analysis strategy in qualitative research

Qualitative Data Analysis Methods 101:

The “big 6” methods + examples.

By: Kerryn Warren (PhD) | Reviewed By: Eunice Rautenbach (D.Tech) | May 2020 (Updated April 2023)

Qualitative data analysis methods. Wow, that’s a mouthful. 

If you’re new to the world of research, qualitative data analysis can look rather intimidating. So much bulky terminology and so many abstract, fluffy concepts. It certainly can be a minefield!

Don’t worry – in this post, we’ll unpack the most popular analysis methods , one at a time, so that you can approach your analysis with confidence and competence – whether that’s for a dissertation, thesis or really any kind of research project.

What (exactly) is qualitative data analysis?

To understand qualitative data analysis, we need to first understand qualitative data – so let’s step back and ask the question, “what exactly is qualitative data?”.

Qualitative data refers to pretty much any data that’s “not numbers” . In other words, it’s not the stuff you measure using a fixed scale or complex equipment, nor do you analyse it using complex statistics or mathematics.

So, if it’s not numbers, what is it?

Words, you guessed? Well… sometimes , yes. Qualitative data can, and often does, take the form of interview transcripts, documents and open-ended survey responses – but it can also involve the interpretation of images and videos. In other words, qualitative isn’t just limited to text-based data.

So, how’s that different from quantitative data, you ask?

Simply put, qualitative research focuses on words, descriptions, concepts or ideas – while quantitative research focuses on numbers and statistics . Qualitative research investigates the “softer side” of things to explore and describe , while quantitative research focuses on the “hard numbers”, to measure differences between variables and the relationships between them. If you’re keen to learn more about the differences between qual and quant, we’ve got a detailed post over here .

So, qualitative analysis is easier than quantitative, right?

Not quite. In many ways, qualitative data can be challenging and time-consuming to analyse and interpret. At the end of your data collection phase (which itself takes a lot of time), you’ll likely have many pages of text-based data or hours upon hours of audio to work through. You might also have subtle nuances of interactions or discussions that have danced around in your mind, or that you scribbled down in messy field notes. All of this needs to work its way into your analysis.

Making sense of all of this is no small task and you shouldn’t underestimate it. Long story short – qualitative analysis can be a lot of work! Of course, quantitative analysis is no piece of cake either, but it’s important to recognise that qualitative analysis still requires a significant investment in terms of time and effort.

Need a helping hand?

In this post, we’ll explore qualitative data analysis by looking at some of the most common analysis methods we encounter. We’re not going to cover every possible qualitative method and we’re not going to go into heavy detail – we’re just going to give you the big picture. That said, we will of course includes links to loads of extra resources so that you can learn more about whichever analysis method interests you.

Without further delay, let’s get into it.

The “Big 6” Qualitative Analysis Methods 

There are many different types of qualitative data analysis, all of which serve different purposes and have unique strengths and weaknesses . We’ll start by outlining the analysis methods and then we’ll dive into the details for each.

The 6 most popular methods (or at least the ones we see at Grad Coach) are:

• Content analysis
• Narrative analysis
• Discourse analysis
• Thematic analysis
• Grounded theory (GT)
• Interpretive phenomenological analysis (IPA)

Let’s take a look at each of them…

QDA Method #1: Qualitative Content Analysis

Content analysis is possibly the most common and straightforward QDA method. At the simplest level, content analysis is used to evaluate patterns within a piece of content (for example, words, phrases or images) or across multiple pieces of content or sources of communication. For example, a collection of newspaper articles or political speeches.

With content analysis, you could, for instance, identify the frequency with which an idea is shared or spoken about – like the number of times a Kardashian is mentioned on Twitter. Or you could identify patterns of deeper underlying interpretations – for instance, by identifying phrases or words in tourist pamphlets that highlight India as an ancient country.

Because content analysis can be used in such a wide variety of ways, it’s important to go into your analysis with a very specific question and goal, or you’ll get lost in the fog. With content analysis, you’ll group large amounts of text into codes , summarise these into categories, and possibly even tabulate the data to calculate the frequency of certain concepts or variables. Because of this, content analysis provides a small splash of quantitative thinking within a qualitative method.

Naturally, while content analysis is widely useful, it’s not without its drawbacks . One of the main issues with content analysis is that it can be very time-consuming , as it requires lots of reading and re-reading of the texts. Also, because of its multidimensional focus on both qualitative and quantitative aspects, it is sometimes accused of losing important nuances in communication.

Content analysis also tends to concentrate on a very specific timeline and doesn’t take into account what happened before or after that timeline. This isn’t necessarily a bad thing though – just something to be aware of. So, keep these factors in mind if you’re considering content analysis. Every analysis method has its limitations , so don’t be put off by these – just be aware of them ! If you’re interested in learning more about content analysis, the video below provides a good starting point.

QDA Method #2: Narrative Analysis 

As the name suggests, narrative analysis is all about listening to people telling stories and analysing what that means . Since stories serve a functional purpose of helping us make sense of the world, we can gain insights into the ways that people deal with and make sense of reality by analysing their stories and the ways they’re told.

You could, for example, use narrative analysis to explore whether how something is being said is important. For instance, the narrative of a prisoner trying to justify their crime could provide insight into their view of the world and the justice system. Similarly, analysing the ways entrepreneurs talk about the struggles in their careers or cancer patients telling stories of hope could provide powerful insights into their mindsets and perspectives . Simply put, narrative analysis is about paying attention to the stories that people tell – and more importantly, the way they tell them.

Of course, the narrative approach has its weaknesses , too. Sample sizes are generally quite small due to the time-consuming process of capturing narratives. Because of this, along with the multitude of social and lifestyle factors which can influence a subject, narrative analysis can be quite difficult to reproduce in subsequent research. This means that it’s difficult to test the findings of some of this research.

Similarly, researcher bias can have a strong influence on the results here, so you need to be particularly careful about the potential biases you can bring into your analysis when using this method. Nevertheless, narrative analysis is still a very useful qualitative analysis method – just keep these limitations in mind and be careful not to draw broad conclusions . If you’re keen to learn more about narrative analysis, the video below provides a great introduction to this qualitative analysis method.

QDA Method #3: Discourse Analysis 

Discourse is simply a fancy word for written or spoken language or debate . So, discourse analysis is all about analysing language within its social context. In other words, analysing language – such as a conversation, a speech, etc – within the culture and society it takes place. For example, you could analyse how a janitor speaks to a CEO, or how politicians speak about terrorism.

To truly understand these conversations or speeches, the culture and history of those involved in the communication are important factors to consider. For example, a janitor might speak more casually with a CEO in a company that emphasises equality among workers. Similarly, a politician might speak more about terrorism if there was a recent terrorist incident in the country.

So, as you can see, by using discourse analysis, you can identify how culture , history or power dynamics (to name a few) have an effect on the way concepts are spoken about. So, if your research aims and objectives involve understanding culture or power dynamics, discourse analysis can be a powerful method.

Because there are many social influences in terms of how we speak to each other, the potential use of discourse analysis is vast . Of course, this also means it’s important to have a very specific research question (or questions) in mind when analysing your data and looking for patterns and themes, or you might land up going down a winding rabbit hole.

Discourse analysis can also be very time-consuming  as you need to sample the data to the point of saturation – in other words, until no new information and insights emerge. But this is, of course, part of what makes discourse analysis such a powerful technique. So, keep these factors in mind when considering this QDA method. Again, if you’re keen to learn more, the video below presents a good starting point.

QDA Method #4: Thematic Analysis

Thematic analysis looks at patterns of meaning in a data set – for example, a set of interviews or focus group transcripts. But what exactly does that… mean? Well, a thematic analysis takes bodies of data (which are often quite large) and groups them according to similarities – in other words, themes . These themes help us make sense of the content and derive meaning from it.

Let’s take a look at an example.

With thematic analysis, you could analyse 100 online reviews of a popular sushi restaurant to find out what patrons think about the place. By reviewing the data, you would then identify the themes that crop up repeatedly within the data – for example, “fresh ingredients” or “friendly wait staff”.

So, as you can see, thematic analysis can be pretty useful for finding out about people’s experiences , views, and opinions . Therefore, if your research aims and objectives involve understanding people’s experience or view of something, thematic analysis can be a great choice.

Since thematic analysis is a bit of an exploratory process, it’s not unusual for your research questions to develop , or even change as you progress through the analysis. While this is somewhat natural in exploratory research, it can also be seen as a disadvantage as it means that data needs to be re-reviewed each time a research question is adjusted. In other words, thematic analysis can be quite time-consuming – but for a good reason. So, keep this in mind if you choose to use thematic analysis for your project and budget extra time for unexpected adjustments.

QDA Method #5: Grounded theory (GT) 

Grounded theory is a powerful qualitative analysis method where the intention is to create a new theory (or theories) using the data at hand, through a series of “ tests ” and “ revisions ”. Strictly speaking, GT is more a research design type than an analysis method, but we’ve included it here as it’s often referred to as a method.

What’s most important with grounded theory is that you go into the analysis with an open mind and let the data speak for itself – rather than dragging existing hypotheses or theories into your analysis. In other words, your analysis must develop from the ground up (hence the name). 

Let’s look at an example of GT in action.

Assume you’re interested in developing a theory about what factors influence students to watch a YouTube video about qualitative analysis. Using Grounded theory , you’d start with this general overarching question about the given population (i.e., graduate students). First, you’d approach a small sample – for example, five graduate students in a department at a university. Ideally, this sample would be reasonably representative of the broader population. You’d interview these students to identify what factors lead them to watch the video.

After analysing the interview data, a general pattern could emerge. For example, you might notice that graduate students are more likely to read a post about qualitative methods if they are just starting on their dissertation journey, or if they have an upcoming test about research methods.

From here, you’ll look for another small sample – for example, five more graduate students in a different department – and see whether this pattern holds true for them. If not, you’ll look for commonalities and adapt your theory accordingly. As this process continues, the theory would develop . As we mentioned earlier, what’s important with grounded theory is that the theory develops from the data – not from some preconceived idea.

So, what are the drawbacks of grounded theory? Well, some argue that there’s a tricky circularity to grounded theory. For it to work, in principle, you should know as little as possible regarding the research question and population, so that you reduce the bias in your interpretation. However, in many circumstances, it’s also thought to be unwise to approach a research question without knowledge of the current literature . In other words, it’s a bit of a “chicken or the egg” situation.

Regardless, grounded theory remains a popular (and powerful) option. Naturally, it’s a very useful method when you’re researching a topic that is completely new or has very little existing research about it, as it allows you to start from scratch and work your way from the ground up .

QDA Method #6:   Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA)

Interpretive. Phenomenological. Analysis. IPA . Try saying that three times fast…

Let’s just stick with IPA, okay?

IPA is designed to help you understand the personal experiences of a subject (for example, a person or group of people) concerning a major life event, an experience or a situation . This event or experience is the “phenomenon” that makes up the “P” in IPA. Such phenomena may range from relatively common events – such as motherhood, or being involved in a car accident – to those which are extremely rare – for example, someone’s personal experience in a refugee camp. So, IPA is a great choice if your research involves analysing people’s personal experiences of something that happened to them.

It’s important to remember that IPA is subject – centred . In other words, it’s focused on the experiencer . This means that, while you’ll likely use a coding system to identify commonalities, it’s important not to lose the depth of experience or meaning by trying to reduce everything to codes. Also, keep in mind that since your sample size will generally be very small with IPA, you often won’t be able to draw broad conclusions about the generalisability of your findings. But that’s okay as long as it aligns with your research aims and objectives.

Another thing to be aware of with IPA is personal bias . While researcher bias can creep into all forms of research, self-awareness is critically important with IPA, as it can have a major impact on the results. For example, a researcher who was a victim of a crime himself could insert his own feelings of frustration and anger into the way he interprets the experience of someone who was kidnapped. So, if you’re going to undertake IPA, you need to be very self-aware or you could muddy the analysis.

How to choose the right analysis method

In light of all of the qualitative analysis methods we’ve covered so far, you’re probably asking yourself the question, “ How do I choose the right one? ”

Much like all the other methodological decisions you’ll need to make, selecting the right qualitative analysis method largely depends on your research aims, objectives and questions . In other words, the best tool for the job depends on what you’re trying to build. For example:

• Perhaps your research aims to analyse the use of words and what they reveal about the intention of the storyteller and the cultural context of the time.
• Perhaps your research aims to develop an understanding of the unique personal experiences of people that have experienced a certain event, or
• Perhaps your research aims to develop insight regarding the influence of a certain culture on its members.

As you can probably see, each of these research aims are distinctly different , and therefore different analysis methods would be suitable for each one. For example, narrative analysis would likely be a good option for the first aim, while grounded theory wouldn’t be as relevant. 

It’s also important to remember that each method has its own set of strengths, weaknesses and general limitations. No single analysis method is perfect . So, depending on the nature of your research, it may make sense to adopt more than one method (this is called triangulation ). Keep in mind though that this will of course be quite time-consuming.

As we’ve seen, all of the qualitative analysis methods we’ve discussed make use of coding and theme-generating techniques, but the intent and approach of each analysis method differ quite substantially. So, it’s very important to come into your research with a clear intention before you decide which analysis method (or methods) to use.

Start by reviewing your research aims , objectives and research questions to assess what exactly you’re trying to find out – then select a qualitative analysis method that fits. Never pick a method just because you like it or have experience using it – your analysis method (or methods) must align with your broader research aims and objectives.

Let’s recap on QDA methods…

In this post, we looked at six popular qualitative data analysis methods:

• First, we looked at content analysis , a straightforward method that blends a little bit of quant into a primarily qualitative analysis.
• Then we looked at narrative analysis , which is about analysing how stories are told.
• Next up was discourse analysis – which is about analysing conversations and interactions.
• Then we moved on to thematic analysis – which is about identifying themes and patterns.
• From there, we went south with grounded theory – which is about starting from scratch with a specific question and using the data alone to build a theory in response to that question.
• And finally, we looked at IPA – which is about understanding people’s unique experiences of a phenomenon.

Of course, these aren’t the only options when it comes to qualitative data analysis, but they’re a great starting point if you’re dipping your toes into qualitative research for the first time.

If you’re still feeling a bit confused, consider our private coaching service , where we hold your hand through the research process to help you develop your best work.

Psst... there’s more!

This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...

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84 Comments

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Precise explanation of method.

Hi, may we use 2 data analysis methods in our qualitative research?

Thanks for your comment. Most commonly, one would use one type of analysis method, but it depends on your research aims and objectives.

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Thank nicely explained can I ask is Qualitative content analysis the same as thematic analysis?

Thanks for your comment. No, QCA and thematic are two different types of analysis. This article might help clarify – https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nhs.12048

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Hi Derek, What other theories/methods would you recommend when the data is a whole speech?

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What do we call a research data analysis method that one use to advise or determining the best accounting tool or techniques that should be adopted in a company.

Informative video, explained in a clear and simple way. Kudos

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choosing a right method for a paper is always a hard job for a student, this is a useful information, but it would be more useful personally for me, if the author provide me with a little bit more information about the data analysis techniques in type of explanatory research. Can we use qualitative content analysis technique for explanatory research ? or what is the suitable data analysis method for explanatory research in social studies?

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Clear explanation on qualitative and how about Case study

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so educative…. but Ijust want to know which method is coding of the qualitative or tallying done?

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Is there a video the captures the practical process of coding using automated applications?

Thanks for the comment. We don’t recommend using automated applications for coding, as they are not sufficiently accurate in our experience.

content analysis can be qualitative research?

THANK YOU VERY MUCH.

Thank you very much for such a wonderful content

do you have any material on Data collection

What a powerful explanation of the QDA methods. Thank you.

Great explanation both written and Video. i have been using of it on a day to day working of my thesis project in accounting and finance. Thank you very much for your support.

very helpful, thank you so much

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University Library, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Qualitative Data Analysis: Qualitative Data Analysis Strategies

• Atlas.ti web
• R for text analysis
• Microsoft Excel & spreadsheets
• Other options
• Planning Qual Data Analysis
• Free Tools for QDA
• QDA with NVivo
• QDA with Atlas.ti
• QDA with MAXQDA
• PKM for QDA
• QDA with Quirkos
• Working Collaboratively
• Qualitative Methods Texts
• Transcription
• Data organization
• Example Publications

Defining Strategies for Qualitative Data Analysis

Analysis is a process of deconstructing and reconstructing evidence that involves purposeful interrogation and critical thinking about data in order to produce a meaningful interpretation and relevant understanding in answer to the questions asked or that arise in the process of investigation (Bazeley, 2021, p. 3) 

When we analyze qualitative data, we need systematic, rigorous, and transparent ways of manipulating our data in order to begin developing answers to our research questions. We also need to keep careful track of the steps we've taken to conduct our analysis in order to communicate this process to readers and reviewers. 

Beyond coding, it is not always clear of what steps you should take to analyze your data. In this series of pages, I offer some basic information about different strategies you might use to analyze your qualitative data, as well as information on how you can use these strategies in different QDA software programs. 

Useful Resources on QDA Strategies

QDA strategies in this guide

• Data Organization

Cited on this page

Bazeley, P. (2021). Qualitative data analysis: Practical strategies (2nd ed.). Sage.

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Home Market Research

Qualitative Data Analysis: What is it, Methods + Examples

In a world rich with information and narrative, understanding the deeper layers of human experiences requires a unique vision that goes beyond numbers and figures. This is where the power of qualitative data analysis comes to light.

In this blog, we’ll learn about qualitative data analysis, explore its methods, and provide real-life examples showcasing its power in uncovering insights.

What is Qualitative Data Analysis?

Qualitative data analysis is a systematic process of examining non-numerical data to extract meaning, patterns, and insights.

In contrast to quantitative analysis, which focuses on numbers and statistical metrics, the qualitative study focuses on the qualitative aspects of data, such as text, images, audio, and videos. It seeks to understand every aspect of human experiences, perceptions, and behaviors by examining the data’s richness.

Companies frequently conduct this analysis on customer feedback. You can collect qualitative data from reviews, complaints, chat messages, interactions with support centers, customer interviews, case notes, or even social media comments. This kind of data holds the key to understanding customer sentiments and preferences in a way that goes beyond mere numbers.

