essay about pre colonial literature

Esiel Cabrera

Philippine Literature during Pre-Colonial Period

Precolonial Period

Filipinos often lose sight of the fact that the first period of the Philippine literary history is the longest. Certain events from the nation’s history had forced lowland Filipinos to begin counting the years of history from 1521, the first time written records by Westerners referred to the archipelago later to be called “Las Islas Filipinas”. However, the discovery of the “Tabon Man” in a cave in Palawan in 1962, has allowed us to stretch our prehistory as far as 50,000 years back. The stages of that prehistory show how the early Filipinos grew in control over their environment. Through the researches and writings about Philippine history, much can be reliably inferred about precolonial Philippine literature from an analysis of collected oral lore of Filipinos whose ancestors were able to preserve their indigenous culture by living beyond the reach of Spanish colonial administrators.

The oral literature of the precolonial Filipinos bore the marks of the community. The subject was invariably the common experience of the people constituting the village-food-gathering, creature and objects of nature, work in the home, field, forest or sea, caring for children, etc. This is evident in the most common forms of oral literature like the riddle, the proverbs and the song, which always seem to assume that the audience is familiar with the situations, activities and objects mentioned in the course of expressing a thought or emotion. The language of oral literature, unless the piece was part of the cultural heritage of the community like the epic, was the language of daily life. At this phase of literary development, any member of the community was a potential poet, singer or storyteller as long as he knew the language and had been attentive to the conventions f the forms.

Thousands of maxims, proverbs, epigrams, and the like have been listed by many different collectors and researchers from many dialects. Majority of these reclaimed from oblivion com from the Tagalos, Cebuano, and Ilocano dialects. And the bulk are rhyming couplets with verses of five, six seven, or eight syllables, each line of the couplet having the same number of syllables. The rhyming practice is still the same as today in the three dialects mentioned. A good number of the proverbs is conjectured as part of longer poems with stanza divisions, but only the lines expressive of a philosophy have remained remembered in the oral tradition. Classified with the maxims and proverbs are allegorical stanzas which abounded in all local literature. They contain homilies, didactic material, and expressions of homespun philosophy, making them often quoted by elders and headmen in talking to inferiors. They are rich in similes and metaphors. These one stanza poems were called Tanaga and consisted usually of four lines with seven syllables, all lines rhyming.

The most appreciated riddles of ancient Philippines are those that are rhymed and having equal number of syllables in each line, making them classifiable under the early poetry of this country. Riddles were existent in all languages and dialects of the ancestors of the Filipinos and cover practically all of the experiences of life in these times.

Almost all the important events in the life of the ancient peoples of this country were connected with some religious observance and the rites and ceremonies always some poetry recited, chanted, or sung. The lyrics of religious songs may of course be classified as poetry also, although the rhythm and the rhyme may not be the same.

Drama as a literary from had not yet begun to evolve among the early Filipinos. Philippine theater at this stage consisted largely in its simplest form, of mimetic dances imitating natural cycles and work activities. At its most sophisticated, theater consisted of religious rituals presided over by a priest or priestess and participated in by the community. The dances and ritual suggest that indigenous drama had begun to evolve from attempts to control the environment. Philippine drama would have taken the form of the dance-drama found in other Asian countries.

Prose narratives in prehistoric Philippines consisted largely or myths, hero tales, fables and legends. Their function was to explain natural phenomena, past events, and contemporary beliefs in order to make the environment less fearsome by making it more comprehensible and, in more instances, to make idle hours less tedious by filling them with humor and fantasy. There is a great wealth of mythical and legendary lore that belongs to this period, but preserved mostly by word of mouth, with few written down by interested parties who happen upon them.

The most significant pieces of oral literature that may safely be presumed to have originated in prehistoric times are folk epics. Epic poems of great proportions and lengths abounded in all regions of the islands, each tribe usually having at least one and some tribes possessing traditionally around five or six popular ones with minor epics of unknown number.

Filipinos had a culture that linked them with the Malays in the Southeast Asia, a culture with traces of Indian, Arabic, and, possibly Chinese influences. Their epics, songs, short poems, tales, dances and rituals gave them a native Asian perspective which served as a filtering device for the Western culture that the colonizers brought over from Europe.

Ten Reasons Why Life Was Better In PreColonial Philippines

Let’s look at some of the compelling reasons why we think life was really better during the pre-Spanish Philippines.

Women Enjoyed Equal Status with Men.

During precolonial times, women shared equal footing with men in society. They were allowed to divorce, own and inherit property, and even lead their respective barangays or territories.

In matters of family, the women were for all intents and purposes the working heads, possessing the power of the purse and the sole right to name their children. They could dictate the terms of their marriage and even retain their maiden names if they chose to do so.

During this time, people also traced their heritage to both their father and mother. In fact, it could be said that precolonial Philippines was largely matriarchal, with the opinions of women holding great weight in matters of politics and religion (they also headed the rituals as the babaylans).

As a show of respect, men were even required to walk behind their wives. This largely progressive society that elevated women to such a high pedestal took a serious blow when the Spanish came. Eager to impose their patriarchal system, the Spanish relegated women to the homes, demonized the babaylans as satanic, and ingrained into our forefathers’ heads that women should be like Maria Clara—demure, self-effacing, and powerless.

Society Was More Tolerant Back Then.

While it could be said that our modern society is one of the most tolerant in the world, we owe our open-mindedness not to the Americans and certainly not to the Spanish, but to the precolonial Filipinos.

Aside from allowing divorce, women back then also had a say in how many children they wanted. Sexuality was not as suppressed, and no premium was given to virginity before marriage. Although polygamy was practiced, men were expected to do so only if they could support and love each of his wives equally. Homosexuals were also largely tolerated, seeing as how some of the babaylans were actually men in drag.

Surprisingly, with the amount of sexual freedom, no prostitution existed during the pre-colonial days. In fact, some literature suggests that the American period—which heavily emphasized capitalism and profiteering—introduced prostitution into the country on a massive scale.

The People Enjoyed A Higher Standard Of Government.

The relationship of the ruler to his subjects was very simple back then: In return for his protection, the people pay tribute and serve him both in times of war and peace.

Going by the evidence, we could say that our ancestors already practiced an early version of the Social Contract, a theory by prominent thinkers such as Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau which espoused the view that rulers owe their right to rule on the basis of the people’s consent.

Conversely, if the ruler became corrupt or incompetent, then the people had a right to remove him. And that’s exactly the kind of government our ancestors had. Although the datus technically came from the upper classes, he could be removed from his position by the lower classes if they found him wanting of his duties. Also, anyone (including women) could become the datu based on their merits such as bravery, wisdom, and leadership ability.

We Were Self-Sufficient.

In terms of food, our forefathers did not suffer from any lack thereof. Blessed with such a resource-rich country, they had enough for themselves and their families.

Forests, rivers, and seas yielded plentiful supplies of meat, fish, and other foodstuffs. Later on, their diet became more varied especially when they learned to till the land using farming techniques that were quite advanced for their time. The Banaue Rice Terraces is one such proof of our ancestors’ ingenuity.

What’s more, they already had an advanced concept of agrarian equity. Men and women equally worked in the fields, and anyone could till public lands free of charge. Also, since they had little-to-no concept of exploitation for profit, our ancestors generally took care of the environment well.

Such was the abundance of foodstuffs that Miguel Lopez de Legaspi, the most-successful Spanish colonizer of the islands, was said to have reported the “abundance of rice, fowls, and wine, as well as great numbers of buffaloes, deer, wild boar and goats” when he first arrived in Luzon.

We Had Smoother Foreign Relations.

We’ve all been taught that before the Spanish galleon trade, the precolonial Filipinos had already established trading and diplomatic relations with countries as far away as the Middle East.

In lieu of cash, our ancestors exchanged precious minerals, manufactured goods, etc. with Arabs, Indians, Chinese, and several other nationalities. During this time period, many foreigners permanently settled here after marveling at the beauty of the country and its people.

Out of the foreigners, it was the Chinese who were amazed at the precolonial Filipinos the most, especially when it came to their extraordinary honesty. Chinese traders often wrote about the Filipinos’ sincerity and said they were one of their most trusted clientele since they did not steal their goods and always paid their debts.

In fact, some Chinese—out of confidence—were known to simply leave their items on the beaches to be picked up by the Filipinos and traded inland. When they returned, the Filipinos would give them back their bartered items without anything missing.

Our Forefathers Already Possessed A Working Judicial And Legislative System.

Although not as advanced (or as complicated) as our own today, the fact that our ancestors already possessed a working judicial and legislative system just goes to show that they were well-versed in the concept of justice.

Life in precolonial Philippines was governed by a set of statutes, both unwritten and written, and contained provisions with regards to civil and criminal laws. Usually, it was the Datu and the village elders who promulgated such laws, which were then announced and explained to the people by a town crier called the umalohokan.

The Datu and the elders also acted as de facto courts in case of disputes between individuals of their village. In case of inter-barangay disputes, a local board composed of elders from different barangays would usually act as an arbiter.

Penalties for anyone found guilty of a crime include censures, fines, imprisonment and death. Tortures and trials by ordeal during this time were also common. Like we’ve said, the system was not perfect, but it worked.

They Had The Know-how To Make Advanced Weapons.

A lantaka (rentaka in Malay), a type of bronze cannon mounted on merchant vessels travelling the waterways of the Malay Archipelago. Its use was greatest in precolonial Southeast Asia, especially in the Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia. Via Wikipedia.

Our ancestors—far from being the archetypal spear-carrying, bahag-wearing tribesmen we picture them to be—were very proficient in the art of war. Aside from wielding swords and spears, they also knew how to make and fire guns and cannons. Rajah Sulayman, in particular, was said to have owned a huge 17-feet-long iron cannon.

Aside from the offensive weapons, our ancestors also knew how to construct huge fortresses and body armor. The Moros living in the south for instance, often wore armor that covered them head-to-toe. And yes, they also carried guns with them.

With all these weapons at their disposal and the fact that they were good hand-to-hand combatants, you’d think that the Spanish would have had a harder time colonizing the country. Sadly, the Spanish cleverly exploited the regionalist tendencies of the precolonial Filipinos. This divide-and-conquer strategy would be the major reason why the Spanish successfully controlled the country for more than 300 years.

Several Professions Already Existed.

Aside from being farmers, hunters, weapon-makers, and seafarers, the precolonial Filipinos also dabbled—and excelled—in several other professions as well.

To name a few, many became involved in such professions as mining, textiles, and smiting. Owing to the excellent craftsmanship of the Filipinos, locally-produced items such as pots, jewelry, and clothing were highly-sought in other countries. In fact, it is reported that products of Filipino origin might have even reached as far away as ancient Egypt. Clearly, our ancestors were very skilled artisans.

The Literacy Rate Was High.

Using the ancient system of writing called the baybayin, the precolonial Filipinos educated themselves very well, so much so that when the Spanish finally arrived, they were shocked to find out that the Filipinos possessed a literacy rate higher than that of Madrid!

However, the high literacy rate also proved to be a double-edged sword for the Filipinos once the Spanish arrived. Eager to evangelize and subjugate our ancestors, the missionaries exploited the baybayin for their own ends, learning and using it to translate their various works. Consequently, the precolonial Filipinos became more easily susceptible to foreign influence.

We Already Had An Advanced Civilization.

Contrary to foreign accounts, our ancestors were not just some backwards, jungle-living savages. In reality, precolonial Philippines already possessed a very advanced civilization way before the coming of the Spanish.

Our ancestors possessed a complex working society and a culture replete with works of arts and literature. When the colonizers came, everything contradictory to their own system had to go. Sculptures, texts, religious ceremonies, and virtually anything else deemed obscene, evil or a threat to their rule were eliminated.

Conclusively, we can only speculate what would have happened had our ancestors never been colonized in the first place. Although the Spanish era (and the American period by extension) did have their good points, would it have really been worth it all in the end?

Reflection:

Precolonial Literature in the Philippines by one means or another gave us an illustration from the past. It underscores on how our literature began in the country which is the Philippines. From that point forward, we Filipinos do truly have beautiful and awesome literature that we can some way or another be pleased with. Philippines indeed, without a doubt a nation that is rich in custom and tradition through having diverse characteristics. It was evident that each of the tribes we have had their own specific manner of living which some way or another make them stand-out from others. As what have aforementioned, their folk speeches, folk songs, folk narratives, indigenous rituals and mimetic dances really affirmed our ties with our Southeast Asian neighbors. Even when their lifestyle before was not the same as we have now, they really have these techniques and ways on preserving their traditions for them to be able to pass it from generation to another generation. The differing qualities and abundance of Literature in the Philippines advanced next to each other with the nation’s history. This can best be acknowledged in the sense that the nation’s precolonial cultural traditions are very much abundant. Through these things, I can truly say that Philippines is a home of diverse and unique culture, norms and tradition.

I would like to thank the owner of this articles that I used. These were very helpful for my project.

