourism;
• prove that road planning lowers greenhouse gas emissions.
• explain why one transport is better than the other;
• compare the performance characteristics of two similar vehicles;
• compare transportation practices in the past and present.
• explore the problem of speed in public airlines;
• analyze the issues in human life caused by transport.
• fantasize about the future of the industry;
• describe the features and abilities of a contemporary vehicle;
• express nostalgic thoughts for a historical kind of transport.

🚢 Transportation Essay Topics about History

• The Stages of the Evolution of Transportation.
• When did people first cross the sea?
• Who were the inventors of the earliest known boats?
• What are the artifacts of the earliest boats?
• The earliest use of the Pesse canoe.
• Rafting as a Sport: A Quick History.
• A Brief History of Horses as a Means of Transportation.
• What made people decide to train horses to carry people and goods?
• The Brief History of Aviation.
• When did the first horse domestication take place?
• How have horses evolved since it was used for transportation?
• The time when the wheel was first created.
• Which civilization invented the wheel?
• History of the Air Cargo Industry.
• The importance of the “Bronocice pot” in transportation history.
• The role of the Watt steam engine in the development of transportation.
• What is the world’s first steamship?
• Why was there insufficient interest in “Pyroscaphe’s” future development?
• Toyota Motor Corporation’s Sustainability Agenda.
• How did Robert Fulton contribute to the development of steamships?
• The Clermont: a trip from New York City to Albany.
• How was the first automobile invented?
• To what extent was the first automobile practical?
• Toyota Motors and Google Companies’ Management Dynamics.
• What is the world’s first motorcycle?
• The way of creating a Roper Steam Velocipede.
• Why did the locomotive go mainstream?
• How did the “Puffing Devil” change the economic activity of people?
• Airlines after the Deregulation Act of 1978.
• The path of evolution of locomotives.
• How did locomotives turn into a form of mass transport?
• The historical and economic importance of “Blücher.”
• The brief history of the first public inter-city railway line.
• Who was the Father of Railways?
• How did the first navigable submarine work?
• When was a military submarine first used in combat?
• The role of Orville and Wilbur Wright in the history of transportation.
• How did the world’s first airplane emerge?
• The types of transportation used in World War I.
• The first time people could travel abroad by plane.
• Similarities and differences between rotorcraft and helicopters.
• My knowledge of space vehicles.
• “Space race” between the USSR and the USA.
• How was the Apollo spacecraft invented?
• The first person to ever set foot on the moon.
• Cases of vehicle abuse in history.
• How has the development of transportation changed socio-economic life around the world?
• To what extent is transportation responsible for a less active lifestyle?
• How has the transportation industry created the workspace?
• How did people use transport for recreation?
• The role of transport development in the rise of globalization.
• My assessment of the negative impact of cars on the planet.
• What is the critical role of transportation in the global economy?
• How has the development of transport exacerbated social inequality?
• How has the efficiency of public transport improved throughout history?

Animal-Powered Transport Essay Topics

• How justified is the use of animals as vehicles?
• What animals are the best means of transport?
• A brief history of the use of animals as a means of transportation.
• How effective is animal-powered transport?
• The ancient uses of animal-powered transport.
• How has animal-powered transport changed throughout history?
• How common is animal-powered transport today?
• For what purposes is animal-powered transport used nowadays?
• Common trends in the use of animal-powered transport.
• Pros and cons of animal-powered transport.
• The role of animal-powered transport in the world economic activity.
• Animal-powered transport in Urban vs. Rural areas.
• Animal-powered transport in recreational activities.
• The role of animal-powered transport in sports.
• To what extent can animal-powered transport replace steam transport?
• The role of animal-powered transport systems in different cultures.
• Should animal-powered transport be popularized?
• My experience with animal-powered transport.
• How safe is animal-powered transport?
• Animal-powered transport and ecology.

Human-Powered Transport Essay Topics

• Types of non-vehicular human transport.
• Origins and current state of a walking bus.
• Walking bus in the context of public health.
• Running and sprinting as sports disciplines.
• Tesla Inc.’s Prospective Analysis for Investors.
• Historical development of and the Golden Age of Alpinism.
• The economic value of human-powered transport.
• Human-powered land vehicle classification.
• Social and historical aspects behind bicycle popularity.
• Examination of the Electric Vehicle Charging Station Market in the U.S.
• Technical aspects of different bicycle types.
• Causes of differences in regional velomobiles popularity.
• First attempts at human-powered flights.
• The Royal Aeronautical Society and Kremer Prizes.
• Tesla Motors Company’s Strategy Levels and Analysis.
• Projects involving human-powered rotorcraft and helicopters.
• The cultural impact of balloon transportation.
• Airship comparison to heavier-than-air aircraft.
• Human-powered watercraft in warfare.
• The Official New York City Taxi.
• Areas of application of rearward-facing and forward-facing rowing systems.
• Historical development of rowboat design factors.
• Pedaled craft in terms of recreation.
• Guinness book of records achievements for human-powered transport.

Rail Transport Essay Topics

• Ancient rail systems and transition to wooden and metal rails.
• Pre-steam rail systems are used in modern times.
• Principle of a steam-powered locomotive.
• Cultural significance of steam-powered rail transport.
• The conflict between A.C. and D.C. electric-powered locomotives.
• Dieselization in the context of rail transportation.
• High-speed rail transportation principle and potential.
• Comparison of high-speed rail to other modes of transport.
• Modern train classification and areas of use.
• Legal and economic considerations regarding adverse abandonment and right-of-way.
• The technology of train and rails inspection system.
• Social and economic consequences of European rail transport development.
• The rationale behind rail transport in terms of warfare.
• The human cost of railway construction.
• Pros and cons of railway electrification.
• Possible causes and consequences of derailment.
• Comparison of rail transport types in terms of safety.
• Principle and features of railway signaling.
• Historical origins of underground rail transport.
• The role of rail transport in the Great West Settlement.
• Tourism market and high-speed rail transportation.
• Reasons behind Japanese advancement in rail transport.
• Problems during the Trans-Siberian Railway construction.
• Railway construction during Great Depression.
• Failed APT Project of the United Kingdom.
• Monorail tracks’ popularity in different countries.
• Potential of magnetic suspension train transportation.
• Significance of the Great Carajas Project.
• Advantages of today’s metro technology.
• Relationship between railway density and regional economic development.

Road Transport Essay Topics

• Wheeled transport during the B.C. era.
• Comparison of Appian and Silk roads.
• Use of elephants as animal-powered road transport.
• Origins of two- and three-wheeled motor vehicles.
• The role of highways in the U.S. development.
• Social impact of automobile invention.
• Construction and design of road systems.
• Reasons behind the increased danger of road transport.
• Car pollution in towns and cities.
• Advantages and disadvantages of hybrid cars.
• Regional peculiarities of traffic codes.
• Evolution of car design features.
• A.I. autopilots – current state and future predictions.
• Comparison of existing renewable fuels.
• Car industry problems in developed countries.
• Technologies for car pollution reduction.
• Role of road transport in warfare.
• Fuel consumption is based on car origin.
• Importance of personal car driving.
• Features of the modern automobile industry.
• The issue of insufficient parking space.
• Car and bicycle transportation comparison in Amsterdam.
• Social and cultural significance of automobile sport.
• Role of cars in post-World War II America.
• Choice of recyclable materials in the car industry.
• Significance of trucking in world cargo transportation.
• Cars in modern culture and mass media.
• Economic advantages and disadvantages of rent-a-car service.
• Origins of vehicle registration plates.
• Traffic code peculiarities based on the vehicle type.

Maritime Transport Essay Topics

• Roman and Carthage naval comparison.
• Main features of naval navigation.
• Trade logistics in international waters.
• Significance of maritime transport for tourism.
• The shipping industry in terms of profitability.
• Environmental impact of maritime transport.
• Significance of water transport during the colonial era.
• Origins and current state of piracy.
• Maritime Transportation Security Act description.
• Impact of containerization on global transportation.
• Titanic tragedy causes and cultural impact.
• Role of the fleet during World War II.
• Origins and current state of water legislation.
• Environmental impact of the fishing industry.
• Port management and maritime industry.
• Causes and consequences of STCW.
• Coastal guard maritime law enforcement.
• Maritime transport modifications in terms of marine archaeology.
• Significance of submarines in warfare and civil engineering.
• Comparison of maritime transportation to the road and air modes.
• How does globalization influence modern sea power?
• Convention of the law of the sea.
• Impact of gunpowder invention on naval warfare.
• UNCLOS introduction and main features.
• Naval warfare during the Peloponnesian War.
• Zones of influence in the Arctic region.
• Christopher Columbus’s journey and discoveries.
• Comparison of colonial empires’ sea power in the 19th century.
• Origins and influence of ONI.
• Classification of modern naval transport.