Importance of Qualitative Data Analysis

Qualitative data analysis plays a crucial role in your research and decision-making process across various disciplines. Let’s explore some key reasons that underline the significance of this analysis:

In-Depth Understanding

It enables you to explore complex and nuanced aspects of a phenomenon, delving into the ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions. This method provides you with a deeper understanding of human behavior, experiences, and contexts that quantitative approaches might not capture fully.

Contextual Insight

You can use this analysis to give context to numerical data. It will help you understand the circumstances and conditions that influence participants’ thoughts, feelings, and actions. This contextual insight becomes essential for generating comprehensive explanations.

Theory Development

You can generate or refine hypotheses via qualitative data analysis. As you analyze the data attentively, you can form hypotheses, concepts, and frameworks that will drive your future research and contribute to theoretical advances.

Participant Perspectives

When performing qualitative research, you can highlight participant voices and opinions. This approach is especially useful for understanding marginalized or underrepresented people, as it allows them to communicate their experiences and points of view.

Exploratory Research

The analysis is frequently used at the exploratory stage of your project. It assists you in identifying important variables, developing research questions, and designing quantitative studies that will follow.

Types of Qualitative Data

When conducting qualitative research, you can use several qualitative data collection methods , and here you will come across many sorts of qualitative data that can provide you with unique insights into your study topic. These data kinds add new views and angles to your understanding and analysis.

Interviews and Focus Groups

Interviews and focus groups will be among your key methods for gathering qualitative data. Interviews are one-on-one talks in which participants can freely share their thoughts, experiences, and opinions.

Focus groups, on the other hand, are discussions in which members interact with one another, resulting in dynamic exchanges of ideas. Both methods provide rich qualitative data and direct access to participant perspectives.

Observations and Field Notes

Observations and field notes are another useful sort of qualitative data. You can immerse yourself in the research environment through direct observation, carefully documenting behaviors, interactions, and contextual factors.

These observations will be recorded in your field notes, providing a complete picture of the environment and the behaviors you’re researching. This data type is especially important for comprehending behavior in their natural setting.

Textual and Visual Data

Textual and visual data include a wide range of resources that can be qualitatively analyzed. Documents, written narratives, and transcripts from various sources, such as interviews or speeches, are examples of textual data.

Photographs, films, and even artwork provide a visual layer to your research. These forms of data allow you to investigate what is spoken and the underlying emotions, details, and symbols expressed by language or pictures.

When to Choose Qualitative Data Analysis over Quantitative Data Analysis

As you begin your research journey, understanding why the analysis of qualitative data is important will guide your approach to understanding complex events. If you analyze qualitative data, it will provide new insights that complement quantitative methodologies, which will give you a broader understanding of your study topic.

It is critical to know when to use qualitative analysis over quantitative procedures. You can prefer qualitative data analysis when:

• Complexity Reigns: When your research questions involve deep human experiences, motivations, or emotions, qualitative research excels at revealing these complexities.
• Exploration is Key: Qualitative analysis is ideal for exploratory research. It will assist you in understanding a new or poorly understood topic before formulating quantitative hypotheses.
• Context Matters: If you want to understand how context affects behaviors or results, qualitative data analysis provides the depth needed to grasp these relationships.
• Unanticipated Findings: When your study provides surprising new viewpoints or ideas, qualitative analysis helps you to delve deeply into these emerging themes.
• Subjective Interpretation is Vital: When it comes to understanding people’s subjective experiences and interpretations, qualitative data analysis is the way to go.

You can make informed decisions regarding the right approach for your research objectives if you understand the importance of qualitative analysis and recognize the situations where it shines.

Qualitative Data Analysis Methods and Examples

Exploring various qualitative data analysis methods will provide you with a wide collection for making sense of your research findings. Once the data has been collected, you can choose from several analysis methods based on your research objectives and the data type you’ve collected.

There are five main methods for analyzing qualitative data. Each method takes a distinct approach to identifying patterns, themes, and insights within your qualitative data. They are:

Method 1: Content Analysis

Content analysis is a methodical technique for analyzing textual or visual data in a structured manner. In this method, you will categorize qualitative data by splitting it into manageable pieces and assigning the manual coding process to these units.

As you go, you’ll notice ongoing codes and designs that will allow you to conclude the content. This method is very beneficial for detecting common ideas, concepts, or themes in your data without losing the context.

Steps to Do Content Analysis

Follow these steps when conducting content analysis:

• Collect and Immerse: Begin by collecting the necessary textual or visual data. Immerse yourself in this data to fully understand its content, context, and complexities.
• Assign Codes and Categories: Assign codes to relevant data sections that systematically represent major ideas or themes. Arrange comparable codes into groups that cover the major themes.
• Analyze and Interpret: Develop a structured framework from the categories and codes. Then, evaluate the data in the context of your research question, investigate relationships between categories, discover patterns, and draw meaning from these connections.

Benefits & Challenges

There are various advantages to using content analysis:

• Structured Approach: It offers a systematic approach to dealing with large data sets and ensures consistency throughout the research.
• Objective Insights: This method promotes objectivity, which helps to reduce potential biases in your study.
• Pattern Discovery: Content analysis can help uncover hidden trends, themes, and patterns that are not always obvious.
• Versatility: You can apply content analysis to various data formats, including text, internet content, images, etc.

However, keep in mind the challenges that arise:

• Subjectivity: Even with the best attempts, a certain bias may remain in coding and interpretation.
• Complexity: Analyzing huge data sets requires time and great attention to detail.
• Contextual Nuances: Content analysis may not capture all of the contextual richness that qualitative data analysis highlights.

Example of Content Analysis

Suppose you’re conducting market research and looking at customer feedback on a product. As you collect relevant data and analyze feedback, you’ll see repeating codes like “price,” “quality,” “customer service,” and “features.” These codes are organized into categories such as “positive reviews,” “negative reviews,” and “suggestions for improvement.”

According to your findings, themes such as “price” and “customer service” stand out and show that pricing and customer service greatly impact customer satisfaction. This example highlights the power of content analysis for obtaining significant insights from large textual data collections.

Method 2: Thematic Analysis

Thematic analysis is a well-structured procedure for identifying and analyzing recurring themes in your data. As you become more engaged in the data, you’ll generate codes or short labels representing key concepts. These codes are then organized into themes, providing a consistent framework for organizing and comprehending the substance of the data.

The analysis allows you to organize complex narratives and perspectives into meaningful categories, which will allow you to identify connections and patterns that may not be visible at first.

Steps to Do Thematic Analysis

Follow these steps when conducting a thematic analysis:

• Code and Group: Start by thoroughly examining the data and giving initial codes that identify the segments. To create initial themes, combine relevant codes.
• Code and Group: Begin by engaging yourself in the data, assigning first codes to notable segments. To construct basic themes, group comparable codes together.
• Analyze and Report: Analyze the data within each theme to derive relevant insights. Organize the topics into a consistent structure and explain your findings, along with data extracts that represent each theme.

Thematic analysis has various benefits:

• Structured Exploration: It is a method for identifying patterns and themes in complex qualitative data.
• Comprehensive knowledge: Thematic analysis promotes an in-depth understanding of the complications and meanings of the data.
• Application Flexibility: This method can be customized to various research situations and data kinds.

However, challenges may arise, such as:

• Interpretive Nature: Interpreting qualitative data in thematic analysis is vital, and it is critical to manage researcher bias.
• Time-consuming: The study can be time-consuming, especially with large data sets.
• Subjectivity: The selection of codes and topics might be subjective.

Example of Thematic Analysis

Assume you’re conducting a thematic analysis on job satisfaction interviews. Following your immersion in the data, you assign initial codes such as “work-life balance,” “career growth,” and “colleague relationships.” As you organize these codes, you’ll notice themes develop, such as “Factors Influencing Job Satisfaction” and “Impact on Work Engagement.”

Further investigation reveals the tales and experiences included within these themes and provides insights into how various elements influence job satisfaction. This example demonstrates how thematic analysis can reveal meaningful patterns and insights in qualitative data.

Method 3: Narrative Analysis

The narrative analysis involves the narratives that people share. You’ll investigate the histories in your data, looking at how stories are created and the meanings they express. This method is excellent for learning how people make sense of their experiences through narrative.

Steps to Do Narrative Analysis

The following steps are involved in narrative analysis:

• Gather and Analyze: Start by collecting narratives, such as first-person tales, interviews, or written accounts. Analyze the stories, focusing on the plot, feelings, and characters.
• Find Themes: Look for recurring themes or patterns in various narratives. Think about the similarities and differences between these topics and personal experiences.
• Interpret and Extract Insights: Contextualize the narratives within their larger context. Accept the subjective nature of each narrative and analyze the narrator’s voice and style. Extract insights from the tales by diving into the emotions, motivations, and implications communicated by the stories.

There are various advantages to narrative analysis:

• Deep Exploration: It lets you look deeply into people’s personal experiences and perspectives.
• Human-Centered: This method prioritizes the human perspective, allowing individuals to express themselves.

However, difficulties may arise, such as:

• Interpretive Complexity: Analyzing narratives requires dealing with the complexities of meaning and interpretation.
• Time-consuming: Because of the richness and complexities of tales, working with them can be time-consuming.

Example of Narrative Analysis

Assume you’re conducting narrative analysis on refugee interviews. As you read the stories, you’ll notice common themes of toughness, loss, and hope. The narratives provide insight into the obstacles that refugees face, their strengths, and the dreams that guide them.

The analysis can provide a deeper insight into the refugees’ experiences and the broader social context they navigate by examining the narratives’ emotional subtleties and underlying meanings. This example highlights how narrative analysis can reveal important insights into human stories.

Method 4: Grounded Theory Analysis

Grounded theory analysis is an iterative and systematic approach that allows you to create theories directly from data without being limited by pre-existing hypotheses. With an open mind, you collect data and generate early codes and labels that capture essential ideas or concepts within the data.

As you progress, you refine these codes and increasingly connect them, eventually developing a theory based on the data. Grounded theory analysis is a dynamic process for developing new insights and hypotheses based on details in your data.

Steps to Do Grounded Theory Analysis

Grounded theory analysis requires the following steps:

• Initial Coding: First, immerse yourself in the data, producing initial codes that represent major concepts or patterns.
• Categorize and Connect: Using axial coding, organize the initial codes, which establish relationships and connections between topics.
• Build the Theory: Focus on creating a core category that connects the codes and themes. Regularly refine the theory by comparing and integrating new data, ensuring that it evolves organically from the data.

Grounded theory analysis has various benefits:

• Theory Generation: It provides a one-of-a-kind opportunity to generate hypotheses straight from data and promotes new insights.
• In-depth Understanding: The analysis allows you to deeply analyze the data and reveal complex relationships and patterns.
• Flexible Process: This method is customizable and ongoing, which allows you to enhance your research as you collect additional data.

However, challenges might arise with:

• Time and Resources: Because grounded theory analysis is a continuous process, it requires a large commitment of time and resources.
• Theoretical Development: Creating a grounded theory involves a thorough understanding of qualitative data analysis software and theoretical concepts.
• Interpretation of Complexity: Interpreting and incorporating a newly developed theory into existing literature can be intellectually hard.

Example of Grounded Theory Analysis

Assume you’re performing a grounded theory analysis on workplace collaboration interviews. As you open code the data, you will discover notions such as “communication barriers,” “team dynamics,” and “leadership roles.” Axial coding demonstrates links between these notions, emphasizing the significance of efficient communication in developing collaboration.

You create the core “Integrated Communication Strategies” category through selective coding, which unifies new topics.

This theory-driven category serves as the framework for understanding how numerous aspects contribute to effective team collaboration. This example shows how grounded theory analysis allows you to generate a theory directly from the inherent nature of the data.

Method 5: Discourse Analysis

Discourse analysis focuses on language and communication. You’ll look at how language produces meaning and how it reflects power relations, identities, and cultural influences. This strategy examines what is said and how it is said; the words, phrasing, and larger context of communication.

The analysis is precious when investigating power dynamics, identities, and cultural influences encoded in language. By evaluating the language used in your data, you can identify underlying assumptions, cultural standards, and how individuals negotiate meaning through communication.

Steps to Do Discourse Analysis

Conducting discourse analysis entails the following steps:

• Select Discourse: For analysis, choose language-based data such as texts, speeches, or media content.
• Analyze Language: Immerse yourself in the conversation, examining language choices, metaphors, and underlying assumptions.
• Discover Patterns: Recognize the dialogue’s reoccurring themes, ideologies, and power dynamics. To fully understand the effects of these patterns, put them in their larger context.

There are various advantages of using discourse analysis:

• Understanding Language: It provides an extensive understanding of how language builds meaning and influences perceptions.
• Uncovering Power Dynamics: The analysis reveals how power dynamics appear via language.
• Cultural Insights: This method identifies cultural norms, beliefs, and ideologies stored in communication.

However, the following challenges may arise:

• Complexity of Interpretation: Language analysis involves navigating multiple levels of nuance and interpretation.
• Subjectivity: Interpretation can be subjective, so controlling researcher bias is important.
• Time-Intensive: Discourse analysis can take a lot of time because careful linguistic study is required in this analysis.

Example of Discourse Analysis

Consider doing discourse analysis on media coverage of a political event. You notice repeating linguistic patterns in news articles that depict the event as a conflict between opposing parties. Through deconstruction, you can expose how this framing supports particular ideologies and power relations.

You can illustrate how language choices influence public perceptions and contribute to building the narrative around the event by analyzing the speech within the broader political and social context. This example shows how discourse analysis can reveal hidden power dynamics and cultural influences on communication.

How to do Qualitative Data Analysis with the QuestionPro Research suite?

QuestionPro is a popular survey and research platform that offers tools for collecting and analyzing qualitative and quantitative data. Follow these general steps for conducting qualitative data analysis using the QuestionPro Research Suite:

• Collect Qualitative Data: Set up your survey to capture qualitative responses. It might involve open-ended questions, text boxes, or comment sections where participants can provide detailed responses.
• Export Qualitative Responses: Export the responses once you’ve collected qualitative data through your survey. QuestionPro typically allows you to export survey data in various formats, such as Excel or CSV.
• Prepare Data for Analysis: Review the exported data and clean it if necessary. Remove irrelevant or duplicate entries to ensure your data is ready for analysis.
• Code and Categorize Responses: Segment and label data, letting new patterns emerge naturally, then develop categories through axial coding to structure the analysis.
• Identify Themes: Analyze the coded responses to identify recurring themes, patterns, and insights. Look for similarities and differences in participants’ responses.
• Generate Reports and Visualizations: Utilize the reporting features of QuestionPro to create visualizations, charts, and graphs that help communicate the themes and findings from your qualitative research.
• Interpret and Draw Conclusions: Interpret the themes and patterns you’ve identified in the qualitative data. Consider how these findings answer your research questions or provide insights into your study topic.
• Integrate with Quantitative Data (if applicable): If you’re also conducting quantitative research using QuestionPro, consider integrating your qualitative findings with quantitative results to provide a more comprehensive understanding.

Qualitative data analysis is vital in uncovering various human experiences, views, and stories. If you’re ready to transform your research journey and apply the power of qualitative analysis, now is the moment to do it. Book a demo with QuestionPro today and begin your journey of exploration.

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28 Coding and Analysis Strategies

Johnny Saldaña, School of Theatre and Film, Arizona State University

• Published: 04 August 2014
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This chapter provides an overview of selected qualitative data analytic strategies with a particular focus on codes and coding. Preparatory strategies for a qualitative research study and data management are first outlined. Six coding methods are then profiled using comparable interview data: process coding, in vivo coding, descriptive coding, values coding, dramaturgical coding, and versus coding. Strategies for constructing themes and assertions from the data follow. Analytic memo writing is woven throughout the preceding as a method for generating additional analytic insight. Next, display and arts-based strategies are provided, followed by recommended qualitative data analytic software programs and a discussion on verifying the researcher’s analytic findings.

Coding and Analysis Strategies

Anthropologist Clifford Geertz (1983) charmingly mused, “Life is just a bowl of strategies” (p. 25). Strategy , as I use it here, refers to a carefully considered plan or method to achieve a particular goal. The goal in this case is to develop a write-up of your analytic work with the qualitative data you have been given and collected as part of a study. The plans and methods you might employ to achieve that goal are what this article profiles.

Some may perceive strategy as an inappropriate if not colonizing word, suggesting formulaic or regimented approaches to inquiry. I assure you that that is not my intent. My use of strategy is actually dramaturgical in nature: strategies are actions that characters in plays take to overcome obstacles to achieve their objectives. Actors portraying these characters rely on action verbs to generate belief within themselves and to motivate them as they interpret the lines and move appropriately on stage. So what I offer is a qualitative researcher’s array of actions from which to draw to overcome the obstacles to thinking to achieve an analysis of your data. But unlike the pre-scripted text of a play in which the obstacles, strategies, and outcomes have been predetermined by the playwright, your work must be improvisational—acting, reacting, and interacting with data on a moment-by-moment basis to determine what obstacles stand in your way, and thus what strategies you should take to reach your goals.

Another intriguing quote to keep in mind comes from research methodologist Robert E. Stake (1995) who posits, “Good research is not about good methods as much as it is about good thinking” (p. 19). In other words, strategies can take you only so far. You can have a box full of tools, but if you do not know how to use them well or use them creatively, the collection seems rather purposeless. One of the best ways we learn is by doing . So pick up one or more of these strategies (in the form of verbs) and take analytic action with your data. Also keep in mind that these are discussed in the order in which they may typically occur, although humans think cyclically, iteratively, and reverberatively, and each particular research project has its own unique contexts and needs. So be prepared for your mind to jump purposefully and/or idiosyncratically from one strategy to another throughout the study.

QDA (Qualitative Data Analysis) Strategy: To Foresee

To foresee in QDA is to reflect beforehand on what forms of data you will most likely need and collect, which thus informs what types of data analytic strategies you anticipate using.

Analysis, in a way, begins even before you collect data. As you design your research study in your mind and on a word processor page, one strategy is to consider what types of data you may need to help inform and answer your central and related research questions. Interview transcripts, participant observation field notes, documents, artifacts, photographs, video recordings, and so on are not only forms of data but foundations for how you may plan to analyze them. A participant interview, for example, suggests that you will transcribe all or relevant portions of the recording, and use both the transcription and the recording itself as sources for data analysis. Any analytic memos (discussed later) or journal entries you make about your impressions of the interview also become data to analyze. Even the computing software you plan to employ will be relevant to data analysis as it may help or hinder your efforts.