You could visit the real website and my reference for this. 🙂

http://www.filipiknow.net/life-in-pre-colonial-philippines/

http://www.angelfire.com/la2/litera1/precolonial.html

Becoming America: An Exploration of American Literature from Precolonial to Post-Revolution

(8 reviews)

Wendy Kurant, University of North Georgia

ISBN 13: 9781940771465

Publisher: University of North Georgia Press

Language: English

Formats Available

Conditions of use.

Learn more about reviews.

Reviewed by Kristen Studer, Adjunct Instructor, Butler Community College on 5/21/21

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

As an example, in the study of the romantics and transcendentalists, Kurant offers valuable context when discussing westward expansion, displacement of Native peoples, and war with Mexico. The author also covers the Industrial Revolution, immigration, tensions over slavery, other political concerns, and social reforms as parts of the environment in which the romantics existed. In the selection of authors and works, Kurant offers a variety of mode (fiction, exposition, poetry, and drama) as well as sampling from the great variety of humanity, rather than limiting students to the classical cannon of authors. While those authors do still appear, they seem to be in much more diverse company here.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

I found no errors in accuracy.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

Continuing Kurant's trend of bringing further context to the selections, the Revolutionary and Early National Period section begins with a discussion of the French American war and the role of Native Americans in that conflict, giving students the opportunity to see the new nation as one whose existence, long prior to its nationhood, was constantly contended by various entities, rather than one where a war for independence sprang up from nothing more than frustration over taxes. It seems very relevant, in these times, to be aware that contention has always been America's lot.

Clarity rating: 5

As an example, the sections covering the European explorers and early settlers seem to be from a broad spectrum, though perhaps it is only their introductions that make them seem so. However, there are selections from the explorations of the New Netherlands and from other non-Puritan settlers.. Kurant also makes more clear the interactions between various groups of settlers, rather than allowing students to acquire the impression that they were a homogeny.

Consistency rating: 5

I found no inconsistencies. In fact, I find this text to be more consistent with the varied nature of American Literature. For example, I always begin my American Lit I course with a discussion of the Native American literature and have always angled toward correcting for the oversights in the textbook that I use, but that is much less of an issue with this text. Not only does Kurant do a much better job of introducing the topic and its impossible-to-cover scope and complexity, but the author also includes examples from groups of Native Americans who may actually have encountered European explorers and early settlers where they lived in the eastern part of the continent. The author consistently brings this methodology to bear throughout the text.

Modularity rating: 4

Though I did not truly consider this as I was perusing the text, it did seem to me that some sections were significantly longer, perhaps over weighted. And selections from some authors may have be a bit lengthy as well.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

Chronological and grouped by historical era. No problems here.

Interface rating: 5

Very user friendly. There are live links to material sourced elsewhere, a tactic which seems to expand the text's scope and relevance.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

I did not notice errors.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

This section also covers Enlightenment, of course, and offers a broad range of selections from the founding fathers and others. We also hear from female authors, black authors, and even Native American authors, serving to provide students with a picture of American literature that interweaves all voices. Kurant carries this methodology throughout the text, placing authors who have had less voice right in the midst of more traditional selections, rather than confining them to their own sections.

I hope to be able to replace the traditional textbook used in my courses with this more economical and well-integrated textbook. Its organization will make the transition easier for me and I am certain that students will appreciate the move.

Reviewed by Erin Murrah-Mandril, Assistant Professos, University of Texas at Arlington on 12/14/20

Comprehensiveness rating: 3 see less

The textbook can be considered comprehensive in terms of its coverage of the most traditionally canonical texts of Early American literature from an Anglo-American, New England-centered perspective. It contains a smaller number of authors than other anthologies like the Norton or Bedford, it contains longer excerpts of texts. There are a few Native American texts, especially a set of origin stories folk tales and recorded accounts at the very beginning. African American texts are the most canonical only (Phillis Wheatley, Frederic Douglas, etc.), without any of the more recently recovered early African American authors. What appears especially lacking is a more robust account of Spanish America, considering the textbooks focus on Early American literature. The framework of viewing American literature through a teleology of "Becoming America" leaves out much literature that does not fit in to the narrative of U.S. nationhood. Beyond Columbus and Cabeza de Vaca, significant Spanish American literature is missing, including other expeditions, the writing of Spanish missions, or regional literature like Gaspar Pérez de Villagrá's epic poem of New Mexico. Similarly the textbook leaves out literature important to the U.S.-Mexico War or U.S. colonial expansion, though it includes literature up to the 1860s. One surprising omission considering the inclusion of most canonical Anglo-American literature is the absence of Cotton Mather's writing. The textbook does provide a good account of early-American Anglo settlers and an adequate selection of Native American texts from the early British colonial and early U.S. republic. It is impressive that a single editor created this collection of over 1500 pages with extensive head notes, thoughtful reading questions for each text, and paired open access images of art, photos, and maps to accompany the texts with far fewer resources that a big publishing house like Norton or Bedford. The textbook would make a good foundation for a college literature class with some significant supplementation from a professor or teacher.

Content Accuracy rating: 4

The textbook is factually accurate. As a depiction of early American life and letters, it is less accurate in that it over represents "great men" or "founding fathers" with less emphasis on literary and cultural production outside of New England. Notes on the textual history of works are also sometimes missing, and the textbook does not clarify which editions are used for the textbook's excerpts.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 4

The book focuses on the more traditionally canonical works of literature, and is thus not at the forefront of literary analysis and the evolving canon. It follows a meta-narrative of U.S. national development that was codified in early 1940s American literary studies. The book does include more women's voices, but it does not depict the complexity and heterogeneity of American culture and life in the 17th, 18th, and 19th century. The canonical works are still relevant but they wold be better paired with other texts and read in new ways that Becoming America does provide.

Clarity rating: 4

The introduction and head notes are written in clear prose. Some of the historical context is dry and dense, especially references to theological paridigms of the early colonial period. More importantly, readers may miss the annotations that are present in print anthologies.

The format is consistent throughout the textbook. Perhaps the most valuable aspect of this textbook are the reading questions at the end of each section. These questions adeptly balance reading comprehension and literary analysis. I could imagine using these questions as discussion prompts. The decimal point organization is also helpful for navigating the long PDF.

Modularity rating: 5

This book can and should be used modularly. It would be very easy to teach some sections or rearrange the material to the instructor's liking. An instructor could even have students read a single excerpted literary work or contextualizing head note. I regularly teach online courses and could imagine pulling specific sections from Becoming America.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 3

The textbook begins with historical organization of early and later colonial literature and revolutionary literature than shift to generic categories of romanticism and transcendentalism in a way that elides the historical events of the early 19th century, namely U.S. expansion and the succession of the South. Texts are presented chronologically except for the Native American collection in Part One, which, like most textbooks, are presented as timeless origin stories( though the editor thankfully clarifies that they were recorded at various points)

Interface rating: 4

The textbook is a standard PDF. The table of contents is very clear. It lacks an index, which is unnecessary because the text is searchable. The table of contents could be improved through anchored links that would allow readers to jump to a sectionfrom the tabel of contents rather than having to scroll through hundreds of pages to get to the desired section.

The writing was very clear and free of grammatical errors.

Cultural Relevance rating: 2

The cultural representation is outmoded, particularly in terms of African American and Latina/o inclusion. There is almost no writing recovered in the last twenty years written by Black or Latina/o/x authors. The Native American texts included in this textbook are more in line with contemporary scholarship, for example the letter from Cherokee women to Benjamin Franklin is a nice example of Native American Women's writing which is not always available in literary anthologies. However, the textbook's omission of Indian Removal is unacceptable.

Reviewed by Jenna Gersie, Graduate Part-Time Instructor, University of Colorado Boulder on 6/11/20

In the first section, there is a nod to Native American accounts, including creation stories and accounts of contact with settlers/colonists, but these tales only make up about 25% of this first section, placing the priority on “discovery” narratives. Fewer discussion questions are provided for the Native American accounts, as well: only five questions for all of the presented stories, whereas each individual piece that follows has as many questions. There are many accounts by white people about people of color; instead, including more voices of color would make this a more comprehensive text. More attention should be paid to America’s founding on genocide, slavery, and settler-colonialism for students to engage more critically with our nation’s past (and present). There is no index, though the Table of Contents is comprehensive.

Content Accuracy rating: 3

“Becoming American” during this time period largely meant becoming white male American, as other people were denied citizenship. Though other voices are included, the text is overwhelmingly white and male. More women’s voices are represented as the text moves chronologically to the Romantic period. However, resisting a traditional canon of American literature would have more writings from women and people of color who participated in or resisted “becoming American.” Shorter excerpts from some authors could be presented to make room for more diverse accounts.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 3

The literature presented is of course relevant and does not go out of date. The text is designed in a simple format that should be easy to update if additional materials are added. If the text is already 1,500 pages, why not make it 2,000 to include literature from more voices?

Some sentences in the introductory materials and learning outcomes are vague or otherwise unclear, but these sections provide useful overviews that should be supplemented with content in lectures to place each author in context.

Consistency rating: 4

The format of the text is consistent, but definitions of time periods that frame each section are missing.

It would be easy to divide the text by section or by author; creating individual PDFs for each author you want to assign would probably be best, rather than presenting students with the full PDF, which could be overwhelming. It would be helpful to have authors and texts listed in the page headers; instead, only the title of the anthology is listed there, so it is hard to know where in the text you are without navigating back to the subject header.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 4

Organization is chronological, which works fine.

The headings and organization are clear, but the links in the Table of Contents do not work, and just bring you back to the first page of the PDF. There are some hyperlinks throughout the text; the ones I clicked on did work, but may not always be available. These hyperlinks seem more useful for instructors to assign separately than to expect students to access and read while using the textbook. It would also be helpful if new sections started on new pages for instructors who want to split desired sections into separate PDFs for students; as it is, new sections often start in the middle of a page.

Grammatical Errors rating: 4

There are minimal errors.

Cultural Relevance rating: 3

For a text of this length (more than 1,500 pages), I wish there were a greater diversity of voices included; especially since much of this work is freely available online elsewhere or has already been anthologized, a textbook of this nature could have included less canonized voices to create a fuller picture of American literature.

Reviewed by Christopher Weinmann, Adjunct Faculty, Middlesex Community College on 6/8/20

The anthology is comparable to the first volume of the Shorter Ninth Edition of "The Norton Anthology of American Literature", which is the text I use when teaching survey courses of American literature through 1865. Both textbooks include authors from the earliest contacts between Native Americans and European colonizers through American writers of the mid-nineteenth century. In general, the typically anthologized texts for each author are included in "Becoming America", and in most cases, there are multiple texts by the authors, which can give instructors more options for assignments. There is a good inclusion of nonfiction (which usually dominates anthologies covering these centuries in American literature), fiction, poetry, and one play: Royall Tyler's eighteenth-century play "The Contrast". One concern is that in four cases (Edwards, Occom, Tecumseh, and various Native American texts), the anthology does not include the texts, but links to them. This is unexpected and may cause difficulties for students who have limited Internet access. Very helpful are the sets of questions after each collection of texts by the same author. Such questions can prove useful for small assignments or in-class writing to generate class discussion and develop essays. Most biographies are accompanied by public-domain pictures of the authors. Students have shared with me that they enjoy seeing the authors of the texts they read, so these illustrations are helpful aids.

The introductory commentary for each section, as well as brief biographies of the authors, are even-handed.

The selection of authors allows for multiple perspectives. Because the anthology follows the traditional chronological order of literature anthologies, the commentaries at the start of each section, the brief biographies of authors, and the texts by those authors can easily be supplemented, revised, or replaced as need be.

The commentaries and brief biographies are written in clear, twenty-first-century language, so that students who are unfamiliar with the lives and times of the authors may easily gain some context as needed before class discussion. Students who are not experienced with the grammar and style of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries may need some preparation for author texts from these periods (as is the case with all anthologies including older texts). One concern regards some of the nonfiction texts from the seventeenth century and earlier: they are provided with the original spelling, which allows for an authentic reading experience, but may prove difficult for students to follow. Modernized spelling of these texts would be very valuable.

The sections of the book provide logical and traditional divisions of American literature through the middle of the nineteenth century, but it would be helpful to provide date ranges as part of the title of each section so that students may have a stronger sense of when the literature included in each section was written.

As a literature anthology, the text is divided into historical sections, each of which includes a statement of learning outcomes, followed by an introductory commentary, and then subsections on the included authors (brief biographies followed by texts). Headings are regularly included.

The anthology has adopted the decimal system of headings which is more common for textbooks in the sciences and social sciences, so that an author text might be given a number such as 1.3.1 (section 1, subsection 3, author text 1). Such numbering implies that each author text is the continuation of a general argument or analysis made in the entire textbook rather than the next included reading. It would be better to remove such numbering. In addition, the top of each page notes only the titles of the anthology and of the section. It would be very helpful on alternate pages to list the author and title of work on those pages so that students may better scan ahead to plan how much time to devote to reading an assignment.