Air Essay Topics

• Air force production and maintenance.
• Environmental impact of the modern aviation industry.
• Significance of aviation during World War II.
• Civil aviation hijacking and terrorism.
• Business and Corporate Strategies of United Airlines.
• Peculiarities of safety culture in aviation.
• Advantages and disadvantages of automation in aviation.
• Impact of human errors in aviation accidents.
• Features of emergency response planning in aviation transportation.
• Information security issues in aviation.
• The societal and cultural influence of aviation.
• History of the aviation industry in the U.S.
• Consequences of BREXIT on the U.K. and Europe’s aviation.
• Aerodynamic qualities of materials used in aviation.
• Psychological disorders connected to aviation transport.
• Impact of COVID-19 outbreak on the aviation industry.
• Aviation law field and essential international documents.
• Aviation industry and crew resource management.
• Comparison of public and private aviation.
• Fundamental ethical principles in aviation.
• Modern technological advances in the aviation industry.
• Historical development of international aviation alliances.
• History and role of federal aviation administration.
• Contemporary issues of the aviation industry.
• Passenger profiling in aviation security.
• An aviation arms race between the U.S. and China.
• Safety management systems designed for aviation service.
• Economic consequences following aviation accidents.
• Cultural peculiarities of aviation organizational safety.
• Development of aviation between the two World Wars.
• Principle of modern aviation traffic controllers.
• Automobiles and animal-powered transport in the 20th century.
• Environmental impact of public transport.
• Comparison of public and private transport in terms of safety.
• Relationship of public transport and tourism.
• The Two Main Agencies in Civil Aviation.
• Importance of efficient public transport infrastructure.
• The economic contribution of public transport.
• Sanitary issues of public transport.
• Advantages and disadvantages of privatizing public transport.
• Political influence on public transportation.
• Regional differences in the most prevalent public transport type.
• Public transport’s accessibility for disabled people.
• Technological solutions in terms of passenger ticket validation.
• Delta Airlines’ Business and Corporate Strategies.
• Current state and potential of intelligent transportation systems.
• Public transport’s contribution to traffic congestion.
• Accessibility of public transport in rural areas.
• Racial segregation in public transport in the U.S.
• SARPs: Public Health Emergency Airport Plan.
• The issue of public transport security.
• Public transport in culture and social media.
• The issue of homeless people using public transport.
• The economic impact of COVID-19 on public transport.
• Dubai Airports’ Strategic Human Resource Management.
• Ferries as the earliest type of public transport.
• Omnibus origins and geographical spread.
• Comparison of trams and trolleybuses in terms of efficiency.
• The essential elements of a successful public transport system.
• Fly Emirates Company’s Performance Management.
• Comparison of public transport systems quality in Europe, North America, and Asia.
• Evolution of taxi transportation in the U.S.
• The competitive advantage of modern maritime public transport.
• Advantages and disadvantages of underground public transport.
• Historical reasons behind human-powered public transportation in Asia.
• Peculiarities of regional tram traffic rules.

Importance of Transportation Essay Topics

• Transport systems in international trade.
• The importance of transportation for business.
• Do the purposes of transport differ?
• Transportation contribution to economics.
• The role of transportation in globalization.
• The use of transport for recreational purposes.
• Transportation as the most significant energy drainer.
• Impact of transportation on commerce?
• What is the purpose of transport planning?
• Transportation and the increased CO2 emissions.
• Transportation to minimize environmental impact.
• Importance of recreational transport for tourism.
• Transportation in sustainable development.
• The role of leisure transportation.
• The importance of transportation in manufacturing.
• The historical impact of transportation evolution.
• Traffic congestion as an economic issue.
• What are the modes of transportation?
• Why do governments subsidize transportation?
• Mechanical transportation pros and cons.
• The modern problems of transportation.
• The cost of the effective transportation system.
• Animals as a type of transportation.
• Vehicles as a popular type of transportation.
• Do enterprises operate transportation?
• Role of public transport for tourism.
• What is the difference between urban and rural transportation?
• Relation of road capacities to safety.
• Congestion pricing as a problem in urban areas.
• The impact of transportation on tourism.

♻️ Sustainable Transportation Essay Topics

• The evaluation of transport sustainability.
• How does transportation affect ecology?
• The use of sustainable transport.
• Transport system and energy consumption.
• The road-rail parallel layout.
• Does transport cause the greenhouse effect?
• Transportation as the primary pollution tool.
• The environmental expenses of the transportation.
• The environmental costs of vehicles.
• Can transportation initiate deaths by air pollution?
• The health consequences of air pollution.
• The transportation and climate change relation.
• The reduction of carbon emissions in transportation.
• The pros and cons of using low carbon transport.
• Discharges of sewage’s role in pollution.
• May transportation affect agriculture?
• Is public transport the primary pollution source?
• How does inequality influence transportation?
• The advantages of using green transport.
• Ways to achieve green shipping.
• What are the alternatives to fuel vehicles?
• Effect of transportation on city structure?
• The land-use planning approbation.
• Environmental effects of private transportation.
• Legislative regulation of negative consequences.
• Transportation contribution to noise pollution.
• Oil price impact on transportation.
• The impact of transportation in rural areas.
• How can carsharing decrease air pollution?
• Can carsharing achieve better sustainability?

🤖 The Future of Transportation Essay Topics

• Comparing past and future transportation.
• The influence of technological advancement.
• Why does the modern system need improvement?
• Information Technology in Transportation.
• What are transportation innovation directions?
• The advantages of aerial transportation.
• The drawbacks of aerial vehicles.
• The negative consequences of self-driving taxis.
• Costs of transportation for space tourism.
• What may encourage car use to decline?
• Have smartphones transformed transportation?
• Rockets as a transport for tourism.
• The dangers of autonomous vehicles.
• The moral problem behind autonomous cars.
• The smart sources of energy types.
• Advantages of electricity as a power.
• Can transport address the congestion?
• The cons of using electrical energy.
• The consequences of air as transportation.
• Aerial vehicles and land-use planning.
• The future sources of power.
• Can autonomous vehicles increase unemployment?
• The future of transportation in e-commerce.
• Autonomous transportation and obesity connection.
• The cost of electrical transportation.
• A potential transport for space tourism.
• How feasible is it to power a car electrically?
• Can carsharing solve traffic congestion?
• Increasing population and future transportation.
• Environmental impact of the future transport system.
• How can the future of transportation be improved?
• The History of Transportation – ThoughtCo
• The future of transportation: Where will we go? – Geotab
• Science. Technology and Transport – UNESCO
• Transportation Engineering Research – University of Washington
• Critical Issues in Transportation 2019 – Transportation Research Board
• The Four Problems Of Urban Transportation (And The Four Solutions) – Forbes

Essay on Road Safety

500 words essay on road safety.

In today’s fast-paced world, road accidents are happening at a very high rate. Although, the technological advancements in the automobile industry has thankfully brought down the mortality rates. Nonetheless, there are a lot of potential hazards that are present on the road. Thus, road safety is important to safeguard everyone. In this essay on road safety, we will learn its importance and its basic rules.

Importance of Essay on Road Safety

Road safety is important to safeguard the well-being of everyone including humans and other living beings. This essay on road safety will help us learn about why it is important. A lot of environmental factors determine our road safety.

For instance, if it is raining or there is heavy fog or smog, the visibility of the driver will be hampered. It may result in pile-ups on the highway. Similarly, there are other factors like rain that lead to hydroplaning.

In this phenomenon, the vehicles that travel at high speeds start to slide uncontrollably as the tires of the vehicle push off the ground through a thin film of water present on the road.

However, road safety rules can help us avoid all these dangerous situations easily. When people follow the road safety rules rigorously and maintain their vehicles well, everyone can remain safe.

Most importantly, it is also essential to drive within the prescribed speed limits. Also, one must not use their mobile phone when driving a vehicle. Road safety is of utmost importance to make sure that everyone remains safe and healthy.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Basic Rules of Road Safety

There are a lot of general and basic rules that one must follow when they drive vehicles or use public roads in general. The first rule is to know the signals and pay attention to them rigorously.

This applies to both the driver as well as the pedestrian. Further, it is important for those who are walking to use the sidewalks and pedestrian crossings. It is also essential to be aware of all the rules and laws of the state and abide by them.

Most importantly, it is also mandatory to have an approved driving license before getting on the road with your vehicle. Road safety sensitization is vital to ensure the safety of everyone.

Making the general public aware of the importance of road safety can help reduce the rate of accidents and road mishaps that happen on a daily basis. Seminars and educating people can be helpful to guide them and make them aware of the consequences.

Conclusion of Essay on Road Safety

To sum it up, everyone must follow the road rules. Do not drive at excessive speed and try to enhance the general awareness so risks of traffic accidents can be reduced. One must also check the vehicle health regularly and its maintenance parts to eliminate any potential risks.

FAQ on Essay on Road Safety

Question 1: What is road safety?

Answer 1: Road safety refers to the methods that we adopt to prevent road users from getting injuries or being killed in traffic accidents. They are essential to maintain everyone’s well being.

Question 2: How can one avoid traffic accidents and enhance road safety?

Answer 2: One can avoid traffic accidents by following the road rules strictly. Moreover, they must also make sure their vehicles are always well-maintained. Further, it is also vital to drive within the speed limits of the state. Do not use phones when driving or be under the influence of alcohol.

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Safety First: How Transportation Technology is Increasing Fleet Safety for the Long Haul

While many annual industry events have been canceled due to COVID-19, the summer 2020  Operation Safe Driver Week with a focus on speeding carried on as scheduled. The Commercial Vehicle Safety Alliance reported 75% higher average speeds in March and April 2020. It’s a timely reminder that staying safe on the road is critical, especially for truck drivers who do not have the choice to stay home.

If the recent public health emergency has proven anything, it’s that the trucking industry has never been more essential. As supply chain issues and shelter-in-place orders have impacted the nation, the trucking industry has ensured that in-demand goods and medical supplies are delivered to hospitals, grocery stores, and essential businesses. Ensuring these drivers get from point A to point B is crucial—both for the drivers on the road and the public relying on the deliveries.

Recent Regulation Changes 

In May, the U.S. Department of Transportation’s Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration updated existing regulations for truck drivers. The controversial changes—which amended former regulations around mandatory breaks and maximum driving hours—were applauded by some industry groups for allowing much-needed flexibility in truckers’ schedules, while truck safety advocates have said the updates will make highways more dangerous. 

So, how will our industry protect drivers along their routes? According to recent studies , balancing a culture of safety and connection while investing in advanced transportation management technologies is the key. 

Staying Connected Through Transportation Technology

For many drivers, feeling connected on the road is an important part of getting to their destination safely. Mobile technology is keeping today’s drivers connected when it matters most—from software installed on drivers’ mobile devices to help them stay connected with the rest of the fleet, to a Facebook community dedicated to keeping female drivers in touch while out on the road. 

Effective training and feedback are equally important for newly-hired drivers—especially during these unprecedented times when hiring, onboarding and safety training must be conducted remotely. Some telematics providers are offering video-based in-cab safety monitoring systems, which use cameras and other sensors to monitor the driver’s performance and help fleet managers provide feedback. This technology can also be used to develop customized in-vehicle alerts and training sessions to target and improve driver habits.

