perceptual map literature review

Positioning – a literature review

PSU Research Review

ISSN : 2399-1747

Article publication date: 11 July 2020

Issue publication date: 10 September 2021

The purpose of this paper is to review state-of-the-art literature on product/brand positioning to re-examine the positioning concept and developing a more comprehensive definition from a theoretical viewpoint.

Design/methodology/approach

A systematic review of positioning was conducted. The review conformed to a rigorous set of core principles: it was systematic (organized according to a method designed to address the review questions), transparent (explicitly stated), reproducible and updatable and synthesized (summarized the evidence relating to the review question).

The literature review reveals that there is lack of coherent definition for positioning, and there is no mutual agreement among marketing scholars and practitioners about the exact meaning of the concept. Therefore, comprehensive definition of positioning encompassing the five underlying positioning perspectives (competition; empty slot/mind; consumers’ perception, differentiation and competitive advantage) is suggested.

Research limitations/implications

This paper will be useful for academicians to analyze the current nature of academic research in this area and will provide an added advantage to managers to design and implement positioning strategies for their product/brands that will allow their organizations to gain competitive advantage. This study acknowledges limitations with respect to its exclusive search criteria, which might affect its generalizability.

Social implications

Position and positioning is of relevance in society in broad terms, e.g. in sports, politics and culture. Positioning strategy is discussed and implemented in different industries (business-to-business and consumer), for all kinds of brands (including, for instance, corporate brands) and for “brands” in the very widest sense (such as places or people).

Originality/value

This is the first systematic review of positioning that provides a detailed understanding of the current state of positioning research on a single platform and also draws a comprehensive positioning conceptualization.

Literature review
Product and positioning

Saqib, N. (2021), "Positioning – a literature review", PSU Research Review , Vol. 5 No. 2, pp. 141-169. https://doi.org/10.1108/PRR-06-2019-0016

Emerald Publishing Limited

Published in PSU Research Review . Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode

1. Introduction

Positioning has received much attention over the past decade and has emerged as a highly influential marketing management paradigm. It is generally accepted that theoretically, practically and strategically positioning has become one of the key components in modern marketing management, both from the academic point of view ( Aaker and Shansby, 1982 ; Arnott , 1992, 1994 ; Blankson and Kalafatis, 2004 ; Boatswain, 2015 ; Crawford et al. , 1983 ; Day et al. ,1990 ; Diwan and Bodla, 2011 ; Fuchs and Diamantopoulos, 2012 ; Hooley et al. , 2012 ; Kapferer, 2012 ; Kotler, 2003 ; Porter, 1996 ; Sengupta, 2005 ; Soundararaj and Rengamani, 2002 ; Urde and Koch, 2014 ; Wind, 1982 ) and from the practical or business point of view ( Oglivy, 1983 ; Ries and Trout, 1981 ; Trout and Rivkin, 1996 ). The importance of positioning is emphasized by various authors ( Aaker and Shansby, 1982 ; Arnott, 1992 ; Blankson and Kalafatis, 2004 ; Boatswain, 2015 ; Diwan and Bodla, 2011 ; Sengupta, 2005 ) who note that positioning decisions determine the direction of a firm’s overall marketing strategy and that an effective marketing mix can only be developed once a company has crafted a distinct positioning strategy. By making the wrong positioning decision, a company could develop a misguided marketing mix and thus go down an undesirable path.

Moreover, because of its inevitable effect on profitability and long-term success of the firm it has been applied to consumer products ( Boatswain, 2015 ; Crawford, 1985 ; Diwan and Bodla, 2011 ; Fuchs and Diamantopoulos, 2010 ), industrial products ( Simkin et al. , 1985 ; Iyer et al. , 2018 ; Jalkala and Keranen, 2014 ; Pandaa et al. , 2018 ), financial services ( Burton and Easingwood, 2006 ; Easingwood and Mahajan, 1989 ; Kim and Mauborgne, 2000 ; Shostack, 1987 ), retail services ( Abril et al. , 2009 ; Auken and Lonial,1991 ; Corstjens and Doyle, 1989 ; Holmes, 1974 ) and tourism services ( Botha et al. , 1999 ; Gartner, 1989 ; Javalgi et al. , 1995 ; Pike and Page, 2014 ). Thus, the wide use of the positioning concept underlines its importance, usefulness and applicability.

The literature is full of statements emphasizing the importance of positioning. Aaker and Shansby (1982) claim that product positioning is so central and critical that it should be considered at the level of a mission statement. Dovel (1990) considers positioning as the essence of a business and backbone of a business plan. While Johansson and Thorelli (1985) , Keller (2009) , Perreault and McCarthy (1996) , Wilson and Fenwick (1978) and Wind (1980) believe that product positioning is the foundation of the firms marketing strategy. More specifically, Maggard (1976) points out that positioning can make a real contribution as a conceptual vehicle through which various marketing concepts (market segmentation, product differentiation, consumer preference, target market and the like) might be synchronized more effectively. Crawford (1985) believes that positioning is meant to drive the entire marketing programme of the organization and sees positioning as an ingredient of total strategy, not just an advertising ploy, product, brand, price, promotion and distribution must all be consistent with the positioning statement. Richarme (2007) argues that marketers should adopt positioning as their fifth “P” and use it in conjunction with the other four “Ps”. To a large degree, it is a higher-order “P” that rides on the base of the other four “Ps” and at the same time serves as a bridge to corporate strategy.

Ries and Trout (1986) acknowledge positioning to be the tool of competitive warfare. It helps customers to know the real differences among competing products ( DiMingo, 1988 ) and helps in creating a distinctive image of the brand in consumers’ minds ( Wells and Prensky, 1996 ) or brand value by shaping of customers perceptions ( Park et al. , 1986 ; Devlin et al. , 1995 ). Schouten and McAlexander (1989) contend that a key benefit of a successful positioning strategy is the partial insulation it gives from the competitive pressures of other firm. Therefore, positioning is an important source of competitive advantage ( Cronshaw et al. , 1990 ; Gwin and Gwin, 2003 ; Sengupta, 2005 ).

In today’s over-communicated and product-saturated consumer world, effective positioning is critical to brand success ( Marsden, 2002 ). There is a positive relationship between the positioning related decision and the brand success that is the success of brand moves around the pivot of positioning decision ( Fuchs and Diamantopoulos, 2010 ; Pham and Muthukrishnan, 2002 ; Punj and Moon, 2002 ). This not true for only a new brand, it is also of relevance for existing brands when enlarging one’s own market potential or when differentiating a brand from its competitors by repositioning ( Trommsdorf, 2002 ). Therefore, branding and positioning are interrelated and positioning is also the cornerstone of brand management ( Blankson and Kalafatis, 2007 ; de Chernatony, 2009 ; Esch, 2010 ).

Several authors ( Brooksbank, 1994 ; Day et al. , 1990 ; Fisher, 1991 ; Mazanec, 1995 ; Porter, 1996 ; Urban and Hauser, 1993 ) are of the view that long-term success of companies and their products depend on how well they are positioned in the marketplace. Positioning has an impact on important consumer-based outcome variables such as higher consumer loyalty, higher brand equity and value ( Hartmann et al. , 2005 ; Kalra and Goodstein, 1998 ; Knox, 2004 ), less customer vulnerability ( Romaniuk, 2001 ), positively shaped preferences and beliefs about brand value, greater willingness to search for the brand ( Schiffman and Kanuk, 2007 ; Trommsdorf and Paulssen, 2005 ; DiMingo, 1988 ), perceived price sensitivity ( Kalra and Goodstein, 1998 ), brand affect ( Jewell, 2007 ) and brand salience and recall ( Alba and Chattopadhyay, 1986 ).

In addition to non-financial customer-centred indicators, literature has examined positioning effectiveness in terms of financial performance indicators. Cravens and Piercy (2009) claim that effective positioning of the firm’s products is essential in gaining and sustaining superior performance. More specifically, several authors ( Blankson et al. , 2008 ; Blankson and Crawford, 2012 ; Brooksbank, 1994 ; Clement and Werner-Grotemeyer, 1990 ; Day et al. , 1990 ; Devlin et al. , 1995 ; Ennew and Mirza, 1995 ; Fisher, 1991 ; Kalafatis et al. , 2000 ; Kalra and Goodstein, 1998 ; Lee and Liao, 2009 ; Suzuki, 2000 ) claim that positioning has an impact on the financial performance of a company. Hence, the most important decision firm will ever make about its product is how it should position its product.

This article presents an exhaustive examination of research on positioning, particularly research that addresses the problem of conceptualizing and defining positioning. The basis of the article is a literature review of positioning research published in academic journals between 1969 and 2017. These articles range across such disciplines as marketing, strategic marketing and management. The study uses network analysis and text mining to identify how research defines positioning and discusses how the definitions of positioning have been developed on different perspectives.

2. Concept of positioning

The concept of positioning can be traced back to the 1960s when positioning was popularized in consumer product marketing by pioneers such as Alpert and Gatty (1969) they identified positioning as the differentiation of brands according to consumer perceptions they studied differences in consumers perceptions of the organizations products brands when these were positioned differently using technology as the differentiating dimension over similar products in the market place. However, contemporary writers on the subject of positioning ( Hooley et al. , 1998 ; Kotler, 2003 ; Blankson and Kalafatis, 2004 ) sustain Ries and Trout were among the first to define positioning and its origins lie in their article “Positioning is a game people play in today’s me-too market place” published in the Industrial Marketing journal in 1969. In their seminal article, they defined positioning as “as a strategy for ‘staking out turf’ or ‘filling a slot’ in the mind of target customers”. They then made the concept popular by publishing a series of articles in Advertising Age in 1972. “The Positioning Era Cometh”, a three-part article series published in Advertising Age magazine. The groundbreaking series illustrated perceptual positioning related to the concept of positioning and triggered a profound paradigm shift in how people viewed advertising and marketing and how firms advertised their products. Back in 1982, Ries and Trout published their book, Positioning: The Battle for Your Mind, which placed an entirely different spin on the concept. Ries and Trout (1986) , however, consider “Positioning within the context of perceiving the product, merchandise, a service, a company, an institution, or even a person”. They noted that positioning is not what is done to the product/service, but rather what is done to the mind of the customer/consumer. According to the authors, the key issue is to position the offering in the mind of the consumer/customer such that positioning shifts the importance of marketing from the product to the battle for your mind. They further stated that the basic approach of positioning is not to create something new and different, but to manipulate what’s already up there in the mind, to retie the connections that already exist.

2.1 Issues in positioning research

Although there is a vast amount of literature on positioning, and this inquisitive verb is in great favour among marketing experts, it is one of the most convoluted concept and is still subject to incomprehension. The concept of positioning is subject to considerable differences in interpretation ( Maggard, 1976 ). It is perhaps one of the thorniest and most complex concepts in marketing ( Bhat and Reddy, 1998 ). One of the reasons for this circumstance is the issue that there is no mutual agreement among marketing scholars and practitioners about the exact meaning of the concept. It is, however, important to note that the lack of coherent definitions ( Arnott, 1992 ; Blankson and Kalafatis, 2004 ; Crosier, 1981 ; DiMingo, 1988 ; Holmes, 1973 ; Maggard, 1976 and Smith and Lusch, 1976 ) and the difficulties involved in the implementation of the positioning process by practitioners ( de Chernatony, 1994 ) has invariably given rise to comments about the lack of appreciation of the positioning concept ( Pollay, 1985 ). Such dilemma was first expressed in the writings of Aaker and Shansby (1982) who stated that: “positioning means different things to different people”. To some, it means the segmentation decision. To others it is an image question. To still others it means selecting which product features to emphasize, and it still holds true today. The foregoing is summarized by Bainsfair (1990) who states that positioning is one of those words which everybody uses but few people understand. According to Rigger (1995) , the absence of a rigorous definition is inhibiting both practitioner and academic scholars in developing appropriate means of measuring the operationalization of positioning. Blankson and Kalafatis (2004) highlighted that there has been no single universally accepted definition of the concept of positioning. Specifically, the boundaries of the concept are often not clearly defined – the question what exactly falls under the scope of positioning has not been sufficiently answered in literature and is still subject to heavy debate in the marketing community. This state of affairs has given rise to several varying terms associated with the concept, i.e. positioning, position, product positioning, market positioning, etc., but as stated by Arnott (1994) , the various terminologies are simply “several sides of the same coin” and complement each other. Further according to Smith and Lusch (1976) , product position and brand position are different in scope; product position refers to the objective attributes in relation to other products and brand position refers to subjective attributes in relation to competing brands and this perceived image of the brand does not belong to the product but is the property of consumers perceptions of a brand. However, in broader terms, the terms product positioning and brand positioning usually mean the same thing ( Kazmi, 2007 ).

Urde and Koch (2014) in their review of positioning also claim that there is surprising vagueness of the concept, the lack of the holistic view and the dominance of the market oriented approach. According to Fuchs (2008) , positioning is an important, rich and a difficult area for future research. Marketers have developed an impressive variety of highly valuable research techniques and models in positioning research. However, on the conceptual and empirical front, research on positioning is scarce and lagging behind. Chew (2005) also claims that there are little theoretical/conceptual frameworks to guide positioning research and also, the extant positioning literature is largely normative and the issues discussed tend to be subjective. Nevertheless, more research is needed to obtain a better general understanding of the positioning concept. In the following section, the present review and analysis of definitions of positioning used in articles from 1969 to 2017 are presented.