The anthology was viewed via the Preview feature on an Apple laptop computer. Although there were no links from the table of contents to the start of each text, it was possible to search for words (such as names of authors and titles of works) to find the needed parts of the anthology.

Save for the occasional typographical error, there were no errors--certainly, none which caused confusion.

Cultural Relevance rating: 4

Not including anonymous authors, approximately one-third of the authors in the anthology (19 of 61) are women. African American authors include Equiano, Wheatley, Walker, Jacobs, Harper, and Douglass. Native American authors include Occom, Apess, Cherokee women, and various anonymous authors of Native American texts.

I would consider this book as a suitable replacement for the Norton Anthology, especially when there are few used copies of the current edition of the Norton Anthology available.

Reviewed by Bridget Marshall, Associate Professor, University of Massachusetts Lowell on 6/2/20

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

This anthology offers a huge number of selections. 1500 pages is a lot of material; but this is also a huge period and difficult to contain in any anthology. It was also notable that it included an example of drama -- Royall Tyler's The Contrast. This is an interesting selection, and drama is largely overlooked in most anthologies. It does not have an index or glossary. It sometimes leaves out important things; for instance, in the introduction to section 4, the text explains "By the second decade of the nineteenth century, the United States of America had survived the War of 1812" but there has been no mention of the War of 1812 anywhere in the text prior to this. The rise of Realism is barely touched on -- with the exception of Davis at the end.

There seems to be a lot of praising of famous men. Jefferson and Jackson get quite a bit of celebration, with very little about their very problematic actions. Of Columbus, it notes "Although he hoped to bring peace..." -- where's the evidence of Columbus wanting peace exactly?

There are about a dozen selections that are not actually included in the text, but are URLs to outside sites. At least one of these links is already broken, and others likely will be as well. The chosen links are quite curious and no explanation is given as to why these particular links are reliable or why these versions/editions were chosen.

The writing in the intro sections seems clear for the most part. I like the questions provided at the end of each reading. It could use greater clarity about the timeline -- what are the dates for the individual sections, and why are the pieces arranged in the order they appear? This should be made explicit somewhere. The learning outcomes focus heavily on historical matters more than on literary aspects, which is somewhat curious.

Consistency rating: 3

Each large section has "Learning Outcomes" and each author has a set of "Reading and Review Questions." This is provided consistently throughout. The readings that are provided in URLs are very inconsistent. They all go to different sources of widely different authority. A couple link to highly regarded digital editions (the Samuel Occom one for instance links to an excellent scholarly edition with scanned originals) while others link to "all poetry.com" and "poetry nook.com," sources that are really random. There is one very odd moment -- the introductory material on Edgar Allan Poe notes that it was "Written by Corey Parson," who is also listed as providing the cover and layout design. No other sections have any attribution to anyone else. It's just odd. It's not clear why some authors have many more selections than others. Melville, for instance seems really over-represented here.

Modularity rating: 3

If you wanted to teach one of the four block sections, it would be relatively easy to excise that one section. But if you wanted to teach portions from throughout this large anthology, it's not clear how you would do that. One thing that would make it easier would be to have a hard page break at the end of each individual piece and individual author. That is not the case here, so it will take some work to cut and past sections together. The lack of navigation links also makes modularity difficult (see Interface comments).

From the start, I do wish that the organizational choices could be made more clear and explicit to the reader; I'm left to guess at why choices were made. There are four very large sections, including: 1. Pre-and early Colonial Literature 2. 17th century English Colonial Literature 3. Revolutionary and Early National Literature 4. Nineteenth Century Romanticism and Transcendentalism No dates are provided, so it's not clear why these breaks were chosen or around what specific dates they center. Likewise, the organization within those sections is unclear. Thematic clusters might make sense, but it's not clear that that is what is happening here. Organizational scheme should be made more explicit.

Interface rating: 2

This is a huge book -- over 1500 pages -- but it has no navigation features. At the very least, it should have a hyperlinked table of contents, but if you click on anything in the TOC, it takes you back to the title page. I downloaded the PDF and opened it in Acrobat, and there appear to be "bookmarks" for each section, but those bookmarks do not work; clicking on them doesn't take you anywhere. This is a serious problem in a book of this length. If you're reading in a browser, and you follow the links to any of the hyperlinked readings, when you come back, you go to the title page, which again is really frustrating. For an ebook, it is lacking in many of the benefits that ought to come with the ebook format.

Grammar seems clear throughout.

There is considerable diversity in the readings in terms of authorship and variety of time period and perspectives represented. In the introductory material, the author refers to "slaves" when I think at this point, using "enslaved people" (or "enslaved [specific identity]") would be more appropriate and is generally preferred. There are a lot of Native American readings, which is great, but many of them are provided through links to outside sources. There should be greater explanation of why these particular versions were chosen (and why they weren't integrated into the text, as the majority of other readings are). In general, there should be more explanation of why a particular source/version is used; this is especially important in these Native American traditional pieces, but this would actually be valuable throughout.

The use of images in this text is very problematic. All the images are cited as coming from open source (mostly Wikicommons) which is fine, but there needs to be more information about those images. They appear to be just dropped in for no real reason. One of the first and most egregious examples is "Image 1.2 | Wampum Belt Commemorating the Iroquis Confederacy." There is no mention of wampum anywhere in the text -- why is this image just thrown in here? The image itself is of terrible quality and there is no information about where it's from (a quick google search told me it's from a Popular Science magazine, a very odd choice). "Image 1.7 | Thomas Harriot" is actually notoriously questionable – almost all mentions of it that appear online suggest that it is unconfirmed whether it’s him. The other image for this section -- “Thomas Harriot at Syon Park” -- doesn’t even mention when or where it was made, only that is on a “free art license” – why is this here? It seems incredibly random. The John Smith section includes a portrait of John Smith and of Pocahontas, but with no context or explanation about those images and why they are important. In early instances, there are maps dropped in without context or explanation. For instance, A map of Cabeza de Vaca’s route doesn't even include “the island of Malhado,” which is what the reading assignment is specifically about. In the Rebecca Hardin Davis section, there’s an image of her, but then “Housing in a Mills Factory in Alabama, 1910 Photographer | Lewis Wickes Hine." Both the date and location of the image are completely unrelated to Davis's work. The quality of the reproductions is poor (worst example: "Image 1.1 | Flag of the Wabanaki Confederacy") and the choice of images is very confusing. I would recommend that images be removed completely rather than have these completely decontextualized random ones.

Reviewed by Stefan Schöberlein, Assistant Professor, Marshall University on 2/5/20

One of the key issues here is the odd overarching narrative of the volume: it tells a history of ideology and nation building (“Becoming American”) that follows historical chronology, somewhat oddly centered around the Declaration of Independence (“Precolonial to Post-Revolution”). Instead of confronting this narrative and critically engaging with it, its assumptions seem to subconsciously creep into every section of the collection. While the selection of texts shows clear awareness of discussions around the problems of the canon and does a laudable job at including suppressed or neglected voices (pre-Columbian creation stories, literature by enslaved persons, popular American women’s writers), its overarching focus on “the nation” (naturalized via the somewhat gaudy photo on the cover) structurally distorts the intents of many authors in this text. In the overarching narrative of the book, pre-colonial Native myths are participating in a discourse on American nationhood alongside British subjects and enslaved captives. All of these, it seems, can’t wait to “become American.” Once the narrative of literary nationhood really takes off, the American North-East, especially New England, figures as a stand-in for the nation. This is especially jarring in the nineteenth-century section that does not incorporate a single text from the American South. Lincoln’s speeches (or the Cornerstone speech), too, are oddly absent here—as is the Civil War itself. Perhaps, the volume sees itself as concluding prior to this period: why, then include Civil War poetry by Whitman and Melville and reference the conflict in study questions? Why is the American West entirely absent? (“The Life and Adventures of Joaquín Murieta”?). Another issue with the selection of texts is turning the build-up to the Civil War into an “on-going moral argument[…] about slavery” (720) to the exclusion of slave revolts (no mention of Nat Turner, nor any reference to his “Confessions”) and John Brown (only opaquely referenced by the editor as having performed an “anti-slavery attack on Harper’s Ferry,” and mentioned in a Melville poem). The narrow national focus also ignores crucial historical contexts: Why have students read “Benito Cereno” and not mention the Haitian Revolution at all? Why make the sentimentalist complaint the only other mode of critique of slavery alongside biographical accounts by former enslaved persons? For a text so interested in religious movements and American exceptionalism, the absence of any reference to Mormonism or Joseph Smith is mindboggling, as well.

Content Accuracy rating: 1

The collection’s narrow focus on American literary nation building leads the editor in a number of odd statements. “America’s economic and technological growth also continued apace as America became the center of the second Industrial Revolution,” the editor observes at one point, suggesting said second industrial revolution was a phenomenon of the antebellum period and suggesting that the US was indeed a leading, industrialized country by mid-century. That is flatly false. While the pace of industrialization was astounding, the US was still trailing all major nations in almost every measure of industrial performance—and the “second industrial revolution” is generally considered a turn-of-the-twentieth-century development—not, as the editor claims an event taking place “in the early to mid—nineteenth century.” Andrew Jackson is introduced as a common man and a “former war hero”—without any suggestion that said heroism was largely built around genocide (“war hero” is not in quotation marks or qualified in any way in the editorial introduction). The “Trail of Tears” is also framed as perpetrated by “American and European” settlers—without any reference to the Indian Removal Act, Jackson’s involvement, or any legislation on a national or state level. Indeed, the very next sentence talks about “American emigrants to the Mexican territory of Texas,” suggesting that Indian Removal (framed as “forced relocations” without any mention of the human cost or ANY loss of life) fits into emigration patterns, not “Jacksonian Democracy” (as celebrated in a different part of the editorial introduction). No critical word is uttered on Jackson in the whole volume. Indeed, the editor makes sure to point out that “numerous social reform movements paralleled the democratic reforms of the Jacksonian era,” suggesting a reading of Jackson as a fundamentally progressive actor. Textual fidelity is also lacking. Certain texts (like Whitman’s or Dickinson’s) are given without dates, letting their works flow vaguely through biographical time. For a poet of revisions like Whitman, this is a fatal error. What is provided here is the 1881/1892 version of “Song of Myself,” for instance, but with the famous missing final period of the 1855 edition (an entirely meaningless printing error, as scholarship has shown). The poem as printed here is not historical. Dickinson’s poems are provided in the 1955 Johnson transcription (with long dashes), not the more relevant Franklin edition. This would require at least some explanation—or perhaps at least a quick image to illustrate what Dickinson’s manuscripts looked like. Neither is given. Dickinson’s again-giant dashes just hang there, unacknowledged, waiting for confused students to overinterpret them. Dickinson and Whitman also serve to illustrate another issue with the collection: it remixes author bios from Writing the Nation: A Concise Introduction to American Literature 1865 to Present that are so limited that they become outright misleading. Let’s take this characterization of Whitman: “Much of Whitman’s success and endurance as a poet comes from his ability to marry embedded cultural forms to the needs of a growing and rapidly modernizing nation. Whitman first came to wide public attention with the publication of the first edition of Leaves of Grass in 1855 when he was just twenty-five years old. Grand in scope if not in size, the first edition established Whitman as a poet who loved wordplay and common images” 1. Whitman’s initial 1855 printing was NOT a literary success. Success came via English editions in the 1860s. The 1855 edition was a hand-printed pamphlet that sat on shelves, thought it did garner some really harsh reviews. Essentially, only Emerson enjoyed it and wrote a letter to that extent to Whitman (why not mention that?). 2. What “embedded cultural forms” are referenced here? Most people at the time (including Emerson) did not consider this “poetry.” It may reference newspaper culture—but if so, why not say that? 3. The 1855 edition WAS “grand” in “size.” It was printed on comically oversized legal paper. It was THIN—but certainly big. Much too big to fit in everyone’s pocket (as Whitman hoped). 4. A “poet who loved wordplay and common images”? That’s perhaps the most uninspired description of Whitman I can imagine. What the section leaves out—completely—is Whitman own sexuality, his interest in sexual liberation and sexual politics/poetics. Instead, the foreword goes out of its way to make Whitman as stuffy as possible. And what message would you be sending to your students, if you have them read America’s great queer poet in an edition that refuses to even suggest he wasn’t straight? What makes the anthology at hand even worse is that it includes this sentence: “In the final selection from Whitman, we see Whitman rising as a national poet with “O Captain! My Captain!”. It should be noted that the editor decided not to include “O Captain!”, but didn’t bother to either write a better introduction or delete this sentence. Or to just copy Wikipedia, which is much more accurate. Other author bios are similarly trite: Dickinson reverts back to being an isolated spinster (and, by default, super straight, too), Moby Dick now echoes every high schooler’s book report by “exploring the mysteries of human nature,” and Hawthorne retroactively bestows his chosen spelling of his name (HaWthorne) onto his parents, allowing him to now be “born in 1804 to Nathaniel Hawthorne, Senior and Elizabeth Manning Hawthorne.”