Drivers are responding well to the technology if it means improved safety while out on the road. According to one study , 73% of commercial truck drivers are interested in receiving feedback once a week or more while over 50% feel that technology has positively impacted driver safety by helping them stay focused and make more accurate decisions.

Increased Safety with Video Technology

Video Intelligence systems—which can provide a 360-degree view around a truck, including cameras built into a truck’s spot mirrors and a trailer backup camera that livestreams in-cab video—are an effective way to protect drivers while preventing safety-related incidents on the road. Fleets that have implemented this technology have seen overwhelmingly positive impacts on their bottom line, their drivers and those with whom they share the road.

While there are countless success stories where Video Intelligence has saved fleets from potential lawsuits by providing video evidence of accidents on the road, perhaps the most valuable use of this transportation technology comes from the data it can use to inform safety measures. 

Video Intelligence has become an invaluable coaching tool for hundreds of businesses across the country by allowing fleet managers to focus on behaviors in need of improvement, making the fleet safer and more efficient with every new training opportunity. Studies show that this type of behavior analysis can lower collision instances by up to 30%— preventing as many as 63,000 crashes, 17,733 injuries, and 293 deaths each year.

Distraction-Free Driving 

According to the National Safety Council, more than 700 people are injured in distracted driving crashes every day—including 22% of commercial drivers who have been injured in a distracted driving incident. That same survey found that commercial drivers generally feel safe but acknowledge they could be safer, particularly if they can successfully eliminate distractions. 

A healthy mix of smart transportation technology and planning are helping today’s drivers prevent distractions on the road. Fleets are turning to hands-free in-cab navigation platforms to improve the safety and efficiency of its drivers and vehicles. Drivers agree that specific technology is actually helping them stay more focused while driving—including hands-free phones, a camera to view the outside of the vehicle, GPS devices, and other assistance such as lane departure warnings, voice recognition, and automatic braking .

The technology is out there, but it is up to our industry to put it into action. While the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration reported an overall decrease in highway fatalities for the third consecutive year, large truck fatalities increased by 1%—which means there is still work to be done. As the trucking industry continues to move America forward during and after the pandemic, it is imperative that we double down on truck safety to protect our drivers out on the road.  

How Trimble Can Support Your Fleet’s Safety

While the COVID-19 pandemic has brought fleet safety into focus, the issue of keeping our roads safe is of crucial importance, not just for transportation companies but also for everyone they share the road with.

Trimble is building the solutions to help you and your drivers stay safe on the road, including through the use of Video Intelligence. Learn more about this innovative platform and how it can help you not only improve safety in your fleet but protect yourself in the event of an accident. 

151 Transportation Essay Topics & Writing Tips

Have you ever thought about the importance of transportation? Every day we see cars, trucks, planes, and ships and never wonder what exactly they are doing. In fact, these vehicles not only transport people from one place to another. They also form a vast system that plays a vital role in any country.

This is what transportation essays are devoted to. This article by Custom-Writing.org team will help you with writing your paper. Here, you will find:

• a list of 151 excellent topics;
• a step-by-step writing guide;
• a public transportation essay sample.
• 🔄 Before You Start
• ✈️ Transportation Topics
• ✍️ Outline & Guide
• 📑 Essay Sample

🔗 References

🔄 essays on transportation: before you start.

First of all, we want to explain the two essential things you should consider before writing an essay. These are narrowing down the scope and planning .

STEP#1: Narrow down the scope.

Needless to say, transportation is a field that offers hundreds of issues to consider. You can start by determining what aspects of transportation interest you the most and using them as a starting point for your essay.

STEP#2: Plan your paper.

After you’ve collected plenty of material for the essay, the next step is to think what specific points you want to highlight and what particular sources will be necessary. An effective way to do it is to make note cards while researching your topic:

• On every note card, write down the point that you want to include in your paper.
• Look through your cards and choose ideas that will finally make up your transportation essay.

✈️ Transportation Essay Topics

Now you’re ready to choose a perfect topic. Below you’ll find various exciting ideas that you’ll enjoy writing about.

Transportation Essay Topics: Top 10

• Public transport in rural areas.
• Road transport’s economy.
• The future of public transport.
• How to start a car
• Gender inequality in driving
• Family cars: pros and cons
• American vs. British driving
• Peculiarities of building bridges
• My first driving experience
• Preventing road accidents.

Topics for an Essay on Transportation in the Past and Present

Transport plays an integral part in human history . Its development facilitated the expansion of territories and allowed different nations to collaborate. Explore these fascinating transportation topics in your essay:

• Importance of mobility: then and now. The role of transport has changed dramatically over time. Are you interested in studying differences in vehicle use between the past and present? This topic is for you.  
• Transportation modes before and after the Industrial Revolution . Choose several vehicles from the past. Then, compare them to some modern ones. Which of the old transportation modes have survived to this day?
• Animal-powered transport: past to present. With this topic, consider the earliest methods of transit. You can focus on horses , camels, or llamas. It’s also interesting to look into the current use of animals for transportation.
• How did transport influence expansion? Assess the role of vehicles during the Age of Exploration . How did they facilitate competition between countries?
• National Road: connecting the US through the first highway . The National Road was vital for America’s expansion. Write about its past and present impact in your essay.  
• From the Appian Way to the Silk Road . Compare these two historic roads. Which of their features caused trade to boost? Can we trace present-day trade globalization to them?
• Interstate Highway System and its legacy. The Interstate Highway System is a perfect transportation topic. Your essay might address its role in the US transit development. How does it connect America’s past with its present?
• Challenges of transport in the past and present. Comparing past issues to the present ones can provide you with a perspective. This topic requires thorough historical analysis. For instance, you may focus on infrastructure development vs. environmental concerns. 
• From horse-drawn carriages to gasoline cars . The invention of the first automobiles is an exciting essay idea. Describe the significance of this innovation. How did it influence people’s lives?
• Air travel : a revolution in the transportation industry. This exciting topic will take you on a journey through history. Describe the invention of a plane starting with the earliest attempts. What makes it a crucial step in global development?
• Transport in the military . Vehicles help to accomplish critical tasks in the army. In your essay, explore inventions introduced during wartime. For example, you may examine the role of zeppelins and U-boats in WWI or bombers in WWII .
• Transit for indigenous cultures in the past and present. Examine several tribes in your transportation essay. Various aboriginal cultures have unique approaches to transit. What factors influenced their emergence? 

Topics for an Essay on Transportation Systems

Transportation systems are various means of carrying goods or people. These include air, water, and land transport. All of their components are interconnected, with each one serving a unique role.

• Intelligent Transportation Systems : how AI transforms the industry. Explore the latest innovative ideas with this topic. Will AI systems define the future of supply chain management ?
• Transport systems and sustainability: working toward a better future. It’s not easy to maintain an  environmentally friendly  approach in the transportation industry. Your essay can explore several recent solutions.  
• Connected Autonomous Vehicles (CAVs): what are the prospects? CAVs are a recent yet promising development. Will they be the next milestone in public mobility?
• Control of hazardous materials: key concerns.  Environmental hazards are often mentioned in conjunction with public transport issues. This concern harkens back to the problem of sustainability. Further research on this topic can help improve road management. 
• Video detection: opportunities for flexible data capture. This future-oriented essay will be fascinating to write. For example, you can research the options that digital video detection tools offer.
• AI-based traffic control frameworks. Traffic control is a crucial factor in road management. What innovative tools were introduced in recent years? Review them in your paper.
• Deep learning in transportation systems .  Technological updates are essential for preventing accidents. What opportunities does deep learning offer in this regard?
• Complex system software for improving the road management system.  You can focus your essay on IT tools. What type of software is required to navigate a modern transportation framework? Review its various opportunities.  
• Construction and structural design of road systems. Road designs change to reflect our current needs. Today it’s essential to make them safe and sustainable . Look into the industry trends and outline them in your paper.
• Integration of manufacturing systems.  Lean production is an exciting idea to explore. How can manufacturing systems help in improving the transportation sector? 
• Manufacturing, modeling, and simulation.  Explore modeling and simulation as tools for creating safer vehicles . Can they increase the efficacy of current transportation systems? 

Ideas for an Essay on Transportation and Communication

Communication is intrinsically connected with transportation. From the dawn of humanity, people exchanged goods and information by traveling. Throughout the ages, the speed of these exchanges increased. Today, our opportunities regarding communication are practically endless. Enjoy researching them in your essay!

• Ways of increasing market size using transportation and communication.  For this paper, analyze the changes in the target market attributes. What influences market size?
• Role of communication in informing the public about disasters. Discuss disaster preparedness and information management.  
• How do transport and communication improve travel accessibility?  Assess the extent of this change. What are its economic implications?  
• Investments in infrastructure development.  Analyze the current model of managing transport-related financial concerns. Does focusing on  socioeconomic factors  make it effective? 
• Policymaking as an issue in transportation and communication.  Analyze the implications of policymaking on economic development. Will development rates increase if we reconsider the existing policies?
• Updating policies for cargo storage handling.  In your essay, review the issues of cargo management. How can we make it better? 
• Investing in transportation and communication. Point out the connections between investment and the socioeconomic environment.

• Spatial problems in building a transport system network . Spatial problems cause multiple infrastructure issues. Study them and expose the issues in building of transportation and communication channels.
• Economic issues in transport management: key outcomes. Your essay could also delve into the financial problems of transit. Transport should be linked in a working system. Otherwise, you can expect dire consequences for its management.
• Ways of increasing reliability of  data management . Information management directly affects the realm of transport. The reliability of the data determines its effectiveness. How can we improve it? 
• Building a global transportation and communication system.  With this topic, you can review critical global transport trends. Explore advantages and drawbacks of the innovation. Pay attention to the development of a worldwide framework.  
• Transportation and communication: gateway to economic development. Economic changes will lead to improved communication within transport systems . As a result, it will become more efficient. Encourage this improvement by writing an essay about it.