3. Research method

This study used a systematic literature review to identify articles that define or conceptualize the concept of positioning. Systematic review has its origins in the medical field and has been developed through the Cochrane Collaboration. Some of the features of this approach have been adopted in the social sciences. More recently, the approach has been closely scrutinized to determine its appropriateness in the management field and conclusions indicate that “for practitioners/managers, systematic review helps develop a reliable knowledge base by accumulating knowledge from a range of studies ( Brown and Oplatka, 2006 ).

A systematic literature review is neither a formal full-length literature review nor a meta-analysis, as it conforms to a rigorous set of core principles. It has to be systematic (organized according to a method designed to address the review questions), transparent (explicitly stated), reproducible and updatable and synthesized (summarizes the evidence relating to the review question) ( Briner and Denyer, 2012 ). In other words, it is an essential tool for an evidence-based practice ( Briner and Denyer, 2012 ) that differs from traditional narrative reviews by adopting a replicable, scientific and transparent process ( Tranfield et al. , 2003 ). In line with MacInnis’s (2011) framework for conceptual contributions in marketing, our analysis involves identifying how entities (definitions) are different by revealing the underlying key perspectives in various positioning definitions. The present study examines not only how these definitions are different but also what they have in common.

3.1 Search strategy

The review identified relevant articles, which enabled a transparent, documented research process with criteria for including and excluding articles. The systematic review involved the following steps: State research questions develop guidelines for collecting literature, decide on inclusion and exclusion criteria, develop a comprehensive search plan for finding literature, develop a codebook for classifying and describing literature, code the literature and synthesize the literature ( Tranfield et al. , 2003 ; Witell et al. , 2016 ). The present study explores the various ways in which positioning has been defined in the literature to determine whether these definitions are different and also what they have in common.

The main search strategy identified research articles that defined the concept of positioning. To capture this, inclusion and exclusion criteria were developed. The initial inclusion criteria were broad to ensure that all relevant articles were identified, were peer-reviewed empirical or conceptual articles, were published in English and had the definition of positioning. To achieve the mentioned objective, five dominant academic databases including Scopus, Emerald, EBSCOS, Wiley Online Library and Science Direct were explored to identify articles on positioning. This paper reviews literature spanning from 1969 to 2017. Articles were identified in the “article title, abstract, and keywords” section of the said databases using keywords as “positioning”; “product positioning”; and “brand positioning”. To keep the search process specific to the objectives of this study, above keywords were used with the subject limits of “Business, management and accounting”; “Social Sciences”; and “Psychology”.

3.2 Sample selection

The initial search yielded 1,557 empirical or conceptual articles, 1,502 of which were in English. Figure 1 provides an overview of the selection process

All articles were scanned for relevance, which revealed two clear trends. First, although many of the articles used the term “positioning” in the abstract, few actually defined, conceptualized, or emphasized the term. Second, many of those articles that did specifically focus on positioning did not provide a specific definition of the concept. This lack of a definition provides further merit to our claim that a clear understanding of positioning is missing in the literature. In total, 354 articles that had a clear focus on positioning were selected for further analysis.

Two authors independently read the selected 354 articles to ensure that they met the inclusion criteria and to identify those that defined or conceptualized positioning. Those authors compared and discussed the results; in cases of disagreement, a third author was consulted. The final sample included 152 articles that provided at least one of the following: a clear definition, a conceptualization or an explicit referral to a specific definition or conceptualization of positioning.

3.3 Data analysis

To analyze the sample of articles, a combination of qualitative content analysis and quantitative analysis was used, which is a method for systematically and objectively evaluating texts ( Lombard et al. , 2002 ). The analysis was conducted in three steps – classification, coding and text analysis – using qualitative text mining ( Feldman and Sanger, 2007 ). Researchers often face the question of how to summarize text and determine what words and concepts are more significant than others. To go further than merely summarize, quantitative text analysis was used so that our review would be more than just descriptive statistics and qualitatively comparing and present definitions. Textmining, also known as text data mining or knowledge discovery from textual databases, refers to the process of extracting interesting and non-trivial patterns or knowledge from text documents ( Feldman and Sanger, 2007 ; Witell et al. , 2016 ). The rationale for this process builds on social network theory, which describes linkages among social entities or nodes in a network and the implications of these linkages and can be used on text to determine which words are significant ( Xie, 2005 ; Witell et al. , 2016 ).

All selected articles were downloaded and definitions were captured in digital plain-text format. Each article was then coded according to several predetermined variables, such as context, definitions, approach and type of study (for example, empirical, conceptual) to describe the characteristics of the sample. The study analyzed the specific definition of positioning offered in each article; by “cleaning” the definitions from “positioning is defined as […]” and focusing only on the words included in the actual definition of the concept. In addition, all common words such as “and” or “of” were removed. All text were stemmed, a procedure that involves reducing all words with the same stem to a common form (Lovins, 1968; Witell et al. , 2016 ). By using this method, the five key perspectives were identified in the pool of positioning definitions.

4. Analysis and results

This section begins by describing the year-wise and journal-wise distribution of the 47 identified journal articles. The section then describes the conceptualizations of positioning proposed by previous studies.

4.1 Journal-wise distribution of articles

This classification was done to observe where positioning research is being published. Articles related to positioning were found to be published in 33 reputed peer-reviewed journals in different time periods ( Table 1 ). This number is encouraging for academicians concerned about identifying and selecting a channel for their positioning manuscripts. Among these reputed journals, the dominant outlet of positioning research have been the Journal of Marketing , Journal of Product and Innovation Management and Business Horizon.

4.2 Year-wise distribution of articles

Articles were classified based on their year of publication from 1969 to 2019 to identify the longitudinal pattern of academic research. Figure 2 shows that the emergence of publications on positioning started in 1969, followed by steady growth up until 1989. From 1990 onwards, it is clear from the figure that there is exponential growth till 2009. However, the trend line also indicates a decreasing pattern after 2010, which implies that the literature on positioning is decreasing. After 2010, only six papers were published, which is the lowest number of papers as compared to previous years. This concludes that there is a need for increasing concerns and interests on the positioning topic.

4.3 Conceptualization of positioning in the marketing discipline

Most of the authors have based their definitions on Ries and Trouts (1969) original description of positioning, i.e. they have made minor adjustments, but constructed their basic reasoning upon the words of Ries and Trout.

There are many diverse interpretations of positioning as each author has preferred his/her own definition and has viewed positioning through different perspectives. The various perspectives from which positioning are viewed by most of the authors are listed in Table 2 . It provides a description of each perspective, and denotes how many times each perspective is found in the pool of positioning definitions.

Although these core perspectives all represent fundamental elements of the concept that delineates positioning, they were not all captured by every definition. Each perspective is discussed in turn.

4.3.1 P1 – Competition.

The “Competition” (P1) perspective as already mentioned is found in 56 of the 152 (39%) definitions listed in Appendix . This perspective underlies the idea that positioning helps in creating an image for the product in relative to separate or apart from competitors. The perspective (P1) is clearly articulated in several of the definitions, and in particular, that offered by Kapferer (2004) , “Positioning means emphasizing the distinctive characteristics that make it different from its competitors and appealing to the public”. Similarly, Kotler (2003) defined “Positioning as an act of designing a company’s offering and image so that they occupy a meaningful and distinct competitive position in the target market’s minds”. Many others (including Aaker and Shansby, 1982 ; Belch and Belch, 1995 ; Kotler and Anderson, 1996 ; Lovelock et al. , 2014 ; McIntyre, 1975 ) also included this perspective in their definitions.

4.3.2 P2 – Empty slot/mind.

The perspective “Empty slot/Mind” (P2) captures the idea that the act of positioning seeks to find and fill an empty slot/window in the minds of the prospective buyers. P2 is evident in several definitions as listed in Appendix . This perspective is also dominant as it was identified in 55 of the 152 (36%) positioning definitions. The “Empty slot/Mind” perspective is rooted in Ries and Trout’s (1969) seminal work on positioning and in particular, the popularity of the phrase “filling a slot in the minds of the target customers”. P2 is clearly asserted in several definitions, for instance, in Crawford et al. (1983) “Product positioning is the act of creating and altering product perceptions in customers’ minds”. Similarly, P2 is asserted in Wright’s (1997) definition stating “Positioning involves and owning a territory in the mind of the consumer it’s not just occupying the position, but owning it”, and in Boone and Kurtz’s (2009) definition stating “Positioning is placing at a certain point or location within a market in the minds of prospective buyers”.

4.3.3 P3 – consumers’ perception.

The perspective “Consumers’ perception” (P3) captures the idea that the act of positioning seeks to purposefully establish or evoke changes in consumers’ minds regarding offering. P3 is evident in several definitions as listed in Appendix . This perspective was identified in 34 of the 152 (22 %) positioning definitions. P3 is clearly expressed in several of the definitions, and in particular, that offered by Sengupta (1990) “Positioning is the concept of perceptual space and consumers mind is regarded as a geometric perceptual space with product categories and brands occupying different points in that space”. Similarly, P3 is expressed in Arnott (1994) “Positioning is the deliberate, proactive, iterative process of defining, modifying and monitoring consumer perceptions of a marketable object”.

4.3.4 P4 – Differentiation.

The “Differentiation” (P4) perspective is evidenced in 19 of the 152 (13%) positioning definitions as listed in Appendix . This perspective captures the notion that creating meaningful differentiation in an offering represents a key aspect of the concept of positioning. P4 is clearly captured in Myers (1996) definition “Positioning refers to the problem of differentiating one’s own product/service from other competing entries in the market place”. Likewise, Zikmund and D’Amico (1989) define “Positioning as a process to identify salient product characteristics that differentiate the brand from competitive brands”. P4 is consistent with the widely accepted view that differentiating an offering is a cornerstone to the positioning of a product, and therein, the success of the brand in the marketplace ( Wind, 1982 ; Bhat and Reddy, 1998 ; Hooley et al. , 1998 ).

4.3.5 P5 – Competitive advantage.

The “Competitive advantage” perspective, is evident only in 5 of the 152 (3%) of the definitions. This perspective underlies the idea that positioning helps in gaining a competitive advantage by implementing a value creating strategy not simultaneously being implemented by any current or potential competitors. P5 is clearly articulated in several of the definitions as listed in Appendix , and in particular, that offered by Palmer (1994) “Positioning is an attempt by the organization to distinguish its offerings from those of its competitors in order to give it a competitive advantage within the market”. Hooley et al. (1998) also articulated the same in their definition, “Positioning is the act of designing the company’s offering and image so that they occupy a meaningful and distinct competitive advantage”. P6 is consistent with the widely accepted view that a well-positioned brand enhances the overall competitiveness of the brand and generates a sustainable competitive advantage for the firm Aaker and McLoughlin (2007) , Blankson et al. (2013) , Ghodeshwar (2008) , Hooley et al. (2012) , Kotler (2003) , Porter (1996) . Accepting the view that competitive advantage represents the cornerstone of the positioning concept, the researcher found it surprising that only five definitions from the pool captured this perspective.

Based on (1) the core perspectives as discussed in the foregoing Section (2) the recognized need for an universally-accepted definition of positioning (3) the inconsistencies of the core meaning of the positioning construct and the researcher’s conviction that marketing research begins with a clear underlying meaning of the phenomenon in question, following definition of positioning encompassing the five underlying positioning perspectives is suggested:

Positioning is a strategy of finding the desired consumer perception of product/brand and filling an empty slot/window in the minds of the target customers by creating and communicating an image which differentiates its unique position from competitor to gain a competitive advantage in the market.

5. Research implications

On the theoretical front, this review makes multiple contributions. First, the study presents a comprehensive systematic review of 152 identified articles in the marketing discipline to reveal how researchers have explored this concept so far and presents a route for future research. Second, this review makes a contribution to understanding what positioning is. Specifically, this research contributes by identifying the key perspectives in definitions of positioning. Gaining insights from existing conceptualizations of the construct and supporting that by the theoretical foundations, a concise definition, broad in scope and perspective, has been derived, the suggested definition will provide clearer comprehension of the concept of positioning and a base on which to advance empirical research on positioning. Third, by providing the distribution schema of customer engagement articles based on different criteria, this study is believed to serve as a valuable tool for researchers to understand the current scenario of positioning research in the marketing discipline and aid in moving the field forward. On the practical front, this study exhibits the favorable outcomes organizations can derive by having a proper definition of positioning. Developing and implementing an organization’s positioning is seen as a crucial element of an organization’s strategic orientation to markets. The more an organization knows about positioning, the better adept it will be to enact so. Therefore, understanding positioning is imperative in that regard; this review will help organizations comprehend that better. Further, understanding how various perspectives are connected with positioning will help managers to design and implement positioning strategies for their products/brands and allow organizations to gain competitive advantage.

6. Conclusion and limitations

The goal of this systematic review was to review state-of-the-art literature on product/brand positioning to re-examine the positioning concept and developing a more comprehensive definition from a theoretical viewpoint. Positioning has been defined in several nuanced ways. This fragmentation can be misleading, and a systematic review can provide a useful analysis to highlight the fragmentation and propose boundaries to better define positioning. However, a systematic review also has its own methodological limitations, including the level of precision. To tackle this limitation, we started broadly and then focused on specific databases and research terms. Although some dimensions might have been missed, we believe our conclusions obtained a reasonable level of redundancy in the databases that we used for this study. We also wanted to contribute to the literature and hope that further research on this important strategic concept will refine and clarify our results. This systematic review presented the results of an analysis and synthesis of the broader positioning literature. A review of 152 published positioning studies from the literatures identified the various perspectives from which positioning are viewed by most of the authors. The five most frequently identified perspectives were competition, empty slot/mind, consumers’ perception, differentiation and competitive advantage. Importantly, the findings of this review confirm that despite the relatively established body of literature, there is there is lack of coherent definition for positioning, and there is no mutual agreement among marketing scholars and practitioners about the exact meaning of the concept.