Relevance/Longevity rating: 1

Please see comments on comprehensiveness and accuracy. Why anyone would use this collection when Project Gutenberg, Wikipedia, and sites like the Whitman Archive or the Emily Dickinson Archive provide such significantly better (and, at the very least, accurate) resources is an absolute mystery to me.

Clarity rating: 2

Given the numerous issues already outlined above, I would only like to add my reservations about the editorial work spent (or not spent) on annotating the literary texts. In short: There are no annotations. A Whitman poem titled “Reconstruction” is included and the bio of Douglass mentions that “he also criticized the Reconstruction policy.” (There are a number of statements phrased this oddly). Given these references, one would hope that at least a short explanation of “Reconstruction” is provided somewhere. That is not the case. The texts presented here appear to be largely lifted from Project Gutenberg (or alike websites) and no labor has been spent on adding the necessary explanatory apparatus that would turn this into a helpful resource in the classroom.

Please see my comments under “Comprehensiveness.”

The collection is organized by time periods, though the exact time range for each section remains a mystery. Each section has learning outcomes, though these are often at odds with the actual content presented or the study questions that follow a specific author section. These learning outcomes are generally focused on larger political developments (westward expansion, for example), while the study questions tend to favor an ahistorical mix of reader response and close reading. On the whole, these questions are perhaps the one contribution (aside from the period introductions) that add value to this volume. It is odd, though, that they do not cover all texts in a given author section: The Melville section, for instance, concludes with four questions about three of the six texts by Melville.

Adequate. See my reservations in previous sections.

The formatting is consistent but the interactive table of contents is broken (just sends you back to the first page), making this edition harder to use than the many superior, freely available online documents that could (and should) be consulted in its stead. Given the format (both of page and file), your students will not be able to read this on their phones.

Grammatical Errors rating: 3

There are a number of floating periods as a result of copy & paste errors. While the language in the introductory sections is largely adequate, it often slips into oddities: there is a strange reliance on articles, where there should be none (“criticized the Reconstruction policy.”), overuse of determiners that creates vagueness (“Andrew Jackson . . . would have never made it that far before that time”), and an overuse of a passive voice that suggests a lack of knowledge of historical actors (“However, a crisis was touched off”), sometimes coupled with an overreliance on simplistic vocabulary (“the Compromise of 1850 was made to resolve it”).

The edition is trying to be inclusive but runs into a number of issues, especially around the overly positive depictions of Jackson and the edition’s inability to acknowledge Native American genocide in the nineteenth century (see “accuracy”). Queer themes are purposefully ignored to a degree that constitutes revisionism. I cannot recommend its use in any classroom, though it might add value at the text selection stage of syllabi development.

Reviewed by Shyam Sriram, Visiting Assistant Professor , Butler University on 1/18/20

At over 1,500 pages - yes, you read that right - this OER text is literally "Dr. Kurant's Opus." I wanted to write about how much I enjoyed this text and why I wish I could have thrown it in the face of those who love to start the American story with "The Mayflower Compact." But my enthusiasm quickly gave way to dismay when I realized that the author has her own selective touch to how she defines American literature.

Content Accuracy rating: 2

This book/compilation is titled "Becoming America: An Exploration of American Literature from Precolonial to Post-Revolution," but my question is why? How can claim to tell the definitive story of American history from two time periods that are so poorly defined? How far back is "pre-colonial"? The author does well to include Native American creation stories as the first chapter, which might suggest to the reader that she is going really far back. But it feels like this addition was done just to pay lip service to those who claim that Native American history is neglected - it is - from textbooks. Why include such a short section and then barely reference other Native Americans along the way (except for the token inclusion of Tecumseh and William Apess)?

Similarly, where does post-revolution end? I presumed that post-revolution might be the 1790s, but the author goes as far along as 1869 when she ends the collection with Louisa May Alcott's "My Contraband." If this is the marker, then where are the slave narratives? Why is this "opus" so lacking in black voices? The University of North Carolina has a whole website dedicated to slave narratives that begin in 1740. Why has the author chosen to share the writings of abolitionists like David Walker instead of actual slaves? Why does this text simply reinforce the belief that the only three people of color whom American students should read are Harriet Beecher Stowe, Harriet Jacobs, and Frederick Douglass?

This compendium is definitely relevant, especially at a time when a frequent point of discussion has become - again - about what makes America/ American identity. Sadly, the lack of black voices - as mentioned in the last section - make this work less relevant than it should be. Perhaps students must access this work in conjunction with the New York Times' "1619 Project" to get a better feel of "Becoming America."

The author's sections on "Learning Outcomes" and introductions to each of the four parts are written well and should be easily accessible by teachers and students alike.

The text does employ a consistent style and framework, but is inconsistent with how each section is defined. There are no parameters for what defines "Pre- and Early-Colonial Literature" (Part I) and the post-revolution of the title, especially because the last part is dedicated mainly to Romanticism and Transcendentalism.

"Becoming America" is absolutely massive, but it can be assigned easily in sections. Each of the four parts include many authors and/or specific thematic blocks, which can be assigned individually.

Without belaboring the points I made earlier, my additional concern here is why certain authors are emphasized more than others. Yes, the text misses key voices, particularly people of color and black voices. But the bigger issue is the author's obsession with certain writers. Does any student need access to THIRTY of Emily Dickinson's poems?

Very easy to navigate, especially if the user opens the file through Adobe Reader to find what they are looking for.

Well-written and free of punctuation, spelling, and grammar mistakes.

See previous points about over-representation of abolitionists and under-representation of African American voices.

Reviewed by Worth Weller, Lecturer, Trine University on 11/1/19

Beginning with a thorough explanation of Native American and European explorative accounts that puts this period in its imperialistic context, Becoming America: An Exploration of American Literature from Precolonial to Post-Revolution covers indigenous creation and medicine stories, the first recordings of contact, and letters and writings from early trappers, traders, settlers, missionaries and soldiers. Moving through the logical sequence of early American literary history through 19th century Romanticism and Transcendentalism, each section opens with well-developed learning outcomes as well as a contextual introduction, and each author and accompanying selection comes with five reading and review questions that rank high on Bloom’s Taxonomy. Although there is no index, a well developed and very detailed table of contents readily reveals the comprehensiveness of the subject matter and how to quickly find specific periods and authors.

Introductory material for each section pulls no punches in setting fully developed historic contexts free of Western canonical bias. Selections throughout the 1553 page book maintain the often lost voices of indigenous, female, African and other minority writers and speakers of the times. Despite making room for many authors and writers often overlooked, the textbook still has room for the full range of America’s literary development from Thomas Paine to Louise May Alcott which helps makes the text an accurate representation of the historical period covered.

Literature seldom goes out of date, but the selection and editing process does. Although new authors are constantly being discovered and recognized for their place in the development of American literature, this very comprehensive textbook, which includes many of the writings of the Founding Fathers as well as those of slaves, farmers and ordinary workers along with the early American literary canon, does not appear to have left out any voices of merit well-known and not so well-known to this point.

Although the text-book introduces each topic with carefully crafted academic interpretations of the time-period, it avoids literary jargon, and where it does use higher-level terms, the author takes great pains to explain them and give examples. Both high school and college English or History majors would find this a highly readable and engaging text.

The text follows a clearly defined historical timeline and is divided into sections that consistently begin with Learning Objectives, followed by an historical and literary overview before introducing the selected readings for that period along with their reading and review questions.

The textbook is presented as four distinct periods, beginning with Native American and European Explorative Accounts and ending with Emily Dickinson, Rebecca Harding Davis and Louisa May Alcott. In that the editor presents nine to 28 authors per period, it would be quite easy for an instructor pressed for time to compress the number of required readings without losing core course content.

The use of clear and consistent headings, along with a color scheme that indicates the categories of the headings and subheadings, makes the book attractive and facilitates ease of use. Presented as one PDF file, the text is readable, attractive and searchable. However, in a few cases the editor has resorted to hyperlinks to present some readings. These might be problematic over time, are not easily navigable back to the preceding pages and disrupt the over-all presentation, look and feel of the text.

The book is well proof-read, with non of the errors often associated with texts exported to PDF files.

The author does a thorough job of uncovering American literary voices that otherwise might not have been presented in earlier anthologies, with what by today's standards would be considered fair and comprehensive historical analysis in the section overviews.

I am looking forward to using sections and readings from this book in my next online Introduction to Literature course.

Part One: Pre- and Early Colonial Literature
Part Two: Seventeenth Century English Colonial Literature
Part Three: Revolutionary and Early National Period Literature
Part Four: Nineteenth Century Romanticism and Transcendentalism

Ancillary Material

Ancillary materials are available by contacting the author or publisher .

About the Book

The University of North Georgia Press and Affordable Learning Georgia bring you Becoming America: An Exploration of American Literature from Precolonial to Post-Revolution. Featuring sixty-nine authors and full texts of their works, the selections in this open anthology represent the diverse voices in early American literature. This completely-open anthology will connect students to the conversation of literature that is embedded in American history and has helped shaped its culture.

Contextualizing introductions from Pre- and Early Colonial Literature to Early American Romanticism
Over 70 historical images
In-depth biographies of each author
Instructional Design, including Reading and Review Questions

This textbook is an open Educational Resource. It can be reused, remixed, and reedited freely without seeking permission.

About the Contributors

Wendy Kurant , Ph.D., teaches Early American Literature, American Romanticism, Realism, Naturalism, and Southern Literature at the University of North Georgia (UNG). Her research interests center on new Historicism and depictions of the South and the Civil War in Literature. She has taught at UNG since 2005.

Contribute to this Page

Username or Email Address

Remember Me

Explore Pre Colonial Literature in the Philippines

Have you ever wondered about the literary treasures that existed in the Philippines before Spanish colonization ? Are you curious about the indigenous literary traditions and early writings of the Filipino people? Join us on a journey as we uncover the vibrant world of pre-colonial literature in the Philippines, a captivating and often overlooked aspect of Philippine culture.

Key Takeaways:

Pre-colonial literature in the Philippines showcased the rich cultural heritage of the Filipino people.
It included epics , poems , songs, and narratives that reflected the diverse beliefs and experiences of different tribes and communities.
The Philippines’ pre-colonial period was marked by indigenous cultures engaging in trade and developing advanced civilizations.
The political and social structure was led by leaders called “Datus” and included different social classes .
Pre-colonial literature continues to inspire and influence contemporary Filipino literature, preserving the cultural richness and artistic legacy of the Philippines.

The Philippines’ Pre-Colonial Period

The Pre-Colonial period in the Philippines was a time of vibrant indigenous cultures, rich traditions, and flourishing trade. The archipelago of 7,107 islands, known as the Philippines, was inhabited by various indigenous peoples , each with their own unique customs and languages . These indigenous tribes lived in harmony with nature and engaged in trade with neighboring cultures and foreign traders, showcasing the diversity and openness of the ancient Filipino civilization.

During the Pleistocene period, the early inhabitants of the Philippines migrated to the islands. There are different theories regarding their migration, but it is believed that the Austronesian people were the earliest settlers. As the population grew, these early Filipinos established advanced communities and engaged in maritime trade with other regions, including China, India, and Southeast Asian countries.

The Pre-Colonial period saw the development of sophisticated cultures and civilizations in the Philippines. The indigenous tribes built intricate social structures, with each tribe having its own political and social systems. They had their own unique artistic expressions, including pottery, weaving, metalworking, and boat-building.

Trade and Commerce

Trade played a crucial role in the Pre-Colonial period, connecting the different regions of the Philippines with various cultures in the region and beyond. The indigenous people of the Philippines engaged in the exchange of goods such as textiles, pottery, bamboo products, agricultural produce, and precious metals. This trade network fostered cultural exchange, leading to the development of diverse traditions and practices.

Diverse Indigenous Cultures

The Philippines was home to numerous indigenous tribes, each with their own distinct cultures and traditions. These tribes had their own languages , spiritual beliefs, and artistic expressions. Some of the prominent tribes during this period include the Tagalogs, Visayans, Ilocanos, Bicolanos, Pangasinenses, and Igorots.

“The ancient Filipino civilizations were fascinating and diverse, showcasing the ingenuity and creativity of the indigenous peoples . These cultures left a lasting impact on Filipino culture and continue to shape the country’s identity.”

Political and Social Structure

In pre-colonial Philippines, the political and social structure was organized around the leadership of indigenous leaders known as “Datus.” These leaders held authority over autonomous groups called “barangay” or “dulohan.” The social hierarchy of pre-colonial Philippines consisted of distinct social classes that played different roles in society.

The ruling class of “Datus” held the highest position in the social structure. They were responsible for governing their respective barangays and making important decisions for their communities. Below the ruling class were the noble people or families known as “Maginoo.” They held significant influence and were regarded as privileged members of society.