Benefits of Public Transportation: Essay Topics

Nowadays, public transportation is losing its popularity. More and more people prefer buying a car instead. However, buses and subways still have numerous benefits. Explore them with this list of essay topics:

• What are the three main benefits of urban  public transport ?  Talk about how public transportation improves life in the cities. Mention how subways are faster than any type of private urban transport.   
• How does public transit benefit the environment ? Discuss how it helps to keep the air clean by reducing CO2 emissions.
• Private transport is not as safe as public transit.  Talk about how safe public transport is. Unlike traveling by car, it has fewer accidents, traffic casualties, and deaths. 
• In what ways does mass transit reduce health issues ? Here you can mention how the use of subways increases physical activity.
• Public transportation gives people more free time. For instance, it allows passengers to read, study, or work instead of watching the road . It can also reduce the commute time.
• Why is public transit perfect for tourists?  Discuss how it helps tourists to learn more about the places they travel to.   
• Public transportation contributes to the country’s economy. For example, it creates job opportunities such as drivers and dispatchers.
• Mass transit is the best way to travel.  You can interview people who prefer to use public transport. Mention how it helps them to save money and time.  
• How does public transportation help to reduce air pollution?  For instance, you can mention that using it leads to fewer car emissions.  
• The importance of efficient public transportation . Explain how the development of mass transit helps to improve people’s lives. For example, it allows them to commute to work and travel between cities and countries.
• Public transit helps to reduce traffic congestion in the big cities . You can assess the role of an efficient transport system with timetables.
• How does technology change public transportation?  Talk about technological development that helps to improve the mass transit system, making it more convenient.  
• What makes up an efficient public transport system?  Mention various means of transport, as well as good routes and timetables.  
• Reasons why you should use public transportation . You can discuss its safety, convenience, and other benefits.
• The popularity of mass transit in the modern world. Talk about how it allows people to travel to work and visit other cities or countries.   

Essay on Air Transportation: Topics & Ideas

The invention of air transport was one of the greatest milestones in human history. It allowed us to travel faster and safer than ever before. Are you interested in aircraft and its various uses? Check out these examples of air transportation essay topics:

• The effect of air transportation on tourism . Mention that the developments of air services have shaped tourism in many countries.
• The main benefits of air transportation . For example, talk about how it allows people to travel far distances in a relatively short amount of time.
• Aviation and its adverse effects on the environment. Discuss how aircraft use contributes to air, noise, water, and soil pollution. and soil pollution.
• Economic development and aviation. Discuss how air transportation contributed to the global economy. For instance, you can mention the development of tourism.
• Traveling by plane is safer than road transportation.  Here you can mention that despite many flights dispatched each day worldwide, the reports of crashes are very rare. On roads, however, no day goes by without a report of a motor accident. 
• What are the reasons for the rise of air transportation? Explain why it became popular. For example, you can talk about how air travel became more accessible for people.
• Why is air transportation more efficient than high-speed rail ? Mention how a plane can get you anywhere, as it doesn’t need roads.
• Aviation and its accessibility. For example, you can mention the prices of the tickets and the number of airports in different countries.
• Main reasons why air transportation is safe . Talk about the high-security standards in airports . Give some statistics that show how rarely accidents occur. You can also mention how airplanes and helicopters are equipped for emergencies.
• Air transportation and globalization. Talk about how aviation contributed to globalization, allowing people to travel and transport goods over significant distances.
• What is the importance of air transportation ? Discuss the benefits of air transportation and how it helps to improve people’s lives.
• Pros and cons of air transport . The development of air transportation helped to improve communication between the countries. On the downside, it has a serious environmental impact.
• Does air transportation have any environmental benefits? Discuss whether aviation affects nature only in a negative way. You can talk about the technological improvements that help modern airplanes to emit less carbon monoxide.
• The political importance of air transportation.  Here you can talk about how the development of air transportation improved communication between nations. You can also mention how aircraft can be used as a weapon.  
• Ways to improve air transportation.  Talk about technological development that can make traveling by plane more environmentally friendly.  

Extra Transportation Topics

Still haven’t found a suitable topic? Well, here are 76 more transportation essay ideas:

• The importance of transportation for a country’s economy . Review the main effects of urban transport on different aspects of the economy and assess its significance.
• The public transport system.  Research the sphere of different transport modes and determine how they’re connected. 
• Transportation in times of the Industrial Revolution . The industrial revolution has influenced today’s transport economy in many ways. The transport organization of that period is an interesting topic to research.
• Urban transport  improvement in developing countries.  Focus the research on finding ways to solve transport problems. You may also propose a new transport policy.
• Adjustments for transport fares in a city of your choice. The essay may identify issues in the transport economy and suggests measures for its improvement.
• Raising funds for transport improvement.  With this topic, you can focus on different fundraising strategies , such as public campaigns. With this topic, you can focus on different fundraising strategies, such as public campaigns. 
• Types of government interventions in  air transport  organization.  The essay may review existing governmental instruments for improving air transportation  in a region.
• Balancing supply and demand in rural transport economy. You can explore this important topic by identifying issues in rural transport and reviewing strategies for matching supply and demand.
• Application of economic theory to urban transport. For this essay, study various economic theories and see which of them can be applied to different modes of transport .
• Effective transport systems in various countries. One option is to study several examples of public transport in India and South Africa.
• Development of water transport.  This essay can explore how different modes of water transport could improve a city’s connectivity.
• Recent economic trends in rural transport
• How to choose transport for people with mental disorders
• Current healthcare-related transport issues  in the United States
• A dilemma of animal-powered transport and animal rights 
• The idea of transportation from the Amish point of view 
• Travel by train or by plane: the importance of psychological factors 
• Story of the first car made by Francois Isaac de Rivaz
• Public  transportation in the USA : the 1990s vs. the 2000s 
• Rail transport : 5 issues to worry about in the 21st century
• Peculiarities of shooting films on trains:  Murder on the Orient Express
• Importance of communication during travel by plane 
• Threats of cruise ships: Titanic’s  story
• Passenger 57  vs.  Speed : movies about transportation challenges
• The Fast and the Furious : a wave of popularity for car movies
• Is it acceptable to text while driving?
• Toll roads in the USA: an important inequality issue
• Pixar’s  Cars : what does it teach us about transport? 
• Advertisement banners in the subway : a powerful marketing tool or a peril?
• School bus transportation in Europe and the United States
• What emotional problems do students face when they use school buses?
• Bike lanes in parks: the question of safety 
• Cycling infrastructure: threats and benefits for drivers
• Who is responsible for safety in aviation ?
• Transport that kills: the case of 9/11  
• Riding a motorcycle : benefits and possible risks
• Special free training programs to support motorcycle safety
• Public helipads in the city: equipment that matters
• Traffic congestion  in the United States: causes and solutions
• Impact of traffic jams on human health and employment 
• Overpopulation or lack of roads: what toughens traffic congestion?
• Safety of cable transport: how to behave in elevators
• Reasons to visit the  Moon : spaceflight access for Americans
• Gas pipelines: a safe means of transportation or a reason for concern? 
• Benefits of ferry transport: a place for contemplation
• Water bike free access: the necessity of a license
• Illegal behavior of drivers : lessons to learn
• What are the most common driving distractions?
• Traffic  jams and their impact on human behavior
• Electric transportation technologies of the 21st century
• Hygiene in public transport: subway threats for Americans 
• Driving accidents : the roles of drivers, passengers, and pedestrians
• Transportation lessons from movies: Gone in 60 Seconds
• Types of conflicts between motorcyclists and car drivers 
• Availability of transport for low-income families in the United States 
• Why do people need vehicles in their lives?
• What would happen if all modern transport disappeared?
• Pros and cons of transportation progress in society
• Competition between different transportation systems
• Differences between airline flight classes: are they equally safe?
• Child  car seat : a new law and new power
• The popularity of monorail tracks in different parts of the world
• Do people actually like using transport or do they just have to do it? 
• The effects of drunk driving on road traffic death rates. 
• Gas prices and human needs: solutions for drivers
• What can your car tell about you?
• Environmental concerns in car driving discussions : dilemma without a solution
• Public and  private transportation : how to make the right choice
• You can  live without a car , but do you want it?
• Transportation in healthcare: goals, techniques, and outcomes 
• Emotions while driving: the importance of control and expert help
• Radio, phone calls, and communication:  threats for drivers
• Plane and train traveling : history and current situation
• Water transportation characteristics and techniques: sea vs. river
• Space for people: what should you know about spaceflights?
• A variety of transport in the  James Bond  franchise

If you haven’t found what you’re looking for, feel free to use our topic generator !

✍️ Transportation Essay Outline & Writing Guide

Now that you’ve chosen a perfect transportation topic, you’re ready to learn how to plan your essay. Similar to any other type of academic writing, a transportation essay consists of three main parts:

Now, let’s see how to write each essay part.

Transportation Essay Introduction

An introduction is the first part of the essay. Its goal is to let the reader know what they can expect from this work. Try to make your introduction as brief and straightforward as possible.

Since the introductory paragraph starts the paper, it has to draw the reader’s attention. The most effective way to achieve it is by using a hook . A question, an interesting fact, or statistics can work as a hook:

Why is public transportation important?

Did you know that in 2019 Americans took around 9.9 billion trips using public transportation?

After you’re done with the hook, do the following:

• State what your paper is about. The reader needs to know the essay’s main topic and why it is important.
• Provide some background information. It will help you to establish the issue.
• Finally, build a strong thesis statement. Want to know how? Read the following section.

What Is the Strongest Thesis for an Essay on Public Transportation?

A thesis statement is a sentence that contains an answer to your paper’s central question. It helps you organize and develop your arguments and ideas. It also makes it easier for the reader to follow your logic.

To generate a good thesis statement, think of a question you will answer in your essay. For instance, let’s say your topic is “Explain how using public transportation can benefit people’s health.” With a topic like this, you may choose a question such as “What are the health benefits of using public transport?”

After you have a question, you can think of some answers to it. For instance:

• The possible health benefits of using public transportation are that it helps to be more active, reduces stress, and keeps the air cleaner.
• Using public transportation can help people stay more active, avoid stress, and keep the air cleaner.