As your research design formulates, compose one to two paragraphs that outline how your QDA may proceed. This will necessitate that you have some background knowledge of the vast array of methods available to you. Thus surveying the literature is vital preparatory work.

QDA Strategy: To Survey

To survey in QDA is to look for and consider the applicability of the QDA literature in your field that may provide useful guidance for your forthcoming data analytic work.

General sources in QDA will provide a good starting point for acquainting you with the data analytic strategies available for the variety of genres in qualitative inquiry (e.g., ethnography, phenomenology, case study, arts-based research, mixed methods). One of the most accessible is Graham R. Gibbs’ (2007)   Analysing Qualitative Data , and one of the most richly detailed is Frederick J. Wertz et al.'s (2011)   Five Ways of Doing Qualitative Analysis . The author’s core texts for this article came from The Coding Manual for Qualitative Researchers ( Saldaña, 2009 , 2013 ) and Fundamentals of Qualitative Research ( Saldaña, 2011 ).

If your study’s methodology or approach is grounded theory, for example, then a survey of methods works by such authors as Barney G. Glaser, Anselm L. Strauss, Juliet Corbin and, in particular, the prolific Kathy Charmaz (2006) may be expected. But there has been a recent outpouring of additional book publications in grounded theory by Birks & Mills (2011) , Bryant & Charmaz (2007) , Stern & Porr (2011) , plus the legacy of thousands of articles and chapters across many disciplines that have addressed grounded theory in their studies.

Particular fields such as education, psychology, social work, health care, and others also have their own QDA methods literature in the form of texts and journals, plus international conferences and workshops for members of the profession. Most important is to have had some university coursework and/or mentorship in qualitative research to suitably prepare you for the intricacies of QDA. Also acknowledge that the emergent nature of qualitative inquiry may require you to adopt different analytic strategies from what you originally planned.

QDA Strategy: To Collect

To collect in QDA is to receive the data given to you by participants and those data you actively gather to inform your study.

QDA is concurrent with data collection and management. As interviews are transcribed, field notes are fleshed out, and documents are filed, the researcher uses the opportunity to carefully read the corpus and make preliminary notations directly on the data documents by highlighting, bolding, italicizing, or noting in some way any particularly interesting or salient portions. As these data are initially reviewed, the researcher also composes supplemental analytic memos that include first impressions, reminders for follow-up, preliminary connections, and other thinking matters about the phenomena at work.

Some of the most common fieldwork tools you might use to collect data are notepads, pens and pencils, file folders for documents, a laptop or desktop with word processing software (Microsoft Word and Excel are most useful) and internet access, a digital camera, and a voice recorder. Some fieldworkers may even employ a digital video camera to record social action, as long as participant permissions have been secured. But everything originates from the researcher himself or herself. Your senses are immersed in the cultural milieu you study, taking in and holding on to relevant details or “significant trivia,” as I call them. You become a human camera, zooming out to capture the broad landscape of your field site one day, then zooming in on a particularly interesting individual or phenomenon the next. Your analysis is only as good as the data you collect.

Fieldwork can be an overwhelming experience because so many details of social life are happening in front of you. Take a holistic approach to your entree, but as you become more familiar with the setting and participants, actively focus on things that relate to your research topic and questions. Of course, keep yourself open to the intriguing, surprising, and disturbing ( Sunstein & Chiseri-Strater, 2012 , p. 115), for these facets enrich your study by making you aware of the unexpected.

QDA Strategy: To Feel

To feel in QDA is to gain deep emotional insight into the social worlds you study and what it means to be human.

Virtually everything we do has an accompanying emotion(s), and feelings are both reactions and stimuli for action. Others’ emotions clue you to their motives, attitudes, values, beliefs, worldviews, identities, and other subjective perceptions and interpretations. Acknowledge that emotional detachment is not possible in field research. Attunement to the emotional experiences of your participants plus sympathetic and empathetic responses to the actions around you are necessary in qualitative endeavors. Your own emotional responses during fieldwork are also data because they document the tacit and visceral. It is important during such analytic reflection to assess why your emotional reactions were as they were. But it is equally important not to let emotions alone steer the course of your study. A proper balance must be found between feelings and facts.

QDA Strategy: To Organize

To organize in QDA is to maintain an orderly repository of data for easy access and analysis.

Even in the smallest of qualitative studies, a large amount of data will be collected across time. Prepare both a hard drive and hard copy folders for digital data and paperwork, and back up all materials for security from loss. I recommend that each data “chunk” (e.g., one interview transcript, one document, one day’s worth of field notes) get its own file, with subfolders specifying the data forms and research study logistics (e.g., interviews, field notes, documents, Institutional Review Board correspondence, calendar).

For small-scale qualitative studies, I have found it quite useful to maintain one large master file with all participant and field site data copied and combined with the literature review and accompanying researcher analytic memos. This master file is used to cut and paste related passages together, deleting what seems unnecessary as the study proceeds, and eventually transforming the document into the final report itself. Cosmetic devices such as font style, font size, rich text (italicizing, bolding, underlining, etc.), and color can help you distinguish between different data forms and highlight significant passages. For example, descriptive, narrative passages of field notes are logged in regular font. “Quotations, things spoken by participants, are logged in bold font.”   Observer’s comments, such as the researcher’s subjective impressions or analytic jottings, are set in italics.

QDA Strategy: To Jot

To jot in QDA is to write occasional, brief notes about your thinking or reminders for follow up.

A jot is a phrase or brief sentence that will literally fit on a standard size “sticky note.” As data are brought and documented together, take some initial time to review their contents and to jot some notes about preliminary patterns, participant quotes that seem quite vivid, anomalies in the data, and so forth.

As you work on a project, keep something to write with or to voice record with you at all times to capture your fleeting thoughts. You will most likely find yourself thinking about your research when you're not working exclusively on the project, and a “mental jot” may occur to you as you ruminate on logistical or analytic matters. Get the thought documented in some way for later retrieval and elaboration as an analytic memo.

QDA Strategy: To Prioritize

To prioritize in QDA is to determine which data are most significant in your corpus and which tasks are most necessary.

During fieldwork, massive amounts of data in various forms may be collected, and your mind can get easily overwhelmed from the magnitude of the quantity, its richness, and its management. Decisions will need to be made about the most pertinent of them because they help answer your research questions or emerge as salient pieces of evidence. As a sweeping generalization, approximately one half to two thirds of what you collect may become unnecessary as you proceed toward the more formal stages of QDA.

To prioritize in QDA is to also determine what matters most in your assembly of codes, categories, themes, assertions, and concepts. Return back to your research purpose and questions to keep you framed for what the focus should be.

QDA Strategy: To Analyze

To analyze in QDA is to observe and discern patterns within data and to construct meanings that seem to capture their essences and essentials.

Just as there are a variety of genres, elements, and styles of qualitative research, so too are there a variety of methods available for QDA. Analytic choices are most often based on what methods will harmonize with your genre selection and conceptual framework, what will generate the most sufficient answers to your research questions, and what will best represent and present the project’s findings.

Analysis can range from the factual to the conceptual to the interpretive. Analysis can also range from a straightforward descriptive account to an emergently constructed grounded theory to an evocatively composed short story. A qualitative research project’s outcomes may range from rigorously achieved, insightful answers to open-ended, evocative questions; from rich descriptive detail to a bullet-pointed list of themes; and from third-person, objective reportage to first-person, emotion-laden poetry. Just as there are multiple destinations in qualitative research, there are multiple pathways and journeys along the way.

Analysis is accelerated as you take cognitive ownership of your data. By reading and rereading the corpus, you gain intimate familiarity with its contents and begin to notice significant details as well as make new insights about their meanings. Patterns, categories, and their interrelationships become more evident the more you know the subtleties of the database.

Since qualitative research’s design, fieldwork, and data collection are most often provisional, emergent, and evolutionary processes, you reflect on and analyze the data as you gather them and proceed through the project. If preplanned methods are not working, you change them to secure the data you need. There is generally a post-fieldwork period when continued reflection and more systematic data analysis occur, concurrent with or followed by additional data collection, if needed, and the more formal write-up of the study, which is in itself an analytic act. Through field note writing, interview transcribing, analytic memo writing, and other documentation processes, you gain cognitive ownership of your data; and the intuitive, tacit, synthesizing capabilities of your brain begin sensing patterns, making connections, and seeing the bigger picture. The purpose and outcome of data analysis is to reveal to others through fresh insights what we have observed and discovered about the human condition. And fortunately, there are heuristics for reorganizing and reflecting on your qualitative data to help you achieve that goal.

QDA Strategy: To Pattern

To pattern in QDA is to detect similarities within and regularities among the data you have collected.

The natural world is filled with patterns because we, as humans, have constructed them as such. Stars in the night sky are not just a random assembly; our ancestors pieced them together to form constellations like the Big Dipper. A collection of flowers growing wild in a field has a pattern, as does an individual flower’s patterns of leaves and petals. Look at the physical objects humans have created and notice how pattern oriented we are in our construction, organization, and decoration. Look around you in your environment and notice how many patterns are evident on your clothing, in a room, and on most objects themselves. Even our sometimes mundane daily and long-term human actions are reproduced patterns in the form of roles, relationships, rules, routines, and rituals.

This human propensity for pattern making follows us into QDA. From the vast array of interview transcripts, field notes, documents, and other forms of data, there is this instinctive, hardwired need to bring order to the collection—not just to reorganize it but to look for and construct patterns out of it. The discernment of patterns is one of the first steps in the data analytic process, and the methods described next are recommended ways to construct them.

QDA Strategy: To Code

To code in QDA is to assign a truncated, symbolic meaning to each datum for purposes of qualitative analysis.

Coding is a heuristic—a method of discovery—to the meanings of individual sections of data. These codes function as a way of patterning, classifying, and later reorganizing them into emergent categories for further analysis. Different types of codes exist for different types of research genres and qualitative data analytic approaches, but this article will focus on only a few selected methods. First, a definition of a code:

A code in qualitative data analysis is most often a word or short phrase that symbolically assigns a summative, salient, essence-capturing, and/or evocative attribute for a portion of language-based or visual data. The data can consist of interview transcripts, participant observation fieldnotes, journals, documents, literature, artifacts, photographs, video, websites, e-mail correspondence, and so on. The portion of data to be coded can... range in magnitude from a single word to a full sentence to an entire page of text to a stream of moving images.... Just as a title represents and captures a book or film or poem’s primary content and essence, so does a code represent and capture a datum’s primary content and essence. [ Saldaña, 2009 , p. 3]

One helpful pre-coding task is to divide long selections of field note or interview transcript data into shorter stanzas . Stanza division “chunks” the corpus into more manageable paragraph-like units for coding assignments and analysis. The transcript sample that follows illustrates one possible way of inserting line breaks in-between self-standing passages of interview text for easier readability.

Process Coding

As a first coding example, the following interview excerpt about an employed, single, lower-middle-class adult male’s spending habits during the difficult economic times in the U.S. during 2008–2012 is coded in the right-hand margin in capital letters. The superscript numbers match the datum unit with its corresponding code. This particular method is called process coding, which uses gerunds (“-ing” words) exclusively to represent action suggested by the data. Processes can consist of observable human actions (e.g., BUYING BARGAINS), mental processes (e.g., THINKING TWICE), and more conceptual ideas (e.g., APPRECIATING WHAT YOU’VE GOT). Notice that the interviewer’s (I) portions are not coded, just the participant’s (P). A code is applied each time the subtopic of the interview shifts—even within a stanza—and the same codes can (and should) be used more than once if the subtopics are similar. The central research question driving this qualitative study is, “In what ways are middle-class Americans influenced and affected by the current [2008–2012] economic recession?”

Different researchers analyzing this same piece of data may develop completely different codes, depending on their lenses and filters. The previous codes are only one person’s interpretation of what is happening in the data, not the definitive list. The process codes have transformed the raw data units into new representations for analysis. A listing of them applied to this interview transcript, in the order they appear, reads:

BUYING BARGAINS

QUESTIONING A PURCHASE

THINKING TWICE

STOCKING UP

REFUSING SACRIFICE

PRIORITIZING

FINDING ALTERNATIVES

LIVING CHEAPLY

NOTICING CHANGES

STAYING INFORMED

MAINTAINING HEALTH

PICKING UP THE TAB

APPRECIATING WHAT YOU’VE GOT

Coding the data is the first step in this particular approach to QDA, and categorization is just one of the next possible steps.

QDA Strategy: To Categorize

To categorize in QDA is to cluster similar or comparable codes into groups for pattern construction and further analysis.

Humans categorize things in innumerable ways. Think of an average apartment or house’s layout. The rooms of a dwelling have been constructed or categorized by their builders and occupants according to function. A kitchen is designated as an area to store and prepare food and the cooking and dining materials such as pots, pans, and utensils. A bedroom is designated for sleeping, a closet for clothing storage, a bathroom for bodily functions and hygiene, and so on. Each room is like a category in which related and relevant patterns of human action occur. Of course, there are exceptions now and then, such as eating breakfast in bed rather than in a dining area or living in a small studio apartment in which most possessions are contained within one large room (but nonetheless are most often organized and clustered into subcategories according to function and optimal use of space).

The point here is that the patterns of social action we designate into particular categories during QDA are not perfectly bounded. Category construction is our best attempt to cluster the most seemingly alike things into the most seemingly appropriate groups. Categorizing is reorganizing and reordering the vast array of data from a study because it is from these smaller, larger, and meaning-rich units that we can better grasp the particular features of each one and the categories’ possible interrelationships with one another.

One analytic strategy with a list of codes is to classify them into similar clusters. Obviously, the same codes share the same category, but it is also possible that a single code can merit its own group if you feel it is unique enough. After the codes have been classified, a category label is applied to each grouping. Sometimes a code can also double as a category name if you feel it best summarizes the totality of the cluster. Like coding, categorizing is an interpretive act, for there can be different ways of separating and collecting codes that seem to belong together. The cut-and-paste functions of a word processor are most useful for exploring which codes share something in common.

Below is my categorization of the fifteen codes generated from the interview transcript presented earlier. Like the gerunds for process codes, the categories have also been labeled as “-ing” words to connote action. And there was no particular reason why fifteen codes resulted in three categories—there could have been less or even more, but this is how the array came together after my reflections on which codes seemed to belong together. The category labels are ways of answering “why” they belong together. For at-a-glance differentiation, I place codes in CAPITAL LETTERS and categories in upper and lower case Bold Font :

Category 1: Thinking Strategically

Category 2: Spending Strategically

Category 3: Living Strategically

APPRECIATING WHAT YOU'VE GOT

Notice that the three category labels share a common word: “strategically.” Where did this word come from? It came from analytic reflection on the original data, the codes, and the process of categorizing the codes and generating their category labels. It was the analyst’s choice based on the interpretation of what primary action was happening. Your categories generated from your coded data do not need to share a common word or phrase, but I find that this technique, when appropriate, helps build a sense of unity to the initial analytic scheme.

The three categories— Thinking Strategically , Spending Strategically , and Living Strategically —are then reflected upon for how they might interact and interplay. This is where the next major facet of data analysis, analytic memos, enters the scheme. But a necessary section on the basic principles of interrelationship and analytic reasoning must precede that discussion.

QDA Strategy: To Interrelate

To interrelate in QDA is to propose connections within, between, and among the constituent elements of analyzed data.

One task of QDA is to explore the ways our patterns and categories interact and interplay. I use these terms to suggest the qualitative equivalent of statistical correlation, but interaction and interplay are much more than a simple relationship. They imply interrelationship . Interaction refers to reverberative connections—for example, how one or more categories might influence and affect the others, how categories operate concurrently, or whether there is some kind of “domino” effect to them. Interplay refers to the structural and processual nature of categories—for example, whether some type of sequential order, hierarchy, or taxonomy exists; whether any overlaps occur; whether there is superordinate and subordinate arrangement; and what types of organizational frameworks or networks might exist among them. The positivist construct of “cause and effect” becomes influences and affects in QDA.

There can even be patterns of patterns and categories of categories if your mind thinks conceptually and abstractly enough. Our minds can intricately connect multiple phenomena but only if the data and their analyses support the constructions. We can speculate about interaction and interplay all we want, but it is only through a more systematic investigation of the data—in other words, good thinking—that we can plausibly establish any possible interrelationships.

QDA Strategy: To Reason

To reason in QDA is to think in ways that lead to causal probabilities, summative findings, and evaluative conclusions.

Unlike quantitative research, with its statistical formulas and established hypothesis-testing protocols, qualitative research has no standardized methods of data analysis. Rest assured, there are recommended guidelines from the field’s scholars and a legacy of analytic strategies from which to draw. But the primary heuristics (or methods of discovery) you apply during a study are deductive , inductive , abductive , and retroductive reasoning. Deduction is what we generally draw and conclude from established facts and evidence. Induction is what we experientially explore and infer to be transferable from the particular to the general, based on an examination of the evidence and an accumulation of knowledge. Abduction is surmising from the evidence that which is most likely, those explanatory hunches based on clues. “Whereas deductive inferences are certain (so long as their premises are true) and inductive inferences are probable, abductive inferences are merely plausible” ( Shank, 2008 , p. 1). Retroduction is historic reconstruction, working backwards to figure out how the current conditions came to exist.

It is not always necessary to know the names of these four ways of reasoning as you proceed through analysis. In fact, you will more than likely reverberate quickly from one to another depending on the task at hand. But what is important to remember about reasoning is:

to base your conclusions primarily on the participants’ experiences, not just your own

not to take the obvious for granted, as sometimes the expected won't always happen. Your hunches can be quite right and, at other times, quite wrong

to examine the evidence carefully and make reasonable inferences

to logically yet imaginatively think about what is going on and how it all comes together.

Futurists and inventors propose three questions when they think about creating new visions for the world: What is possible (induction)? What is plausible (abduction)? What is preferable (deduction)? These same three questions might be posed as you proceed through QDA and particularly through analytic memo writing, which is retroductive reflection on your analytic work thus far.

QDA Strategy: To Memo

To memo in QDA is to reflect in writing on the nuances, inferences, meanings, and transfer of coded and categorized data plus your analytic processes.

Like field note writing, perspectives vary among practitioners as to the methods for documenting the researcher’s analytic insights and subjective experiences. Some advise that such reflections should be included in field notes as relevant to the data. Others advise that a separate researcher’s journal should be maintained for recording these impressions. And still others advise that these thoughts be documented as separate analytic memos. I prescribe the latter as a method because it is generated by and directly connected to the data themselves.