Flow diagram of article selection process

Number of positioning (definition) related articles (1969–2017)

Journal-wise distribution of articles

Core perspectives of positioning

Overview of positioning definitions

Aaker , D.A. and McLoughlin , D. ( 2007 ), Strategic Market Management , European Edition , John Wiley & Sons , West Sussex .

Aaker , D.A. and Shansby , J. ( 1982 ), “ Positioning your product ”, Business Horizons , Vol. 25 No. 3 , pp. 56 - 62 .

Abril , C. , Gavilan , D.Y. and Avello , M. ( 2009 ), “ Influence of the perception of different types of store brands on consumer typologies and satisfaction levels ”, Innovative Marketing , Vol. 5 , pp. 475 - 482 .

Adcock , D. , Bradfield , R. , Halborg , A. and Ross , C. ( 1993 ), Marketing-Principles and Practice , Pitman Publishing , London .

Alba , J.W. and Chattopadhyay , A. ( 1986 ), “ Salience effects in brand recall ”, Journal of Marketing Research , Vol. 23 No. 4 , pp. 363 - 369 .

Alpert , L. and Gatty , R. ( 1969 ), “ Product positioning by behavioral life-styles ”, Journal of Marketing , Vol. 33 No. 2 , pp. 65 - 69 .

Antonides , G. and Van Raaij , F.W. ( 1998 ), Consumer Behaviour: A European Perspective , John Wiley and Sons , Chichester .

Apostolidis , P. , Kioulafas , K.K. , Sohoritis , Y. and Viachakis , N. ( 1989 ), “ The ABC’s of positioning ”, Proceedings of the European Marketing Academy , Vol. 15 , pp. 1063 - 1077 .

Armstrong , G. and Kotler , P. ( 2012 ), Marketing: An Introduction , 11th ed., Pearson Education , London .

Arnott , D.C. ( 1992 ), “ Bases of financial services positioning in the personal pension, life assurance and personal equity plan sectors ”, PhD thesis, Manchester Business School, University of Manchester , Manchester .

Arnott , D.C. ( 1994 ), “ Positioning: on defining the concept ”, Marketing Educators’ Group (MEG) Conference Proceedings , University of Ulster , Coleraine .

Auken , S. and Lonial , S.C. ( 1991 ), “ Multidimensional scaling and retail positioning: an appraisal ”, International Journal of Retail and Distribution Management , Vol. 19 No. 3 , pp. 11 - 18 .

Bainsfair , P. ( 1990 ), “ Create your own context and find a place in a public mind ”, Campaign , Vol. 16 , (November) , p. 18 .

Baker , M.J. ( 1992 ), Marketing Strategy and Management , 2nd ed., Macmillan , London .

Baker , M.J. and Hart , S.J. ( 2007 ), Product Strategy and Management , 2nd ed., Pearson Education , Harlow .

Batra , S.K. and Kazmi , S. ( 2008 ), Consumer Behaviour , 2nd ed., Excel Books , New Delhi .

Belch , G.E. and Belch , M.A. ( 1995 ), Advertising and Promotion: An Integrated Marketing Communication Perspective , Richard D. Irwin , Chicago, IL .

Berkowitz , N.E. , Kerin , A.R. and Rudelius , W. ( 1989 ), Marketing , 2nd ed., Irwin , London .

Berkowitz , E.N. , Kerin , R.A. , Hartley , S.W. and Rudelius , W. ( 1992 ), Marketing , 3rd ed., Irwin , London .

Berry , L.L. ( 1982 ), “ Retail positioning strategies for the 1980’s ”, Business Horizons , Vol. 25 No. 6 , pp. 45 - 50 .

Bhat , S. and Reddy , S.K. ( 1998 ), “ Symbolic and functional positioning of brands ”, Journal of Consumer Marketing , Vol. 15 No. 1 , pp. 32 - 43 .

Blankson , C. and Crawford , J.C. ( 2012 ), “ Impact of positioning strategies on service firm performance ”, Journal of Business Research , Vol. 65 , pp. 311 - 316 .

Blankson , C. and Kalafatis , S.P. ( 2004 ), “ The development and validation of a scale measuring consumer/customer-derived generic typology of positioning strategies ”, Journal of Marketing Management , Vol. 20 Nos 1/2 , pp. 5 - 43 .

Blankson , C. and Kalafatis , S.P. ( 2007 ), “ Positioning strategies of international and multicultural‐oriented service brands ”, Journal of Services Marketing , Vol. 21 No. 6 , pp. 435 - 450 .

Blankson , C. , Kalafatis , S.P. , Cheng , J.M.S. and Hadjicharalambous , C. ( 2008 ), “ Impact of positioning strategies on corporate performance ”, Journal of Advertising Research , Vol. 48 No. 1 , pp. 106 - 122 .

Blankson , C. , Cowan , K. , Crawford , J. , Kalafatis , S. , Singh , J. and Coffie , S. ( 2013 ), “ A review of the relationships and impact of market orientation and market positioning on organisational performance ”, Journal of Strategic Marketing , Vol. 21 No. 6 , pp. 499 - 512 .

Blythe , J. ( 2005 ), Marketing Strategy , McGraw-Hill Education , Berkshire .

Blythe , J. ( 2008 ), Essentials of Marketing , Pearson Education , London .

Boatswain , M.L. ( 2015 ), “ Decoy effects in brand positioning ”, Unpublished PhD thesis, Kingston University , West Yorkshire .

Boone , L.E. and Kurtz , D.L. ( 2009 ), Contemporary Business 2010 Update , John Wiley and Sons , Chichester .

Botha , C. , Crompton , J. and Kim , S. ( 1999 ), “ Developing a revised competitive position for sun/lost city, South Africa ”, Journal of Travel Research , Vol. 37 No. 4 , pp. 341 - 352 .

Bradley , M.F. and Mealey , J.A. ( 1984 ), “ Brand positioning in a consumer products market ”, Journal of Irish Business and Administrative Research , Vol. 6 No. 1 , pp. 12 - 20 .

Briner , D. and Denyer , D. ( 2012 ), “ Systematic review and evidence synthesis as a practice and scholarship tool ”, in Rousseau , D.M. (Ed.), Handbook of Evidence-Based Management: Companies, Classrooms and Research , Oxford University Press , New York, NY , pp. 112 - 129 .

Brooksbank , R. ( 1994 ), “ The anatomy of marketing positioning strategy ”, Marketing Intelligence and Planning , Vol. 12 No. 4 , pp. 10 - 15 .

Brown , J.H. and Oplatka , I. ( 2006 ), “ Universities in a competitive global marketplace: a systematic review of the literature on higher education marketing ”, International Journal of Public Sector Management , Vol. 19 No. 4 , pp. 316 - 338 .

Brown , H.E. and Sims , J.T. ( 1976 ), “ Market segmentation, product differentiation and market positioning as alternative marketing strategies ”, in Bernhardt , K.L. (Ed.), Marketing: 1776-1976 and beyond, Educators Conference Proceedings Series No. 39 , American Marketing Association , Chicago, IL , pp. 483 - 487 .

Burton , J. and Easingwood , C.J. ( 2006 ), “ A positioning typology of consumers’ perceptions of the benefits offered by successful service brands ”, Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services , Vol. 13 No. 5 , pp. 301 - 316 .

Buzzel , R.N. , Mathews , J. and Levitt , T. ( 1972 ), Marketing: A Contemporary Analysis , Mc Graw Hill , New York, NY .

Chandrasekar , K.S. ( 2010 ), Marketing Management Text and Cases , Tata McGraw-Hill Publication , New Delhi .

Cherunilam , F. ( 2010 ), Business Policy and Strategic Management , Himalaya punishing Houses , New Delhi .

Chew , C. ( 2005 ), “ Strategic marketing planning and positioning in voluntary nonprofit organizations: empirical findings and implications for British charitable organizations ”, Aston Business School Research Paper , Aston University , Birmingham , Vol. RP0506 No. May.

Clement , M. and Werner-Grotemeyer , H. ( 1990 ), “ The iterative positioning process: an internal approach from the pharmaceutical industry ”, Marketing and Research Today , Vol. 18 , pp. 85 - 96 .

Clow , K.E. and Baack , D. ( 2009 ), Marketing Management: A Customer-Oriented Approach , Sage Publications , London .

Corstjens , M. and Doyle , P. ( 1989 ), “ Evaluating alternative retail repositioning strategies ”, Marketing Science , Vol. 8 No. 2 , pp. 170 - 180 .

Cravens , D.W. and Piercy , N.F. ( 2009 ), Strategic Marketing , 9th ed., McGraw Hill Irwin , Boston .

Crawford , C.M. ( 1985 ), “ A new positioning topology ”, Journal of Product Innovation Management , Vol. 2 No. 4 , pp. 243 - 253 .

Crawford , C.M. , Urban , D.J. and Buzas , T.E. ( 1983 ), “ A conceptual review and taxonomy of alternatives ”, working paper No 354 , University of Michigan .

Cronshaw , M. , Cubbin , J. and Davis , E. ( 1990 ), “ The importance of product positioning: successful entry in the national newspaper market ”, Business Strategy Review , Vol. 1 No. 3 , pp. 53 - 73 .

Crosier , K. ( 1981 ), “ Ladders in the mind Occasional Reports Series, No. 2 ”, University of Strathclyde: Department of Marketing , Glasgow .

Czinkota , M.R. and Ronkainen , L.A. ( 2004 ), International Marketing , 4th ed., SouthWestern , Mason .

Dahlen , M. , Lange , F. and Smith , T. ( 2010 ), Marketing Communications: A Brand Narrative Approach , John Wiley and Sons , New York, NY .

Darling , J.R. ( 2001 ), “ Successful competitive positioning: the key for entry into the European consumer market ”, European Business Review , Vol. 13 No. 4 , pp. 209 - 221 .

Day , G.S. ( 1984a ), Strategic Market Planning , West Publishing Company , St. Paul, MN .

Day , G.S. ( 1984b ), Strategic Market Planning , West Publishing , New York, NY .

Day , G. , Weitz , B. and Wensley , R. ( 1990 ), The Interface of Marketing Strategy , JAI Press , Greenwich, CT , pp. 387 - 412 .

de Chernatony , L. ( 1994 ), “ Developing a more effective brand positioning ”, Journal of Brand Management , Vol. 1 No. 6 , pp. 373 - 379 .

de Chernatony , L. ( 2009 ), “ Brand extension effects on brand equity: a cross-national study ”, Journal of Euromarketing , Vol. 8 No. 2 , pp. 71 - 88 .

Delozier , W.M. and Woodside , A.G. ( 1978 ), Marketing Management , Merril Publishing Company , Columbus, OH .

DeSarbo , W.S. , Park , J. and Rao , V.R. ( 2011 ), “ Deriving joint space positioning maps from consumer preference ratings ”, Marketing Letters , Vol. 22 No. 1 , pp. 1 - 14 .

Devlin , J. , Ennew , C. and Mirza , M. ( 1995 ), “ Organizational positioning in retail financial services ”, Journal of Marketing Management , Vol. 11 Nos 1/3 , pp. 119 - 132 .

Dibb , S. and Simkin , L. ( 1993 ), “ The strength of branding and positioning in services ”, International Journal of Service Industry Management , Vol. 4 No. 1 , pp. 25 - 35 .

Dillon , W.R. , Domzal , T. and Madden , T.J. ( 1986 ), “ Evaluating alternative product positioning strategies ”, Journal of Advertising Research , Vol. 26 No. 4 , pp. 29 - 35 .

DiMingo , E. ( 1988 ), “ The fine art of positioning ”, Journal of Business Strategy , Vol. 9 No. 2 , pp. 34 - 39 .

Diwan , S.P. and Bodla , B. ( 2011 ), “ Development of empirically based customer-derive positioning typology in the automobile industry ”, Journal of Strategic Marketing , Vol. 19 No. 6 , pp. 531 - 550 .

Dovel , G.P. ( 1990 ), “ Stake it out; positioning success, step by step ”, Business Marketing , Vol. 5 , pp. 43 - 51 .

Droge , C. and Darmon , R.Y. ( 1987 ), “ Associative positioning strategies through comparative advertising: attribute versus overall similarity approaches ”, Journal of Marketing Research , Vol. 24 No. 4 , pp. 377 - 388 .

Easingwood , C.J. and Mahajan , V. ( 1989 ), “ Positioning of financial services for competitive advantage ”, Journal of Product Innovation Management , Vol. 6 No. 3 , pp. 207 - 219 .

Engel , J.F. , Blackwell , R.D. and Miniard , P.W. ( 1993 ), Consumer Behavior , 7th ed., The Dryden Press , Orlando, FL .

Ennew , C.T. ( 1993 ), The Marketing Blueprint , Blackwell Business , Oxford .

Ennew , J.C. and Mirza , M. ( 1995 ), “ Organisational positioning in retail financial services ”.

Esch , F.R. ( 2010 ), Strategy and Technique of Brand Management , Vahlen , Munich .

Ensor , J. and Drummond , G. ( 1999 ), Strategic Marketing: Planning and Control , Butterworth Heinemann , Oxford .