Keep in mind that a thesis statement shouldn’t be too general. Try to narrow down the topics so that it becomes more specific. Take a look at the following thesis examples:

Transportation Essay: Main Body

In the essay’s body, you prove your thesis and support it with examples. If you have a simple thesis, you probably won’t need many body paragraphs to explain your ideas. Usually, 2 or 3 are enough.

Each of the main body paragraphs should contain:

Transportation Essay Conclusion

In a conclusion, you go back to the main focus of your essay. When writing a concluding paragraph, make sure to:

• Rephrase the thesis statement. Remind the reader of your main argument using the information you have discussed in the body paragraphs.
• Summarize the points you’ve made. It’s better to avoid mentioning new information in your conclusion. Briefly summarize the points you’ve made and explain how they support your ideas.
• Talk about the argument’s significance. Demonstrate why the discussion on this topic is important. For instance, you may demonstrate how your argument helps shed light on a neglected issue. You can also suggest what the reader can do with the information they’ve learned.

📑 Public Transportation Essay Sample

Looking for an example a transportation essay? Look no further! Below, you will find an excellent essay example. Check it out:

We hope that this article helped you write your essay. Tell us in the comments which transportation topic you’ve chosen. Don’t forget to check our free tips on other essay types!

You might also be interested in:

• How to Write an Impressive Discursive Essay: Tips to Succeed
• Friendship Essay: Writing Guide & Topic Ideas about Friendship
• Teamwork Essay: Quick Guide on How to Write a Good Paper
• Compare and Contrast Essay Writing Tips and Examples
• People and Place: Building Better Transportation Systems: Bush Center
• Core Components of Transportation: Transport Geography
• Communication and Transportation: Encyclopedia.com
• Transportation: Encyclopedia Britannica
• Transportation: History.com
• Transportation Trends: Deloitte.com
• Air Freight – Trade Finance Global
• The Early Airlines You Might Not Have Heard Of: Smithsonian Institution
• Logistics Definition: Investopedia
• What is Public Transportation: Modes and Benefits: Conserve Energy Future
• Public Transportation Can Save the World—If We Let It: The Verge
• Public Transportation Systems: County Health Rankings
• The Role of Transport and Communication Infrastructure in Realizing Development Outcomes: Research Gate
• The Transportation-Communication Revolution: 50 Years of Dramatic Change in Economic Development: CATO Institute
• The Top 10 Benefits of Public Transportation: Smart Cities Dive
• Public Transportation Facts: American Public Transportation Association
• Expand Public Transportation Systems and Offer Incentives: US Department of Transportation
• Environmental Benefits of Public Transportation: South University
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A nationalism essay is focused on the idea of devotion and loyalty to one’s country and its sovereignty. In your paper, you can elaborate on its various aspects. For example, you might want to describe the phenomenon’s meaning or compare the types of nationalism. You might also be interested in...

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Your mood leaves a lot to be desired. Everything around you is getting on your nerves. But still, there’s one thing that may save you: music. Just think of all the times you turned on your favorite song, and it lifted your spirits! So, why not write about it in a music essay? In this article, you’ll find all the information necessary for this type of assignment: And...

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Free Air Transport Essay Examples & Topics

Air transportation essays could be assigned both in school and at a college level. Besides, the aviation industry is a topic frequently used in language tests such as IELTS and TOEFL. Thus, learning the fundamentals can be extremely helpful for you. Our experts have prepared this article where you can find all the essential information for the task.

Air transportation is a highly specialized area that involves the movement of people and cargo across the air. This can include any aircraft, such as commercial and non-commercial airplanes or helicopters. In recent years, traveling by air has become one of the most preferred methods of transportation.

Flying is one of the most efficient modes of travel. These days, planes can go almost anywhere in the world. With the technology we have, both passengers and cargo can be delivered halfway around the globe in a matter of hours. Besides, the high standards of security make air travel exceptionally safe.

There are multitudes of reasons why you might need to write an essay on air transport. Over here, we have gathered several aviation-related topics for you to browse through. We have also listed different types of air transport. Finally, below, you will find free samples written by students like you.

Essential Air Transport Examples

There are several types of air transport that you can analyze. You might want to compare and contrast them or perhaps talk about their advantages and disadvantages. In any case, this information will be useful for your essay.

Here are the most widely known air transport examples:

Airplanes. As one of the most common methods of air transport, planes move both cargo and people. They are an essential component of the tourism industry. Also, they are used privately and in military settings. Today, planes are imperative for long-distance and international travel.

Helicopters. While used less often than airplanes, helicopters are still crucial for the aviation industry. They are typically utilized in areas where a plane usually wouldn’t fit. Helicopters are also used by the police, rescue parties, firefighters, films crews, and news agencies. Unlike airplanes, they can hover in place for an extended amount of time.

Zeppelins & Blimps. A zeppelin is a large balloon-like aircraft filled with helium and propelled by an engine. It has an internal metal framework to help maintain the shape. A blimp is similar, except it’s only contoured inside. These aircraft are typically used for advertisement purposes.

Hot Air Balloons. This aircraft is very appropriately named. It is a large canvas bag that has a basket attached to the bottom. The open flame underneath the bag provides the hot air inside that lifts the contraption off the ground. People ride in hot air balloons for entertainment and sightseeing purposes.

Gliders. This is a type of air vehicle that does not involve an engine. These mechanisms have different designs and constructions. As for their purpose, they are usually used in sports, such as paragliding.

10 Air Transport Essay Questions

There is one key tip on writing a stellar essay on airways or air transportation in general. We recommend finding an idea that will interest you. Your work will turn out best if you already have a particular vision in mind. For this purpose, try our topic generator – it will formulate numerous ideas for you.

Also, we have provided 10 air transport essay ideas here :

• The benefits of airways in comparison with water transportation.
• The future of air travel – airplanes as a mode of public transportation.
• Safety procedures in international air transport during the COVID-19 pandemic.
• The organizational structure of the air transportation system in the US.
• Security regulation for air cargo in international airports.
• Air pollution and other environmental problems of air transport.
• Public vs. private air travel – an analysis of comparative safety.
• Future projections for unmanned air cargo delivery.
• The effects of the recent legislation changes in the US on the supply and demand of air cargo pilots.
• Advantages and disadvantages of air transport in comparison with land transport.

Thank you for reading! An air transport essay can be challenging if you don’t know where to begin. This is why we hope that this article has managed to inspire and motivate you.

Now, you can proceed to the air transportation essay examples below. Summarize them to see only short versions.

174 Best Essay Examples on Air Transport

Qatar airways quality and operations management.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Privatizing Airports

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Airbus A380 Engine Options

Social media analysis for qatar airways.

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Business Communication: Qantas Airline

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Reasons for Airport Privatisation

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British Airways

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British Airways: Analysis and Recommendations

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Flight Attendant Management

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Airport Planning and Expansion: An Analysis of Factors Affecting Changi Airport Capacity

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Southwest Airlines Positioning Map

American airlines’ products and services.

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History of Air Transportation and International Trade

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Discussing of Air Transport Cargo

Aloha airlines 243 air plane crash.

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Current Position of the British Airways

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Implementation of Six Sigma in Emirates Airline

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Air Traffic Controller Shiftwork and Aviation Safety

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Airport Security Improvement

Competitive advantages and challenges for integrated express cargo and all-cargo airlines, bird strikes in aviation: causes and results.

• Words: 1514

Privatization of the Aviation Industry

Air cargo industry: the main challenges.

• Words: 1435

Airport Security System and Airport Layout

• Words: 4259

Incident and Accident Investigation in Aviation

• Words: 3025

Airline Reservation Systems

The effectiveness and value of fuel hedging by airlines, deficiencies between liveware components: shell model, drone delivery: the method of receiving packages, air cargo planning approach and process.

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Safety Assessment of Congonhas Airport

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Becoming a Test Pilot

Irish aviation safety management and strategies.

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Social Lives of Emirates Airlines Crew

• Words: 1677

Southwest Airlines and JetBlue Airways: The Comparison

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Spokes and Hubs System: Aviation Context

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Wildlife Control in and Around Airports

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Frankfurt Airport Nightly Closure: Economic Impact

• Words: 6083

Analyzing the International Airline Business: Future Prospects

Air transportation: security concerns, cleaning and disinfecting of aircraft.

• Words: 2274

Airlines Safety: Robinson Helicopter Company

Proactive hazards identification and reporting in heavy and line maintenance for airlines.

• Words: 1226

Hub and Spoke and Direct Airline Routing Systems

• Words: 1209

Concorde Air France Flight 4590 Accident Description

Larger aircraft’s impact on airport management.

• Words: 2201

COVID-19 Pandemic’s Impact on Air Transportation

The gale system: tailored airworthiness standards.

• Words: 1001

The Use of Drones in the Medical Field

Perceived fatigue for short- and long-haul flights.

• Words: 1204

Air Shipment of the Cremated Remains

Examining the boeing 737 max case study, closing the gaps in air cargo security.

• Words: 1086

Knowledge Gained on the Air Cargo Industry

Reliever airports in the air transport system.

• Words: 1123

Analysis of In-flight Meals Industry

Air cargo operations and fleet planning process, boeing automated maintenance environment.

• Words: 1567

Takeover of British Airways, Iberia

• Words: 1768

Air-Bag-Equipped Cars and Aggressive Drivers

Privatization of major airports as separate entities in chicago, southwest airlines alternate boarding scenarios.

• Words: 1133

Airport and Aviation Security

Interdependability of air traffic control.

• Words: 2009

Reducing Flight Delays Through Better Traffic Management

Melbourne airport infrastructure plans for the airbus a380 aircraft.

• Words: 1120

Extended Range Twin Operations

• Words: 1319

Analysis Southwest Airlines and Price-Quality

• Words: 2296

Crew Duty Limits and Pilot Fatigue Risk Factors

• Words: 1667

The Crisis the South West Solo Flight Faces

The aviation advancements overview, effective aircraft for the japanese market.