An analytic memo is a “think piece” of reflexive free writing, a narrative that sets in words your interpretations of the data. Coding and categorizing are heuristics to detect some of the possible patterns and interrelationships at work within the corpus, and an analytic memo further articulates your deductive, inductive, abductive, and retroductive thinking processes on what things may mean. Though the metaphor is a bit flawed and limiting, think of codes and their consequent categories as separate jigsaw puzzle pieces, and their integration into an analytic memo as the trial assembly of the complete picture.

What follows is an example of an analytic memo based on the earlier process coded and categorized interview transcript. It is not intended as the final write-up for a publication but as an open-ended reflection on the phenomena and processes suggested by the data and their analysis thus far. As the study proceeds, however, initial and substantive analytic memos can be revisited and revised for eventual integration into the final report. Note how the memo is dated and given a title for future and further categorization, how participant quotes are occasionally included for evidentiary support, and how the category names are bolded and the codes kept in capital letters to show how they integrate or weave into the thinking:

March 18, 2012 EMERGENT CATEGORIES: A STRATEGIC AMALGAM There’s a popular saying now: “Smart is the new rich.” This participant is Thinking Strategically about his spending through such tactics as THINKING TWICE and QUESTIONING A PURCHASE before he decides to invest in a product. There’s a heightened awareness of both immediate trends and forthcoming economic bad news that positively affects his Spending Strategically . However, he seems unaware that there are even more ways of LIVING CHEAPLY by FINDING ALTERNATIVES. He dines at all-you-can-eat restaurants as a way of STOCKING UP on meals, but doesn’t state that he could bring lunch from home to work, possibly saving even more money. One of his “bad habits” is cigarettes, which he refuses to give up; but he doesn’t seem to realize that by quitting smoking he could save even more money, not to mention possible health care costs. He balks at the idea of paying $1.50 for a soft drink, but doesn’t mind paying $6.00–$7.00 for a pack of cigarettes. Penny-wise and pound-foolish. Addictions skew priorities. Living Strategically , for this participant during “scary times,” appears to be a combination of PRIORITIZING those things which cannot be helped, such as pet care and personal dental care; REFUSING SACRIFICE for maintaining personal creature-comforts; and FINDING ALTERNATIVES to high costs and excessive spending. Living Strategically is an amalgam of thinking and action-oriented strategies.

There are several recommended topics for analytic memo writing throughout the qualitative study. Memos are opportunities to reflect on and write about:

how you personally relate to the participants and/or the phenomenon

your study’s research questions

your code choices and their operational definitions

the emergent patterns, categories, themes, assertions, and concepts

the possible networks (links, connections, overlaps, flows) among the codes, patterns, categories, themes, assertions, and concepts

an emergent or related existent theory

any problems with the study

any personal or ethical dilemmas with the study

future directions for the study

the analytic memos generated thus far [labeled “metamemos”]

the final report for the study [adapted from Saldaña, 2013 , p. 49]

Since writing is analysis, analytic memos expand on the inferential meanings of the truncated codes and categories as a transitional stage into a more coherent narrative with hopefully rich social insight.

QDA Strategy: To Code—A Different Way

The first example of coding illustrated process coding, a way of exploring general social action among humans. But sometimes a researcher works with an individual case study whose language is unique, or with someone the researcher wishes to honor by maintaining the authenticity of his or her speech in the analysis. These reasons suggest that a more participant-centered form of coding may be more appropriate.

In Vivo Coding

A second frequently applied method of coding is called in vivo coding. The root meaning of “in vivo” is “in that which is alive” and refers to a code based on the actual language used by the participant ( Strauss, 1987 ). What words or phrases in the data record you select as codes are those that seem to stand out as significant or summative of what is being said.

Using the same transcript of the male participant living in difficult economic times, in vivo codes are listed in the right-hand column. I recommend that in vivo codes be placed in quotation marks as a way of designating that the code is extracted directly from the data record. Note that instead of fifteen codes generated from process coding, the total number of in vivo codes is thirty. This is not to suggest that there should be specific numbers or ranges of codes used for particular methods. In vivo codes, though, tend to be applied more frequently to data. Again, the interviewer’s questions and prompts are not coded, just the participant's responses:

The thirty in vivo codes are then extracted from the transcript and listed in the order they appear to prepare them for analytic action and reflection:

“SKYROCKETED”

“TWO-FOR-ONE”

“THE LITTLE THINGS”

“THINK TWICE”

“ALL-YOU-CAN-EAT”

“CHEAP AND FILLING”

“BAD HABITS”

“DON'T REALLY NEED”

“LIVED KIND OF CHEAP”

“NOT A BIG SPENDER”

“HAVEN'T CHANGED MY HABITS”

“NOT PUTTING AS MUCH INTO SAVINGS”

“SPENDING MORE”

“ANOTHER DING IN MY WALLET”

“HIGH MAINTENANCE”

“COUPLE OF THOUSAND”

“INSURANCE IS JUST WORTHLESS”

“PICK UP THE TAB”

“IT ALL ADDS UP”

“NOT AS BAD OFF”

“SCARY TIMES”

Even though no systematic reorganization or categorization has been conducted with the codes thus far, an analytic memo of first impressions can still be composed:

March 19, 2012 CODE CHOICES: THE EVERYDAY LANGUAGE OF ECONOMICS After eyeballing the in vivo codes list, I noticed that variants of “CHEAP” appear most often. I recall a running joke between me and a friend of mine when we were shopping for sales. We’d say, “We're not ‘cheap,’ we're frugal .” There’s no formal economic or business language is this transcript—no terms such as “recession” or “downsizing”—just the everyday language of one person trying to cope during “SCARY TIMES” with “ANOTHER DING IN MY WALLET.” The participant notes that he’s always “LIVED KIND OF CHEAP” and is “NOT A BIG SPENDER” and, due to his employment, “NOT AS BAD OFF” as others in the country. Yet even with his middle class status, he’s still feeling the monetary pinch, dining at inexpensive “ALL-YOU-CAN-EAT” restaurants and worried about the rising price of peanut butter, observing that he’s “NOT PUTTING AS MUCH INTO SAVINGS” as he used to. Of all the codes, “ANOTHER DING IN MY WALLET” stands out to me, particularly because on the audio recording he sounded bitter and frustrated. It seems that he’s so concerned about “THE LITTLE THINGS” because of high veterinary and dental charges. The only way to cope with a “COUPLE OF THOUSAND” dollars worth of medical expenses is to find ways of trimming the excess in everyday facets of living: “IT ALL ADDS UP.”

Like process coding, in vivo codes could be clustered into similar categories, but another simple data analytic strategy is also possible.

QDA Strategy: To Outline

To outline in QDA is to hierarchically, processually, and/or temporally assemble such things as codes, categories, themes, assertions, and concepts into a coherent, text-based display.

Traditional outlining formats and content provide not only templates for writing a report but templates for analytic organization. This principle can be found in several CAQDAS (Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software) programs through their use of such functions as “hierarchies,” “trees,” and “nodes,” for example. Basic outlining is simply a way of arranging primary, secondary, and sub-secondary items into a patterned display. For example, an organized listing of things in a home might consist of:

Large appliances

Refrigerator

Stove-top oven

Microwave oven

Small appliances

Coffee maker

Dining room

In QDA, outlining may include descriptive nouns or topics but, depending on the study, it may also involve processes or phenomena in extended passages, such as in vivo codes or themes.

The complexity of what we learn in the field can be overwhelming, and outlining is a way of organizing and ordering that complexity so that it does not become complicated. The cut-and-paste and tab functions of a word processor page enable you to arrange and rearrange the salient items from your preliminary coded analytic work into a more streamlined flow. By no means do I suggest that the intricate messiness of life can always be organized into neatly formatted arrangements, but outlining is an analytic act that stimulates deep reflection on both the interconnectedness and interrelationships of what we study. As an example, here are the thirty in vivo codes generated from the initial transcript analysis, arranged in such a way as to construct five major categories:

“DON’T REALLY NEED”

“HAVEN’T CHANGED MY HABITS”

Now that the codes have been rearranged into an outline format, an analytic memo is composed to expand on the rationale and constructed meanings in progress:

March 19, 2012 NETWORKS: EMERGENT CATEGORIES The five major categories I constructed from the in vivo codes are: “SCARY TIMES,” “PRIORTY,” “ANOTHER DING IN MY WALLET,” “THE LITTLE THINGS,” and “LIVED KIND OF CHEAP.” One of the things that hit me today was that the reason he may be pinching pennies on smaller purchases is that he cannot control the larger ones he has to deal with. Perhaps the only way we can cope with or seem to have some sense of agency over major expenses is to cut back on the smaller ones that we can control. $1,000 for a dental bill? Skip lunch for a few days a week. Insulin medication to buy for a pet? Don’t buy a soft drink from a vending machine. Using this reasoning, let me try to interrelate and weave the categories together as they relate to this particular participant: During these scary economic times, he prioritizes his spending because there seems to be just one ding after another to his wallet. A general lifestyle of living cheaply and keeping an eye out for how to save money on the little things compensates for those major expenses beyond his control.

QDA Strategy: To Code—In Even More Ways

The process and in vivo coding examples thus far have demonstrated only two specific methods of thirty-two documented approaches ( Saldaña, 2013 ). Which one(s) you choose for your analysis depends on such factors as your conceptual framework, the genre of qualitative research for your project, the types of data you collect, and so on. The following sections present a few other approaches available for coding qualitative data that you may find useful as starting points.

Descriptive Coding

Descriptive codes are primarily nouns that simply summarize the topic of a datum. This coding approach is particularly useful when you have different types of data gathered for one study, such as interview transcripts, field notes, documents, and visual materials such as photographs. Descriptive codes not only help categorize but also index the data corpus’ basic contents for further analytic work. An example of an interview portion coded descriptively, taken from the participant living in tough economic times, follows to illustrate how the same data can be coded in multiple ways:

For initial analysis, descriptive codes are clustered into similar categories to detect such patterns as frequency (i.e., categories with the largest number of codes), interrelationship (i.e., categories that seem to connect in some way), and initial work for grounded theory development.

Values Coding

Values coding identifies the values, attitudes, and beliefs of a participant, as shared by the individual and/or interpreted by the analyst. This coding method infers the “heart and mind” of an individual or group’s worldview as to what is important, perceived as true, maintained as opinion, and felt strongly. The three constructs are coded separately but are part of a complex interconnected system.

Briefly, a value (V) is what we attribute as important, be it a person, thing, or idea. An attitude (A) is the evaluative way we think and feel about ourselves, others, things, or ideas. A belief (B) is what we think and feel as true or necessary, formed from our “personal knowledge, experiences, opinions, prejudices, morals, and other interpretive perceptions of the social world” ( Saldaña, 2009 , pp. 89–90). Values coding explores intrapersonal, interpersonal, and cultural constructs or ethos . It is an admittedly slippery task to code this way, for it is sometimes difficult to discern what is a value, attitude, or belief because they are intricately interrelated. But the depth you can potentially obtain is rich. An example of values coding follows:

For analysis, categorize the codes for each of the three different constructs together (i.e., all values in one group, attitudes in a second group, and beliefs in a third group). Analytic memo writing about the patterns and possible interrelationships may reveal a more detailed and intricate worldview of the participant.

Dramaturgical Coding

Dramaturgical coding perceives life as performance and its participants as characters in a social drama. Codes are assigned to the data (i.e., a “play script”) that analyze the characters in action, reaction, and interaction. Dramaturgical coding of participants examines their objectives (OBJ) or wants, needs, and motives; the conflicts (CON) or obstacles they face as they try to achieve their objectives; the tactics (TAC) or strategies they employ to reach their objectives; their attitudes (ATT) toward others and their given circumstances; the particular emotions (EMO) they experience throughout; and their subtexts (SUB) or underlying and unspoken thoughts. The following is an example of dramaturgically coded data:

Not included in this particular interview excerpt are the emotions the participant may have experienced or talked about. His later line, “that’s another ding in my wallet,” would have been coded EMO: BITTER. A reader may not have inferred that specific emotion from seeing the line in print. But the interviewer, present during the event and listening carefully to the audio recording during transcription, noted that feeling in his tone of voice.

For analysis, group similar codes together (e.g., all objectives in one group, all conflicts in another group, all tactics in a third group), or string together chains of how participants deal with their circumstances to overcome their obstacles through tactics (e.g., OBJ: SAVING MEAL MONEY > TAC: SKIPPING MEALS). Explore how the individuals or groups manage problem solving in their daily lives. Dramaturgical coding is particularly useful as preliminary work for narrative inquiry story development or arts-based research representations such as performance ethnography.

Versus Coding

Versus coding identifies the conflicts, struggles, and power issues observed in social action, reaction, and interaction as an X VS. Y code, such as: MEN VS. WOMEN, CONSERVATIVES VS. LIBERALS, FAITH VS. LOGIC, and so on. Conflicts are rarely this dichotomous. They are typically nuanced and much more complex. But humans tend to perceive these struggles with an US VS. THEM mindset. The codes can range from the observable to the conceptual and can be applied to data that show humans in tension with others, themselves, or ideologies.

What follows are examples of versus codes applied to the case study participant’s descriptions of his major medical expenses:

As an initial analytic tactic, group the versus codes into one of three categories: the Stakeholders , their Perceptions and/or Actions , and the Issues at stake. Examine how the three interrelate and identify the central ideological conflict at work as an X vs. Y category. Analytic memos and the final write-up can detail the nuances of the issues.

Remember that what has been profiled in this section is a broad brushstroke description of just a few basic coding processes, several of which can be compatibly “mixed and matched” within a single analysis (see Saldaña’s [2013]   The Coding Manual for Qualitative Researchers for a complete discussion). Certainly with additional data, more in-depth analysis can occur, but coding is only one approach to extracting and constructing preliminary meanings from the data corpus. What now follows are additional methods for qualitative analysis.

QDA Strategy: To Theme

To theme in QDA is to construct summative, phenomenological meanings from data through extended passages of text.

Unlike codes, which are most often single words or short phrases that symbolically represent a datum, themes are extended phrases or sentences that summarize the manifest (apparent) and latent (underlying) meanings of data ( Auerbach & Silverstein, 2003 ; Boyatzis, 1998 ). Themes, intended to represent the essences and essentials of humans’ lived experiences, can also be categorized or listed in superordinate and subordinate outline formats as an analytic tactic.

Below is the interview transcript example used in the coding sections above. (Hopefully you are not too fatigued at this point with the transcript, but it’s important to know how inquiry with the same data set can be approached in several different ways.) During the investigation of the ways middle-class Americans are influenced and affected by the current (2008–2012) economic recession, the researcher noticed that participants’ stories exhibited facets of what he labeled “economic intelligence” or EI (based on the formerly developed theories of Howard Gardner’s multiple intelligences and Daniel Goleman’s emotional intelligence). Notice how themeing interprets what is happening through the use of two distinct phrases—ECONOMIC INTELLIGENCE IS (i.e., manifest or apparent meanings) and ECONOMIC INTELLIGENCE MEANS (i.e., latent or underlying meanings):

Unlike the fifteen process codes and thirty in vivo codes in the previous examples, there are now fourteen themes to work with. In the order they appear, they are:

EI IS TAKING ADVANTAGE OF UNEXPECTED OPPORTUNITY

EI MEANS THINKING BEFORE YOU ACT

EI IS BUYING CHEAP

EI MEANS SACRIFICE

EI IS SAVING A FEW DOLLARS NOW AND THEN

EI MEANS KNOWING YOUR FLAWS

EI IS SETTING PRIORITIES

EI IS FINDING CHEAPER FORMS OF ENTERTAINMENT

EI MEANS LIVING AN INEXPENSIVE LIFESTYLE

EI IS NOTICING PERSONAL AND NATIONAL ECONOMIC TRENDS

EI MEANS YOU CANNOT CONTROL EVERYTHING

EI IS TAKING CARE OF ONE’S OWN HEALTH

EI MEANS KNOWING YOUR LUCK

There are several ways to categorize the themes as preparation for analytic memo writing. The first is to arrange them in outline format with superordinate and subordinate levels, based on how the themes seem to take organizational shape and structure. Simply cutting and pasting the themes in multiple arrangements on a word processor page eventually develops a sense of order to them. For example:

A second approach is to categorize the themes into similar clusters and to develop different category labels or theoretical constructs . A theoretical construct is an abstraction that transforms the central phenomenon’s themes into broader applications but can still use “is” and “means” as prompts to capture the bigger picture at work:

Theoretical Construct 1: EI Means Knowing the Unfortunate Present

Supporting Themes:

Theoretical Construct 2: EI is Cultivating a Small Fortune

Theoretical Construct 3: EI Means a Fortunate Future

What follows is an analytic memo generated from the cut-and-paste arrangement of themes into an outline and into theoretical constructs:

March 19, 2012 EMERGENT THEMES: FORTUNE/FORTUNATELY/UNFORTUNATELY I first reorganized the themes by listing them in two groups: “is” and “means.” The “is” statements seemed to contain positive actions and constructive strategies for economic intelligence. The “means” statements held primarily a sense of caution and restriction with a touch of negativity thrown in. The first outline with two major themes, LIVING AN INEXPENSIVE LIFESTYLE and YOU CANNOT CONTROL EVERYTHING also had this same tone. This reminded me of the old children’s picture book, Fortunately/Unfortunately , and the themes of “fortune” as a motif for the three theoretical constructs came to mind. Knowing the Unfortunate Present means knowing what’s (most) important and what’s (mostly) uncontrollable in one’s personal economic life. Cultivating a Small Fortune consists of those small money-saving actions that, over time, become part of one's lifestyle. A Fortunate Future consists of heightened awareness of trends and opportunities at micro and macro levels, with the understanding that health matters can idiosyncratically affect one’s fortune. These three constructs comprise this particular individual’s EI—economic intelligence.

Again, keep in mind that the examples above for coding and themeing were from one small interview transcript excerpt. The number of codes and their categorization would obviously increase, given a longer interview and/or multiple interviews to analyze. But the same basic principles apply: codes and themes relegated into patterned and categorized forms are heuristics—stimuli for good thinking through the analytic memo-writing process on how everything plausibly interrelates. Methodologists vary in the number of recommended final categories that result from analysis, ranging anywhere from three to seven, with traditional grounded theorists prescribing one central or core category from coded work.