Esch , F.R. ( 2005 ), “ Brand positioning as the basis of brand management ”, in Esch , F.-R. (Ed.), Modern Brand Management – Basics. Innovative Approaches, Practical Implementations , 4th ed., Business publishing house , Wiesbaden , pp. 131 - 163 .

Evans , E. ( 2003 ), “ Market segmentation ”, in Baker , M.J. (Ed.) The Marketing Book , 5th ed., Butterworth Heinemann , Oxford .

Evans , J.R. and Barman , B. ( 1988 ), Principles of Marketing , 2nd ed., Macmillan Publishing Company , New York, NY , pp. 167 - 169 .

Feldman , R. and Sanger , J. ( 2007 ), The Textmining Handbook: Advanced Approaches in Analyzing Unstructured Data , Cambridge University Press .

Ferrel , P. ( 1997 ), Marketing , 10th ed., Harvard Business School Publications , Boston, MA .

Fill , C. ( 1999 ), Marketing Communications: Contexts, Contents and Strategies , 2nd ed., Prentice Hall , Hemel Hempstead .

Fill , C. ( 2006 ), Marketing Communications – Engagement, Strategies and Practice , 4th ed., Prentice Hall , Edinburgh .

Fisher , R.J. ( 1991 ), “ Durable differentiation strategies for services ”, Journal of Services Marketing , Vol. 5 No. 1 , pp. 19 - 28 .

Font , X. ( 1997 ), “ Managing the tourist destination image ”, Journal of Vacation Marketing , Vol. 3 No. 2 , pp. 123 - 131 .

Friedmann , R. and Lessig , P.V. ( 1987 ), “ Psychological meaning of products and product positioning ”, Journal of Product Innovation Management , Vol. 4 No. 4 , pp. 265 - 273 .

Fuchs , C. ( 2008 ), “ Brand positioning through the consumers’ lens ”, Unpublished PhD thesis, Universitat Wien , Betreuerin .

Fuchs , C. and Diamantopoulos , A. ( 2010 ), “ Evaluating the effectiveness of brand-positioning strategies from a consumer perspective ”, European Journal of Marketing , Vol. 44 Nos 11/12 , pp. 173 - 1786 .

Fuchs , C. and Diamantopoulos , A. ( 2012 ), “ Customer perceived positioning effectiveness: conceptualization, operationalization, and implications for new product managers ”, Journal of Product Innovation Management , Vol. 29 No. 2 , pp. 229 - 244 .

Gartner , W. ( 1989 ), “ Tourism image: attribute measurement of state tourism products using multidimensional scaling techniques ”, Journal of Travel Research , Vol. 28 No. 2 , pp. 16 - 20 .

Ghodeshwar , B.M. ( 2008 ), “ Building brand identity in competitive markets: a conceptual model ”, Journal of Product and Brand Management , Vol. 17 No. 1 , pp. 4 - 12 .

Gwin , C.F. and Gwin , C.R. ( 2003 ), “ Product attributes model: a tool for evaluating brand positioning ”, Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice , Vol. 11 No. 2 , pp. 30 - 42 .

Hankinson , G. and Cowking , P. ( 1997 ), “ Branding in practice: the profile and role of brand managers in the UK ”, Journal of Marketing Management , Vol. 13 No. 4 , pp. 239 - 264 .

Hartmann , P. , Ibanez , V. and Sainz , F. ( 2005 ), “ Green branding effects on attitude: functional versus emotional positioning strategies ”, Marketing Intelligence and Planning , Vol. 23 No. 1 , pp. 9 - 29 .

Hollensen , S. ( 2010 ), Marketing Management: A Relationship Approaches , 2nd ed., Pearson Education , New York, NY .

Holmes , J.H. ( 1973 ), “ Profitable product positioning ”, MSU Business Topics , Vol. 21 , pp. 27 - 32 .

Holmes , J.H. ( 1974 ), “ Profitable positioning for retailers ”, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science , Vol. 2 No. 2 , pp. 332 - 339 .

Hooley , G.J. , Saunders , J.A. and Piercy , N.F. ( 1998 ), Marketing Strategy and Competitive Positioning , 2nd ed., Prentice Hall , London .

Hooley , G. , Nigel , F.P. and Nicoulaud , B. ( 2012 ), Marketing Strategy and Competitive Positioning , Prentice Hall/Financial Times , London .

Houston , F.S. and Hanieski , J.F. ( 1976 ), “ Pooled marketing and positioning ”, Journal of Advertising , Vol. 5 No. 1 , pp. 38 - 39 .

Husted , S.W. and Varble , D.L. ( 1999 ), Principles of Modern Marketing , Alyyn and Bacon Publishing , Boston .

Iyer , P. , Davarib , A. , Zolfagharianc , M. and Paswand , A. ( 2018 ), “ Market orientation, positioning strategy and brand performance ”, Industrial Marketing Management , Vol. 81 No. 1 , pp. 16 - 29 .

Jain , S.C. ( 1990 ), Marketing Planning and Strategy , 3rd ed., South Western Publishing , Cincinnati, OH .

Jalkala , A.M. and Keranen , J. ( 2014 ), “ Brand positioning strategies for industrial firms providing customer solutions ”, Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing , Vol. 29 No. 3 , pp. 253 - 264 .

Javalgi , R.G. , Benoy , J.W. and Gombeski , W.R. ( 1995 ), “ Positioning your service to target key buying influences: the case of referring physicians and hospitals ”, Journal of Services Marketing , Vol. 9 No. 5 , pp. 42 - 52 .

Jewell , R.D. ( 2007 ), “ Establishing effective repositioning communications in a competitive marketplace ”, Journal of Marketing Communications , Vol. 13 No. 4 , pp. 231 - 241 .

Jobber , D. ( 1995 ), Principles and Practice of Marketing , McGraw-Hill Book Company , London .

Johansson , J.K. and Thorelli , H.B. ( 1985 ), “ International product positioning ”, Journal of International Business Studies , Vol. 16 No. 3 , pp. 57 - 75 .

Kalafatis , S.P. , Tsogas , M. and Blankson , C. ( 2000 ), “ Positioning strategies in business markets ”, Journal of Business and Industrial Marketing , Vol. 15 No. 6 , pp. 416 - 437 .

Kalra , A. and Goodstein , R.C. ( 1998 ), “ The impact of advertising positioning strategies on consumer price sensitivity ”, Journal of Marketing Research , Vol. 35 No. 2 , pp. 210 - 224 .

Kapferer , J. ( 2012 ), The New Strategic Brand Management: Advanced Insights and Strategic Thinking , 5th ed., Kogan Page , London .

Kapferer , J.-N. ( 2004 ), The New Strategic Brand Management , 3rd ed., Kogan Page , London .

Kardon , B.E. ( 1992 ), “ Consumer schizophrenia: extremism in the marketplace ”, Planning Review , Vol. 20 No. 4 , pp. 18 - 22 .

Kaul , A. and Rao , V.R. ( 1995 ), “ Research for product positioning and design decisions: an integrative review ”, International Journal of Research in Marketing , Vol. 12 No. 4 , pp. 293 - 320 .

Kazmi , A. ( 2007 ), “ Knowledge management for strategic management: nothing more, nothing less ”, Pranjana: The Journal of Management Awareness , Vol. 10 No. 1 , pp. 31 - 40 .

Keegan , W.J. ( 1995 ), Global Marketing Management , 5th ed., Prentice-Hall International , Englewood Cliffs, NJ .

Keller , K.L. ( 2003 ), Strategic Brand Management , Pearson Prentice Hall , Upper Saddle River, NJ .

Keller , K.L. ( 2009 ), “ Building strong brands in a modern marketing communications environment ”, Journal of Marketing Communications , Vol. 15 Nos 2/3 , pp. 139 - 155 .

Kerin , R. , Hartley , S. and Rudelius , W. ( 2010 ), Marketing , McGraw Hill , New York, NY .

Kim , C. and Mauborgne , R. ( 2000 ), “ Knowing a winning business idea when you see one ”, Harvard Business Review , pp. 129 - 138 .

Kinnear , T.C. , Bernhardt , K.L. and Krentler , K.A. ( 1995 ), Principles of Marketing , 4th ed., Harper Collins College Publishers , New York, NY .

Knox , S. ( 2004 ), “ Positioning and branding your organization ”, Journal of Product and Brand Management , Vol. 13 No. 2 , pp. 105 - 115 .

Kohli , C.S. and Leuthesser , L. ( 1993 ), “ Product positioning: a comparison of perceptual mapping techniques ”, Journal of Product and Brand Management , Vol. 2 No. 4 , pp. 10 - 19 .

Kotler , P. ( 2003 ), Marketing Management , 11th ed., Prentice-Hall , Englewood Cliffs, NJ .

Kotler , P. and Armstrong , G. ( 1996 ), Marketing: An Introduction , 4th ed., Prentice-Hall International , Upper Saddle River, NJ .

Kotler , P. , Keller , K.L. and Bliemel , F. ( 2005 ), Marketing Management , Pearson Stadium , Munchen .

Kotler , P. and Anderson , A.R. ( 1996 ), Strategic Marketing for Non-Profit Organizations , 5th ed., Prentice-Hall , Upper Saddle River, NJ .

Kroeber-Riel , W. and Esch , F.R. ( 2000 ), Strategy and Technology of Advertising , Kohlhammer , Stutgart, Berlin, Koln .

Lakshmi , K. , Santhana , K. , Jasim , K. , Prabhakar . and Jahira , P. ( 2017 ), “ Brand positioning of ayurvedic medicine in Indian milieu ”, International Journal of Business Excellence , Vol. 11 No. 1 , pp. 16 - 37 .

Lamb , C.W. and Cravens , D.W. ( 1990 ), “ Services marketing: reaching the customer and creating satisfaction ”, Business , pp. 13 - 19 .

Lamb , C.W. , Hair , J.F. and McDaniel , C. ( 2004 ), Principles of Marketing , South-Western Publishing , Cincinnati, OH .

Lamb , C. , McDaniel , C. , Shearer , J. , Kapoor , H. , Hair , J. , Boivin , M. and Appleby , R. ( 2010 ), Marketing Management , 10th ed., South-Western CENGAGE Learning , Mason, OH , pp. 45 - 46 .

Lautman , M.R. ( 1993 ), “ The ABCs of positioning ”, Marketing Research , Vol. 5 No. 1 , pp. 12 - 18 .

Lee , C.-W. and Liao , C.-S. ( 2009 ), “ The effects of consumer preferences and perceptions of Chinese tea beverages on brand positioning strategies ”, British Food Journal , Vol. 111 No. 1 , pp. 80 - 96 .

Lendrevie , J. , Lévy , J. and Lindon , D. ( 2003 ), Mercator: Theory and Practice of the Marketing , Dalloz , Paris .

Lilien , G.L. and Rangaswamy , A. ( 2003 ), Marketing Engineering: Computer-Assisted Marketing Analysis and Planning , Prentice Hall , Upper Saddle River, NJ .

Lodish , L.M. ( 1986 ), The Advertising and Promotion Challenge: Vaguely Right or Precisely Wrong? , Oxford University Press , New York, NY .

Lombard , M. , Snyder-Duch , J. and Bracken , C.C. ( 2004 ), “ A call for standardization in content analysis reliability ”, Human Communication Research , Vol. 30 , pp. 434 - 437 .

Loudon , D.L. and Della , A.J. B. ( 1993 ), Consumer Behavior: Concepts and Applications , 4th ed., McGraw-Hill , New York, NY .

Lovelock , C.H. ( 1984 ), Services Marketing , Prentice Hall , Englewood Cliffs, NJ .

Lovelock , E. , Patterson , P.G. and Wirtz , J. ( 2014 ), Services Marketing , 6th ed., Pearson , London .

MacInnis , D.J. ( 2011 ), “ A framework for conceptual contributions in marketing ”, Journal of Marketing , Vol. 75 No. 4 , pp. 136 - 154 .

Maggard , J.P. ( 1976 ), “ Positioning revisited ”, Journal of Marketing , Vol. 40 No. 1 , pp. 63 - 66 .

Margulies , W.P. ( 1977 ), “ Make the most of your corporate identity ”, Harvard Business Review , pp. 66 - 74 .

Marsden , P. ( 2002 ), “ Brand positioning: meme’s the word ”, Marketing Intelligence and Planning , Vol. 20 No. 5 , pp. 307 - 312 .

Masterson , R. and Pickton , D. ( 2004 ), Marketing: An Introduction , McGraw-Hill Higher Education .

Mazanec , J.A. ( 1995 ), “ Positioning analysis with self-organizing maps: an exploratory study on luxury hotels ”, Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly , Vol. 36 No. 6 , pp. 80 - 95 .

McIntyre , D.R. ( 1975 ), “ Multinational positioning strategy ”, Columbia Journal of World Business , Vol. 10 No. 3 , pp. 106 - 110 .

Muhlbacher , H. , Dreher , A. and Ritter , G.A. ( 1994 ), “ MIPS – managing industrial positioning strategies ”, Industrial Marketing Management , Vol. 23 No. 4 , pp. 287 - 297 .

Myers , J.H. ( 1996 ), Segmentation and Positioning for Strategic Marketing Decisions , American Marketing Association , Chicago, IL .

Nash , E.L. ( 1982 ), Direct Marketing. Strategy, Planning, Execution , McGraw-Hill Book Company , New York, NY .