The “Maharlika” formed the warrior class in pre-colonial Philippines. They were skilled fighters who defended their communities from external threats and maintained peace within their territories. The “Timawa,” on the other hand, were freemen or tribespeople who enjoyed certain freedoms and rights but were not part of the noble class.

At the bottom of the social structure were the “Alipin” or slaves, who were considered the dependent class. They served the higher classes and performed various tasks as required. It’s important to note that the concept of slavery in pre-colonial Philippines was different from the transatlantic slavery later introduced by European colonizers.

It’s worth mentioning that different regions in the Philippines had their own leaders with different titles and roles. For example, the Manobo tribe had leaders known as “benganganat,” the Ifugao community had leaders called “mingal,” and the Lumad people recognized leaders called “timuay.” Each leader played a crucial role in maintaining order, resolving disputes, and ensuring the welfare of their respective communities.

Overall, the political and social structure of pre-colonial Philippines exhibited a complex system of governance and societal organization. This structure provided autonomy to individual barangays while maintaining a cohesive social fabric among the Philippine tribes .

Literary Traditions

Pre-colonial Philippine literature encompasses a rich tapestry of literary traditions that reflect the vibrant cultural heritage of the Filipino people. Through a variety of genres and forms, such as folk tales, epics , poems , and chants , pre-colonial literature served as a means of storytelling, preserving history, and conveying cultural values. These literary works were passed down from generation to generation through oral tradition , ensuring their enduring presence in Filipino culture .

Folk Tales: Stories of Wisdom and Morality

One prominent genre in pre-colonial Philippine literature is folk tales, which narrate stories of wisdom, heroism, and morality. These tales often feature supernatural beings, animals with human characteristics, and mythical creatures, captivating listeners with their imaginative plotlines. Passed down orally, folk tales were vehicles for teaching life lessons, cultural values, and traditions, imparting knowledge from one generation to another.

Epics: Sagas of Heroic Feats

Epics hold a special place in pre-colonial Philippine literature , showcasing incredible feats of heroes and heroines. These lengthy narratives celebrate the courage, strength, and resilience of significant characters, taking listeners on epic journeys filled with battles, adventure , love, and triumph. Notable examples include the Ilocano epic “Biag ni Lam-ang” and the Muslim epic “Darangan,” each embodying the unique cultural traditions of their respective communities.

Poems and Chants: Expressions of Emotion and Devotion

Pre-colonial Philippine literature also embraced poetry and chants as mediums for artistic expression and devotion. Poems often conveyed deep emotions, passionate love, longing, or grief, reflecting the rich inner world of the Filipino people. Chants , on the other hand, were recited during rituals, ceremonies, and religious practices, connecting individuals with their spiritual beliefs and ancestors. These poetic forms showcased the sensitivity, creativity, and profound spirituality of early Filipinos.

Baybayin: The Filipino Script

An essential element of pre-colonial literature was the use of Baybayin , an ancient script that served as a writing system for various Filipino languages . The intricate characters of Baybayin were utilized to transcribe literary works, enabling the preservation of cultural and historical knowledge. Today, Baybayin stands as a symbol of Filipino identity, reminding us of the richness and diversity of the Filipino script.

Through their diversity and artistic excellence, pre-colonial literary traditions in the Philippines continue to inspire contemporary Filipino writers and serve as an integral part of the country’s cultural heritage .

Religion and Mythology

In pre-colonial Philippines, the belief system revolved around animism , where the world was believed to be inhabited by spirits and supernatural entities. These entities, known as “anitos,” encompassed various beings such as household deities , deceased ancestors, nature-spirits, nymphs, and minor gods and demigods called “diwatas.”

The practice of animism permeated the daily lives of the early Filipinos, shaping their rituals, customs, and worldview. They sought the guidance and protection of the anitos , offering prayers, sacrifices, and rituals to maintain harmony between humans and the spirit world. Animistic beliefs played a vital role in pre-colonial Filipino communities, fostering a deep connection with nature and the spiritual realm.

Shaping Spiritual and Healing Practices

Folk healers , known as “babaylan” and “mananambal,” held esteemed positions in pre-colonial Philippine society. These healers possessed spiritual knowledge and healing practices that were closely tied to the animistic beliefs of the time. They served as mediators between the human and spirit realms, addressing physical, mental, and spiritual ailments.

The babaylan and mananambal performed rituals, utilized natural remedies, and invoked the aid of the anitos to promote physical, emotional, and spiritual well-being. Their practices included herbal medicine, massage, acupuncture, divination, and spiritual cleansing, providing holistic care for the community.

The Introduction of Islam

In addition to animism , pre-colonial Philippines also witnessed the introduction of Islam through Arabian traders and missionaries. The arrival of Islam brought about significant changes in religious and cultural practices in certain regions, particularly in Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago.

The conversion to Islam led to the establishment of Muslim communities, with mosques serving as centers for worship, education, and social gatherings. Islamic beliefs and practices, such as the Five Pillars of Islam, influenced the daily lives of the Muslim Filipinos, shaping their religious and cultural identity .

Preserving the Cultural Heritage

The animistic beliefs and practices, along with the introduction of Islam, contributed to the diverse religious landscape of pre-colonial Philippines. Though the Spanish colonization and subsequent influences have reshaped the religious landscape of the country, elements of pre-colonial religion and mythology persist, particularly in indigenous communities.

“The animistic beliefs of our ancestors are rooted in our cultural heritage, and they continue to shape our identity as Filipinos.” – Dr. Maria Santos, Cultural Anthropologist

Today, efforts are being made to preserve and revive pre-colonial religious practices, recognizing their importance in understanding Filipino history and cultural heritage. Cultural organizations and scholars document and study indigenous belief systems, promoting awareness and cultural appreciation .

Discovering the Spiritual Past

Exploring pre-colonial religion and mythology offers a glimpse into the spiritual world of the early Filipinos. It reveals their profound connection to nature, their reverence for ancestral spirits, and their belief in divine beings that governed the cosmos.

Inhabited by spirits and supernatural entities
Anitos : Household deities , deceased ancestors, nature-spirits, nymphs, minor gods, and demigods
Folk healers : Babaylan and mananambal as mediators between human and spirit realms
Introduction of Islam through Arabian traders and missionaries
Preservation and revival of pre-colonial religious practices

Cultural Achievements

Pre-colonial Filipinos possessed a rich cultural heritage and made significant achievements across various domains. Let’s explore some of their notable contributions.

Kaingin: Swidden Agriculture

One of the remarkable agricultural practices of pre-colonial Filipinos was kaingin or swidden agriculture. They cultivated staple crops like rice, millet, bananas, and root crops. Through their sustainable farming techniques, they ensured food security and furthered their self-sufficiency.

Weapons of the Skilled Warriors

The pre-colonial Filipinos were skilled warriors who developed formidable weapons . They wielded the balaraw, a small dagger, the kris, a wavy-bladed sword, and the kampilan, a long sword with an asymmetrical shape. These weapons served both defensive and offensive purposes, showcasing their prowess in combat.

Mining for Precious Metals

Engaging in mining activities , pre-colonial Filipinos extracted precious metals such as gold, silver, copper, and iron from their natural resources. These metals were then fashioned into magnificent jewelry and ornamental objects, displaying their exceptional craftsmanship and artistic sensibilities.

Filipino Craftsmanship

Ancient Filipinos exhibited unparalleled craftsmanship in their artworks. They excelled in intricate designs, creating masterpieces in various mediums, including woodwork, metalwork, pottery, and weaving. Their craftsmanship showcased their deep understanding of materials and their ability to transform them into beautiful and meaningful creations.

By excelling in key areas such as agriculture, weaponry, mining , and craftsmanship, pre-colonial Filipinos demonstrated their ingenuity, resourcefulness, and dedication to their cultural values and traditions.

These cultural achievements highlight the remarkable talents, skills, and creativity of pre-colonial Filipinos, leaving a lasting legacy that continues to inspire admiration and appreciation.

Spanish Colonization and Literary Influence

The arrival of the Spanish colonizers in the Philippines had a profound impact on Philippine literature . The Spanish introduced their language , Catholicism, and European literary traditions to the Filipinos. Many literary works during the Spanish colonial period were influenced by Spanish themes and writing styles.

Notable authors during this time include José Rizal , who wrote the novels “Noli Me Tangere” and “El Filibusterismo,” and Francisco Balagtas , author of the epic poem “Florante at Laura.”

The Spanish colonization period also sparked a wave of nationalism and resistance, leading to the Philippine Revolution .

During Spanish colonization, Filipino intellectuals known as propagandists , including José Rizal , sought to expose the injustices of Spanish rule through their literary works. Rizal’s novels, in particular, became influential in awakening national sentiment and advocating for social reforms.

These literary figures played a crucial role in shaping the Philippines’ cultural and political landscape during the Spanish colonial era. Their works became powerful tools in expressing the Filipino people’s aspirations for freedom and independence.

Literary Resistance and the Philippine Revolution

The Spanish colonization period was also marked by significant literary resistance against oppressive Spanish rule. Filipino writers used their works to challenge the injustices inflicted upon their fellow countrymen and to inspire unity among the Filipino people.

José Rizal , in his novels, depicted the harsh realities of colonial life and advocated for social reforms. The characters in his novels portrayed the struggles and aspirations of the Filipino people, providing a powerful critique of Spanish colonial society.

“The novels of José Rizal emphasized the importance of national identity and the desire for social justice, which ultimately contributed to the fervor that sparked the Philippine Revolution .” – Filipino literary scholar

The writings of propagandists like Rizal played a significant role in the awakening of national consciousness and the eventual outbreak of the Philippine Revolution against Spanish rule.

Influence of Spanish Literature and Writing Styles

Spanish colonization brought about a fusion of Spanish and Filipino literary traditions . Spanish themes, motifs, and writing styles found their way into Filipino literature during this period, creating a unique blend of cultures.

Spanish literary genres, such as the novel and the zarzuela (a form of musical theater), were introduced to the Filipino literary landscape. The influence of Spanish literature can be seen in the incorporation of romanticism, symbolism, and religious symbolism in Filipino literary works of the time.

Spanish language and Catholicism, which were introduced by the Spanish colonizers, also became integral to the development of Philippine literature. These influences shaped the linguistic and cultural identity of the Filipino people and continue to influence Philippine literature to this day.

Post-Colonial Literary Development

After the end of Spanish colonization, Philippine literature entered a new phase of evolution and development. Modern Filipino writers emerged, shaping the literary landscape with their exploration of themes rooted in nationalism , socio-political issues, and cultural identity . The post-colonial period became a platform for Filipino voices to express their struggles, dreams, and aspirations, addressing the impact of colonization and the quest for independence.

Post-colonial literature in the Philippines reflects the collective experiences of the Filipino people, representing their resilience, creativity, and longing for cultural preservation . Through a diverse range of literary works, writers expressed their perspectives on social injustices, economic disparities, and the complexities of national identity. The literature of this era served as a powerful medium to confront historical narratives and celebrate the Filipino spirit.

Prominent writers emerged during this period, leaving a lasting imprint on the Philippine literary tradition. Nick Joaquin’s works masterfully navigate the intersections of history and fiction, exploring the post-colonial Filipino identity. F. Sionil Jose’s novels delve into the socio-political landscape of the Philippines, presenting a nuanced understanding of the country’s struggles. Carlos Bulosan’s writings give voice to the Filipino diaspora, shedding light on the challenges faced by overseas Filipino workers.

“We Filipinos, a divided people but always a longing for unity, can think of no better way to cultivate national solidarity than by reaffirming in every generation our cultural identity.” – Nick Joaquin

Post-colonial literary works often incorporate elements of magical realism, folklore, and indigenous traditions, creating a unique blend of cultural heritage and literary innovation. Writers conveyed their personal stories and the narratives of marginalized communities, exploring the complexities of post-colonial society and the search for a distinct Filipino identity.

The Themes Explored:

Nationalism and patriotism
Social inequality and injustice
Colonial legacy
Identity and self-discovery
Cultural preservation

Post-colonial literature in the Philippines serves as a testament to the enduring spirit of the Filipino people, amplifying their voices and shedding light on their collective experiences. It continues to inspire and challenge readers, fostering a deeper understanding of the complexities of the Philippine society.

Through the exploration of nationalism, socio-political themes , and cultural identity, post-colonial Filipino writers have contributed significantly to the development and enrichment of the Philippine literary tradition. Their works serve as a reminder of the resilience, aspirations, and cultural heritage of the Filipino people, ensuring that their stories and struggles are never forgotten.

Preservation and Revival of Pre-Colonial Literature

Preserving indigenous literature is an essential endeavor to revive and celebrate the rich cultural heritage of the Philippines. Cultural organizations and dedicated scholars have undertaken the vital task of documenting and studying pre-colonial literary works, ensuring their continued existence for future generations to appreciate and learn from.