QDA Strategy: To Assert

To assert in QDA is to put forward statements that summarize particular fieldwork and analytic observations that the researcher believes credibly represent and transcend the experiences.

Educational anthropologist Frederick Erickson (1986) wrote a significant and influential chapter on qualitative methods that outlined heuristics for assertion development . Assertions are declarative statements of summative synthesis, supported by confirming evidence from the data, and revised when disconfirming evidence or discrepant cases require modification of the assertions. These summative statements are generated from an interpretive review of the data corpus and then supported and illustrated through narrative vignettes—reconstructed stories from field notes, interview transcripts, or other data sources that provide a vivid profile as part of the evidentiary warrant.

Coding or themeing data can certainly precede assertion development as a way of gaining intimate familiarity with the data, but Erickson’s methods are a more admittedly intuitive yet systematic heuristic for analysis. Erickson promotes analytic induction and exploration of and inferences about the data, based on an examination of the evidence and an accumulation of knowledge. The goal is not to look for “proof” to support the assertions but plausibility of inference-laden observations about the local and particular social world under investigation.

Assertion development is the writing of general statements, plus subordinate yet related ones called subassertions , and a major statement called a key assertion that represents the totality of the data. One also looks for key linkages between them, meaning that the key assertion links to its related assertions, which then link to their respective subassertions. Subassertions can include particulars about any discrepant related cases or specify components of their parent assertions.

Excerpts from the interview transcript of our case study will be used to illustrate assertion development at work. By now, you should be quite familiar with the contents, so I will proceed directly to the analytic example. First, there is a series of thematically related statements the participant makes:

“Buy one package of chicken, get the second one free. Now that was a bargain. And I got some.”

“With Sweet Tomatoes I get those coupons for a few bucks off for lunch, so that really helps.”

“I don’t go to movies anymore. I rent DVDs from Netflix or Redbox or watch movies online—so much cheaper than paying over ten or twelve bucks for a movie ticket.”

Assertions can be categorized into low-level and high-level inferences . Low-level inferences address and summarize “what is happening” within the particulars of the case or field site—the “micro.” High-level inferences extend beyond the particulars to speculate on “what it means” in the more general social scheme of things—the “meso” or “macro.” A reasonable low-level assertion about the three statements above collectively might read: The participant finds several small ways to save money during a difficult economic period . A high-level inference that transcends the case to the macro level might read: Selected businesses provide alternatives and opportunities to buy products and services at reduced rates during a recession to maintain consumer spending.

Assertions are instantiated (i.e., supported) by concrete instances of action or participant testimony, whose patterns lead to more general description outside the specific field site. The author’s interpretive commentary can be interspersed throughout the report, but the assertions should be supported with the evidentiary warrant . A few assertions and subassertions based on the case interview transcript might read (and notice how high-level assertions serve as the paragraphs’ topic sentences):

Selected businesses provide alternatives and opportunities to buy products and services at reduced rates during a recession to maintain consumer spending. Restaurants, for example, need to find ways during difficult economic periods when potential customers may be opting to eat inexpensively at home rather than spending more money by dining out. Special offers can motivate cash-strapped clientele to patronize restaurants more frequently. An adult male dealing with such major expenses as underinsured dental care offers: “With Sweet Tomatoes I get those coupons for a few bucks off for lunch, so that really helps.” The film and video industries also seem to be suffering from a double-whammy during the current recession: less consumer spending on higher-priced entertainment, resulting in a reduced rate of movie theatre attendance (currently 39 percent of the American population, according to CNN); coupled with a media technology and business revolution that provides consumers less costly alternatives through video rentals and internet viewing: “I don’t go to movies anymore. I rent DVDs from Netflix or Redbox or watch movies online—so much cheaper than paying over ten or twelve bucks for a movie ticket.”

“Particularizability”—the search for specific and unique dimensions of action at a site and/or the specific and unique perspectives of an individual participant—is not intended to filter out trivial excess but to magnify the salient characteristics of local meaning. Although generalizable knowledge serves little purpose in qualitative inquiry since each naturalistic setting will contain its own unique set of social and cultural conditions, there will be some aspects of social action that are plausibly universal or “generic” across settings and perhaps even across time. To work toward this, Erickson advocates that the interpretive researcher look for “concrete universals” by studying actions at a particular site in detail, then comparing those to other sites that have also been studied in detail. The exhibit or display of these generalizable features is to provide a synoptic representation, or a view of the whole. What the researcher attempts to uncover is what is both particular and general at the site of interest, preferably from the perspective of the participants. It is from the detailed analysis of actions at a specific site that these universals can be concretely discerned, rather than abstractly constructed as in grounded theory.

In sum, assertion development is a qualitative data analytic strategy that relies on the researcher’s intense review of interview transcripts, field notes, documents, and other data to inductively formulate composite statements that credibly summarize and interpret participant actions and meanings, and their possible representation of and transfer into broader social contexts and issues.

QDA Strategy: To Display

To display in QDA is to visually present the processes and dynamics of human or conceptual action represented in the data.

Qualitative researchers use not only language but illustrations to both analyze and display the phenomena and processes at work in the data. Tables, charts, matrices, flow diagrams, and other models help both you and your readers cognitively and conceptually grasp the essence and essentials of your findings. As you have seen thus far, even simple outlining of codes, categories, and themes is one visual tactic for organizing the scope of the data. Rich text, font, and format features such as italicizing, bolding, capitalizing, indenting, and bullet pointing provide simple emphasis to selected words and phrases within the longer narrative.

“Think display” was a phrase coined by methodologists Miles and Huberman (1994) to encourage the researcher to think visually as data were collected and analyzed. The magnitude of text can be essentialized into graphics for “at-a-glance” review. Bins in various shapes and lines of various thicknesses, along with arrows suggesting pathways and direction, render the study as a portrait of action. Bins can include the names of codes, categories, concepts, processes, key participants, and/or groups.

As a simple example, Figure 28.1 illustrates the three categories’ interrelationship derived from process coding. It displays what could be the apex of this interaction, LIVING STRATEGICALLY, and its connections to THINKING STRATEGICALLY, which influences and affects SPENDING STRATEGICALLY.

Figure 28.2 represents a slightly more complex (if not playful) model, based on the five major in vivo codes/categories generated from analysis. The graphic is used as a way of initially exploring the interrelationship and flow from one category to another. The use of different font styles, font sizes, and line and arrow thicknesses are intended to suggest the visual qualities of the participant’s language and his dilemmas—a way of heightening in vivo coding even further.

Accompanying graphics are not always necessary for a qualitative report. They can be very helpful for the researcher during the analytic stage as a heuristic for exploring how major ideas interrelate, but illustrations are generally included in published work when they will help supplement and clarify complex processes for readers. Photographs of the field setting or the participants (and only with their written permission) also provide evidentiary reality to the write-up and help your readers get a sense of being there.

QDA Strategy: To Narrate

To narrate in QDA is to create an evocative literary representation and presentation of the data in the form of creative nonfiction.

All research reports are stories of one kind or another. But there is yet another approach to QDA that intentionally documents the research experience as story, in its traditional literary sense. Narrative inquiry plots and story lines the participant’s experiences into what might be initially perceived as a fictional short story or novel. But the story is carefully crafted and creatively written to provide readers with an almost omniscient perspective about the participants’ worldview. The transformation of the corpus from database to creative nonfiction ranges from systematic transcript analysis to open ended literary composition. The narrative, though, should be solidly grounded in and emerge from the data as a plausible rendering of social life.

A simple illustration of category interrelationship.

An illustration with rich text and artistic features.

The following is a narrative vignette based on interview transcript selections from the participant living through tough economic times:

Jack stood in front of the soft drink vending machine at work and looked almost worriedly at the selections. With both hands in his pants pockets, his fingers jingled the few coins he had inside them as he contemplated whether he could afford the purchase. One dollar and fifty cents for a twenty-ounce bottle of Diet Coke. One dollar and fifty cents. “I can practically get a two-liter bottle for that same price at the grocery store,” he thought. Then Jack remembered the upcoming dental surgery he needed—that would cost one thousand dollars—and the bottle of insulin and syringes he needed to buy for his diabetic, “high maintenance” cat—about one hundred and twenty dollars. He sighed, took his hands out of his pockets, and walked away from the vending machine. He was skipping lunch that day anyway so he could stock up on dinner later at the cheap-but-filling-all-you-can-eat Chinese buffet. He could get his Diet Coke there.

Narrative inquiry representations, like literature, vary in tone, style, and point of view. The common goal, however, is to create an evocative portrait of participants through the aesthetic power of literary form. A story does not always have to have a moral explicitly stated by its author. The reader reflects on personal meanings derived from the piece and how the specific tale relates to one’s self and the social world.

QDA Strategy: To Poeticize

To poeticize in QDA is to create an evocative literary representation and presentation of the data in the form of poetry.

One form for analyzing or documenting analytic findings is to strategically truncate interview transcripts, field notes, and other pertinent data into poetic structures. Like coding, poetic constructions capture the essence and essentials of data in a creative, evocative way. The elegance of the format attests to the power of carefully chosen language to represent and convey complex human experience.

In vivo codes (codes based on the actual words used by participants themselves) can provide imagery, symbols, and metaphors for rich category, theme, concept, and assertion development, plus evocative content for arts-based interpretations of the data. Poetic inquiry takes note of what words and phrases seem to stand out from the data corpus as rich material for reinterpretation. Using some of the participant’s own language from the interview transcript illustrated above, a poetic reconstruction or “found poetry” might read:

Scary Times Scary times... spending more (another ding in my wallet) a couple of thousand (another ding in my wallet) insurance is just worthless (another ding in my wallet) pick up the tab (another ding in my wallet) not putting as much into savings (another ding in my wallet) It all adds up. Think twice: don't really need skip Think twice, think cheap: coupons bargains two-for-one free Think twice, think cheaper: stock up all-you-can-eat (cheap—and filling) It all adds up.

Anna Deavere Smith, a verbatim theatre performer, attests that people speak in forms of “organic poetry” in everyday life. Thus in vivo codes can provide core material for poetic representation and presentation of lived experiences, potentially transforming the routine and mundane into the epic. Some researchers also find the genre of poetry to be the most effective way to compose original work that reflects their own fieldwork experiences and autoethnographic stories.

QDA Strategy: To Compute

To compute in QDA is to employ specialized software programs for qualitative data management and analysis.

CAQDAS is an acronym for Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software. There are diverse opinions among practitioners in the field about the utility of such specialized programs for qualitative data management and analysis. The software, unlike statistical computation, does not actually analyze data for you at higher conceptual levels. CAQDAS software packages serve primarily as a repository for your data (both textual and visual) that enable you to code them, and they can perform such functions as calculate the number of times a particular word or phrase appears in the data corpus (a particularly useful function for content analysis) and can display selected facets after coding, such as possible interrelationships. Certainly, basic word-processing software such as Microsoft Word, Excel, and Access provide utilities that can store and, with some pre-formatting and strategic entry, organize qualitative data to enable the researcher’s analytic review. The following internet addresses are listed to help in exploriong these CAQDAS packages and obtaining demonstration/trial software and tutorials:

AnSWR: www.cdc.gov/hiv/topics/surveillance/resources/software/answr

ATLAS.ti: www.atlasti.com

Coding Analysis Toolkit (CAT): cat.ucsur.pitt.edu/

Dedoose: www.dedoose.com

HyperRESEARCH: www.researchware.com

MAXQDA: www.maxqda.com

NVivo: www.qsrinternational.com

QDA Miner: www.provalisresearch.com

Qualrus: www.qualrus.com

Transana (for audio and video data materials): www.transana.org

Weft QDA: www.pressure.to/qda/

Some qualitative researchers attest that the software is indispensable for qualitative data management, especially for large-scale studies. Others feel that the learning curve of CAQDAS is too lengthy to be of pragmatic value, especially for small-scale studies. From my own experience, if you have an aptitude for picking up quickly on the scripts of software programs, explore one or more of the packages listed. If you are a novice to qualitative research, though, I recommend working manually or “by hand” for your first project so you can focus exclusively on the data and not on the software.

QDA Strategy: To Verify

To verify in QDA is to administer an audit of “quality control” to your analysis.

After your data analysis and the development of key findings, you may be thinking to yourself, “Did I get it right?” “Did I learn anything new?” Reliability and validity are terms and constructs of the positivist quantitative paradigm that refer to the replicability and accuracy of measures. But in the qualitative paradigm, other constructs are more appropriate.

Credibility and trustworthiness ( Lincoln & Guba, 1985 ) are two factors to consider when collecting and analyzing the data and presenting your findings. In our qualitative research projects, we need to present a convincing story to our audiences that we “got it right” methodologically. In other words, the amount of time we spent in the field, the number of participants we interviewed, the analytic methods we used, the thinking processes evident to reach our conclusions, and so on should be “just right” to persuade the reader that we have conducted our jobs soundly. But remember that we can never conclusively “prove” something; we can only, at best, convincingly suggest. Research is an act of persuasion.

Credibility in a qualitative research report can be established through several ways. First, citing the key writers of related works in your literature review is a must. Seasoned researchers will sometimes assess whether a novice has “done her homework” by reviewing the bibliography or references. You need not list everything that seminal writers have published about a topic, but their names should appear at least once as evidence that you know the field’s key figures and their work.

Credibility can also be established by specifying the particular data analytic methods you employed (e.g., “Interview transcripts were taken through two cycles of process coding, resulting in five primary categories”), through corroboration of data analysis with the participants themselves (e.g., “I asked my participants to read and respond to a draft of this report for their confirmation of accuracy and recommendations for revision”) or through your description of how data and findings were substantiated (e.g., “Data sources included interview transcripts, participant observation field notes, and participant response journals to gather multiple perspectives about the phenomenon”).

Creativity scholar Sir Ken Robinson is attributed with offering this cautionary advice about making a convincing argument: “Without data, you’re just another person with an opinion.” Thus researchers can also support their findings with relevant, specific evidence by quoting participants directly and/or including field note excerpts from the data corpus. These serve both as illustrative examples for readers and to present more credible testimony of what happened in the field.

Trustworthiness , or providing credibility to the writing, is when we inform the reader of our research processes. Some make the case by stating the duration of fieldwork (e.g., “Seventy-five clock hours were spent in the field”; “The study extended over a twenty-month period”). Others put forth the amounts of data they gathered (e.g., “Twenty-seven individuals were interviewed”; “My field notes totaled approximately 250 pages”). Sometimes trustworthiness is established when we are up front or confessional with the analytic or ethical dilemmas we encountered (e.g., “It was difficult to watch the participant’s teaching effectiveness erode during fieldwork”; “Analysis was stalled until I recoded the entire data corpus with a new perspective.”).

The bottom line is that credibility and trustworthiness are matters of researcher honesty and integrity . Anyone can write that he worked ethically, rigorously, and reflexively, but only the writer will ever know the truth. There is no shame if something goes wrong with your research. In fact, it is more than likely the rule, not the exception. Work and write transparently to achieve credibility and trustworthiness with your readers.

The length of this article does not enable me to expand on other qualitative data analytic strategies, such as to conceptualize, abstract, theorize, and write. Yet there are even more subtle thinking strategies to employ throughout the research enterprise, such as to synthesize, problematize, persevere, imagine, and create. Each researcher has his or her own ways of working, and deep reflection (another strategy) on your own methodology and methods as a qualitative inquirer throughout fieldwork and writing provides you with metacognitive awareness of data analytic processes and possibilities.

Data analysis is one of the most elusive processes in qualitative research, perhaps because it is a backstage, behind-the-scenes, in-your-head enterprise. It is not that there are no models to follow. It is just that each project is contextual and case specific. The unique data you collect from your unique research design must be approached with your unique analytic signature. It truly is a learning-by-doing process, so accept that and leave yourself open to discovery and insight as you carefully scrutinize the data corpus for patterns, categories, themes, concepts, assertions, and possibly new theories through strategic analysis.

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Data & Finance for Work & Life

Data Analysis for Qualitative Research: 6 Step Guide

Data analysis for qualitative research is not intuitive. This is because qualitative data stands in opposition to traditional data analysis methodologies: while data analysis is concerned with quantities, qualitative data is by definition unquantified . But there is an easy, methodical approach that anyone can take use to get reliable results when performing data analysis for qualitative research. The process consists of 6 steps that I’ll break down in this article:

• Perform interviews(if necessary )
• Gather all documents and transcribe any non-paper records
• Decide whether to either code analytical data, analyze word frequencies, or both
• Decide what interpretive angle you want to take: content analysis , narrative analysis, discourse analysis, framework analysis, and/or grounded theory
• Compile your data in a spreadsheet using document saving techniques (windows and mac)
• Identify trends in words, themes, metaphors, natural patterns, and more

To complete these steps, you will need:

• Microsoft word
• Microsoft excel
• Internet access

You can get the free Intro to Data Analysis eBook to cover the fundamentals and ensure strong progression in all your data endeavors.

What is qualitative research?

Qualitative research is not the same as quantitative research. In short, qualitative research is the interpretation of non-numeric data. It usually aims at drawing conclusions that explain why a phenomenon occurs, rather than that one does occur. Here’s a great quote from a nursing magazine about quantitative vs qualitative research:

“A traditional quantitative study… uses a predetermined (and auditable) set of steps to confirm or refute [a] hypothesis. “In contrast, qualitative research often takes the position that an interpretive understanding is only possible by way of uncovering or deconstructing the meanings of a phenomenon. Thus, a distinction between explaining how something operates (explanation) and why it operates in the manner that it does (interpretation) may be [an] effective way to distinguish quantitative from qualitative analytic processes involved in any particular study.” (bold added) (( EBN ))

Learn to Interpret Your Qualitative Data

This article explain what data analysis is and how to do it. To learn how to interpret the results, visualize, and write an insightful report, sign up for our handbook below.

Step 1a: Data collection methods and techniques in qualitative research: interviews and focus groups

Step 1 is collecting the data that you will need for the analysis. If you are not performing any interviews or focus groups to gather data, then you can skip this step. It’s for people who need to go into the field and collect raw information as part of their qualitative analysis.

Since the whole point of an interview and of qualitative analysis in general is to understand a research question better, you should start by making sure you have a specific, refined research question . Whether you’re a researcher by trade or a data analyst working on one-time project, you must know specifically what you want to understand in order to get results.