• Words: 1212

Sydney Airport Infrastructure Plans for the Airbus A380

Cost of goods sold & favorable variance: aviation industry, a brief history of aviation.

• Words: 1698

Singapore International Airline 2006

• Words: 2723

Mesa-Falcon Field Airport in Arizona

• Words: 2217

Contracted Airports and Their Safety Assessment

The use of composite materials.

• Words: 2690

Aircraft of Archangel A-12 and Aquila MQM-105 RPV

• Words: 2256

Responsibilities of Air Carriers: Federal Aviation Administration

• Words: 2192

Sao Paulo Airport Operations

• Words: 3971

Concept and Issues Behind Flight Operation Quality Assurance

Airline revenue management and customer loyalty, aviation fuel hedging.

• Words: 1696

Effect of Very Light Jets on Aviation

• Words: 3439

The Uses and Working of Aircraft Turbines

• Words: 1094

Aerial Experiment Association & Wright Brothers Conflict

Concepts of flight safety.

• Words: 1678

Crew Resource Management in the Aviation Industry

Aviation communication: effective communication in preventing accidents, how indiscipline leads to accidents in the aviation industry, the air traffic controllers, airline business approach to corporate strategy, aviation business alliance, integrated express cargo airline and all-cargo airport to airport airlines, the economic impacts of airfreight transportation.

• Words: 1431

The Way for an Airline Company

• Words: 1480

Airline Operations in the United Kingdom

• Words: 1923

The United Kingdom Airline Industry

Aircraft flight dispatcher licensing, flight dispatchers licensing, the u.s. government and aviation security threats.

• Words: 1211

The Basic International Documents of the Aviation Law Sphere

Aircraft gas turbine engine parts life usage monitoring, singapore airlines: strategic options, biscayne bay plane crash: the air disaster investigation, the factors that led to the demise of airships, a project wbs airport link project, computerized profiling systems capps ii, screening in aviation: prevention of crime.

• Words: 2557

The de Havilland Comet’s Failures: Causes, Consequences, and Lessons Learnt

• Words: 1733

COVID-19 and the Airlines Sector

• Words: 1941

External Issues in Aviation Economics

• Words: 1421

Strategic Management for Boeing

New aircraft certification and flight control system, what are non-aeronautical revenue sources for airports, why and how do airports manage and improve their quality of service.

• Words: 1000

An Environment for Delegated Responsibility: Singapore Airlines

The importance of reports in the aviation practice.

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Blog / March 28, 2017

6 Common Safety Issues In The Transportation Industry

Workers who drive for a living have a long list of extra considerations to keep in mind when they enter their vehicle each day. They also face a number of challenges associated with driving for long periods of time. If you work in the transportation industry, and especially if you’re responsible for fleet safety, it’s important to keep in mind five common issues that can pose hazards to driver safety.

Driving without awareness and distracted driving

When attention goes down, the chances of a car crash go up. According to the Virginia Tech Transportation Institute , distracted drivers are nearly 3 times more likely to be involved in a collision than attentive drivers. Having one’s mind on task is crucial—and it can be difficult to stay concentrating after hours of driving.

Distracted driving is also caused by multitasking. Basic, attentive driving requires drivers to steer, monitor speed, brake safely, and watch for other vehicles. Trying to do anything else, such as talking on the phone or even letting your mind wander, takes your attention away from the road and its dangers.

The old adage “keep your eyes on the road” is only part of the issue—drivers must mentally register what they see. Experienced drivers may be safer in some ways, but they’re also more likely to go on autopilot and react automatically to external events without awareness . Thi s leaves a driver unable to react to sudden events like unexpected lane changes or rapid traffic slowdowns.

Any discussion of driving distractions isn’t complete without noting the potential dangers of technology for drivers . GPS, Google Maps and car radios can cause drivers to take their eyes off the road. But by far the biggest culprit is the phone. In 2010, an estimated minimum of  1.1 million crashes involved talking on cell phones . Studies have shown that occupied hands play a smaller role in driving accidents than distraction, which is a far more serious risk. So just because a driver has both hands on the wheel doesn’t mean their mind is going to be focused on driving.

Slips and falls

Slips and falls are a huge problem in the transportation industry, especially during the winter months when ice and slush coat roads—and vehicles. Drivers must be especially careful and use three points of contact when entering or exiting their vehicle. And keep in mind that even though they’ve climbed those steps thousands of times, slippery surfaces don’t discriminate based on the number of years on the job. (One of the best ways to reiterate this key point is with a toolbox talk that focuses on the exact issue.)

Many trucks are equipped with several anti-slip features, but these typically fail to eliminate the problem. That’s because slips, trips and falls are caused by both physical and human factors . If drivers are rushing to get into their truck or tired after a long day on the road, they’re less likely to hold onto the handrail or test their footing before exiting the vehicle. And experienced drivers are apt to lapse into complacency. The more comfortable you are at performing a simple task—like entering and exiting a vehicle—the less attention you give it. All of these factors add up to a number of slips-related injuries for truckers.

Failure to conduct proper walkarounds

Bad weather or being in a hurry can tempt many drivers to rush through vehicle inspections. However, walkarounds are essential, as performing haphazard vehicle inspections can lead to essential issues going unnoticed.

Most trucking companies make walkarounds mandatory, but not all of them actively monitor employees or provide them with the supervision and support required to get in the habit of conducting walkarounds. Positive reinforcement and building a culture of personal responsibility can foster a sense of pride in your workers knowing that they’re doing their jobs properly and safely. This way, they will be more likely to want to take greater responsibility for their truck, their own safety, and other drivers on their team.

Even when walkarounds are conducted and potential issues are noticed, time, money and complacency can put off important fixes until the next trip and by then it could be too late. Truck maintenance issues that are left until later could also easily be forgotten if left undocumented or uncommunicated. Systems and checklists can help if there’s a shared responsibility to complete and review them.

Other drivers

Many companies with extensive fleets conduct driver safety training. But when people feel rushed or annoyed by other drivers, they’re more likely to ignore their training, take unnecessary risks, or forget that driving is an extremely risky activity.

A person’s state of mind can lead to aggressive or careless driving, and cause collisions in company vehicles. As the webinar discusses, one of the big states of mind that can cause problems for drivers is frustration—road rage. The key to safer driving is in teaching people how to maintain focus when adverse states like frustration arise.

If you train your employees to recognize the human factors involved in dangerous driving you could get one step closer to reducing car crashes in company vehicles. Adding human factors to your safety program will help your drivers overcome risk-increasing states like frustration when they’re behind the wheel.

One of the most dangerous states for a driver is fatigue. Fatigue is often brushed off as a normal state of affairs that you endure with a bit of willpower. But when drivers become fatigued they’re not “just tired”—they’re dangerously handicapped by physical and mental changes.

Fatigue slows down reaction times, lowers attention and concentration levels, and increases errors. When drivers are fatigued they’re much more likely to become distracted or stressed, or take their eyes off the road. Reaction times, situational awareness and decision-making functions fall by as much as 50% when someone is sleep deprived. In fact, being fatigued while driving is just as dangerous as drinking and driving. WorkSafeBC reports that 17 hours awake is equivalent to a blood alcohol content of 0.05 and 21 hours awake is equivalent to a blood alcohol content of 0.08, which is the legal limit in North America.

It takes commitment to deal with these issues, and there’s no easy solution. But one way to begin solving several of them at the same time is to look into human factors safety training . Providing a course dedicated to giving workers the ability to avoid dangerous mental states and reduce human error while driving can go a long way to combat these transportation safety issues. There may also be scheduling changes that can cut down on the amount of rushing, frustration and fatigue that drivers experience—though keep in mind there’s no replacement for classroom training that improves driver safety skills and awareness.

Changing conditions

Failure to recognize changing environmental and road conditions, accidents, or reduced visibility can all stem from driver inattention and complacency. When temperatures dip, it starts raining or the snow begins to fly, drivers need to recognize the increased risk and adjust their driving behavior accordingly. Speed, following and braking distance, signaling, and lane changes should all be considered. Drivers should also know when it’s time to pull over and wait it out or find an alternate route.

The best way to help drivers adjust to constantly shifting road conditions is to build up their skills at triggering on change. Fortunately, even the time of day marching forward on the dashboard, clouds rolling in or the sun setting in the distance can all be triggers for drivers to do a quick vehicle information check and a review of their personal state of mind. Are they getting tired? Are they pushing the speed limit a bit much? Is it time for a break? Recognizing change in the environment can also help people recognize change in their behavior if they are trained to do so. When they hear their tires hit the rumble strip on the side of the road, they need to ask themselves why. Was it the wind? Or was it them? In most cases it will be inattention or fatigue. If they hit it a second or third time, it’s likely time to pull over before it’s game over.

On-demand webinar

Dead Tired: What Every Company Must Know About Fatigue

Fatigue is one of the most significant issues that companies face in every industry, as it affects safety, quality and productivity. Workers aren’t just tired—they’re dangerously impaired. This presentation will help you develop a plan to manage fatigue both corporately and individually.

Tagged Distracted Driving , Fatigue , Frustration , Hands-free , Rushing , Transportation Industry , Walkarounds , Winter Driving

Driving in Brevard has gotten dangerous. Here's what we can do about it | John Torres

It's been 23 years since I moved from the Hudson Valley in New York to the beaches of Brevard County.

And at the risk of sounding like an old curmudgeon waxing nostalgic about how things were so much better in the "old days," I can't help but notice how much things have changed every time I get in my car. I often joke with my family that the turn from State Road A1A into my sleepy beachside neighborhood is the nexus of the universe.

Why? Well, there always seems to be a pedestrian crossing the street just as I am going to turn. If it's not a pedestrian, then it's a skateboarder or a bicyclist or a stopped school bus, maybe a motorized scooter or an e-bike or a family pulling a cart full of beach supplies. Complicating matters is one of those (fairly new) lit-up crosswalks a few yards away.