The oral tradition plays a significant role in the preservation of pre-colonial literature. Passed down through generations, the captivating stories, epics, and songs have been carefully transmitted, keeping the ancient narratives alive. The oral tradition not only preserves the content but also maintains the essence and spirit of these literary works, providing an authentic and immersive experience for audiences.

Literary organizations have been at the forefront of promoting the revival of pre-colonial literature. These organizations create platforms and opportunities for indigenous writers and artists to share their works with the wider public. By providing support, recognition, and resources, these organizations foster a conducive environment for the growth and development of indigenous literary traditions.

Scholarly research and publications contribute significantly to the preservation and promotion of pre-colonial Philippine literature. Through rigorous academic study, researchers delve into the intricacies of ancient texts and cultural nuances, shedding light on their historical and artistic significance. By disseminating their findings, scholars help raise awareness and appreciation for this invaluable literary heritage .

Preserving and reviving pre-colonial literature is not merely an act of cultural preservation ; it is a celebration of our collective identity as Filipinos. These ancient literary works offer a glimpse into the wisdom, creativity, and resilience of our ancestors, enabling us to connect with our roots and understand the rich traditions that have shaped us.

In this ever-evolving world, the preservation and revival of pre-colonial literature ensure that future generations can access and appreciate the richness and diversity of the Philippines’ cultural heritage. By working together, cultural organizations, oral tradition, literary scholars, and enthusiastic individuals can ensure the longevity of pre-colonial literature, fostering a deep appreciation for the indigenous literary traditions that form an integral part of Filipino identity.

Contemporary Influence of Pre-Colonial Literature

Pre-colonial literature in the Philippines continues to exert a profound influence on contemporary Filipino literature. Writers draw inspiration from the rich cultural heritage and the roots of Filipino storytelling , incorporating elements of pre-colonial literature into their works. The enduring themes, memorable characters, and captivating storytelling techniques found in ancient Philippine literature serve as a wellspring of inspiration for Filipino writers, ensuring the continuity of the literary tradition and the preservation of the Filipino cultural identity.

“Pre-colonial literature provides a rich tapestry of narratives and artistic expressions that resonate with Filipino writers today. It offers a unique and authentic perspective of our cultural heritage, and its influence can be seen in the themes, imagery, and language used in contemporary Filipino literature. By acknowledging and embracing our literary roots, we continue to tell stories that reflect our identity and contribute to the ever-evolving landscape of Filipino literature.”

The impact of pre-colonial literature can be seen in various forms, including novels, short stories, poetry, and even films and theater productions. Filipino writers often infuse their works with traditional storytelling elements such as mythological creatures, supernatural beings, and oral narrative styles passed down through generations. Throughout the years, this infusion of pre-colonial influences has not only maintained the thriving literary tradition in the Philippines but has also helped shape the unique Filipino literary voice.

Moreover, the influence of pre-colonial literature extends beyond the realm of art and literature. It plays a vital role in preserving and promoting the cultural heritage of the Filipino people. By engaging with pre-colonial literary works, contemporary writers contribute to the ongoing appreciation and understanding of the cultural richness and diversity of the Philippines.

The contemporary influence of pre-colonial literature not only adds depth and authenticity to Filipino literary works but also serves as a reminder of the rich cultural heritage that defines the Filipino people. Through the continued exploration and incorporation of pre-colonial elements, Filipino writers ensure the preservation of their literary traditions, nourishing the artistic legacy that has shaped Philippine literature throughout history.

The value of pre-colonial literature.

Understanding and appreciating pre-colonial literature in the Philippines is essential for a deeper understanding of Filipino culture and identity. It provides insights into the historical and cultural context of the Filipino people before colonization. Pre-colonial literature is a valuable literary heritage that showcases the creativity, wisdom, and resilience of the early Filipinos. It serves as a reminder of the rich traditions and narratives that have contributed to the shaping of the Filipino national character.

Challenges and Future Prospects

Despite the efforts to preserve and promote pre-colonial literature, several challenges need to be addressed to ensure its sustained cultural preservation, diversify indigenous voices , and integrate literary education in mainstream academia. One of the ongoing concerns is the preservation of indigenous voices , which requires dedicated efforts to protect and revive the marginalized narratives of indigenous communities. By amplifying these voices, we can celebrate the cultural diversity and richness of the pre-colonial literary tradition.

Inclusion of pre-colonial literature in mainstream literary education is another crucial aspect that needs attention. By integrating pre-colonial texts into the curriculum, students can gain a deeper understanding of their cultural heritage and appreciate the literary works of their ancestors. Literary education programs should be designed to provide historical context, critical analysis, and appreciation of pre-colonial literature, fostering a sense of cultural pride and identity.

Adequate funding and support for cultural organizations and initiatives are key factors in the preservation and promotion of pre-colonial literature. With sufficient resources, cultural organizations can undertake research, documentation, translation , and dissemination of pre-colonial literary works. This financial support will also enable the digitization and preservation of fragile manuscripts, ensuring wider accessibility and long-term sustainability of these invaluable cultural artifacts.

With continued efforts and increased awareness, the future prospects of pre-colonial literature in the Philippines are promising. By investing in cultural preservation, indigenous voices , literary education, and cultural funding , we can ensure the legacy of pre-colonial literature for generations to come. Through these collective endeavors, we can celebrate the diverse narratives and artistic expressions that define the Filipino identity.

Pre-colonial literature in the Philippines holds a significant place in the country’s cultural heritage. It is a testament to the diverse traditions, beliefs, and experiences of the Filipino people before the era of colonization. Through epic poems, folk tales, and other literary forms, pre-colonial literature showcases the vibrant storytelling traditions and the rich imagination of early Filipinos.

The preservation and appreciation of pre-colonial literature are integral to understanding and celebrating the unique cultural richness of the Philippines. By delving into these ancient literary works, we gain insights into the historical and cultural context of the Filipino people, fostering a deeper connection with our roots and identity.

The artistic legacy of pre-colonial literature serves as a source of inspiration for contemporary Filipino literature. It influences and shapes the works of modern writers, ensuring the continuity of the literary tradition and the preservation of our cultural identity. Pre-colonial literature holds a timeless significance and reminds us of the invaluable contributions of the early Filipinos to our literary heritage .

As we continue to appreciate and promote pre-colonial literature, we celebrate the enduring beauty and power of our indigenous literary traditions. By safeguarding and passing on these literary treasures to future generations, we uphold the artistic legacy bequeathed to us by our ancestors, honoring their voices and preserving our cultural heritage for posterity.

What is pre-colonial literature in the Philippines?

What were the social and political structures during the pre-colonial period in the philippines, what are some examples of pre-colonial literary works in the philippines, what were the dominant religions and belief systems during the pre-colonial period in the philippines, what were some cultural achievements during the pre-colonial period in the philippines, how did spanish colonization impact philippine literature, who were some prominent modern filipino writers in the post-colonial period, how is pre-colonial literature being preserved and revived in the philippines, how does pre-colonial literature continue to influence contemporary filipino literature, why is pre-colonial literature important for understanding filipino culture and identity, what are the challenges and future prospects of preserving pre-colonial literature in the philippines, source links.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine_literature
https://kidskonnect.com/history/philippines-pre-colonial-period/
https://www.loc.gov/item/webcast-8451/

Hello! I'm Wise, a Filipina with a deep love for my country and a passion for sharing its beauty with the world. As a writer, blogger, and videographer, I capture the essence of the Philippines through my eyes, hoping to give foreign visitors a true taste of what makes these islands so special.

From the vibrant streets of Manila to the tranquil beaches of Palawan, my journey is about uncovering the hidden gems and everyday wonders that define the Filipino spirit. My articles and blogs are not just travel guides; they are invitations to explore, to feel, and to fall in love with the Philippines, just as I have.

Through my videos, I strive to bring the sights, sounds, and stories of my homeland to life. Whether it's the local cuisine, the colorful festivals, or the warm smiles of the people, I aim to prepare visitors for an authentic experience.

For those seeking more than just a vacation, the Philippines can be a place of discovery and, perhaps, even love. My goal is to be your guide, not just to the places you'll visit, but to the experiences and connections that await in this beautiful corner of the world. Welcome to the Philippines, through my eyes. Let's explore together!

Exploring Journalism in the Philippines Today

Top-Rated Phones in the Philippines

Exploring the Language of the Philippines

Add comment, cancel reply.

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Want Flight, Hotel, and Restaurant Discounts for Your Philippines Trip? Join Below!

Email address:

Buy Me a Coffee

school Campus Bookshelves
menu_book Bookshelves
perm_media Learning Objects
login Login
how_to_reg Request Instructor Account
hub Instructor Commons
Download Page (PDF)
Download Full Book (PDF)
Periodic Table
Physics Constants
Scientific Calculator
Reference & Cite
Tools expand_more
Readability

selected template will load here

This action is not available.

1.2: Native American

Last updated
Save as PDF
Page ID 41814

Wendy Kurant
University of North Georgia via GALILEO Open Learning Materials

The selections of this section come from six tribes whose home‑ lands cover the majority of the United States’ eastern seaboard as well as regions in the midwest and southwest. The Micmac or Mi’kmaq tribe belonged to the Wabanaki Confederacy and occupied a region in southeastern Canada’s maritime provinces as well as parts of New York and New Jersey. One of the oldest political entities in the new world, the Haudenosaunee Confederacy were called the Iroquois by the French and the Five Nations by the English. The latter refers to the five tribes that made up the confederacy: the Cayuga, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, and Seneca tribes. The name was changed to Six Nations when the Tuscarora tribe joined in the eighteenth century. Their territory covered the majority of New York with some inroads in southern Canada and northern Pennsylvania. Called the Delaware by Europeans, the Lenape tribe’s territory included what became New Jersey, eastern Pennsylvania, southeastern New York, northern Delaware, and a bit of southern Connecticut. The Cherokee tribe occupied the southeastern United States as far north as Kentucky and Virginia and as far south as Georgia and Alabama. The Winnebago, or the Ho‑chunks, lived in Wisconsin. Finally, the Zuni or the A:shimi were descendants of the ancient Anasazi and Mogollon cultures of the southwestern United States and occupied the area called New Mexico.

Flag of the Wabanaki Confederacy. Block print like blue symbols in a line on a white background

Image \(\PageIndex{1}\): Flag of the Wabanaki Confederacy

Missionaries and ethnologists were some of the first collectors of Native American tales. The missionaries often learned Native American languages and customs as a way to better proselytize the tribes, and some became at least as interested in these studies as in their religious missions. Moravian missionary John Heckewelder recorded the Lenape account of first contact before the American Revolution and published it early in the next century as part of the transactions of the American Philosophical Society, an outgrowth of the Federal era’s zeal for knowledge and scientific study. Baptist missionary Silas Rand ministered to the Micmac tribe and recorded the first contact story told to him by Micmac man Josiah Jeremy. A self‑taught linguist, Rand also published a Micmac dictionary. Toward the latter half of the nineteenth century, the developing field of ethnology—the analytic study of a culture’s customs, religious practices, and social structures—fueled the study of Native American culture. The Cherokee accounts recorded by James Mooney and the Zuni accounts recorded by Ruth Bunzel were first published as part of the annual reports produced by the Bureau of American Ethnology, a federal office in existence from 1879 to 1965 that authorized ethnological studies of tribes throughout America. Paul Radin—like Bunzel, a student of cultural anthropology pioneer Franz Boas—did his fieldwork for his doctorate among the Winnebago and there recorded the tribe’s trickster tales. While many of the accounts come from outsiders embedded for a time within tribes, some accounts were recorded by tribe members themselves. Though previously recounted by others, the Haudenosaunee creation story here is from Tuscarora tribal member David Cusick. A physician and artist, Cusick was one of the first Native American writers to preserve tribal history in his Sketches of the Ancient History of the Six Nations (1826). The Haudenosaunee Thanksgiving Address comes from University of Victoria professor Gerald Taiaiake Alfred, a member of the Kahnawake (Mohawk) tribe. Alfred has published several works about Native American culture in the early 21st century.

Woven wampam belt, black with white symbols in a band

Image \(\PageIndex{2}\): Wampum Belt Commemorating the Iroquis Confederacy

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

We're Hiring!
Help Center

PRE COLONIAL LITERATURE

Related Papers

Daniel Supetran

Al Jerome Orocio

A simple and basic look at the progression/development of literature in the Philippines.