Good research questions are specific enough to guide action but open enough to leave room for insight and growth. Examples of good research questions include:

• Good : To what degree does living in a city impact the quality of a person’s life? (open-ended, complex)
• Bad : Does living in a city impact the quality of a person’s life? (closed, simple)

Once you understand the research question, you need to develop a list of interview questions. These questions should likewise be open-ended and provide liberty of expression to the responder. They should support the research question in an active way without prejudicing the response. Examples of good interview questions include:

• Good : Tell me what it’s like to live in a city versus in the country. (open, not leading)
• Bad : Don’t you prefer the city to the country because there are more people? (closed, leading)

Some additional helpful tips include:

• Begin each interview with a neutral question to get the person relaxed
• Limit each question to a single idea
• If you don’t understand, ask for clarity
• Do not pass any judgements
• Do not spend more than 15m on an interview, lest the quality of responses drop

Focus groups

The alternative to interviews is focus groups. Focus groups are a great way for you to get an idea for how people communicate their opinions in a group setting, rather than a one-on-one setting as in interviews.

In short, focus groups are gatherings of small groups of people from representative backgrounds who receive instruction, or “facilitation,” from a focus group leader. Typically, the leader will ask questions to stimulate conversation, reformulate questions to bring the discussion back to focus, and prevent the discussion from turning sour or giving way to bad faith.

Focus group questions should be open-ended like their interview neighbors, and they should stimulate some degree of disagreement. Disagreement often leads to valuable information about differing opinions, as people tend to say what they mean if contradicted.

However, focus group leaders must be careful not to let disagreements escalate, as anger can make people lie to be hurtful or simply to win an argument. And lies are not helpful in data analysis for qualitative research.

Step 1b: Tools for qualitative data collection

When it comes to data analysis for qualitative analysis, the tools you use to collect data should align to some degree with the tools you will use to analyze the data.

As mentioned in the intro, you will be focusing on analysis techniques that only require the traditional Microsoft suite programs: Microsoft Excel and Microsoft Word . At the same time, you can source supplementary tools from various websites, like Text Analyzer and WordCounter.

In short, the tools for qualitative data collection that you need are Excel and Word , as well as web-based free tools like Text Analyzer and WordCounter . These online tools are helpful in the quantitative part of your qualitative research.

Step 2: Gather all documents & transcribe non-written docs

Once you have your interviews and/or focus group transcripts, it’s time to decide if you need other documentation. If you do, you’ll need to gather it all into one place first, then develop a strategy for how to transcribe any non-written documents.

When do you need documentation other than interviews and focus groups? Two situations usually call for documentation. First , if you have little funding , then you can’t afford to run expensive interviews and focus groups.

Second , social science researchers typically focus on documents since their research questions are less concerned with subject-oriented data, while hard science and business researchers typically focus on interviews and focus groups because they want to know what people think, and they want to know today.

Non-written records

Other factors at play include the type of research, the field, and specific research goal. For those who need documentation and to describe non-written records, there are some steps to follow:

• Put all hard copy source documents into a sealed binder (I use plastic paper holders with elastic seals ).
• If you are sourcing directly from printed books or journals, then you will need to digitalize them by scanning them and making them text readable by the computer. To do so, turn all PDFs into Word documents using online tools such as PDF to Word Converter . This process is never full-proof, and it may be a source of error in the data collection, but it’s part of the process.
• If you are sourcing online documents, try as often as possible to get computer-readable PDF documents that you can easily copy/paste or convert. Locked PDFs are essentially a lost cause .
• Transcribe any audio files into written documents. There are free online tools available to help with this, such as 360converter . If you run a test through the system, you’ll see that the output is not 100%. The best way to use this tool is as a first draft generator. You can then correct and complete it with old fashioned, direct transcription.

Step 3: Decide on the type of qualitative research

Before step 3 you should have collected your data, transcribed it all into written-word documents, and compiled it in one place. Now comes the interesting part. You need to decide what you want to get out of your research by choosing an analytic angle, or type of qualitative research.

The available types of qualitative research are as follows. Each of them takes a unique angle that you must choose to get what information you want from the analysis . In addition, each of them has a different impact on the data analysis for qualitative research (coding vs word frequency) that we use.

Content analysis

Narrative analysis, discourse analysis.

• Framework analysis, and/or

Grounded theory

From a high level, content, narrative, and discourse analysis are actionable independent tactics, whereas framework analysis and grounded theory are ways of honing and applying the first three.

• Definition : Content analysis is identify and labelling themes of any kind within a text.
• Focus : Identifying any kind of pattern in written text, transcribed audio, or transcribed video. This could be thematic, word repetition, idea repetition. Most often, the patterns we find are idea that make up an argument.
• Goal : To simplify, standardize, and quickly reference ideas from any given text. Content analysis is a way to pull the main ideas from huge documents for comparison. In this way, it’s more a means to an end.
• Pros : The huge advantage of doing content analysis is that you can quickly process huge amounts of texts using simple coding and word frequency techniques we will look at below. To use a metaphore, it is to qualitative analysis documents what Spark notes are to books.
• Cons : The downside to content analysis is that it’s quite general. If you have a very specific, narrative research question, then tracing “any and all ideas” will not be very helpful to you.
• Definition : Narrative analysis is the reformulation and simplification of interview answers or documentation into small narrative components to identify story-like patterns.
• Focus : Understanding the text based on its narrative components as opposed to themes or other qualities.
• Goal : To reference the text from an angle closer to the nature of texts in order to obtain further insights.
• Pros : Narrative analysis is very useful for getting perspective on a topic in which you’re extremely limited. It can be easy to get tunnel vision when you’re digging for themes and ideas from a reason-centric perspective. Turning to a narrative approach will help you stay grounded. More importantly, it helps reveal different kinds of trends.
• Cons : Narrative analysis adds another layer of subjectivity to the instinctive nature of qualitative research. Many see it as too dependent on the researcher to hold any critical value.
• Definition : Discourse analysis is the textual analysis of naturally occurring speech. Any oral expression must be transcribed before undergoing legitimate discourse analysis.
• Focus : Understanding ideas and themes through language communicated orally rather than pre-processed on paper.
• Goal : To obtain insights from an angle outside the traditional content analysis on text.
• Pros : Provides a considerable advantage in some areas of study in order to understand how people communicate an idea, versus the idea itself. For example, discourse analysis is important in political campaigning. People rarely vote for the candidate who most closely corresponds to his/her beliefs, but rather for the person they like the most.
• Cons : As with narrative analysis, discourse analysis is more subjective in nature than content analysis, which focuses on ideas and patterns. Some do not consider it rigorous enough to be considered a legitimate subset of qualitative analysis, but these people are few.

Framework analysis

• Definition : Framework analysis is a kind of qualitative analysis that includes 5 ordered steps: coding, indexing, charting, mapping, and interpreting . In most ways, framework analysis is a synonym for qualitative analysis — the same thing. The significant difference is the importance it places on the perspective used in the analysis.
• Focus : Understanding patterns in themes and ideas.
• Goal : Creating one specific framework for looking at a text.
• Pros : Framework analysis is helpful when the researcher clearly understands what he/she wants from the project, as it’s a limitation approach. Since each of its step has defined parameters, framework analysis is very useful for teamwork.
• Cons : It can lead to tunnel vision.
• Definition : The use of content, narrative, and discourse analysis to examine a single case, in the hopes that discoveries from that case will lead to a foundational theory used to examine other like cases.
• Focus : A vast approach using multiple techniques in order to establish patterns.
• Goal : To develop a foundational theory.
• Pros : When successful, grounded theories can revolutionize entire fields of study.
• Cons : It’s very difficult to establish ground theories, and there’s an enormous amount of risk involved.

Step 4: Coding, word frequency, or both

Coding in data analysis for qualitative research is the process of writing 2-5 word codes that summarize at least 1 paragraphs of text (not writing computer code). This allows researchers to keep track of and analyze those codes. On the other hand, word frequency is the process of counting the presence and orientation of words within a text, which makes it the quantitative element in qualitative data analysis.

Video example of coding for data analysis in qualitative research

In short, coding in the context of data analysis for qualitative research follows 2 steps (video below):

• Reading through the text one time
• Adding 2-5 word summaries each time a significant theme or idea appears

Let’s look at a brief example of how to code for qualitative research in this video:

Click here for a link to the source text. 1

Example of word frequency processing

And word frequency is the process of finding a specific word or identifying the most common words through 3 steps:

• Decide if you want to find 1 word or identify the most common ones
• Use word’s “Replace” function to find a word or phrase
• Use Text Analyzer to find the most common terms

Here’s another look at word frequency processing and how you to do it. Let’s look at the same example above, but from a quantitative perspective.

Imagine we are already familiar with melanoma and KITs , and we want to analyze the text based on these keywords. One thing we can do is look for these words using the Replace function in word

• Locate the search bar
• Click replace
• Type in the word
• See the total results

Here’s a brief video example:

Another option is to use an online Text Analyzer. This methodology won’t help us find a specific word, but it will help us discover the top performing phrases and words. All you need to do it put in a link to a target page or paste a text. I pasted the abstract from our source text, and what turns up is as expected. Here’s a picture:

Step 5: Compile your data in a spreadsheet

After you have some coded data in the word document, you need to get it into excel for analysis. This process requires saving the word doc as an .htm extension, which makes it a website. Once you have the website, it’s as simple as opening that page, scrolling to the bottom, and copying/pasting the comments, or codes, into an excel document.

You will need to wrangle the data slightly in order to make it readable in excel. I’ve made a video to explain this process and places it below.

Step 6: Identify trends & analyze!

There are literally thousands of different ways to analyze qualitative data, and in most situations, the best technique depends on the information you want to get out of the research.

Nevertheless, there are a few go-to techniques. The most important of this is occurrences . In this short video, we finish the example from above by counting the number of times our codes appear. In this way, it’s very similar to word frequency (discussed above).

A few other options include:

• Ranking each code on a set of relevant criteria and clustering
• Pure cluster analysis
• Causal analysis

We cover different types of analysis like this on the website, so be sure to check out other articles on the home page .

How to analyze qualitative data from an interview

To analyze qualitative data from an interview , follow the same 6 steps for quantitative data analysis:

• Perform the interviews
• Transcribe the interviews onto paper
• Decide whether to either code analytical data (open, axial, selective), analyze word frequencies, or both
• Compile your data in a spreadsheet using document saving techniques (for windows and mac)
• Source text [ ↩ ]

About the Author

Noah is the founder & Editor-in-Chief at AnalystAnswers. He is a transatlantic professional and entrepreneur with 5+ years of corporate finance and data analytics experience, as well as 3+ years in consumer financial products and business software. He started AnalystAnswers to provide aspiring professionals with accessible explanations of otherwise dense finance and data concepts. Noah believes everyone can benefit from an analytical mindset in growing digital world. When he's not busy at work, Noah likes to explore new European cities, exercise, and spend time with friends and family.

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Home » Narrative Analysis – Types, Methods and Examples

Narrative Analysis – Types, Methods and Examples

Table of Contents

Narrative Analysis

Definition:

Narrative analysis is a qualitative research methodology that involves examining and interpreting the stories or narratives people tell in order to gain insights into the meanings, experiences, and perspectives that underlie them. Narrative analysis can be applied to various forms of communication, including written texts, oral interviews, and visual media.

In narrative analysis, researchers typically examine the structure, content, and context of the narratives they are studying, paying close attention to the language, themes, and symbols used by the storytellers. They may also look for patterns or recurring motifs within the narratives, and consider the cultural and social contexts in which they are situated.

Types of Narrative Analysis

Types of Narrative Analysis are as follows:

Content Analysis

This type of narrative analysis involves examining the content of a narrative in order to identify themes, motifs, and other patterns. Researchers may use coding schemes to identify specific themes or categories within the text, and then analyze how they are related to each other and to the overall narrative. Content analysis can be used to study various forms of communication, including written texts, oral interviews, and visual media.

Structural Analysis

This type of narrative analysis focuses on the formal structure of a narrative, including its plot, character development, and use of literary devices. Researchers may analyze the narrative arc, the relationship between the protagonist and antagonist, or the use of symbolism and metaphor. Structural analysis can be useful for understanding how a narrative is constructed and how it affects the reader or audience.

Discourse Analysis

This type of narrative analysis focuses on the language and discourse used in a narrative, including the social and cultural context in which it is situated. Researchers may analyze the use of specific words or phrases, the tone and style of the narrative, or the ways in which social and cultural norms are reflected in the narrative. Discourse analysis can be useful for understanding how narratives are influenced by larger social and cultural structures.

Phenomenological Analysis

This type of narrative analysis focuses on the subjective experience of the narrator, and how they interpret and make sense of their experiences. Researchers may analyze the language used to describe experiences, the emotions expressed in the narrative, or the ways in which the narrator constructs meaning from their experiences. Phenomenological analysis can be useful for understanding how people make sense of their own lives and experiences.

Critical Analysis

This type of narrative analysis involves examining the political, social, and ideological implications of a narrative, and questioning its underlying assumptions and values. Researchers may analyze the ways in which a narrative reflects or reinforces dominant power structures, or how it challenges or subverts those structures. Critical analysis can be useful for understanding the role that narratives play in shaping social and cultural norms.

Autoethnography

This type of narrative analysis involves using personal narratives to explore cultural experiences and identity formation. Researchers may use their own personal narratives to explore issues such as race, gender, or sexuality, and to understand how larger social and cultural structures shape individual experiences. Autoethnography can be useful for understanding how individuals negotiate and navigate complex cultural identities.

Thematic Analysis

This method involves identifying themes or patterns that emerge from the data, and then interpreting these themes in relation to the research question. Researchers may use a deductive approach, where they start with a pre-existing theoretical framework, or an inductive approach, where themes are generated from the data itself.

Narrative Analysis Conducting Guide

Here are some steps for conducting narrative analysis:

• Identify the research question: Narrative analysis begins with identifying the research question or topic of interest. Researchers may want to explore a particular social or cultural phenomenon, or gain a deeper understanding of a particular individual’s experience.
• Collect the narratives: Researchers then collect the narratives or stories that they will analyze. This can involve collecting written texts, conducting interviews, or analyzing visual media.
• Transcribe and code the narratives: Once the narratives have been collected, they are transcribed into a written format, and then coded in order to identify themes, motifs, or other patterns. Researchers may use a coding scheme that has been developed specifically for the study, or they may use an existing coding scheme.
• Analyze the narratives: Researchers then analyze the narratives, focusing on the themes, motifs, and other patterns that have emerged from the coding process. They may also analyze the formal structure of the narratives, the language used, and the social and cultural context in which they are situated.
• Interpret the findings: Finally, researchers interpret the findings of the narrative analysis, and draw conclusions about the meanings, experiences, and perspectives that underlie the narratives. They may use the findings to develop theories, make recommendations, or inform further research.

Applications of Narrative Analysis

Narrative analysis is a versatile qualitative research method that has applications across a wide range of fields, including psychology, sociology, anthropology, literature, and history. Here are some examples of how narrative analysis can be used:

• Understanding individuals’ experiences: Narrative analysis can be used to gain a deeper understanding of individuals’ experiences, including their thoughts, feelings, and perspectives. For example, psychologists might use narrative analysis to explore the stories that individuals tell about their experiences with mental illness.
• Exploring cultural and social phenomena: Narrative analysis can also be used to explore cultural and social phenomena, such as gender, race, and identity. Sociologists might use narrative analysis to examine how individuals understand and experience their gender identity.
• Analyzing historical events: Narrative analysis can be used to analyze historical events, including those that have been recorded in literary texts or personal accounts. Historians might use narrative analysis to explore the stories of survivors of historical traumas, such as war or genocide.
• Examining media representations: Narrative analysis can be used to examine media representations of social and cultural phenomena, such as news stories, films, or television shows. Communication scholars might use narrative analysis to examine how news media represent different social groups.
• Developing interventions: Narrative analysis can be used to develop interventions to address social and cultural problems. For example, social workers might use narrative analysis to understand the experiences of individuals who have experienced domestic violence, and then use that knowledge to develop more effective interventions.

Examples of Narrative Analysis

Here are some examples of how narrative analysis has been used in research:

• Personal narratives of illness: Researchers have used narrative analysis to examine the personal narratives of individuals living with chronic illness, to understand how they make sense of their experiences and construct their identities.
• Oral histories: Historians have used narrative analysis to analyze oral histories to gain insights into individuals’ experiences of historical events and social movements.
• Children’s stories: Researchers have used narrative analysis to analyze children’s stories to understand how they understand and make sense of the world around them.
• Personal diaries : Researchers have used narrative analysis to examine personal diaries to gain insights into individuals’ experiences of significant life events, such as the loss of a loved one or the transition to adulthood.
• Memoirs : Researchers have used narrative analysis to analyze memoirs to understand how individuals construct their life stories and make sense of their experiences.
• Life histories : Researchers have used narrative analysis to examine life histories to gain insights into individuals’ experiences of migration, displacement, or social exclusion.

Purpose of Narrative Analysis

The purpose of narrative analysis is to gain a deeper understanding of the stories that individuals tell about their experiences, identities, and beliefs. By analyzing the structure, content, and context of these stories, researchers can uncover patterns and themes that shed light on the ways in which individuals make sense of their lives and the world around them.

The primary purpose of narrative analysis is to explore the meanings that individuals attach to their experiences. This involves examining the different elements of a story, such as the plot, characters, setting, and themes, to identify the underlying values, beliefs, and attitudes that shape the story. By analyzing these elements, researchers can gain insights into the ways in which individuals construct their identities, understand their relationships with others, and make sense of the world.

Narrative analysis can also be used to identify patterns and themes across multiple stories. This involves comparing and contrasting the stories of different individuals or groups to identify commonalities and differences. By analyzing these patterns and themes, researchers can gain insights into broader cultural and social phenomena, such as gender, race, and identity.

In addition, narrative analysis can be used to develop interventions that address social and cultural problems. By understanding the stories that individuals tell about their experiences, researchers can develop interventions that are tailored to the unique needs of different individuals and groups.

Overall, the purpose of narrative analysis is to provide a rich, nuanced understanding of the ways in which individuals construct meaning and make sense of their lives. By analyzing the stories that individuals tell, researchers can gain insights into the complex and multifaceted nature of human experience.