Twenty years ago there were no e-bikes, motorized scooters, lit-up crosswalks, high-speed passenger trains or traffic circles in Brevard. There was also much less traffic on our roads. Don't get me wrong, I think growth is good and I'm excited to see what the next 20 years bring. But there is no doubt that travelling throughout the Space Coast has gotten more difficult and dangerous .

The drive from my home in the Indialantic area to my mother's place in Cape Canaveral used to take 30 minutes. These days I consider it a victory when I can make the drive in less than 45 minutes.

It takes longer to get everywhere.

It also seems we can't go a week without reporting on either a person or car struck by a train , a fatal motorcycle crash or incident of road rage. There were a few weeks earlier this year where two cars and a pedestrian were hit by trains. By the time I sat down to work on this story, six people in Brevard County had been killed by a Brightline train . Those killed either tried driving around the crossing gate or were struck while walking on the tracks.

Here's the statistic that stopped us in our tracks: Nearly 3,000 people died or were seriously injured in crashes over 5 years.

Let's repeat that because it's a shocking statistic. From 2018-2022, 2,744 people in Brevard were either killed or seriously injured in crashes on the Space Coast. That's roughly the number of passengers that sail from Port Canaveral on one of our cruise ships.

Those numbers prompted us here at FLORIDA TODAY to take a long, hard look at transportation safety here in Brevard County. We started out by reaching out to the Space Coast Transportation Planning Organization (SCTPO), and they had a lot to say that informs this project.

This week you'll read about upcoming road projects , updated rules of the road, how to navigate crosswalks with flags and others with lights as well as traffic circles. I had never even heard of a diverging diamond until we started working on this project — though I remember driving on it recently in Viera and not quite understanding the logic right away.

You'll also learn what the most dangerous intersections are for cars and pedestrians and alternate routes to take to avoid the congestion. You'll even read tips on how to deal with road rage and aggressive drivers.

Many accidents can be avoided with caution

Why is this important? Well ... we've come to accept death on our roads far too easily. No one should be dying on our roads. Every day this week, we'll have stories, photos, videos and tips on how to maneuver the increasingly-busy roads of Brevard County.

But the main takeaway we hope is that just about all these "accidents" are not accidents but rather the unfortunate result of poor habits on the road.

Accidents is a word the TPO would like to ban from our language when it comes to traffic crashes. I decided to do a little anecdotal research of my own recently and spent some time last month walking along SR A1A and was dumbfounded at how many drivers were looking at their cell phones while they drove. What did we do before cell phones?

But that's not all. I saw families — babies in tow — literally running across the busy road to avoid getting hit, despite crosswalks only yards away. I saw cyclists zooming down sidewalks and not bothering to even pause at intersections to see if cars were turning. You wouldn't cross the street without looking if you were walking? Why is it OK on a bike?

Shouldn't we be driving, walking, cycling, etc., like our lives depended on it?

But the craziest thing I saw was an adult woman driving a modified version of one of those electric cars made for children, on a sidewalk. She was going way faster than those toys are built for. Yeah, I'm still shaking my head.

Truth is, we can all probably do a little better while travelling throughout the Space Coast. We can all work harder to obey traffic laws, respect others sharing the roadways and pay attention to the task that leads to our collective ultimate goal — getting somewhere safely.

Contact Torres at  [email protected] . You can follow him on X, the platform formerly known as Twitter  @johnalbertorres .   You can also find updates about the  Murder on the Space Coast  Podcast on our Facebook page.

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• Transportation Safety
• Health Topics A-Z

Bicycle Safety

• Thousands of bicyclists are injured or killed in the United States every year.
• Some groups are at higher risk for bicycle injuries and deaths.
• Injuries and deaths among bicyclists are preventable.

• Nearly 1,000 bicyclists die and over 130,000 are injured in crashes that occur on roads in the United States every year. 1
• Bicycle trips make up 1% of all trips in the United States. 2 However, bicyclists account for over 2% of people who die in a crash involving a motor vehicle on our nation's roads. 3 1
• The costs of bicycle injuries and deaths from crashes exceed $23 billion in the United States each year. 1 These costs include spending on health care and lost work productivity, as well as estimated costs for lost quality of life and lives lost.

Note that bicycle refers to bicyclists and other cyclists including riders of two-wheel, nonmotorized vehicles, tricycles, and unicycles powered only by pedals.

Risk factors

• Most bicyclist deaths occur in urban areas. 3
• About 64% of bicyclist deaths occur on sections of roads away from intersections (where higher speeds might occur) and 27% occur at intersections. 3
• About one-third of crashes that result in a bicyclist's death involve alcohol for the motor vehicle driver and/or bicyclist. 3

People at increased risk

Risks vary by age and sex

• Adults ages 55-69 have the highest bicycle death rates. 1
• Adolescents, teens and young adults have the highest rates of bicycle-related injuries treated in emergency departments (EDs). People ages 10-24 account for nearly one-third of all bicycle-related injuries seen in US EDs. 1
• Male bicyclists have death rates 6 times higher and injury rates 5 times higher than females. 1

Injuries and deaths among bicyclists are preventable

Effective Interventions

Effective interventions to reduce injuries and fatalities to bicyclists include the following:

• Several roadway engineering measures , like bike lanes, can improve safety for bicyclists. Information on these proven interventions is available from the Federal Highway Administration and The Pedestrian and Bicycle Information Center .
• Bicycle helmets reduce the risk of head and brain injuries in the event of a crash. 4 5 6 All bicyclists, regardless of age, can help protect themselves by wearing properly fitted bicycle helmets every time they ride.
• Bicycle helmet laws are effective for increasing helmet use and reducing crash-related injuries and deaths among children and adults. 7

Promising interventions

Interventions that have shown promise for reducing injuries and fatalities to bicyclists include rider visibility and active lighting. For example:

• Fluorescent clothing can make bicyclists visible from further away than regular clothing during the daytime. 7
• Retro-reflective clothing and materials on the bicycle can make bicyclists more visible at night. 7
• Active lighting may improve the visibility of bicyclists and is required by law in most states when bicycles are riding after dark. 7 Active lighting includes front white lights, rear red lights, or other lighting on the bicycle or bicyclist.

Additional resources

• CDC's HEADS UP: Helmet Safety
• CDC's HEADS UP: Helmet Safety Mobile App
• The Built Environment Assessment Tool Manual
• Physical Activity Strategies and Resources
• National Highway Traffic Safety Administration: Bicycles
• National Center for Safe Routes to School
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Web-based Injury Statistics Query and Reporting System (WISQARS). Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. Available at cdc.gov/injury/wisqars . Accessed on 03/15/2022.
• Federal Highway Administration. 2017 National Household Travel Survey. Washington, DC: US Department of Transportation; 2017. Available at: https://nhts.ornl.gov/person-trips . Accessed on 03/15/2022.
• National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Traffic Safety Facts, 2019 data – bicyclists and other cyclists. Washington, DC: US Department of Transportation; 2021. (Publication no. DOT HS 813 197).
• Hoye A. Bicycle helmets – to wear or not to wear? A meta-analyses of the effects of bicycle helmets on injuries. Accid Anal Prev 2018;117:85-97.
• Olivier J, Creighton P. Bicycle injuries and helmet use: a systematic review and meta-analysis . Int J Epidemiol 2017;46:278-292.
• Strotmeyer SJ, Behr C, Fabio A, Gaines BA. Bike helmets prevent pediatric head injury in serious bicycle crashes with motor vehicles . Int J Epidemiol 2020;7(Suppl 1):24.
• National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Countermeasures that work: A highway safety countermeasures guide for State Highway Safety Offices, 10th edition. [PDF – 641 pages] (Report No. DOT HS 813 097). Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. 2021.

Pedestrian, Bicycle, and Motorcycle Safety

Thousands of pedestrians, bicyclists, and motorcyclists die on our nation's roads every year. These crash injuries and deaths are preventable. Learn more.

Ship had multiple blackouts before hitting Baltimore bridge, investigators find

The report offers the most detailed explanation so far of the problems that precipitated the Dali cargo ship’s destroying the Francis Scott Key Bridge on March 26.

The ship that knocked down Baltimore’s Francis Scott Key Bridge suffered two electrical blackouts the day before the collision and experienced two more blackouts that disabled critical equipment, federal safety investigators said in a preliminary report released Tuesday.

The National Transportation Safety Board report provides the first detailed examination of what went wrong as the cargo ship lost power, veered off course and slammed into a critical bridge pier. It lays out a comprehensive timeline of the events leading up to and immediately after the crash, describing in technical terms a rapid-fire series of problems before the Dali struck the bridge, though it says investigators are still exploring precisely what caused some of the failures.

The cause of the crash — which killed six bridge workers, halted most trade at the Port of Baltimore, and raised questions about whether federal and state authorities are prepared to prevent similar tragic disruptions — is likely to be scrutinized for months and years.

The FBI has launched a separate criminal investigation focused on the Singapore-flagged Dali, including whether the crew knew of serious system problems before setting out in the early-morning darkness on March 26. On April 15, dozens of law enforcement officials boarded the Dali, which until Monday had been pinned beneath a vast section of the fallen bridge, to search for evidence. Attorneys representing the city of Baltimore and a local business executive have filed separate complaints in federal court in Maryland against the Dali’s owner and manager, alleging negligence before the crash.

The NTSB’s findings suggest the ship had issues with its electrical equipment — though the agency did not indicate whether its investigators thought crew members or the ship’s owners had done anything wrong that led to the bridge strike.

A spokesperson for the Dali’s owner, Grace Ocean Private Ltd., and its manager, Synergy Marine Pte Ltd., both based in Singapore, did not respond to a request for comment. In court, the companies have asked a federal judge to limit their liability in the tragedy to about $43.6 million.

The day before the disaster, as the Dali prepared to leave the Port of Baltimore for a voyage to Sri Lanka, the ship lost power twice, investigators said in the report. Officials wrote that a mistake by a crew member working on part of a diesel engine caused an initial “in-port blackout.” A second blackout in port “was related to insufficient fuel pressure,” it said.

“The NTSB is still investigating the electrical configuration following the first in-port blackout and potential impacts on the events during the accident voyage,” the report said.