Oglivy , D. ( 1983 ), Confessions of an Advertising Man , Ballantine Books , New York, NY .

Oliver , G. ( 1995 ), Marketing Today , 4th ed., Prentice-Hall , Hemel Hempstead .

O’Shaughnessy , J. ( 1995 ), Competitive Marketing: A Strategic Approach , 3rd ed., Routledge , London .

Palmer , A. ( 1994 ), Principles of Services Marketing , McGraw-Hill Book Company , Maidenhead .

Pandaa , S. , Paswana , K. and Mishrab , S. ( 2018 ), “ Impact of positioning strategies on franchise fee structure ”, Industrial Marketing Management , Vol. 81 No. 1 , pp. 30 - 39 .

Park , C.W. and Zaitman , G. ( 1987 ), Marketing Management , Dryden Press , Chicago IL .

Park , C.W. , Jaworski , B.J. and MacInnis , D.J. ( 1986 ), “ Strategic brand concept image management ”, Journal of Marketing , Vol. 50 No. 4 , pp. 135 - 145 .

Percy , L. and Elliot , R. ( 2007 ), Strategic Brand Management , Oxford University Press , New York, NY .

Perreault , D.W. , Jr and McCarthy , E.J. ( 1996 ), Essentials of Marketing: A Global Managerial Approach , 10th ed., McGraw- Hill Irwin , Boston , pp. 72 - 75 .

Pham , M.T. and Muthukrishnan , A.V. ( 2002 ), “ Search and alignment in judgment revision: implications for brand positioning ”, Journal of Marketing Research , Vol. 39 No. 1 , pp. 18 - 30 .

Pike , S. and Page , S. ( 2014 ), “ Destination marketing organizations and destination marketing: a narrative analysis of the literature ”, Tourism Management , Vol. 41 , pp. 1 - 26 .

Patti , C.H. and Frazer , C.F. ( 1988 ), Advertising: A Decision Making Approach , Dryden Press , Chicago .

Pollay , R.W. ( 1985 ), “ The subsidizing sizzle: a descriptive history of print advertising, 1900-1980 ”, Journal of Marketing , Vol. 50 , pp. 135 - 145 .

Porter , M.E. ( 1996 ), “ What is strategy? ”, Harvard Business Review , Vol. 74 No. 6 , pp. 61 - 78 .

Punj , G. and Moon , J. ( 2002 ), “ Positioning options for achieving Brand association: a psychological categorization framework ”, Journal of Business Research , Vol. 55 No. 4 , pp. 275 - 283 .

Quelch , J.A. ( 1991 ), “ Product policy ”, in Dolan , R.J. (Ed.), Strategic Marketing Management , Harvard Business School Publications , Boston, MA .

Ramaswamy , V.S. and Namakumari ( 2002 ), Marketing Management , 3rd ed., Macmillan , New Delhi .

Rao , V.R. and Steckel , J.H. ( 1998 ), Analysis for Strategic Marketing , Addison- Wesley , Reading, MA .

Reidenbach , R.E. and Pitts , R.E. ( 1986 ), “ Not all CEOs are created equal as advertising spokespersons: evaluating the effective CEO spokesperson ”, Journal of Advertising , Vol. 15 No. 1 , pp. 30 - 46 .

Richarme , M. ( 2007 ), “ Positioning–marketing’s fifth ‘P ”, Decision Analyst , available at: www.Decisionanalyst.com/media/downloads/MarketingFifthP.pdf

Ries , A. and Trout , J. ( 1969 ), “ Positioning is a game people play in today’s me-too market place ”, Industrial Marketing , Vol. 54 No. 6 , pp. 51 - 55 .

Ries , A. and Trout , J. ( 1972 ), The Positioning Era Cometh”, Reprint of a Three-Part Series in Advertising Age , Crain Publications , Chicago .

Ries , A. and Trout , J. ( 1981 ), Positioning: The Battle for Your Mind , McGraw Hill , New York, NY .

Ries , A. and Trout , J. ( 1986 ), Marketing Warfare , Plume Books , New York, NY .

Riezebos , R. and van der Grinten , J. ( 2012 ), Positioning the Brand: An inside-out Approach , Routledge .

Rigger , W. ( 1995 ), “ Positioning in theory and practice, towards a research agenda ”, 24th EMAC Conference Proceedings, 1 (May), ESSEC France , pp. 991 - 1009 .

Romaniuk , J. ( 2001 ), “ Brand positioning in financial services: a longitudinal test to find the best Brand position ”, Journal of Financial Services Marketing , Vol. 6 No. 2 , pp. 111 - 121 .

Roscoe , A.D. and Lee , J.K. ( 1991 ), “ Positioning PCN ”, Cellular Business , February , pp. 42 - 46 .

Rossiter , J.R. and Bellman , S. ( 2005 ), Marketing Communications: Theory and Applications , Pearson Prentice Hall , Frenchs Forest .

Rothschild , M.L. ( 1987 ), Advertising – from Fundamentals to Strategies , Heath and Company , Lexington, MA, Toronto .

Runyon , K.E. ( 1982 ), The Practice of Marketing , Merril Publishing Company , Columbus, OH .

Sarel , D. ( 1980 ), “ Product positioning – a reassessment ”, in Lam , C. and Dunne , P. (Eds), Theoretical Developments in Marketing , American Marketing Association , Chicago .

Schiffman , G.L. and Kanuk , L.L. ( 2007 ), Consumer Behavior , Prentice Hall , Upper Saddle River, NJ .

Schouten , J.W. and McAlexander , J.H. ( 1989 ), “ Positioning services for competitive advantage: the case of duds ‘n suds source ”, Journal of Services Marketing , Vol. 3 No. 2 .

Sengupta , S. ( 1990 ), Brand Positioning: Strategies for Competitive Advantage , Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing , New Delhi .

Sengupta , S. ( 2005 ), Brand Positioning , McGraw Hill , New Delhi .

Shimp , A.T. ( 2010 ), Integrated Marketing Communication in Advertising and Promotion , 8th ed., Cengage Learning , South Western .

Shostack , G.L. ( 1987 ), “ Service positioning through structural change ”, Journal of Marketing , Vol. 51 No. 1 , pp. 34 - 43 .

Simkin , L.P. , Doyle , P. and Saunders , J. ( 1985 ), “ How retailers put site location techniques into operation: an assessment of major multiples’ practice ”, Retail and Distribution Management , Vol. 13 No. 3 , pp. 21 - 26 .

Smith , R.E. and Lusch , R.F. ( 1976 ), “ How advertising can position a brand ”, Journal of Advertising Research , Vol. 16 , pp. 37 - 43 .

Solomon , M. , Bamossy , G. , Askeegard , S. and Hogg , M. K. ( 2006 ), Consumer Behaviour a European Perspective , 3rd ed., Pearson Education , London .

Soundararaj , J.J. and Rengamani , J. ( 2002 ), “ The inevitability of ‘positioning’ in the present marketing scenario ”, Indian Journal of Marketing , Vol. 32 , pp. 3 - 5 .

Stanton , W.J. ( 1974 ), Fundamentals of Marketing , McGraw-Hill , Tokyo, Kogakusha .

Sujan , M. and Bettman , J.R. ( 1989 ), “ The effects of brand positioning strategies on consumers’ brand and category perceptions: some insights from schema research ”, Journal of Marketing Research , Vol. 26 , pp. 454 - 467 .

Suzuki , Y. ( 2000 ), “ The effect of airline positioning on profit ”, Transportation Journal , Vol. 39 No. 3 , pp. 44 - 54 .

Tranfield , D. , Denyer , D. and Smart , P. ( 2003 ), “ Towards a methodology for developing evidence-informed management knowledge by means of systematic review ”, British Journal of Management , Vol. 14 No. 3 , pp. 207 - 222 .

Trommsdorf , V. and Paulssen , M. ( 2005 ), “ Measurement and design of Brand positioning ”, Modern Brand Management , Vol. 43 , pp. 1363 - 1379 .

Trommsdorf , V. ( 2002 ), Consumer Behavior , 4th ed., Stuttgart .

Trout , J. and Rivkin ( 1996 ), The New Positioning, the Latest on the World’s 1 Business Strategy , McGraw-Hill , New York, NY .

Tudor and Negricea ( 2012 ), “ Brand positioning − a marketing resource and an effective tool for small and medium enterprises ”, Journal of Knowledge Management, Economics and Information Technology , Vol. 8 , pp. 1 - 9 .

Tybout , A.M. and Sternthal , B. ( 2010 ), “ Developing a compelling brand positioning ”, in Management , T.M. , Tybout , A.M. and Calder , B.J. (Eds), Kellogg on Marketing , John Wiley and Sons , Hoboken, NJ , pp. 73 - 91 .

Uggla , H. ( 2006 ), Positioning: Theory, Trend and Startup , Liber AB , Malmo .

Urban , G.L. and Hauser , J.R. ( 1993 ), Design and Marketing of New Products , 2nd ed., Prentice Hall , NJ .

Urde , M. and Koch , C. ( 2014 ), “ Market and brand-oriented schools of positioning ”, Journal of Product and Brand Management , Vol. 23 No. 7 , pp. 478 - 490 .

Walker , O.C. , Boyd , H.W. and Larreche , J.C. ( 1996 ), Marketing Strategy: Planning and Implementation , Irwin , Chicago, IL .

Wells , W.D. and Prensky , D. ( 1996 ), Consumer Behavior , John Wiley , New York, NY .

Wilson , L. and Fenwick , C.I. ( 1978 ), “ A product positioning model: problems and possibilities ”, Journal of Marketing , Vol. 42 No. 2 , pp. 13 - 18 .

Wilson , R. and Giligan , C. ( 2005 ), Strategic Marketing Management: Planning, Implementation and Control , 3rd ed., Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann , Amsterdam .

Wind , Y. ( 1980 ), “ Going to market: new twist for some old tricks ”, The Wharton Magazine , Vol. 4 , pp. 34 - 39 .

Wind , Y. ( 1982 ), Product Policy, Concepts, Methods and Strategy , Addison-Wesley Publishing , Reading, MA .

Witell , L. , Snyder , H. , Gustafsson , A. , Fombelle , P. and Kristensson , P. ( 2016 ), “ Defining service innovation: a review and synthesis ”, Journal of Business Research , Vol. 69 No. 8 , pp. 2863 - 2872 .

Wright , M. ( 1997 ), “ When strength means death ”, Brand Strategy , Vol. 107 , pp. 3 - 5 .

Xie , Z. ( 2005 ), “ Centrality measures in textmining: prediction of noun phrases that appear in abstracts ”, Proceedings of the ACL student research workshop , Association for Computational Linguistics , Stroudsburg, PA , pp. 103 - 108 .

Yip , G.S. ( 1997 ), “ Patterns and determinants of global marketing ”, Journal of Marketing Management , Vol. 13 Nos 1/3 , pp. 153 - 164 .

Zikmund , W. and D’Amico , M. ( 1989 ), Marketing , 3rd ed., John Wiley , New York, NY .

Zineldin , M. ( 1996 ), “ Bank strategic positioning and some determinants of bank selection ”, International Journal of Bank Marketing , Vol. 14 No. 6 , pp. 12 - 22 .

Corresponding author

Related articles, we’re listening — tell us what you think, something didn’t work….

Report bugs here

All feedback is valuable

Please share your general feedback

Join us on our journey

Platform update page.

Visit emeraldpublishing.com/platformupdate to discover the latest news and updates

Questions & More Information

Answers to the most commonly asked questions here

On the Implementation of a Theory of Perceptual Mapping

Conference paper
Cite this conference paper

Wai Kiang Yeap 21 ,
M. Zulfikar Hossain 21 &
Thomas Brunner 21

Part of the book series: Lecture Notes in Computer Science ((LNAI,volume 7106))

Included in the following conference series:

Australasian Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence

2319 Accesses

3 Citations

A recent theory of perceptual mapping argues that humans do not integrate successive views using a mathematical transformation approach to form a perceptual map. Rather, it is formed from integrating views at limiting points in the environment. Each view affords an adequate description of the spatial layout of a local environment and its limiting point is detected via a process of recognizing significant features in it and tracking them across views. This paper discusses the implementation of this theory on a laser-ranging mobile robot. Two algorithms were implemented to produce two different kinds of maps; one which is sparse and fragmented, and the other which is dense and detailed. Both algorithms successfully generated maps that preserve well the layout of the environment. The implementation provides insights into the problem of loop closing, moving in featureless environments, seeing a stable world, and augmenting mapping with commonsense knowledge.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Available as PDF
Read on any device
Instant download
Own it forever
Compact, lightweight edition
Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Bailey, T., Durrant-Whyte, H.: Simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM): part II. IEEE Robotics & Automation Magazine 13(3), 108–117 (2006)

Article Google Scholar

Durrant-Whyte, H., Bailey, T.: Simultaneous localization and mapping: part I. IEEE Robotics & Automation Magazine 13(2), 99–110 (2006)

Downs, R.M., Stea, D.: Image and Environment. Cognitive Mapping and Spatial Behavior. Science, Aldine, Chicago (1973)

Google Scholar

O’Keefe, J., Nadel, L.: The Hippocampus as a Cognitive Map. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 2(4), 487–533 (1979)

Tolman, E.C.: Cognitive maps in rats and men. Psychological Review 55(4), 189–208 (1948)

Buchner, A., Jansen-Osmann, P.: Is Route Learning More Than Serial Learning? Spatial Cognition & Computation: An Interdisciplinary Journal 8(4), 289–305 (2008)