When to use Narrative Analysis

Here are some situations where narrative analysis may be appropriate:

• Studying life stories: Narrative analysis can be useful in understanding how individuals construct their life stories, including the events, characters, and themes that are important to them.
• Analyzing cultural narratives: Narrative analysis can be used to analyze cultural narratives, such as myths, legends, and folktales, to understand their meanings and functions.
• Exploring organizational narratives: Narrative analysis can be helpful in examining the stories that organizations tell about themselves, their histories, and their values, to understand how they shape the culture and practices of the organization.
• Investigating media narratives: Narrative analysis can be used to analyze media narratives, such as news stories, films, and TV shows, to understand how they construct meaning and influence public perceptions.
• Examining policy narratives: Narrative analysis can be helpful in examining policy narratives, such as political speeches and policy documents, to understand how they construct ideas and justify policy decisions.

Characteristics of Narrative Analysis

Here are some key characteristics of narrative analysis:

• Focus on stories and narratives: Narrative analysis is concerned with analyzing the stories and narratives that people tell, whether they are oral or written, to understand how they shape and reflect individuals’ experiences and identities.
• Emphasis on context: Narrative analysis seeks to understand the context in which the narratives are produced and the social and cultural factors that shape them.
• Interpretive approach: Narrative analysis is an interpretive approach that seeks to identify patterns and themes in the stories and narratives and to understand the meaning that individuals and communities attach to them.
• Iterative process: Narrative analysis involves an iterative process of analysis, in which the researcher continually refines their understanding of the narratives as they examine more data.
• Attention to language and form : Narrative analysis pays close attention to the language and form of the narratives, including the use of metaphor, imagery, and narrative structure, to understand the meaning that individuals and communities attach to them.
• Reflexivity : Narrative analysis requires the researcher to reflect on their own assumptions and biases and to consider how their own positionality may shape their interpretation of the narratives.
• Qualitative approach: Narrative analysis is typically a qualitative research method that involves in-depth analysis of a small number of cases rather than large-scale quantitative studies.

Advantages of Narrative Analysis

Here are some advantages of narrative analysis:

• Rich and detailed data : Narrative analysis provides rich and detailed data that allows for a deep understanding of individuals’ experiences, emotions, and identities.
• Humanizing approach: Narrative analysis allows individuals to tell their own stories and express their own perspectives, which can help to humanize research and give voice to marginalized communities.
• Holistic understanding: Narrative analysis allows researchers to understand individuals’ experiences in their entirety, including the social, cultural, and historical contexts in which they occur.
• Flexibility : Narrative analysis is a flexible research method that can be applied to a wide range of contexts and research questions.
• Interpretive insights: Narrative analysis provides interpretive insights into the meanings that individuals attach to their experiences and the ways in which they construct their identities.
• Appropriate for sensitive topics: Narrative analysis can be particularly useful in researching sensitive topics, such as trauma or mental health, as it allows individuals to express their experiences in their own words and on their own terms.
• Can lead to policy implications: Narrative analysis can provide insights that can inform policy decisions and interventions, particularly in areas such as health, education, and social policy.

Limitations of Narrative Analysis

Here are some of the limitations of narrative analysis:

• Subjectivity : Narrative analysis relies on the interpretation of researchers, which can be influenced by their own biases and assumptions.
• Limited generalizability: Narrative analysis typically involves in-depth analysis of a small number of cases, which limits its generalizability to broader populations.
• Ethical considerations: The process of eliciting and analyzing narratives can raise ethical concerns, particularly when sensitive topics such as trauma or abuse are involved.
• Limited control over data collection: Narrative analysis often relies on data that is already available, such as interviews, oral histories, or written texts, which can limit the control that researchers have over the quality and completeness of the data.
• Time-consuming: Narrative analysis can be a time-consuming research method, particularly when analyzing large amounts of data.
• Interpretation challenges: Narrative analysis requires researchers to make complex interpretations of data, which can be challenging and time-consuming.
• Limited statistical analysis: Narrative analysis is typically a qualitative research method that does not lend itself well to statistical analysis.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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CRO Guide   >  Chapter 3.1

Qualitative Research: Definition, Methodology, Limitation & Examples

Qualitative research is a method focused on understanding human behavior and experiences through non-numerical data. Examples of qualitative research include:

• One-on-one interviews,
• Focus groups, Ethnographic research,
• Case studies,
• Record keeping,
• Qualitative observations

In this article, we’ll provide tips and tricks on how to use qualitative research to better understand your audience through real world examples and improve your ROI. We’ll also learn the difference between qualitative and quantitative data.

Table of Contents

Marketers often seek to understand their customers deeply. Qualitative research methods such as face-to-face interviews, focus groups, and qualitative observations can provide valuable insights into your products, your market, and your customers’ opinions and motivations. Understanding these nuances can significantly enhance marketing strategies and overall customer satisfaction.

What is Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is a market research method that focuses on obtaining data through open-ended and conversational communication. This method focuses on the “why” rather than the “what” people think about you. Thus, qualitative research seeks to uncover the underlying motivations, attitudes, and beliefs that drive people’s actions. 

Let’s say you have an online shop catering to a general audience. You do a demographic analysis and you find out that most of your customers are male. Naturally, you will want to find out why women are not buying from you. And that’s what qualitative research will help you find out.

In the case of your online shop, qualitative research would involve reaching out to female non-customers through methods such as in-depth interviews or focus groups. These interactions provide a platform for women to express their thoughts, feelings, and concerns regarding your products or brand. Through qualitative analysis, you can uncover valuable insights into factors such as product preferences, user experience, brand perception, and barriers to purchase.

Types of Qualitative Research Methods

Qualitative research methods are designed in a manner that helps reveal the behavior and perception of a target audience regarding a particular topic.

The most frequently used qualitative analysis methods are one-on-one interviews, focus groups, ethnographic research, case study research, record keeping, and qualitative observation.

1. One-on-one interviews

Conducting one-on-one interviews is one of the most common qualitative research methods. One of the advantages of this method is that it provides a great opportunity to gather precise data about what people think and their motivations.

Spending time talking to customers not only helps marketers understand who their clients are, but also helps with customer care: clients love hearing from brands. This strengthens the relationship between a brand and its clients and paves the way for customer testimonials.

• A company might conduct interviews to understand why a product failed to meet sales expectations.
• A researcher might use interviews to gather personal stories about experiences with healthcare.

These interviews can be performed face-to-face or on the phone and usually last between half an hour to over two hours. 

When a one-on-one interview is conducted face-to-face, it also gives the marketer the opportunity to read the body language of the respondent and match the responses.

2. Focus groups

Focus groups gather a small number of people to discuss and provide feedback on a particular subject. The ideal size of a focus group is usually between five and eight participants. The size of focus groups should reflect the participants’ familiarity with the topic. For less important topics or when participants have little experience, a group of 10 can be effective. For more critical topics or when participants are more knowledgeable, a smaller group of five to six is preferable for deeper discussions.

The main goal of a focus group is to find answers to the “why”, “what”, and “how” questions. This method is highly effective in exploring people’s feelings and ideas in a social setting, where group dynamics can bring out insights that might not emerge in one-on-one situations.

• A focus group could be used to test reactions to a new product concept.
• Marketers might use focus groups to see how different demographic groups react to an advertising campaign.

One advantage that focus groups have is that the marketer doesn’t necessarily have to interact with the group in person. Nowadays focus groups can be sent as online qualitative surveys on various devices.

Focus groups are an expensive option compared to the other qualitative research methods, which is why they are typically used to explain complex processes.

3. Ethnographic research

Ethnographic research is the most in-depth observational method that studies individuals in their naturally occurring environment.

This method aims at understanding the cultures, challenges, motivations, and settings that occur.

• A study of workplace culture within a tech startup.
• Observational research in a remote village to understand local traditions.

Ethnographic research requires the marketer to adapt to the target audiences’ environments (a different organization, a different city, or even a remote location), which is why geographical constraints can be an issue while collecting data.

This type of research can last from a few days to a few years. It’s challenging and time-consuming and solely depends on the expertise of the marketer to be able to analyze, observe, and infer the data.

4. Case study research

The case study method has grown into a valuable qualitative research method. This type of research method is usually used in education or social sciences. It involves a comprehensive examination of a single instance or event, providing detailed insights into complex issues in real-life contexts.  

• Analyzing a single school’s innovative teaching method.
• A detailed study of a patient’s medical treatment over several years.

Case study research may seem difficult to operate, but it’s actually one of the simplest ways of conducting research as it involves a deep dive and thorough understanding of the data collection methods and inferring the data.

5. Record keeping

Record keeping is similar to going to the library: you go over books or any other reference material to collect relevant data. This method uses already existing reliable documents and similar sources of information as a data source.

• Historical research using old newspapers and letters.
• A study on policy changes over the years by examining government records.

This method is useful for constructing a historical context around a research topic or verifying other findings with documented evidence.

6. Qualitative observation

Qualitative observation is a method that uses subjective methodologies to gather systematic information or data. This method deals with the five major sensory organs and their functioning, sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing.

• Sight : Observing the way customers visually interact with product displays in a store to understand their browsing behaviors and preferences.
• Smell : Noting reactions of consumers to different scents in a fragrance shop to study the impact of olfactory elements on product preference.
• Touch : Watching how individuals interact with different materials in a clothing store to assess the importance of texture in fabric selection.
• Taste : Evaluating reactions of participants in a taste test to identify flavor profiles that appeal to different demographic groups.
• Hearing : Documenting responses to changes in background music within a retail environment to determine its effect on shopping behavior and mood.

Below we are also providing real-life examples of qualitative research that demonstrate practical applications across various contexts:

Qualitative Research Real World Examples

Let’s explore some examples of how qualitative research can be applied in different contexts.

1. Online grocery shop with a predominantly male audience

Method used: one-on-one interviews.

Let’s go back to one of the previous examples. You have an online grocery shop. By nature, it addresses a general audience, but after you do a demographic analysis you find out that most of your customers are male.

One good method to determine why women are not buying from you is to hold one-on-one interviews with potential customers in the category.

Interviewing a sample of potential female customers should reveal why they don’t find your store appealing. The reasons could range from not stocking enough products for women to perhaps the store’s emphasis on heavy-duty tools and automotive products, for example. These insights can guide adjustments in inventory and marketing strategies.

2. Software company launching a new product

Method used: focus groups.

Focus groups are great for establishing product-market fit.

Let’s assume you are a software company that wants to launch a new product and you hold a focus group with 12 people. Although getting their feedback regarding users’ experience with the product is a good thing, this sample is too small to define how the entire market will react to your product.

So what you can do instead is holding multiple focus groups in 20 different geographic regions. Each region should be hosting a group of 12 for each market segment; you can even segment your audience based on age. This would be a better way to establish credibility in the feedback you receive.

3. Alan Pushkin’s “God’s Choice: The Total World of a Fundamentalist Christian School”

Method used: ethnographic research.

Moving from a fictional example to a real-life one, let’s analyze Alan Peshkin’s 1986 book “God’s Choice: The Total World of a Fundamentalist Christian School”.

Peshkin studied the culture of Bethany Baptist Academy by interviewing the students, parents, teachers, and members of the community alike, and spending eighteen months observing them to provide a comprehensive and in-depth analysis of Christian schooling as an alternative to public education.

The study highlights the school’s unified purpose, rigorous academic environment, and strong community support while also pointing out its lack of cultural diversity and openness to differing viewpoints. These insights are crucial for understanding how such educational settings operate and what they offer to students.

Even after discovering all this, Peshkin still presented the school in a positive light and stated that public schools have much to learn from such schools.

Peshkin’s in-depth research represents a qualitative study that uses observations and unstructured interviews, without any assumptions or hypotheses. He utilizes descriptive or non-quantifiable data on Bethany Baptist Academy specifically, without attempting to generalize the findings to other Christian schools.

4. Understanding buyers’ trends

Method used: record keeping.

Another way marketers can use quality research is to understand buyers’ trends. To do this, marketers need to look at historical data for both their company and their industry and identify where buyers are purchasing items in higher volumes.

For example, electronics distributors know that the holiday season is a peak market for sales while life insurance agents find that spring and summer wedding months are good seasons for targeting new clients.

5. Determining products/services missing from the market

Conducting your own research isn’t always necessary. If there are significant breakthroughs in your industry, you can use industry data and adapt it to your marketing needs.

The influx of hacking and hijacking of cloud-based information has made Internet security a topic of many industry reports lately. A software company could use these reports to better understand the problems its clients are facing.

As a result, the company can provide solutions prospects already know they need.

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Qualitative Research Approaches

Once the marketer has decided that their research questions will provide data that is qualitative in nature, the next step is to choose the appropriate qualitative approach.

The approach chosen will take into account the purpose of the research, the role of the researcher, the data collected, the method of data analysis , and how the results will be presented. The most common approaches include:

• Narrative : This method focuses on individual life stories to understand personal experiences and journeys. It examines how people structure their stories and the themes within them to explore human existence. For example, a narrative study might look at cancer survivors to understand their resilience and coping strategies.
• Phenomenology : attempts to understand or explain life experiences or phenomena; It aims to reveal the depth of human consciousness and perception, such as by studying the daily lives of those with chronic illnesses.
• Grounded theory : investigates the process, action, or interaction with the goal of developing a theory “grounded” in observations and empirical data. 
• Ethnography : describes and interprets an ethnic, cultural, or social group;
• Case study : examines episodic events in a definable framework, develops in-depth analyses of single or multiple cases, and generally explains “how”. An example might be studying a community health program to evaluate its success and impact.

How to Analyze Qualitative Data

Analyzing qualitative data involves interpreting non-numerical data to uncover patterns, themes, and deeper insights. This process is typically more subjective and requires a systematic approach to ensure reliability and validity. 

1. Data Collection

Ensure that your data collection methods (e.g., interviews, focus groups, observations) are well-documented and comprehensive. This step is crucial because the quality and depth of the data collected will significantly influence the analysis.

2. Data Preparation

Once collected, the data needs to be organized. Transcribe audio and video recordings, and gather all notes and documents. Ensure that all data is anonymized to protect participant confidentiality where necessary.

3. Familiarization

Immerse yourself in the data by reading through the materials multiple times. This helps you get a general sense of the information and begin identifying patterns or recurring themes.

Develop a coding system to tag data with labels that summarize and account for each piece of information. Codes can be words, phrases, or acronyms that represent how these segments relate to your research questions.

• Descriptive Coding : Summarize the primary topic of the data.
• In Vivo Coding : Use language and terms used by the participants themselves.
• Process Coding : Use gerunds (“-ing” words) to label the processes at play.
• Emotion Coding : Identify and record the emotions conveyed or experienced.

5. Thematic Development

Group codes into themes that represent larger patterns in the data. These themes should relate directly to the research questions and form a coherent narrative about the findings.

6. Interpreting the Data

Interpret the data by constructing a logical narrative. This involves piecing together the themes to explain larger insights about the data. Link the results back to your research objectives and existing literature to bolster your interpretations.

7. Validation

Check the reliability and validity of your findings by reviewing if the interpretations are supported by the data. This may involve revisiting the data multiple times or discussing the findings with colleagues or participants for validation.

8. Reporting

Finally, present the findings in a clear and organized manner. Use direct quotes and detailed descriptions to illustrate the themes and insights. The report should communicate the narrative you’ve built from your data, clearly linking your findings to your research questions.

Limitations of qualitative research

The disadvantages of qualitative research are quite unique. The techniques of the data collector and their own unique observations can alter the information in subtle ways. That being said, these are the qualitative research’s limitations:

1. It’s a time-consuming process

The main drawback of qualitative study is that the process is time-consuming. Another problem is that the interpretations are limited. Personal experience and knowledge influence observations and conclusions.

Thus, qualitative research might take several weeks or months. Also, since this process delves into personal interaction for data collection, discussions often tend to deviate from the main issue to be studied.

2. You can’t verify the results of qualitative research

Because qualitative research is open-ended, participants have more control over the content of the data collected. So the marketer is not able to verify the results objectively against the scenarios stated by the respondents. For example, in a focus group discussing a new product, participants might express their feelings about the design and functionality. However, these opinions are influenced by individual tastes and experiences, making it difficult to ascertain a universally applicable conclusion from these discussions.

3. It’s a labor-intensive approach

Qualitative research requires a labor-intensive analysis process such as categorization, recording, etc. Similarly, qualitative research requires well-experienced marketers to obtain the needed data from a group of respondents.

4. It’s difficult to investigate causality

Qualitative research requires thoughtful planning to ensure the obtained results are accurate. There is no way to analyze qualitative data mathematically. This type of research is based more on opinion and judgment rather than results. Because all qualitative studies are unique they are difficult to replicate.

5. Qualitative research is not statistically representative

Because qualitative research is a perspective-based method of research, the responses given are not measured.

Comparisons can be made and this can lead toward duplication, but for the most part, quantitative data is required for circumstances that need statistical representation and that is not part of the qualitative research process.

While doing a qualitative study, it’s important to cross-reference the data obtained with the quantitative data. By continuously surveying prospects and customers marketers can build a stronger database of useful information.

Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research

Image source

Quantitative and qualitative research are two distinct methodologies used in the field of market research, each offering unique insights and approaches to understanding consumer behavior and preferences.

As we already defined, qualitative analysis seeks to explore the deeper meanings, perceptions, and motivations behind human behavior through non-numerical data. On the other hand, quantitative research focuses on collecting and analyzing numerical data to identify patterns, trends, and statistical relationships.  

Let’s explore their key differences: 

Nature of Data:

• Quantitative research : Involves numerical data that can be measured and analyzed statistically.
• Qualitative research : Focuses on non-numerical data, such as words, images, and observations, to capture subjective experiences and meanings.

Research Questions:

• Quantitative research : Typically addresses questions related to “how many,” “how much,” or “to what extent,” aiming to quantify relationships and patterns.
• Qualitative research: Explores questions related to “why” and “how,” aiming to understand the underlying motivations, beliefs, and perceptions of individuals.

Data Collection Methods:

• Quantitative research : Relies on structured surveys, experiments, or observations with predefined variables and measures.
• Qualitative research : Utilizes open-ended interviews, focus groups, participant observations, and textual analysis to gather rich, contextually nuanced data.

Analysis Techniques:

• Quantitative research: Involves statistical analysis to identify correlations, associations, or differences between variables.
• Qualitative research: Employs thematic analysis, coding, and interpretation to uncover patterns, themes, and insights within qualitative data.