On March 26 just after midnight, an Association of Maryland Pilots senior pilot and an apprentice pilot boarded the Dali. As part of standard procedure, the senior pilot asked the Dali’s captain about the ship’s condition. The captain said the vessel was in “working order,” according to the report.

Two tugboats pulled the Dali away from the dock and guided it out of port, the report said. About 30 minutes later, the pilot ordered the tugs to pull away, per protocol. Within about 15 minutes — when the Dali was roughly half a mile from the Key Bridge — two electrical breakers that feed most of the ship’s equipment tripped “unexpectedly,” knocking out power to the Dali, the NTSB said.

The outage cut power to a series of vital pumps, automatically shutting down the ship’s main engine.

The Dali’s crew members were able to restore power. They called for tug boats to help, and a senior pilot ordered an anchor dropped. Then, according to the NTSB, came the second blackout on the day of the crash.

A warning call went out. But soon after, investigators said, the Dali hit the bridge while traveling at 6.5 knots.

Aside from the the ones identified in the report, NTSB investigators wrote that they were not aware of any other Dali power outages while the ship was in port in Baltimore or earlier in Newark and Norfolk. The local pilots and Dali crew were tested for drugs and alcohol, and the tests came back negative, the report said. The Dali’s fuel was also tested, investigators said, but no issues were identified.

The NTSB said the Dali’s initial power outage stopped the vessel’s steering pumps, leaving the rudder “unable to be moved” for a period of time. Its experts are still investigating when an emergency generator started up, which would have been able to power an emergency steering pump, allowing the rudder to move again. But “without the propeller turning, the rudder would have been less effective,” the NTSB said.

The report describes the protections that were installed when the bridge, which opened in 1977, was built. They included four pier-protection barriers, known as dolphins, that were made of concrete and were 25 feet in diameter. They also included 17-foot-long rubber fenders around the dolphins.

But the errant Dali easily slipped past those modest barriers. Two of the piers themselves were also surrounded by a “crushable concrete box and timber fender system” that measured approximately 100 feet by 85 feet, according to the NTSB. But the fendering system made no difference as the Dali knocked down the pier, and with it the rest of the bridge.

Baltimore bridge collapse

Federal bridge design specifications requiring pier protections for new bridges were first put in place in 1994.

Investigators said NTSB officials are working with the Maryland Transportation Authority to study short- and long-term upgrades to the protection systems for the Bay Bridge near Annapolis. Officials are also examining pier protection improvements that were made after several other major bridge collapses caused by ship strikes, including at the Sunshine Skyway Bridge in Tampa Bay, Fla.; Queen Elizabeth Causeway Bridge near South Padre Island, Tex.; and the Interstate 40 bridge near Webbers Falls, Okla.

NTSB Chair Jennifer Homendy previously said investigators have been working with technicians from Hyundai, which manufactured equipment in the engine room, to retrieve data related to the electrical failure. Homendy is scheduled to testify before Congress on Wednesday during a hearing with other key federal agencies working on the Key Bridge investigation, cleanup and reconstruction plan.

Investigators said in the preliminary report that they plan to continue probing “oceangoing vessels’ propulsion and electrical systems; the frequency and causes of vessel contacts with bridges over navigable waters; and bridge-strike mitigation measures such as a combination of vessel-size restrictions, vessel-assist tugs, and bridge-pier protection.”

The ship’s voice data recorder captured voices — at varying degrees of quality — from the Dali’s deck and from radio traffic. NTSB officials have mined those recordings and interviewed key crew members to get a fuller picture of the events leading up to the crash.

Beyond the mechanics of what failed aboard the Dali, federal marine safety investigators are seeking to understand what may have gone wrong in the broader system meant to keep ships passing safely under critical U.S. infrastructure, an everyday occurrence that is fundamental to local economies and global commerce.

There are numerous cases when ships lose the ability to move themselves through the water. A Washington Post analysis of Coast Guard records found that hundreds of large ships have lost propulsion, many near bridges and ports. In 2021, a container ship lost propulsion for 15 minutes shortly after traveling under the Key Bridge, according to the records.

Under U.S. maritime law, prosecutors can bring charges against the owner, captain or crew members of a ship under what is known as the seaman’s manslaughter statute if they are deemed responsible for an incident that resulted in death. Before that, though, federal officials will have to prove criminal negligence.

Another issue that could be a subject of the ongoing NTSB investigation is whether the two power failures in port may have required notification to the Coast Guard before the ship set sail, said attorney James Mercante, head of the admiralty division at the law firm Gallo Vitucci Klar LLP.

Under federal regulations, those responsible for a vessel must immediately report anything that affects a vessel’s seaworthiness to the Coast Guard and then complete an incident form within five days. The question of “seaworthiness” is also at the core of the civil complaints filed in federal court.

How it happened: Baltimore’s Francis Scott Key Bridge collapsed after being hit by a cargo ship . The container ship lost power shortly before hitting the bridge, Maryland Gov. Wes Moore (D) said. Video shows the bridge collapse in under 40 seconds.

Victims: Divers have recovered the bodies of two construction workers , officials said. They were fathers, husbands and hard workers . A mayday call from the ship prompted first responders to shut down traffic on the four-lane bridge, saving lives.

Economic impact: The collapse of the bridge severed ocean links to the Port of Baltimore, which provides about 20,000 jobs to the area . See how the collapse will disrupt the supply of cars, coal and other goods .

Rebuilding: The bridge, built in the 1970s , will probably take years and cost hundreds of millions of dollars to rebuild , experts said.

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Ship That Hit Baltimore Bridge Had 2 Electrical Failures Before Departure

A report from the National Transportation Safety Board said crew members had adjusted the electrical configuration of the ship even before it left port.

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By Mike Baker and Nicholas Bogel-Burroughs

In the hours before a wayward cargo ship lost electrical power and knocked down Baltimore’s Francis Scott Key Bridge, killing six people, the vessel suffered two blackouts while still in port, according to a preliminary report released on Tuesday.

In a 24-page summary of findings so far, investigators with the National Transportation Safety Board said the Dali cargo vessel had experienced at least two electrical failures on the day before the accident, causing the crew to adjust the configuration of the electrical system about 10 hours before setting out.

The investigators said they were still examining what effect the earlier repairs may have had. But they said it was apparent that the trouble that led to the accident began when the vessel’s electrical circuit breakers tripped, leading to a loss of propulsion and steering capacity.

Read the N.T.S.B.’s Preliminary Report on the Baltimore Bridge Collapse

The 24-page report includes investigators’ initial findings into the collapse of the Francis Scott Key Bridge after it was struck by a container ship.

Investigators recounted the crew’s desperate efforts to restore electrical power and halt the ship’s drift toward the bridge. They described how one of eight maintenance workers still on the bridge that night managed to sprint to safety moments before the bridge collapsed.

To power the electrical supply, the 947-foot-long vessel had four generators driven by diesel engines. N.T.S.B. investigators tested the fuel being burned at the time of the failure and found no concerns about the quality.

Investigators said the electrical problems in port began when crews were working on an exhaust scrubber system on one of the diesel engines. A worker mistakenly closed an exhaust damper, stalling the engine and shutting off the generator. Workers restored power for a short period using another generator, but insufficient fuel pressure caused an electrical breaker on that generator to trip.

In the process of recovering from the blackouts, the crew switched from using their normal electrical circuit breakers to an alternative set of breakers, which were in use when the ship departed, the N.T.S.B. report found.

The vessel departed the Port of Baltimore around 1 a.m. on March 26 and traveled along a heavily used shipping channel that would take it under the Francis Scott Key Bridge. With all systems appearing to work properly, the senior harbor pilot in charge of the ship handed over control to an apprentice and stood by.

But as the ship approached the bridge, about six-tenths of a mile away, the alternative breakers suddenly tripped at around 1:25 a.m., according to the report, triggering a blackout that knocked out both the propulsion and steering. Crew members reported that the ship’s emergency generator started and that the crew was able to briefly restore electrical power. The senior pilot took control of the ship.

At around 1:27 a.m., after ordering the rudder to turn hard to the port side, the pilot ordered an anchor to be dropped. Around the same time, the ship suffered a second blackout after two more breakers tripped.

The crew was able to restore electrical power but was not able to restore the ship’s propulsion. As the authorities on the bridge rushed to close the bridge to traffic, the vessel drifted and ultimately crashed into one of the bridge’s supports at a little after 1:29 a.m. A crew member said he was releasing the brake on the port anchor as the bridge was already beginning to fall, and had to run to escape it.

Six of the eight construction workers on the bridge were killed. One was able to run to safety. Another plunged into the water in his truck but was able to escape and was rescued by a police boat about 15 minutes later.

Investigators were able to collect the ship’s data and speak with crew members, who all tested negative for alcohol. The F.B.I. has also launched a criminal investigation into the crash.

The accident has spawned questions in the shipping industry about how to better protect against such a disaster at a time when cargo vessels have grown much larger . Transportation officials have been re-examining structural protection systems on bridges, which in some cases are missing or flawed , that are supposed to deflect wayward ships away from bridge piers.

The N.T.S.B. said that along with continuing to investigate the design and operation of the Dali’s power system, it was also looking at whether there were adequate systems in place to protect the piers on the bridge from wayward ships. Its ultimate findings could include recommendations for possible mitigation measures, such as limits on vessel sizes or more extensive use of tugboats.

The cargo ship’s wreckage remains in the water. On Monday evening, crews working to dislodge the Dali set off dozens of small explosives placed around a huge section of bridge that had been blanketing the bow of the ship since the night of the collapse. The operation appeared to send the section of bridge into the water in a giant plume of black smoke. When the wreckage on top of the Dali is cleared, the ship will be refloated and brought back to the port.

Campbell Robertson contributed reporting.

Mike Baker is a national reporter for The Times, based in Seattle. More about Mike Baker

Nicholas Bogel-Burroughs reports on national stories across the United States with a focus on criminal justice. He is from upstate New York. More about Nicholas Bogel-Burroughs