Mary Annjelou Montefalcon

The word literature is derived from the Latin term litera which means letter. Some loosely interpret literature as any printed matter written within a book, a magazine or a pamphlet. Others define literature as a faithful reproduction of man's manifold experiences blended into one harmonious expression. Because literature deals with ideas, thoughts and emotions of man, literature can be said to be the story of man. Man's loves, grief's, thoughts, dreams and aspirations coached in beautiful language is literature. In order to know the history of a nation's spirit, one must read its literature. MAPPING THE FEATURES OF PHILIPPINE LITERATURE PRE-COLONIAL PERIOD ✓ Our ancient literature shows our customs and traditions in everyday life as traced in our folk stories, old plays and short stories. ✓ Our ancestors also had their alphabet-similar of the Malayo-Polynesian. ✓ Whatever records our ancestors were either burned by Spanish friars or written on materials that easily perished ✓ It is oral in nature and is full of lessons and ideas about life, its blessings, and its consequences. ✓ The verses were addressed to the ears rather than the eyes ✓ Verse composed and sung were regarded as group property

Martin, Isabel Pefianco. 2007. The Literature Filipino Students Do Not Read. In David Prescott, Andy Kirkpatrick, Azirah Hashim, and Isabel Pefianco Martin. (eds.) English in Southeast Asia: literacies, literatures and varieties. UK:Cambridge Scholars Press, 290-318

Isabel Pefianco Martin

This chapter presents a study about the literature young Filipinos read today. The first part briefly reviews the literary canon, curriculum, and teaching practices during the American colonial period. The second part details the study which specifically addresses the following questions: (1) What literary texts are required by high school teachers in the literature classrooms? (2) What literary texts are read by Filipino high school students on their own? (3) Is the Anglo- American literary canon, introduced through the American public school system about a hundred years ago, still being used in Filipino literature course today? (4) To what extent does Philippine literature in English occupy the Filipino students’ literature education? More than a hundred years after American soldiers first taught English to Filipino schoolchildren, Philippine literature education today continues to privilege texts of American and European origins.

Randwick International of Education and Linguistics Science Journal

Learning a second language is one thing. Learning a second language through reading a text is another thing. This study aims to show the acquisition of Filipino as Second Language of the respondents who are reading novels. The researcher utilized the Descriptive Method of research with the questionnaire as the main data-gathering instrument since this study focused on Reading Filipino Novels in Acquiring Filipino as Second Language; Basis in Designing a Guide to Enhance Filipino Proficiency. Engaging children in reading novels have some effects on how they acquire new language. The improvement of a child is not only about himself but also there are some factors concerning it.This study aims to show the acquisition of Filipino as Second Language of the respondents who are reading novels. Those respondents who are fond of reading such novels will acquire something

Rolando Salvana

Baby Jane Panganiban

Fatima Joy Miranda

World Journal of English Language

Rom Peña II

This research paper will discuss the manifestation of popular culture in the works of young Filipino novelists. It will focus on the novels of three young Filipino novelists in the Philippines. The three Filipino novels are Peksman (Mamatay Ka Man) Nagsisinungaling Ako (at Iba Pang Kuwentong Kasinungalingan na Di Dapat Paniwalaan) by Eros S. Atalia, published in 2007; Lumbay ng Dila by Genevieve L. Asenjo, published in 2010 and Sa Kasunod ng 909 by Edgar Calabia Samar, published in 2012. These three novels were prizewinners and received citations in the Philippines. All of the authors of these three novels became fellows of the International Writing Program (IWP) of the University of Iowa. The primary objectives of this research paper are: to explore the manifestations of popular culture in the selected three novels from the Philippines as works and practices of intellectual and incredibly artistic activity of young Filipino novelists and to build a new understanding and reading of ...

John Karlo Sapuyot

The Evolution of Philippine Literature

Study collections

Add this document to collection(s).

You can add this document to your study collection(s)

Add this document to saved

You can add this document to your saved list

Suggest us how to improve StudyLib

(For complaints, use another form )

Input it if you want to receive answer

Search Menu
Advance articles
Errata and Corrigenda
Special Issues
Talking Points
Virtual Issues
The Forum Prize
Author Guidelines
Submission Site
Open Access
Books Offered for Review
Reviewing for FMLS
5 reasons to submit
About Forum for Modern Language Studies
Editorial Board
Advertising and Corporate Services
Journals Career Network
Self-Archiving Policy
Dispatch Dates
Terms and Conditions
Journals on Oxford Academic
Books on Oxford Academic

Article Contents

Precolonial influence: india and western literatures, western impact, indian response, the anxiety to be influenced, postcolonial intertextuality.

< Previous

Colonial Influence, Postcolonial Intertextuality: Western Literature and Indian Literature

Article contents
Figures & tables
Supplementary Data

Harish Trivedi, Colonial Influence, Postcolonial Intertextuality: Western Literature and Indian Literature, Forum for Modern Language Studies , Volume 43, Issue 2, APRIL 2007, Pages 121–133, https://doi.org/10.1093/fmls/cqm006

Permissions Icon Permissions

India, with its colonial history and contemporary postcolonial culture, offers a rich site for the study of both influence and intertextuality. Through the rise of “Orientalism”, it was India which first exercised a literary influence on the West, an equation that was utterly reversed later through colonial intervention. Though some Indian critics have been only too keen to acclaim or denounce the influence of the West, the discriminating response of Indian writers offers more complex examples of both influence and intertextuality as forms of reception.

I n T o the L ighthouse by Virginia Woolf, Charles Tansley, a bright young philosopher, is understood by the kindly Mrs Ramsay to be writing a dissertation on “the influence of something upon somebody”, but as if that were not bad enough, she confidently recalls his topic later in the novel to be “the influence of somebody upon something”. 1 In Small World by David Lodge, another young researcher, Persse McGarrigle, whose thesis is on the influence of Shakespeare on T. S. Eliot, plays a little trick on some crass academics by telling them that it is “about the influence of T. S. Eliot on Shakespeare” and keeps up his clever little game by arguing that now “we can't avoid reading Shakespeare through the lens of T. S. Eliot's poetry”. 2 In both instances, “influence” has become one big joke, the kind of tired old inane thing that some young academics still work on without knowing whether they are coming or going, which is enough to give not only “influence” but research or high academic pursuit in general a bad name.

It would, however, be rash and even misleading to think that such discredited and outmoded “influence” (or “‘traditional’ influence”, as it is now called) 3 has simply morphed into trendy and with-it “intertextuality”. Indeed, if we were to surmise what the antonym (or the “other”) of “intertextuality”/“intertext” might be, it would probably not be “influence” at all but the “text” itself (as in Roland Barthes's key dictum, “Every text is an intertext”), 4 or the “dead” author and his residual “function” (as in the Barthes–Foucault debate on the subject), 5 or, more broadly speaking, “the ingrained notions of originality, uniqueness, singularity and autonomy” – as opposed to “relationality, interconnectedness and interdependence in modes of cultural life” which intertextuality signifies. 6 As a plank, or even instrument, of poststructuralism, intertextuality thus proclaims and celebrates the instability of all communication and meaning, and destabilises the notion not merely of (old) influence but equally of all signification.

Would it, then, be at all meaningful to say that Julia Kristeva's original (or at least originary) formulation of the notion of intertextuality in the 1960s was “influenced” by both Saussure and Bakhtin? And does it improve matters to say, as a discriminating reader of Kristeva has said, that her notion of intertextuality is “explicitly modeled” on Bakhtin's notion of “dialogism” 7 – or does it only make them worse? Further, what happens to intertextuality when Kristeva herself goes on to prefer the term “transposition” because, as she puts it, intertextuality “has often been understood in the banal sense of ‘study of sources’”? 8 Has intertextuality only too soon turned out, even for its theorising/christening godmother Kristeva, to be suspiciously close to influence – in the sense of a “study of sources” – and are we back where we began?

It hardly matters. The bare fact remains that in literary studies (and in newer related disciplines), we have had over the last three or four decades less and less talk of “influence” and more and more talk of “intertextuality”, and that is a clear enough distinction by itself in empirical terms. In this article, I propose to look at the interrelationship between Western literature and Indian literature, mainly on the basis of the evolving critical discourse produced in India on this issue, and the first observation to make here may be that while during the colonial period, it is mostly “influence” that the Indian writers and critics talk about, Indian literature produced in the last few decades has often been discussed in terms of “intertextuality” or “pastiche” or that postcolonial, theoretical half-breed cousin of it – “hybridity”. And it may, perhaps, be a little too self-reflexive to ask if this shift in terms of critical discourse from “influence” to “intertextuality” or “hybridity” has itself come about as a result of the persisting influence of the Western critical practice upon the Indian critical practice in this regard, and is therefore itself part of the problem.

The earliest recorded transaction between Indian literature and Western literature was perhaps the translation of the Panchatantra , a collection of fables compiled around the 5th century A.D., successively from Sanskrit through Middle Persian, Arabic, Greek, Hebrew and Latin into a number of modern European languages, including into Czech, for example, in 1528, and through Italian into English in 1570 by Sir Thomas North as The Moral Philosophy of Doni ; the text proved to be “the source of much European folklore”. 9 Apparently, this remained a solitary pre-colonial example of the translation and influence of a Sanskrit text in Europe until the second half of the eighteenth century, when Voltaire acclaimed the “Ezour-Vedam” (i.e., the Yajur-veda), a Sanskrit scriptural text “definitely anterior to Alexander's expedition” into India in 327 B.C., of which he had seen a manuscript translation into French in 1760, and Maridas Poulle and Abraham Hyacinthe Anquetil-Duperron prepared in the 1780s French translations, respectively, of the Bagavadam (i.e., the Bhagavatam ) and a selection of the Oupnek'hat (i.e., the Upanishads ), the latter following the version which the Mughal prince Dara Shikoh had had translated from Sanskrit into Persian in 1656. 10

the world, in the sense that we understand it, dates from [this] period. For so long merely Mediterranean, humanism began to be global […]; a whole buried world arose to unsettle the foremost minds of an age. 11

On the other hand, in his foreword to the English translation of Schwab's book, Edward Said said that while Schwab's view of the Orient was “profound and beneficent” and his was “criticism of a sympathetic cast”, he “avoid[ed] the disorienting aspects of the European experience in the East” as well as any “ethno- and anthropocentric” approaches to it, and while he must not be regarded as “a failed theorist”, his value lay in the fact that his “great scholarly achievement” provided the occasion for later “theoretical orientation” – such, presumably, as Said's own in his book Orientalism . 13

Indeed, Schwab's view of “orientalism” (and “perhaps no single word has been so loaded with emotion, even passion,” he had already noted in 1950) and Said's view of it represent two diametrically opposed approaches to the phenomenon. But though Schwab and Said differ radically on whether this substantial body of translated Indian literature had a beneficial or a deleterious influence on the West, they are both agreed on how enormous and vital the influence was. In any case, as the British won more and more vital military victories in India and consolidated their colonial power, their regard for oriental texts seemed correspondingly to decline; their enhanced power over India neither facilitated nor seemed to depend on any enhanced knowledge of the country. Shortly afterwards, in fact, they instituted steps to make the Indians learn English and discover Western literature and come under its influence, in one of the clearest instances of a direct use of power to turn the tide of the flow of knowledge and its direction. 14

Following a decision taken by the Governor-General of India in 1837 and the consequent setting-up of numerous colleges and, in 1857, three universities in India on the British pattern, a small but important section of Indians began to study not only English language and literature but even Sanskrit literature through the medium of English. The heyday of orientalism was by now clearly over, and it had by decree been replaced by a kind of occidentalism. The discovery of Sanskrit literature may or may not have led to an oriental renaissance in England, but the imposition of English literature in India under the colonial dispensation did soon lead to what several traditional historians of the phenomenon acclaimed as “the Bengal Renaissance” or “the Indian Renaissance”, though some major contemporary critics have recently begun to interrogate the description. 15

Though literature in Sanskrit and two closely related ancient languages, Prakrit and Pali, had flourished in India since about 1500 B.C. (and also, since about 250 B.C., in a Dravidian language in South India – Tamil), and though both ancient and modern Indian languages had been constantly interacting with some Central Asian languages and cultures such as Turkish, Arabic and Persian since about 900 A.D., it is undeniable that Indian literature even in its already hybridised condition had never before felt an impact as hard and powerful as that caused by our discovery of English literature. Though the English language belonged at least nominally to the Indo-European family, its syntax, culture, social conventions, values and world-view were all as different as could be imagined. This by itself would have been enough to cause a great impact, but what made the impact incalculably greater was that English literature came to us as the literature of our masters. The influence of English literature on Indian literature may be one of the most extensive and profound influences ever exerted by one literature over another, but it still remains only a very small part of the larger master narrative, if one may so call it, of the impact of British colonial rule on India, and is inextricably entwined with it. It was not merely, or even mainly, a literary and cultural influence; it was a more comprehensively hegemonic oppression. 16

Numerous fascinating accounts of this influence are available either in autobiographical accounts by Indian creative writers, or in comparative critical discussions of the merits of say Shakespeare and Kalidasa, the fourth-century Sanskrit dramatist and poet whom Sir William Jones had already acclaimed as “the Shakespeare of India” in the preface to his translation of his foremost play, the Abhijnanashakuntalam , under the title Sacontala (1789). For example, Rabindranath Tagore, the Bengali poet who won the Nobel prize for literature in 1913, said how the “spirit of Europe” had awakened and “dazzled” him when he was an adolescent, and that the “impetuosity of […] passion” of a romantic poet like Byron in particular had “moved our veiled heart-bride in the seclusion of her corner”. 17 (This erotic-mystical metaphor for the literary influence of the West upon the East is, incidentally, profoundly traditional and comes straight from the long line of Indian devotional poetry of which Tagore was one of the last major practitioners; however stirring and sweeping the influence of the West may have been, it was still felt and described by him in unreconstituted Eastern terms.)