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StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan-.

StatPearls [Internet].

Qualitative study.

Steven Tenny ; Janelle M. Brannan ; Grace D. Brannan .

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Last Update: September 18, 2022 .

• Introduction

Qualitative research is a type of research that explores and provides deeper insights into real-world problems. [1] Instead of collecting numerical data points or intervening or introducing treatments just like in quantitative research, qualitative research helps generate hypothenar to further investigate and understand quantitative data. Qualitative research gathers participants' experiences, perceptions, and behavior. It answers the hows and whys instead of how many or how much. It could be structured as a standalone study, purely relying on qualitative data, or part of mixed-methods research that combines qualitative and quantitative data. This review introduces the readers to some basic concepts, definitions, terminology, and applications of qualitative research.

Qualitative research, at its core, asks open-ended questions whose answers are not easily put into numbers, such as "how" and "why." [2] Due to the open-ended nature of the research questions, qualitative research design is often not linear like quantitative design. [2] One of the strengths of qualitative research is its ability to explain processes and patterns of human behavior that can be difficult to quantify. [3] Phenomena such as experiences, attitudes, and behaviors can be complex to capture accurately and quantitatively. In contrast, a qualitative approach allows participants themselves to explain how, why, or what they were thinking, feeling, and experiencing at a particular time or during an event of interest. Quantifying qualitative data certainly is possible, but at its core, qualitative data is looking for themes and patterns that can be difficult to quantify, and it is essential to ensure that the context and narrative of qualitative work are not lost by trying to quantify something that is not meant to be quantified.

However, while qualitative research is sometimes placed in opposition to quantitative research, where they are necessarily opposites and therefore "compete" against each other and the philosophical paradigms associated with each other, qualitative and quantitative work are neither necessarily opposites, nor are they incompatible. [4] While qualitative and quantitative approaches are different, they are not necessarily opposites and certainly not mutually exclusive. For instance, qualitative research can help expand and deepen understanding of data or results obtained from quantitative analysis. For example, say a quantitative analysis has determined a correlation between length of stay and level of patient satisfaction, but why does this correlation exist? This dual-focus scenario shows one way in which qualitative and quantitative research could be integrated.

Qualitative Research Approaches

Ethnography

Ethnography as a research design originates in social and cultural anthropology and involves the researcher being directly immersed in the participant’s environment. [2] Through this immersion, the ethnographer can use a variety of data collection techniques to produce a comprehensive account of the social phenomena that occurred during the research period. [2] That is to say, the researcher’s aim with ethnography is to immerse themselves into the research population and come out of it with accounts of actions, behaviors, events, etc, through the eyes of someone involved in the population. Direct involvement of the researcher with the target population is one benefit of ethnographic research because it can then be possible to find data that is otherwise very difficult to extract and record.

Grounded theory

Grounded Theory is the "generation of a theoretical model through the experience of observing a study population and developing a comparative analysis of their speech and behavior." [5] Unlike quantitative research, which is deductive and tests or verifies an existing theory, grounded theory research is inductive and, therefore, lends itself to research aimed at social interactions or experiences. [3] [2] In essence, Grounded Theory’s goal is to explain how and why an event occurs or how and why people might behave a certain way. Through observing the population, a researcher using the Grounded Theory approach can then develop a theory to explain the phenomena of interest.

Phenomenology

Phenomenology is the "study of the meaning of phenomena or the study of the particular.” [5] At first glance, it might seem that Grounded Theory and Phenomenology are pretty similar, but the differences can be seen upon careful examination. At its core, phenomenology looks to investigate experiences from the individual's perspective. [2] Phenomenology is essentially looking into the "lived experiences" of the participants and aims to examine how and why participants behaved a certain way from their perspective. Herein lies one of the main differences between Grounded Theory and Phenomenology. Grounded Theory aims to develop a theory for social phenomena through an examination of various data sources. In contrast, Phenomenology focuses on describing and explaining an event or phenomenon from the perspective of those who have experienced it.

Narrative research

One of qualitative research’s strengths lies in its ability to tell a story, often from the perspective of those directly involved in it. Reporting on qualitative research involves including details and descriptions of the setting involved and quotes from participants. This detail is called a "thick" or "rich" description and is a strength of qualitative research. Narrative research is rife with the possibilities of "thick" description as this approach weaves together a sequence of events, usually from just one or two individuals, hoping to create a cohesive story or narrative. [2] While it might seem like a waste of time to focus on such a specific, individual level, understanding one or two people’s narratives for an event or phenomenon can help to inform researchers about the influences that helped shape that narrative. The tension or conflict of differing narratives can be "opportunities for innovation." [2]

Research Paradigm

Research paradigms are the assumptions, norms, and standards underpinning different research approaches. Essentially, research paradigms are the "worldviews" that inform research. [4] It is valuable for qualitative and quantitative researchers to understand what paradigm they are working within because understanding the theoretical basis of research paradigms allows researchers to understand the strengths and weaknesses of the approach being used and adjust accordingly. Different paradigms have different ontologies and epistemologies. Ontology is defined as the "assumptions about the nature of reality,” whereas epistemology is defined as the "assumptions about the nature of knowledge" that inform researchers' work. [2] It is essential to understand the ontological and epistemological foundations of the research paradigm researchers are working within to allow for a complete understanding of the approach being used and the assumptions that underpin the approach as a whole. Further, researchers must understand their own ontological and epistemological assumptions about the world in general because their assumptions about the world will necessarily impact how they interact with research. A discussion of the research paradigm is not complete without describing positivist, postpositivist, and constructivist philosophies.

Positivist versus postpositivist

To further understand qualitative research, we must discuss positivist and postpositivist frameworks. Positivism is a philosophy that the scientific method can and should be applied to social and natural sciences. [4] Essentially, positivist thinking insists that the social sciences should use natural science methods in their research. It stems from positivist ontology, that there is an objective reality that exists that is wholly independent of our perception of the world as individuals. Quantitative research is rooted in positivist philosophy, which can be seen in the value it places on concepts such as causality, generalizability, and replicability.

Conversely, postpositivists argue that social reality can never be one hundred percent explained, but could be approximated. [4] Indeed, qualitative researchers have been insisting that there are “fundamental limits to the extent to which the methods and procedures of the natural sciences could be applied to the social world,” and therefore, postpositivist philosophy is often associated with qualitative research. [4] An example of positivist versus postpositivist values in research might be that positivist philosophies value hypothesis-testing, whereas postpositivist philosophies value the ability to formulate a substantive theory.

Constructivist

Constructivism is a subcategory of postpositivism. Most researchers invested in postpositivist research are also constructivist, meaning they think there is no objective external reality that exists but instead that reality is constructed. Constructivism is a theoretical lens that emphasizes the dynamic nature of our world. "Constructivism contends that individuals' views are directly influenced by their experiences, and it is these individual experiences and views that shape their perspective of reality.” [6]  constructivist thought focuses on how "reality" is not a fixed certainty and how experiences, interactions, and backgrounds give people a unique view of the world. Constructivism contends, unlike positivist views, that there is not necessarily an "objective"reality we all experience. This is the ‘relativist’ ontological view that reality and our world are dynamic and socially constructed. Therefore, qualitative scientific knowledge can be inductive as well as deductive.” [4]

So why is it important to understand the differences in assumptions that different philosophies and approaches to research have? Fundamentally, the assumptions underpinning the research tools a researcher selects provide an overall base for the assumptions the rest of the research will have. It can even change the role of the researchers. [2] For example, is the researcher an "objective" observer, such as in positivist quantitative work? Or is the researcher an active participant in the research, as in postpositivist qualitative work? Understanding the philosophical base of the study undertaken allows researchers to fully understand the implications of their work and their role within the research and reflect on their positionality and bias as it pertains to the research they are conducting.

Data Sampling 

The better the sample represents the intended study population, the more likely the researcher is to encompass the varying factors. The following are examples of participant sampling and selection: [7]

• Purposive sampling- selection based on the researcher’s rationale for being the most informative.
• Criterion sampling selection based on pre-identified factors.
• Convenience sampling- selection based on availability.
• Snowball sampling- the selection is by referral from other participants or people who know potential participants.
• Extreme case sampling- targeted selection of rare cases.
• Typical case sampling selection based on regular or average participants. 

Data Collection and Analysis

Qualitative research uses several techniques, including interviews, focus groups, and observation. [1] [2] [3] Interviews may be unstructured, with open-ended questions on a topic, and the interviewer adapts to the responses. Structured interviews have a predetermined number of questions that every participant is asked. It is usually one-on-one and appropriate for sensitive topics or topics needing an in-depth exploration. Focus groups are often held with 8-12 target participants and are used when group dynamics and collective views on a topic are desired. Researchers can be participant-observers to share the experiences of the subject or non-participants or detached observers.

While quantitative research design prescribes a controlled environment for data collection, qualitative data collection may be in a central location or the participants' environment, depending on the study goals and design. Qualitative research could amount to a large amount of data. Data is transcribed, which may then be coded manually or using computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software or CAQDAS such as ATLAS.ti or NVivo. [8] [9] [10]

After the coding process, qualitative research results could be in various formats. It could be a synthesis and interpretation presented with excerpts from the data. [11] Results could also be in the form of themes and theory or model development.

Dissemination

The healthcare team can use two reporting standards to standardize and facilitate the dissemination of qualitative research outcomes. The Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research or COREQ is a 32-item checklist for interviews and focus groups. [12] The Standards for Reporting Qualitative Research (SRQR) is a checklist covering a more comprehensive range of qualitative research. [13]

Applications

Many times, a research question will start with qualitative research. The qualitative research will help generate the research hypothesis, which can be tested with quantitative methods. After the data is collected and analyzed with quantitative methods, a set of qualitative methods can be used to dive deeper into the data to better understand what the numbers truly mean and their implications. The qualitative techniques can then help clarify the quantitative data and also help refine the hypothesis for future research. Furthermore, with qualitative research, researchers can explore poorly studied subjects with quantitative methods. These include opinions, individual actions, and social science research.

An excellent qualitative study design starts with a goal or objective. This should be clearly defined or stated. The target population needs to be specified. A method for obtaining information from the study population must be carefully detailed to ensure no omissions of part of the target population. A proper collection method should be selected that will help obtain the desired information without overly limiting the collected data because, often, the information sought is not well categorized or obtained. Finally, the design should ensure adequate methods for analyzing the data. An example may help better clarify some of the various aspects of qualitative research.

A researcher wants to decrease the number of teenagers who smoke in their community. The researcher could begin by asking current teen smokers why they started smoking through structured or unstructured interviews (qualitative research). The researcher can also get together a group of current teenage smokers and conduct a focus group to help brainstorm factors that may have prevented them from starting to smoke (qualitative research).

In this example, the researcher has used qualitative research methods (interviews and focus groups) to generate a list of ideas of why teens start to smoke and factors that may have prevented them from starting to smoke. Next, the researcher compiles this data. The research found that, hypothetically, peer pressure, health issues, cost, being considered "cool," and rebellious behavior all might increase or decrease the likelihood of teens starting to smoke.

The researcher creates a survey asking teen participants to rank how important each of the above factors is in either starting smoking (for current smokers) or not smoking (for current nonsmokers). This survey provides specific numbers (ranked importance of each factor) and is thus a quantitative research tool.

The researcher can use the survey results to focus efforts on the one or two highest-ranked factors. Let us say the researcher found that health was the primary factor that keeps teens from starting to smoke, and peer pressure was the primary factor that contributed to teens starting smoking. The researcher can go back to qualitative research methods to dive deeper into these for more information. The researcher wants to focus on keeping teens from starting to smoke, so they focus on the peer pressure aspect.

The researcher can conduct interviews and focus groups (qualitative research) about what types and forms of peer pressure are commonly encountered, where the peer pressure comes from, and where smoking starts. The researcher hypothetically finds that peer pressure often occurs after school at the local teen hangouts, mostly in the local park. The researcher also hypothetically finds that peer pressure comes from older, current smokers who provide the cigarettes.

The researcher could further explore this observation made at the local teen hangouts (qualitative research) and take notes regarding who is smoking, who is not, and what observable factors are at play for peer pressure to smoke. The researcher finds a local park where many local teenagers hang out and sees that the smokers tend to hang out in a shady, overgrown area of the park. The researcher notes that smoking teenagers buy their cigarettes from a local convenience store adjacent to the park, where the clerk does not check identification before selling cigarettes. These observations fall under qualitative research.

If the researcher returns to the park and counts how many individuals smoke in each region, this numerical data would be quantitative research. Based on the researcher's efforts thus far, they conclude that local teen smoking and teenagers who start to smoke may decrease if there are fewer overgrown areas of the park and the local convenience store does not sell cigarettes to underage individuals.

The researcher could try to have the parks department reassess the shady areas to make them less conducive to smokers or identify how to limit the sales of cigarettes to underage individuals by the convenience store. The researcher would then cycle back to qualitative methods of asking at-risk populations their perceptions of the changes and what factors are still at play, and quantitative research that includes teen smoking rates in the community and the incidence of new teen smokers, among others. [14] [15]

Qualitative research functions as a standalone research design or combined with quantitative research to enhance our understanding of the world. Qualitative research uses techniques including structured and unstructured interviews, focus groups, and participant observation not only to help generate hypotheses that can be more rigorously tested with quantitative research but also to help researchers delve deeper into the quantitative research numbers, understand what they mean, and understand what the implications are. Qualitative research allows researchers to understand what is going on, especially when things are not easily categorized. [16]

• Issues of Concern

As discussed in the sections above, quantitative and qualitative work differ in many ways, including the evaluation criteria. There are four well-established criteria for evaluating quantitative data: internal validity, external validity, reliability, and objectivity. Credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability are the correlating concepts in qualitative research. [4] [11] The corresponding quantitative and qualitative concepts can be seen below, with the quantitative concept on the left and the qualitative concept on the right:

• Internal validity: Credibility
• External validity: Transferability
• Reliability: Dependability
• Objectivity: Confirmability

In conducting qualitative research, ensuring these concepts are satisfied and well thought out can mitigate potential issues from arising. For example, just as a researcher will ensure that their quantitative study is internally valid, qualitative researchers should ensure that their work has credibility. 

Indicators such as triangulation and peer examination can help evaluate the credibility of qualitative work.

• Triangulation: Triangulation involves using multiple data collection methods to increase the likelihood of getting a reliable and accurate result. In our above magic example, the result would be more reliable if we interviewed the magician, backstage hand, and the person who "vanished." In qualitative research, triangulation can include telephone surveys, in-person surveys, focus groups, and interviews and surveying an adequate cross-section of the target demographic.
• Peer examination: A peer can review results to ensure the data is consistent with the findings.

A "thick" or "rich" description can be used to evaluate the transferability of qualitative research, whereas an indicator such as an audit trail might help evaluate the dependability and confirmability.

• Thick or rich description:  This is a detailed and thorough description of details, the setting, and quotes from participants in the research. [5] Thick descriptions will include a detailed explanation of how the study was conducted. Thick descriptions are detailed enough to allow readers to draw conclusions and interpret the data, which can help with transferability and replicability.
• Audit trail: An audit trail provides a documented set of steps of how the participants were selected and the data was collected. The original information records should also be kept (eg, surveys, notes, recordings).

One issue of concern that qualitative researchers should consider is observation bias. Here are a few examples:

• Hawthorne effect: The effect is the change in participant behavior when they know they are being observed. Suppose a researcher wanted to identify factors that contribute to employee theft and tell the employees they will watch them to see what factors affect employee theft. In that case, one would suspect employee behavior would change when they know they are being protected.
• Observer-expectancy effect: Some participants change their behavior or responses to satisfy the researcher's desired effect. This happens unconsciously for the participant, so it is essential to eliminate or limit the transmission of the researcher's views.
• Artificial scenario effect: Some qualitative research occurs in contrived scenarios with preset goals. In such situations, the information may not be accurate because of the artificial nature of the scenario. The preset goals may limit the qualitative information obtained.
• Clinical Significance

Qualitative or quantitative research helps healthcare providers understand patients and the impact and challenges of the care they deliver. Qualitative research provides an opportunity to generate and refine hypotheses and delve deeper into the data generated by quantitative research. Qualitative research is not an island apart from quantitative research but an integral part of research methods to understand the world around us. [17]

• Enhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes

Qualitative research is essential for all healthcare team members as all are affected by qualitative research. Qualitative research may help develop a theory or a model for health research that can be further explored by quantitative research. Much of the qualitative research data acquisition is completed by numerous team members, including social workers, scientists, nurses, etc. Within each area of the medical field, there is copious ongoing qualitative research, including physician-patient interactions, nursing-patient interactions, patient-environment interactions, healthcare team function, patient information delivery, etc. 

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Disclosure: Steven Tenny declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Janelle Brannan declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Grace Brannan declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

This book is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ ), which permits others to distribute the work, provided that the article is not altered or used commercially. You are not required to obtain permission to distribute this article, provided that you credit the author and journal.

• Cite this Page Tenny S, Brannan JM, Brannan GD. Qualitative Study. [Updated 2022 Sep 18]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan-.

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Data Analysis Strategies for Qualitative Research

WEEK 8 TEMPLATE IS POSTED IN THE FILE THAT IS HOW THE PAPER SHOULD BE OUTLINED!!!

WEEK 3 DISCUSSION IS ALSO IN THE UPLOADED FROM THAT IS WHERE THE WORK WILL COME FROM!!!

                                                                  INSTRUCTIONS!!

 This is the third of the four assignments that will help you prepare for writing qualitative research proposals. For this assignment, you will write a paper that identifies a data analysis strategy and process for each of the two selected methodological approaches you analyzed in the Week 3 discussion. The data analysis strategy and process you identify need to align with the methodological approach. In this paper, you will explain why the data analysis needs to align with the methodological approach, and why both the data collection process and the methodological approach need to align with the research question. You will use the same subject, research topic, research theory, and data collection plan in the all assignments in this course. 

• Describe the process of data analysis for the first selected methodological approach for conducting qualitative research (1–2 paragraphs).
• Describe the process of data analysis for the second selected methodological approach for conducting qualitative research (1–2 paragraphs).
• Support your assignment with appropriate academic sources and include both citations and references in current APA format. Use 3–5 scholarly resources published with the past three years by recognized academic sources.
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