Ishikawa, T., Montello, D.R.: Spatial knowledge acquisition from direct experience in the environment: Individual differences in the development of metric knowledge and the integration of separately learned places. Cognitive Psychology 52(2), 93–129 (2006)

Glennerster, A., Hansard, M.E., Fitzgibbon, A.W.: View-Based Approaches to Spatial Representation in Human Vision. In: Cremers, D., Rosenhahn, B., Yuille, A.L., Schmidt, F.R. (eds.) Statistical and Geometrical Approaches to Visual Motion Analysis. LNCS, vol. 5604, pp. 193–208. Springer, Heidelberg (2009)

Chapter Google Scholar

Burgess, N.: Spatial memory: how egocentric and allocentric combine. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 10(12), 551–557 (2006)

Mou, W., McNamara, T.P., Valiquette, C.M., Rump, B.: Allocentric and Egocentric Updating of Spatial Memories. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 30(1), 142–157 (2004)

Rump, B., McNamara, T.P.: Updating in Models of Spatial Memory. In: Barkowsky, T., Knauff, M., Ligozat, G., Montello, D.R. (eds.) Spatial Cognition 2007. LNCS (LNAI), vol. 4387, pp. 249–269. Springer, Heidelberg (2007)

Wang, R.F., Spelke, E.S.: Updating egocentric representations in human navigation. Cognition 77(3), 215–250 (2000)

Bridgeman, B., Hoover, M.: Processing spatial layout by perception and sensorimotor interaction. Psychology Press, London (2008)

Fermüller, C., Cheong, L., Aloimonos, Y.: Visual Space Distortion. Biological Cybernetics 77, 323–337 (1997)

Article MATH Google Scholar

Hurlbert, A.C.: Visual Perception: Knowing is seeing. Current Biology 4(5), 423–426 (1994)

Snowden, R.J.: Visual perception: Here’s mud in your mind’s eye. Current Biology 9(9), R336–R337 (1999)

Frisby, J.P.: Seeing: illusion, brain, and mind. Oxford University Press, Oxford (1980)

Davidson, M., Fox, M.-J., Dick, A.: Effect of eye movements on backward masking and perceived location. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics 14(1), 110–116 (1973)

McConkie, G.W., Rayner, K.: Identifying the span of the effective stimulus in reading: Literature review and theories of reading. In: Singer, H., Ruddell, R.B. (eds.) Theoretical Models and Processes of Reading, pp. 137–162. International Reading Association (1976)

Intraub, H.: The representation of visual scenes. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 1(6), 217–222 (1997)

Irwin, D.E.: Integrating Information Across Saccadic Eye Movements. Current Directions in Psychological Science 5(3), 94–100 (1996)

Irwin, D.E., Zelinsky, G.J.: Eye movements and scene perception: memory for things observed. Perception & Psychophysics 64(6), 882–895 (2002)

Simons, D.J., Rensink, R.A.: Change blindness: past, present, and future. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 9(1), 16–20 (2005)

Yeap, W.K.: A computational theory of humans perceptual mapping. In: 33rd Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (in press, 2011)

Gibson, J.J.: The perception of the visual world. Houghton Mifflin, Boston (1950)

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Centre for Artificial Intelligence Research, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand

Wai Kiang Yeap, M. Zulfikar Hossain & Thomas Brunner

You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and affiliations.

School of Engineering and Mathematical Sciences, La Trobe University, 3086, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

Dianhui Wang

School of Computer Science and Software Engineering, The University of Western Australia, 6009, Perth, WA, Australia

Mark Reynolds

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

About this paper

Cite this paper.

Yeap, W.K., Hossain, M.Z., Brunner, T. (2011). On the Implementation of a Theory of Perceptual Mapping. In: Wang, D., Reynolds, M. (eds) AI 2011: Advances in Artificial Intelligence. AI 2011. Lecture Notes in Computer Science(), vol 7106. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-25832-9_75

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-25832-9_75

Publisher Name : Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg

Print ISBN : 978-3-642-25831-2

Online ISBN : 978-3-642-25832-9

eBook Packages : Computer Science Computer Science (R0)

Share this paper

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Find a journal
Track your research

SUGGESTED TOPICS
The Magazine
Newsletters
Managing Yourself
Managing Teams
Work-life Balance
The Big Idea
Data & Visuals
Reading Lists
Case Selections
HBR Learning
Topic Feeds
Account Settings
Email Preferences

A Better Way to Map Brand Strategy

Niraj Dawar
Charan K. Bagga

Companies have long used perceptual mapping to understand how consumers feel about their brands relative to competitors’, to find gaps in the marketplace, and to develop brand positions. But the business value of these maps is limited because they fail to link a brand’s market position to business performance metrics such as pricing and sales. Other marketing tools measure brands on yardsticks such as market share, growth rate, and profitability but fail to take consumer perceptions into consideration.

In this article, Ivey Business School’s Niraj Dawar and Charan K. Bagga present a new type of map that links a brand’s position to competitors according to its perceived “centrality” (how representative it is of the company) and “distinctiveness” (how much it stands out from other brands) with its business performance along a given metric.

Using the tool, marketers can determine a brand’s current and desired position, predict its marketplace performance, and devise and track marketing strategy and execution.

In-depth examples of the car and beer markets demonstrate the value of this tool to managers of brands in any category.

HBR Reprint R1506G

Figure out where you are on the distinctiveness-centrality spectrum.

Idea in Brief

The problem.

Companies have long used perceptual maps to understand how consumers feel about their brands relative to competitors’ and to develop brand positions. But their business value is limited because they fail to link a brand’s position to market performance metrics. Other marketing tools measure brands on yardsticks such as market share, growth rate, and profitability but fail to take consumer perceptions into consideration.

The Solution

The C-D map links perception and performance in a new way. It shows brands’ relative position in the marketplace according to perceived “centrality” (how representative a brand is of its category) and “distinctiveness” (how well it stands out from other brands). It also captures financial performance along a given metric, such as sales volume or price.

The Implications

Using the tool, marketers can determine a brand’s current and desired position, predict its marketplace performance, and devise and track marketing strategy and execution.

In-depth examples of the car and beer markets demonstrate the value of this tool for managers of brands in any category.

Marketers have always had to juggle two seemingly contradictory goals: making their brands distinctive and making them central in their category. Central brands, such as Coca-Cola in soft drinks and McDonald’s in fast food, are those that are most representative of their type. They’re the first ones to come to mind, and they serve as reference points for comparison. These brands shape category dynamics, including consumer preferences, pricing, and the pace and direction of innovation. Distinctive brands, such as Tesla in cars and Dos Equis in beer, stand out from the crowd and avoid direct competition with widely popular central brands.

ND Niraj Dawar is a professor of marketing at the Ivey Business School, Canada. He is the author of TILT: Shifting your Strategy from Products to Customers (Harvard Business Review Press, 2013).
Charan K. Bagga is a visiting assistant professor at Tulane University’s Freeman School of Business.

Partner Center

What is a Perceptual Map and How to Make One? (+ Template)

Appinio Research · 02.05.2024 · 32min read

Have you ever wondered how companies know exactly where to position their products in the market to attract customers? Understanding consumer perceptions is key, and that's where perceptual mapping comes in. It's like a map that shows how consumers view different brands or products based on specific attributes. This guide will walk you through everything you need to know about perceptual mapping, from its definition and purpose to practical applications and best practices. Whether you're a marketer looking to gain insights into consumer behavior or a business owner seeking to better understand your competitive landscape, perceptual mapping can provide valuable insights to inform your strategic decision-making.

What is Perceptual Mapping?

Perceptual mapping is a strategic tool used in marketing to visually represent how consumers perceive brands , products, or services relative to each other. Perceptual mapping provides marketers with insights into consumer perceptions and preferences, allowing them to identify market opportunities , assess competitive positioning, and develop targeted marketing strategies.

Perceptual maps are typically created by plotting brands or products on a graph based on their perceived attributes or characteristics. The resulting map provides a visual representation of the competitive landscape, with brands/products positioned relative to each other based on how consumers perceive them.

Brief History of Perceptual Mapping

The concept of perceptual mapping can be traced back to the 1960s when marketing researchers began exploring methods to visually represent consumer perceptions. Early pioneers such as Wendell R. Smith and Harry Beckwith laid the groundwork for perceptual mapping, which has since evolved with technological advancements and data analysis techniques.

Over the years, perceptual mapping has become a standard tool in marketing research and strategy development, helping companies gain a deeper understanding of consumer behavior and market dynamics.

Importance of Perceptual Mapping in Marketing Strategy

Market Segmentation : Perceptual mapping helps marketers identify distinct market segments based on consumer perceptions and preferences, allowing for targeted marketing strategies tailored to specific customer needs.
Competitive Analysis : By visually representing the competitive landscape , perceptual mapping enables marketers to assess how their brands/products are positioned relative to competitors, identify strengths and weaknesses, and develop strategies to differentiate themselves in the market.
Product Positioning : Perceptual mapping informs product positioning strategies by highlighting areas of opportunity and differentiation. Marketers can use perceptual maps to identify gaps in the market and position their offerings in a way that resonates with target consumers.
Strategic Decision-Making : Perceptual mapping provides valuable insights that inform strategic decision-making across various aspects of marketing, including new product development, brand repositioning, marketing communication strategies, and pricing strategies . Marketers can make informed decisions that drive business growth and success by understanding consumer perceptions and preferences.

Understanding Perceptual Mapping

Perceptual mapping serves as a cornerstone in understanding consumer behavior and market dynamics. By visually representing consumer perceptions, it provides marketers with actionable insights to drive strategic decisions.

Conceptual Framework

At the heart of perceptual mapping lies the concept of how consumers perceive and evaluate brands or products based on specific attributes. This framework acknowledges that various factors influence consumer preferences, including quality, price, brand image, and functionality. Understanding this framework allows marketers to dissect the underlying drivers of consumer behavior and strategically position their offerings in the market landscape.

Perceptual Map Components

The efficacy of perceptual mapping hinges on three fundamental components:

Attributes : These are the distinguishing characteristics or features that consumers associate with brands or products. Attributes can range from tangible aspects like price and quality to more abstract concepts like brand reputation and sustainability .
Brands/Products : The entities under examination, positioned on the perceptual map based on how consumers perceive them relative to each other. These can include competing brands within a specific product category or variations of a single brand/product.
Consumer Perceptions : The subjective evaluations and preferences of consumers regarding different brands/products and their associated attributes. These perceptions drive purchasing decisions and shape brand loyalty.

Types of Perceptual Maps

Perceptual maps come in various forms, each offering unique insights into consumer perceptions:

Two-Dimensional Maps : These maps plot brands/products along two axes, typically representing opposing attributes such as price versus quality or luxury versus affordability. Two-dimensional maps provide a simplified yet insightful visualization of market dynamics.
Three-Dimensional Maps : Adding an extra dimension to the mapping process introduces another layer of complexity and depth. Three-dimensional maps allow for the exploration of additional attributes or factors, offering a more nuanced understanding of consumer preferences .
Multidimensional Maps : As the name suggests, multidimensional maps incorporate multiple attributes to paint a comprehensive picture of consumer perceptions. These maps are especially useful for industries with intricate product offerings or diverse consumer segments, providing marketers with detailed insights for strategic decision-making.

Data Collection and Analysis Techniques

Accurate data collection and robust analysis are critical for the success of perceptual mapping initiatives. Marketers employ various techniques to gather and interpret data, including:

Surveys : Structured questionnaires designed to elicit consumer opinions and preferences regarding different brands/products and their associated attributes. Surveys can be conducted online, via phone interviews, or in-person focus groups.
Interviews : In-depth interviews offer a qualitative approach to understanding consumer perceptions, allowing marketers to delve deeper into underlying motivations and preferences.
Observational Research : Direct observation of consumer behavior in real-world settings provides valuable insights into how consumers interact with brands/products and make purchasing decisions.

Once data is collected, statistical analysis techniques such as multidimensional scaling (MDS) or factor analysis are employed to analyze the data and derive meaningful insights. MDS, for example, transforms consumer similarity or dissimilarity judgments into spatial representations, facilitating the creation of perceptual maps that accurately reflect consumer perceptions. Similarly, factor analysis helps identify underlying dimensions or factors that drive consumer perceptions, informing the selection of attributes for perceptual mapping.

Harnessing the power of Appinio for data collection can streamline the perceptual mapping process, ensuring that you have access to real-time consumer insights to inform strategic decision-making. With Appinio's intuitive platform, you can seamlessly conduct surveys, interviews, and observational research to gather comprehensive data on consumer perceptions and preferences. Whether you're exploring attribute evaluations or delving into brand perceptions, Appinio empowers you to collect actionable data efficiently and effectively.

Ready to elevate your perceptual mapping initiatives with Appinio? Book a demo today and discover how you can unlock valuable insights to drive business success!

Book a Demo

Benefits of Perceptual Mapping

Perceptual mapping offers a multitude of advantages for marketers seeking to gain deeper insights into consumer behavior and market dynamics. Let's explore how perceptual mapping can be leveraged to unlock key benefits across various aspects of marketing strategy.

Market Segmentation

Market segmentation is the process of dividing a heterogeneous market into distinct groups of consumers with similar needs, preferences, or behaviors. Perceptual mapping plays a pivotal role in this process by identifying clusters of consumer perceptions and preferences, which can then be used to define meaningful market segments. By understanding each segment's unique characteristics and preferences, marketers can tailor their products, messaging, and marketing strategies to better meet the needs of target consumers .

For example, consider a cosmetics company using perceptual mapping to segment the market based on attributes such as price sensitivity, product quality, and brand perception. By identifying distinct segments of consumers with varying preferences and attitudes towards these attributes, the company can develop targeted marketing campaigns and product offerings tailored to each segment's specific needs and preferences.

Competitive Analysis

Perceptual mapping provides marketers with valuable insights into how their brands or products are positioned relative to competitors. By plotting competing brands/products on the same perceptual map, marketers can visually assess their competitive landscape and identify areas of strength and weakness. This comparative analysis allows marketers to benchmark their offerings against competitors, identify opportunities for differentiation, and develop strategies to gain a competitive edge.

For instance, a perceptual map in the fast-food industry may reveal that while a company's burger offering is perceived as high-quality, it is also positioned at a higher price point compared to competitors. Armed with this insight, the company can adjust its pricing strategy or emphasize other attributes to better align with consumer preferences and gain a competitive advantage.

Product Positioning

Effective product positioning is essential for creating a distinct and favorable image in consumers' minds. Perceptual mapping enables marketers to strategically position their products relative to competitors based on consumer perceptions and preferences. By analyzing the perceptual map, marketers can identify unique positioning opportunities and develop strategies to differentiate their offerings in the market.

For example, a luxury car manufacturer may use perceptual mapping to identify a gap in the market for environmentally friendly luxury vehicles. By positioning its hybrid or electric models in this space, the company can appeal to environmentally conscious consumers while maintaining its premium brand image.

Identifying Market Gaps

Perceptual mapping helps marketers identify underserved or overlooked market segments, as well as areas where competitors may be failing to meet consumer needs. By analyzing the perceptual map, marketers can identify gaps in the market where there is unmet demand or competitors are not effectively addressing consumer preferences. This insight allows marketers to capitalize on opportunities for innovation and develop new products or services that fill these gaps.

For instance, a clothing retailer may use perceptual mapping to identify a segment of consumers who value sustainable fashion but find existing offerings lacking in terms of style and affordability. By launching a new line of sustainably sourced and fashion-forward clothing at competitive prices, the retailer can capitalize on this market gap and attract environmentally conscious consumers willing to pay for stylish and eco-friendly apparel.

How to Create a Perceptual Map?

Creating a perceptual map is a systematic process that involves several key steps to ensure accuracy, relevance, and actionable insights. Let's walk through each step to guide you through the process of creating a perceptual map effectively.

1. Define Objectives and Scope

Before embarking on the perceptual mapping journey, it's essential to define the objectives and scope of the project clearly. Determine what specific insights you aim to gain from the perceptual map and how it will inform your marketing strategy. Consider questions such as:

What are the primary goals of the perceptual mapping exercise?
Which market segment or target audience will the perceptual map focus on?
What attributes or dimensions will be included in the analysis?
How will the insights from the perceptual map be used to drive strategic decisions?

By defining clear objectives and scope upfront, you can ensure that the perceptual map aligns with your broader business goals and delivers actionable insights that drive results.

2. Select Relevant Attributes

Selecting the right attributes is crucial for accurately capturing consumer perceptions and preferences. Identify the key dimensions or attributes relevant to your product category or industry. These attributes should be meaningful to consumers and differentiate between competing brands or products. Consider both tangible and intangible attributes that influence consumer decision-making, such as:

Brand reputation
Features and functionality
Design or aesthetics
Environmental sustainability
Customer service

Choose attributes that are distinct enough to provide meaningful differentiation between brands/products but not so numerous that they overwhelm the analysis.

3. Choose Brands/Products for Comparison

Once you've identified the relevant attributes, select the brands or products that will be compared on the perceptual map. Choose competitors or offerings that are representative of the market landscape and cover a range of positioning strategies. Consider both direct competitors and alternative options that consumers may consider when making purchasing decisions.

Ensure that the brands/products chosen reflect the diversity of consumer preferences and cover a spectrum of attributes relevant to the perceptual mapping exercise.

4. Collect Data

Data collection is a critical step in the perceptual mapping process, as it forms the foundation for the analysis and construction of the perceptual map. There are several methods for collecting data, including surveys, interviews, and observational research.

Use a mix of quantitative and qualitative methods to gather comprehensive insights into consumer perceptions.
Ensure that the survey questions or interview prompts are clear, concise, and relevant to the attributes being measured.
Collect data from a representative sample of your target audience to ensure that the perceptual map accurately reflects consumer preferences.

As you work on creating a powerful perceptual map, consider leveraging advanced tools like Appinio for seamless data collection. With Appinio's intuitive platform, you can gather real-time consumer insights effortlessly, allowing you to focus on analyzing and interpreting the data to construct impactful perceptual maps. From defining your target audience to conducting surveys in over 90 countries, Appinio streamlines the data collection process, ensuring you have the insights you need to make informed decisions for your business. Ready to unlock the potential of perceptual mapping with Appinio? Book a demo today and revolutionize the way you approach market research!

Get a free demo and see the Appinio platform in action!

5. Analyze and Interpret Data

Once the data has been collected, it's time to analyze and interpret the findings. Use statistical analysis techniques such as multidimensional scaling (MDS) or factor analysis to transform the raw data into a visual representation of consumer perceptions. Interpret the results to identify patterns, clusters , and relationships between brands /products and attributes.

Look for patterns or clusters of brands/products on the perceptual map that indicate commonalities in consumer perceptions.
Identify areas of convergence or divergence between competing brands/products, as well as outliers that may represent unique positioning strategies.
When interpreting the results, consider the context of the market and consumer preferences, taking into account factors such as industry trends, competitor actions, and socio-economic factors.

6. Construct the Perceptual Map

With the data analyzed and interpreted, it's time to construct the perceptual map. Plot the brands/products on the map based on their perceived attributes, using clear labels and symbols to make the map easy to understand and interpret.

Choose an appropriate scaling method and visualization technique based on the analysis and interpretation of the data.
Ensure that the map's axes accurately represent the attributes being measured and provide meaningful insights into consumer perceptions.
Use color coding or shading to differentiate between brands/products or highlight specific areas of interest on the map.

7. Refine and Validate the Map

Once the perceptual map is constructed, it must be refined and validated to ensure its accuracy and relevance.

Review the map to ensure it accurately reflects the data and insights gained from the analysis.
Seek feedback from stakeholders or subject matter experts to validate the map's interpretation and relevance.
Conduct additional research or analysis to address any gaps or uncertainties in the data or mapping process.

By refining and validating the perceptual map, you can ensure that it provides actionable insights that drive informed decision-making and strategic planning.

Perceptual Mapping Applications

Perceptual mapping offers a myriad of practical applications across various aspects of marketing strategy, providing valuable insights to drive decision-making and enhance market effectiveness. Let's explore some practical applications of perceptual mapping.

New Product Development

Perceptual mapping plays a pivotal role in guiding new product development initiatives by providing insights into consumer preferences, market gaps, and competitive positioning. By analyzing consumer perceptions and identifying unmet needs or underserved market segments, marketers can develop new products aligned with market demand and differentiated from existing offerings.

For example, a technology company may use perceptual mapping to identify emerging trends and consumer preferences in the smartphone market. By analyzing the perceptual map, the company can identify opportunities for innovation, such as developing a smartphone with advanced camera features targeted at photography enthusiasts or a budget-friendly option for price-sensitive consumers.

Brand Repositioning

Perceptual mapping enables marketers to assess their brand's current positioning relative to competitors and identify opportunities for repositioning to better align with consumer preferences or changing market dynamics. By analyzing the perceptual map, marketers can identify areas where their brand may be perceived differently than intended and develop strategies to strengthen their brand image and competitive advantage.

For instance, a luxury fashion brand may use perceptual mapping to assess how it is perceived relative to competitors in terms of quality, exclusivity, and affordability. Suppose the perceptual map reveals that the brand is perceived as less exclusive than desired. In that case, the company may implement strategies to reinforce its luxury image through selective distribution, premium pricing , and exclusive collaborations.

Marketing Communication Strategies

Perceptual mapping provides valuable insights for developing targeted marketing communication strategies that resonate with target audiences and differentiate brands/products from competitors. By understanding how consumers perceive different brands/products and their associated attributes, marketers can tailor their messaging, advertising , and promotional efforts to highlight key selling points and address consumer needs and preferences.

For example, a beverage company may use perceptual mapping to identify key attributes that drive consumer preferences in the market, such as taste, healthiness, and convenience. Based on the insights from the perceptual map, the company can develop marketing communication strategies that emphasize the natural ingredients, health benefits, and convenience of its products to appeal to health-conscious consumers seeking nutritious beverage options .

Pricing Strategies

Perceptual mapping can inform pricing strategies by providing insights into how consumers perceive the value of different brands/products relative to their price points. By analyzing the perceptual map, marketers can identify price-quality relationships and opportunities to optimize pricing strategies to maximize profitability and market share .

For example, a consumer electronics company may use perceptual mapping to assess how its products are positioned relative to competitors in terms of attributes such as performance, features, and price. Suppose the perceptual map reveals that the company's products are perceived as offering superior performance but at a higher price point than competitors. In that case, the company may consider implementing value-based pricing strategies, such as bundling high-value features with lower-priced models or offering discounts to price-sensitive segments.

Perceptual Mapping Examples

To better understand how perceptual mapping works in real-world scenarios, let's explore some examples across different industries:

Example 1: Automobile Industry

In the automobile industry, perceptual mapping can help manufacturers understand how consumers perceive different car brands based on price, reliability, and luxury. For instance, a perceptual map may reveal that consumers perceive BMW as a high-priced luxury brand known for performance, while Toyota is seen as a more affordable and reliable option. By analyzing the perceptual map, automakers can identify opportunities to differentiate their brands and tailor their marketing strategies to target specific consumer segments effectively.

Example 2: Fast Food Industry

Perceptual mapping is also widely used in the fast-food industry to assess consumer perceptions of different restaurant chains based on attributes such as taste, value, and convenience. For example, a perceptual map may show that consumers perceive McDonald's as offering affordable and convenient fast food, while Chipotle is seen as providing higher-quality and healthier options at a slightly higher price point. By analyzing the perceptual map, fast food chains can identify areas for improvement and develop strategies to better meet consumer needs and preferences.

Example 3: Consumer Electronics Industry

In the consumer electronics industry, perceptual mapping can help companies understand how consumers perceive competing brands and products based on attributes such as innovation, design, and price. For instance, a perceptual map may show that consumers perceive Apple as a premium brand known for innovative products with sleek design, while Samsung is seen as offering a more comprehensive range of products at various price points. By analyzing the perceptual map, electronics companies can identify areas of differentiation and develop marketing strategies to appeal to target consumer segments effectively.

These examples illustrate how perceptual mapping can provide valuable insights into consumer perceptions and preferences across different industries. By leveraging perceptual mapping techniques, companies can make informed decisions that drive business growth and success.

Perceptual Mapping Tools and Software

Choosing the right tools and software is crucial for effectively creating and analyzing perceptual maps. Let's explore various options available for conducting perceptual mapping, ranging from commercial software solutions to free and open-source alternatives, as well as do-it-yourself (DIY) approaches using Excel templates.

Commercial Software Solutions

Commercial software solutions offer advanced features and functionalities for conducting perceptual mapping, making them popular choices among marketers and market researchers. Here are some notable options:

SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) : Widely used for data analysis, SPSS offers powerful capabilities for conducting multidimensional scaling (MDS) and generating perceptual maps from survey data. Its user-friendly interface and robust statistical tools make it a preferred choice for researchers conducting perceptual mapping studies.
Looker Studio: Looker Studio (formerly Google Data Studio) is a comprehensive data analytics platform that enables users to create dynamic and interactive perceptual maps. With its intuitive interface and customizable visualization options, Looker Studio empowers marketers to gain valuable insights into consumer perceptions and preferences.
Microsoft Power BI: Microsoft Power BI is a leading business intelligence tool that allows users to create visually stunning perceptual maps and dashboards. With its seamless integration with Microsoft products and extensive data visualization capabilities, Power BI enables marketers to analyze and interpret data effectively.
Appinio: Appinio is a real-time market research platform that provides users with actionable consumer insights to inform strategic decision-making. With its intuitive interface and robust data collection capabilities, Appinio streamlines the process of gathering consumer feedback, allowing marketers to conduct perceptual mapping studies with ease.

Free and Open-Source Options

Free and open-source software solutions offer viable alternatives for those on a budget or seeking more flexibility and customization options. Here are some popular choices:

R : R is an open-source statistical programming language widely used for data analysis and visualization. With its extensive library of packages, including those for multidimensional scaling (MDS) and perceptual mapping, R provides marketers with the flexibility and control to create customized perceptual maps tailored to their specific needs.
Python : Python is a versatile programming language known for its simplicity and readability. With libraries such as Matplotlib and Seaborn, Python offers powerful data visualization and analysis tools, making it well-suited for creating perceptual maps from survey data or other sources.

Excel Templates and DIY Approaches

For those comfortable with Excel and looking for a more hands-on approach, Excel templates, and do-it-yourself (DIY) methods provide simple yet effective ways to create perceptual maps. To create a perceptual map using Excel:

Data Preparation : Organize your data in Excel, with rows representing respondents and columns representing attributes. Ensure that your data is clean and formatted correctly for analysis.
Data Analysis : Use Excel's built-in functions or add-ons to analyze your data and calculate perceptual distances between brands or products based on attribute ratings.
Visualization : Create a scatter plot in Excel and plot each brand/product based on its position in perceptual space. Use color coding or labeling to differentiate between brands/products or highlight specific areas of interest on the map .

While Excel may not offer the advanced features of dedicated statistical software, it provides a simple and accessible option for conducting perceptual mapping studies, especially for small-scale projects or exploratory analysis.

Perceptual Map Template Example

Below is a simplified example of a perceptual map template that you can use to visualize consumer perceptions of brands or products based on two key attributes: price and quality.

By analyzing the perceptual map, you can identify different segments of the market and strategic opportunities for positioning your brand or product. For instance:

Brands/products in the top-right quadrant are perceived as high quality and high price, targeting consumers who value premium features and are willing to pay a premium price.
Brands/products in the bottom-right quadrant are perceived as high quality but low price, offering a competitive value proposition to price-sensitive consumers.
Brands/products in the top-left quadrant are perceived as low quality and high price, indicating potential opportunities for differentiation or improvement in quality perception.
Brands/products in the bottom-left quadrant are perceived as low quality and low price, targeting budget-conscious consumers.

Using this perceptual map template example as a starting point, you can customize the attributes and dimensions to fit your specific market and industry, helping you gain valuable insights into consumer perceptions and inform strategic decision-making.

Best Practices and Tips for Effective Perceptual Mapping

Perceptual mapping can be a valuable tool for marketers, but it's essential to follow best practices to ensure accurate and actionable results. Here are some tips for conducting effective perceptual mapping:

Define Clear Objectives : Clearly define the objectives of your perceptual mapping exercise and the scope of your analysis. This will help focus your efforts and ensure that the resulting map provides meaningful insights.
Select Relevant Attributes : Choose attributes that are meaningful to consumers and relevant to your product category or industry. Avoid including too many attributes, as this can overwhelm the analysis and make interpretation difficult.
Use Representative Data : Ensure that your data is representative of your target market and collected using reliable methods. Use a mix of quantitative and qualitative data to gain comprehensive insights into consumer perceptions.
Consider Context : Interpret the results of your perceptual map in the context of broader market trends, competitor actions, and consumer behavior. This will help you make informed decisions and develop effective marketing strategies.
Validate and Iterate : Validate your perceptual map through additional research or feedback from stakeholders. Iterate on the map as needed to ensure its accuracy and relevance.
Communicate Clearly : Present your perceptual map in a clear and visually appealing manner, using appropriate labels, symbols, and colors. Clearly communicate the insights gained from the map to stakeholders to drive informed decision-making.

Perceptual Mapping Challenges and Limitations

While perceptual mapping can be a valuable tool for marketers, it's essential to be aware of its limitations and challenges. Here are some common limitations and challenges associated with perceptual mapping:

Subjectivity : Perceptual mapping relies on consumer perceptions, which can be subjective and influenced by various factors such as personal biases and experiences.
Simplification of Reality : Perceptual maps provide a simplified representation of consumer perceptions and may not capture the full complexity of the market landscape.
Data Quality : The accuracy and reliability of perceptual maps depend on the quality of the data used. Poorly collected or biased data can lead to inaccurate results and misleading conclusions.
Interpretation : Interpreting perceptual maps requires careful consideration of the context and may be subject to interpretation bias .
Limited Predictive Power : Perceptual maps provide insights into current consumer perceptions but may have limited predictive power for future behavior or market trends.
Resource Intensive : Conducting perceptual mapping studies can be resource-intensive in terms of time, effort, and cost, particularly for large-scale projects or complex analyses.

Despite these limitations and challenges, perceptual mapping remains a valuable tool for marketers seeking to understand consumer preferences, identify market opportunities, and develop effective marketing strategies. By being aware of these limitations and following best practices, marketers can maximize the value of perceptual mapping in their decision-making processes.

Conclusion for Perceptual Maps

Perceptual mapping is a powerful tool that offers invaluable insights into consumer behavior and market dynamics. By visually representing how consumers perceive brands or products based on specific attributes, perceptual mapping enables marketers to make informed decisions that drive business growth and success. From market segmentation to competitive analysis and product positioning, perceptual mapping empowers businesses to tailor their strategies to meet the needs and preferences of their target audience. However, it's essential to recognize that perceptual mapping has its limitations and challenges. While it provides valuable insights into current consumer perceptions, it may not accurately predict future behavior or market trends. Additionally, the accuracy and reliability of perceptual maps depend on the quality of the data and the interpretation of results. Despite these challenges, perceptual mapping remains a valuable tool for marketers seeking to understand consumer preferences, identify market opportunities, and develop effective marketing strategies. By following best practices and leveraging the insights gained from perceptual mapping, businesses can stay ahead of the competition and succeed in today's dynamic marketplace.

How to Conduct Perceptual Mapping in Minutes?

Introducing Appinio , your go-to platform for conducting real-time market research with the power of perceptual mapping at your fingertips. As a cutting-edge real-time market research platform, Appinio empowers companies to harness the insights of their target audience swiftly and efficiently, enabling better data-driven decisions. With Appinio, you can conduct your own market research in minutes, revolutionizing the way you make business decisions.

Here's why Appinio stands out:

From questions to insights in minutes: With Appinio's intuitive platform, you can gather valuable consumer insights swiftly, allowing you to make informed decisions without delay.
No need for a PhD in research: Appinio's user-friendly interface makes market research accessible to everyone, regardless of their level of expertise, empowering anyone to conduct professional-quality research effortlessly.
Define the right target group, anywhere: With access to over 1,200 characteristics and the ability to survey respondents in over 90 countries, Appinio enables you to pinpoint your target audience with precision and reach them wherever they are.

Get free access to the platform!

Join the loop 💌

Be the first to hear about new updates, product news, and data insights. We'll send it all straight to your inbox.

Get the latest market research news straight to your inbox! 💌

Wait, there's more

16.05.2024 | 30min read

Time Series Analysis: Definition, Types, Techniques, Examples

14.05.2024 | 31min read

Experimental Research: Definition, Types, Design, Examples

07.05.2024 | 29min read

Interval Scale: Definition, Characteristics, Examples

IMAGES

Free Perceptual Map Template & Examples
What is a perceptual map and how to build one (template)
Top 12 Tips for Analyzing Perceptual Maps
Perceptual map: how-to, types and tools
Visual map of the literature review.
How to Create Perceptual Maps from Survey Data

VIDEO

Perceptual Map Creation || #ChatGPT
Our Lying Eyes: Cognitive Bias and Survival in Visual Perception
How to Create a Perceptual Map with examples---Urdu/Hindi---Marketing/Positioning----BBA/MBA
Understand in Under 5: Perceptual Mapping
Source Specific Multicast (SSM) Map Static Video Demo
How Does Market Mapping Work?

COMMENTS

(PDF) Perceptual Maps: The Good, the Bad and the Ugly
a "visual representation of a respondent's perceptions of objects on two or more dimensions.". Lilien and Rangaswamy (2003, p.119) giv e as deﬁnition, a "graphical representation in ...
Positioning
Positioning - a literature review - Author: Natasha Saqib. ... Positioning is the grouping of similar product types together in the consumer's perceptual map: 116. Kotler et al. Positioning is a process by which a marketer discovers in the mind of the consumer/customer, client or prospect a unique niche for a product or service that will be ...
PDF Perceptual maps: the good, the bad and the ugly
perceptual maps are presented in such a way that the information within them can be quickly and correctly assimilated. Unfortunately, as will be shown, the graphical presentation of perceptual maps both in the methodological literature and in applications is often defective. In a literature study covering
Perceptual Maps: The Good, the Bad and the Ugly
Perceptual maps are often used in marketing to visually study relations between two or more attributes. However, in many perceptual maps published in the recent literature it remains unclear what is being shown and how the relations between the points in the map can be interpreted or even what a point represents. The term perceptual map refers ...
Better perceptual maps: Introducing explanatory icons to facilitate
Methodology underlying perceptual maps is diverse and consequently generates diverse maps. Interpretation of a perceptual map is therefore often less straightforward than is suggested by its graphical format. In this paper, we show that many perceptual maps published in recent literature are severely flawed prohibiting meaningful interpretations.
Mapping, perceptual
DeSarbo et al. provide a review of latent class multidimensional scaling developments in the marketing and psychometric literature. In factor analysis, since tourists directly provide their evaluations of products/services on rating scales consisting of needs/attributes/benefits, the spatial maps produced are usually easier to interpret than ...
Statistical perceptual maps: using confidence region ellipses to
It is common in the MDS literature to consider modeling adjustments for occasions when multiple groups or segments are expected in the sample, such as in deriving clusters and constructing variants of perceptual maps for each (DeSarbo et al. 2008a, b; DeSarbo et al. 1991; Park et al. 2012; Winsberg and De Soete 1993). Our approach is easily ...
Perceptual maps and the optimal location of new products: An
1. Introduction The basic objective of this analysis of the new product design process is to contribute to the construction of linkage among three areas of research: (1) perceptual mapping in marketing, (2) modeling of markets with differentiated products in economics, and (3) work on facility location analysis in operations research.
On the Implementation of a Theory of Perceptual Mapping
A recent theory of perceptual mapping argues that humans do not integrate successive views using a mathematical transformation approach to form a perceptual map. ... Rayner, K.: Identifying the span of the effective stimulus in reading: Literature review and theories of reading. In: Singer, H., Ruddell, R.B. (eds.) Theoretical Models and ...
Cognition and perception of map projections: a literature review
This paper explores scholarly literature published since the 1960s that examines peoples' cognitive and perceptual understanding of map projections. Map projections present challenges to virtually everyone who uses them. Some of the challenges include selecting a projection, specifying projection parameters, and understanding distortion patterns.
A Better Way to Map Brand Strategy
Using the tool, marketers can determine a brand's current and desired position, predict its marketplace performance, and devise and track marketing strategy and execution. In-depth examples of ...
Perceptual maps and the optimal location of new products: An
Abstract. This paper presents an approach to making marketers' perceptual mapping techniques more valuable early in the new product design process. Recent advances in economics can be used to build perceptual maps into market models that can predict the demand for new products. To evaluate the profitability of alternative designs, information ...
Attribute-based perceptual mapping using discriminant analysis in a
This paper is organized as follows: a brief introduction and the literature review of discriminant analysis (DA) and perceptual mapping (PM) are presented. This is followed by a discussion of the case study, the customer characteristics and its validation through principal component analysis (PCA) and DA.
What is a Perceptual Map and How to Make One? (+ Template)
Creating a perceptual map is a systematic process that involves several key steps to ensure accuracy, relevance, and actionable insights. Let's walk through each step to guide you through the process of creating a perceptual map effectively. 1. Define Objectives and Scope.
PDF Perceptual Mapping as a Marketing Research Tool for Brand ...
Perceptual mapping as an effective marketing research tool used in new product planning, advertising, product positioning, and other areas of marketing can also be applied for market segmentation, concept development, or evaluation, as well as tracking changes in the marketplace in terms of consumer perceptions.
Mining perceptual maps from consumer reviews
In this section, we review the literature of clustering product features, analyzing sentiment in documents, and building perceptual maps and radar charts. ... Mining perceptual maps and radar charts from such a large number of consumer reviews may unveil majority preferences where the more satisfied the consumers are with a product feature, the ...
PDF Techniques For Perceptual Mapping v0.1
There are two major classes of perceptual mapping algorithms. The two classes are generally referred to as compositional and decompositional methods. Decompositional techniques have many names but they typically fall under an umbrella term of multi-dimensional scaling (or MDS).
Psychological park accessibility: a systematic literature review of
Thus, this study examines factors constituting psychological park accessibility and measurement methods through a systematic literature review. Findings from the review show that psychological park accessibility stems from the perception of distance, park quality and the neighbourhood environment, which could be measured either quantitatively ...
Attribute‐based perceptual mapping using discriminant analysis in a
This paper is organized as follows: a brief introduction and the literature review of discriminant analysis (DA) and perceptual mapping (PM) are presented. This is followed by a discussion of the case study, the customer characteristics and its validation through principal component analysis (PCA) and DA.
Mining the text of online consumer reviews to analyze brand image and
We also review the literature on text-mining approaches and tools for discovering emotions and topics from text. ... When building perceptual positioning maps literature has usually adopted dimensionality reduction techniques. In both Statistics and Machine Learning, the number of input variables in a dataset is known as its dimensionality. ...
Digitalization Processes in Distribution Grids: A Comprehensive Review
This systematic review meticulously explores the transformative impact of digital technologies on the grid planning, grid operations, and energy market dynamics of power distribution grids. Utilizing a robust methodological framework, over 54,000 scholarly articles were analyzed to investigate the integration and effects of artificial intelligence, machine learning, optimization, the Internet ...
Diseases
Background: Wernicke encephalopathy (WE) is an acute and potentially fatal neuropsychiatric disorder resulting from thiamine deficiency: its etiology and clinical presentation can be heterogeneous and arduously recognized, especially in children and adolescents. Case presentation: An 8-year-old girl arrived to the emergency room with ataxic gait, nystagmus, and mental confusion after a 10-day ...
High Dynamic Range Image Tone Mapping: Literature review and
Abstract. Compared to conventional digital imaging, high dynamic range (HDR) image tone mapping technology can faithfully reproduce real-world scenes on common displays to provide a better viewing experience. The research on HDR image tone mapping has evolved over three decades and has been widely employed in many applications like photography ...