The bulk of it [i.e., Bengali literature] was monotonous, platitudinous, convention-ridden, and devoid of substance, variety and virility. […] [C]ontact with English literature has given it substance and variety, intellectuality and modernity. It has […] become a fit medium for adult and civilized consciousness. More important than anything else, it has become humanized. […] The Bengali writer need no longer live in the darkness and isolation of his native medievalism; he is a citizen of the entire modern world. 18

Ghosh's account of the influence of English literature on Bengali literature as having been not only a modernising but indeed a civilising force indicates that he had fully internalised the British colonial claim that their rule in India was a civilising mission. But Ghosh's further claim that this influence served to “humanise” Bengali literature, as if it had been sub-human or inhuman ever since its origin, is contradicted by Ghosh's own account earlier in his book according to which Bengali literature began in the twelfth century, while its great epic, which Ghosh calls “the Bible of the people of Bengal” and which was written in the fifteenth century, heralded “the great classical renaissance which in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries poured the treasures of ancient Sanskrit literature in a golden shower over Bengal”. 19 But this lyrical tribute by Ghosh to what Bengali literature derived from Sanskrit literature is apparently forgotten, disparaged and even expunged when he comes, but a hundred pages later in his brief history, to eulogise the Western influence on Bengali literature.

What makes this period unique in our literary history is its continuous conflict between the indigenous and the alien ideals, values and sensibilities. It was not a contact between two authors or two texts, it was a contact between two civilizations in an unfortunate historical circumstance. […] This love and hate relationship with the West made the literary contact tortuous and complex. 20

It was as if, on being confronted with the alien novel, the Indian writer instinctively reached for his katha and his dastan , and on coming across tragedy, for his karma . A true measure of the depth of the Western impact on India seems to have been what may be called the nearly equal and opposite reaction that it caused, of taking the Indian writer back to his traditional sources which had regulated Indian literature in an uninterrupted (if constantly modified) continuum right to the point of the arrival of the British, without the hiatus of any “medieval” or “dark” ages. Unlike in some other parts of the colonised world, such as Africa and the West Indies and, in a different way, also the white settler colonies, we in India had something traditional, substantial and no less rich of our own into which, and against which, to receive the Western impact and to cushion and even foil it. The Western influence on Indian literature was nothing if not dialectical and dialogic, which makes it perhaps as vast and complex an example as one could find anywhere in world literature not only of influence but also of reception.

In this context, the Indian critical discourse on Western influence seems almost as fascinating as the influence itself, and contributes to the issue a paratextual (if not quite metatextual) dimension. This discourse seems to divide predictably into two broad categories, of critics who find such influence everywhere, and of other critics who are either reluctant to see such influence or tend to play it down. However, what unites both the categories is their common concern with identifying what they implicitly or explicitly regard as “good” and enabling influence, and distinguishing it from bad or sterile influence.

The “anxiety of influence” (i.e., a basically romantic concern to preserve and protect one's own originality against the possible influence of “strong” predecessors, perceived Oedipally as father-figures) has been identified by Harold Bloom as a condition universal enough in Western literature to provide him with a whole “theory of poetry”. 22 In colonial India, on the other hand, in the first flush of Western influence, it was often seen as a badge of distinction to have been influenced by some Western author or other; a term of high praise for a writer was to be called, for example, the Walter Scott or the Byron or the Shelley or whatever of Bengal.

It has been in particular in critical discussions of the novel, which is generally agreed to have been a form that did not exist in India before the beginning of the Western influence, that influence studies have had a field day. One of the most impressive critical works here was produced as a doctoral thesis by Bharat Bhushan Agrawal, fairly late in his career, when he was already well known as a Hindi poet and novelist and held a senior administrative post in the Sahitya Akademi, the Indian National Academy of Letters. Hindi Upanyas par Pashchatya Prabhav (Western Influence on the Hindi Novel), a lively 500-page treatise, is as scholarly, sensitive, and searching an account of literary influence as perhaps any yet attempted in Hindi criticism, and therefore worth attending to for both its virtues and its limitations.

In one sense, of course, each thought or sentiment is [an example of] influence because, by definition, each thought that arises or is born in the mind cannot come into existence without some impact of the external world, yet there is a sufficient difference between the two even if of a subtle kind. […] Thus, there is a marked element of reaction in influence. […] And the reaction may not always be positive, it may also be negative. […] A second characteristic of influence is that it is by its very nature not whole but partial. […] A third characteristic of influence is that it is not obligatory but optional. […] If there is no reaction at all, it is not possible for influence to exist. […] A fourth characteristic of influence is that by itself, it is not enduring or permanent. Born as a reaction, it enters one's sensibility but then it is either erased, in the sense that one's sensibility is freed of it and returns to its original nature, or it is assimilated into the sentiments bred by one's own sensibility and becomes a part of a person's nature. 23

However, such apparently postcolonial sturdiness does not stop Agrawal from treating all his chosen Hindi novelists as guilty almost of plagiarism until proved innocent, as if that were the recognised universal procedure for conducting influence studies. For example, S. H. Vatsyayan Ajneya (1911–87), who was not only himself the first major modernist poet and novelist in Hindi but, through his role as an outstanding editor of journals and anthologies, also the cause of modernism in numerous other Hindi writers, is subjected to a particularly close interrogation regarding his possible Western sources, including some that he himself openly and blithely acknowledged, among them “ Through the Eyes of a Child ” (sc. The Eyes of a Child , 1917), a novel by Edwin Pugh. It is a deliciously ironical reflection on the nature of colonial influence that while the novel in question by Ajneya, Shekhar: Ek Jivani (2 vols, 1941, 1944) is agreed to be one of the greatest Hindi novels of the twentieth century, Pugh (1874–1930), who was a Fabian socialist and a prolific novelist of the realist Cockney school, does not even rate an entry in the Oxford Companion to English Literature .

“You lie there,” he said softly, and he shut the door, so that it was dark, quite dark. With a queer obedience, she lay down on the blanket. 24

Broadly comparable in attitude to Agrawal is a later critic, Jaidev, who was Professor of English at the university in Shimla, and whose work of criticism, written in English and titled The Culture of Pastiche: Existential Aestheticism in the Contemporary Hindi Novel (1993) deals with the work of four later Hindi novelists who all began writing after India gained independence in 1947, and who may therefore at least technically be called postcolonial. Jaidev describes three of his four chosen novelists as being “captivated by the lore of High Modernism and existentialism”, both Western literary movements which he asserts have no valid relevance or resonance in India. By the term “pastiche”, which Jaidev says he uses interchangeably with “influence, imitation, adoption [and] intertextuality”, he means to indicate that these novelists “willingly, almost gratefully, allow the [Western] influence to become the most dominant code in their novels.” And in the “Conclusion”, he clarifies that his study “has not been against the influence of Western writers or movements on the Hindi novelists. […] It has only been against their undue privileging of this influence.” 25 He, too, cites numerous parallel passages from these Hindi novelists and Western novelists such as Camus and Beckett and imputes resemblances between them, many of which again seem so broad as to be untenable. For example, Molloy in Beckett is at one point asked by an intruder, “Are you not dead yet?”, whereas a Hindi hero of Krishna Baldev Vaid is asked by a visitor, “Are you still alive?” 26

Thus, if there was among some early Indian enthusiasts of Western literature in the nineteenth century a marked anxiety to be influenced, there has apparently been a corresponding eagerness among some Indian literary critics of a later era to see postcolonial Indian writers as still being unduly influenced by the West. In the case of Agrawal, it may have been sheer source-hunting indulged in as a delectable critical game, but for Jaidev it was probably more a case of moral indignation and anguish at finding that though India had attained swaraj , or self-rule politically by becoming independent, at least some strands of Indian “literary discourse” still had “room neither for Gandhi nor for our culture” and created fictional characters so Westernised in their sensibility that “they often wilfully estrange themselves from India, her needs and her socio-cultural practices, in order to go global”. 27

The year following the publication of The Culture of Pastiche , Jaidev contributed a paper to a conference in which he described postcolonialism as “a long, difficult moral project” of building “a good nation” in which the poor and the lowly were at least “allowed the right to be decently poor and human” and to be accorded literary representation in “simple texts [with] simple literary norms”. At the same time, he expressed serious doubt, in the allusive (and untranslated) Hindi title which he pointedly gave his paper written in English, whether such postcolonialism will ever come to pass. 28

The postcolonialism that has come to pass certainly has no simple norms, nor can the inter-text be by any means called a simple text. In an intermeshing of the two major “post-” discourses of our times, the ever-deferred semantic and semiotic contingencies of the postmodern have infected the urgent oppositional political impulse that initially underlay the postcolonial, to form a condition of hybrid identity ideally suited (in Homi Bhabha's compelling phrase) to the “translational transnational”, 29 i.e., the Third World migrant in transit to the First World. And any kind of nation or nationalism, let alone the “good nation”, is now in bad theoretical odour. The postcolonial world, having dissolved the old blameful binary of the coloniser and the colonised, has gone global, just as the great majority of the “postcolonial” writers seem to have migrated to the West and to be now writing (back?) from that cosy proximity to the centre in the one global language, English. The distinction between the centre and the periphery seems no longer to hold or is said even to have been reversed – with the attendant paradox that if there is now no difference between the centre and the periphery, there is not much point perhaps in being the new centre. 30

the vocabulary is much richer and more attractively diversified: draw on, resort to, avail oneself of, appropriate from, have recourse to, adapt, misunderstand, refer to, pick up, take on, engage with, react to, quote, differentiate oneself from, assimilate oneself to, assimilate, align oneself with, copy, address, paraphrase, absorb, make a variation on, revive, continue, remodel, ape, emulate, travesty, parody, extract from, distort, attend to, resist, simplify, reconstitute, elaborate on, develop, face up to, master, subvert, perpetuate, reduce, promote, respond to, transform, tackle … – everyone will be able to think of others. 31

What a colonial subject might be able to think of, even beyond this somewhat contrarily exhaustive list (which has both “assimilate oneself to” and “assimilate” in the same breath, and similarly “ape, emulate” as well as “travesty, parody”) are words like “be dominated by, be oppressed, be hegemonised” – all terms used before in this discussion, which apparently still lie beyond Baxandall's interminable and perhaps irresponsibly ludic range. Again, the historical colonial experience of being influenced by the West does not show many of the possibilities listed by Baxandall as having been available as real options. Homi Bhabha's celebrated examples of “sly civility” and subversive “mimicry” on the part of some Indians in their response to the West all date from a period before the British had consolidated themselves as a ruling power in India, when the playing field was if not quite level then at least not steeply unlevel, and they are in any case exceptions and not the rule. 32

The shift from almost coercive and certainly hegemonic colonial “influence” to apparently less hierarchical and more enabling postcolonial “intertextuality”, this shifting of the goal posts in extra-time, may seem to be a form of belated empowerment. If the new intertextual dispensation has visibly enabled any writers, it must be Salman Rushdie and other younger postcolonial Indian writers in English, who can be seen in the West to be reassuringly intertextual by the mere fact of their writing about India in a Western language, English, and furthermore, by writing in such a scriptible or “writerly” mode that even an acknowledged expert on intertextuality such as Graham Allen could take India to be Pakistan. 33

A more challenging and therefore more rewarding task before students of influence, reception and/or intertextuality (especially those familiar with an Indian language and/or located in India) may be to read the works of numerous young and old writers still writing in the Indian languages. They are demonstrably bilingual and therefore have what may be called an intercultural sensibility that is likely to have been even more conducive to the production of intertextuality than, say, Rushdie's predominantly Anglophone sensibility.

To cite very briefly a couple of examples, two of the four novelists whom Jaidev considers in his book to be pasticheurs if not worse have had career trajectories that seem tailor-made for intertextual creativity. Nirmal Verma (1929–2005), probably the foremost Hindi novelist of the last (postcolonial) half-century, was the son of a senior bureaucrat of the British Raj, and got his B.A. and M.A. degrees from St Stephen's College, Delhi, an elite missionary institution where several noted Indian novelists writing in English also studied later, including Amitav Ghosh, Allan Sealy and Shashi Tharoor. Verma, in contrast, decided to write in Hindi, and in 1957 went on a scholarship to Czechoslovakia where he learnt the language and translated several Czech writers into Hindi, including Milan Kundera before he became known in the West. After the Prague Spring of 1968, Verma went to London and lived there for about two years before returning to India for good. His first novel, Ve din (literally, “Those Days”; in published English translation, Days of Longing ), is set entirely in Prague, while a selection of thirteen short stories by him all set in the West is available in English translation in a volume titled Indian Errant . Though he always wrote his fiction in Hindi, Verma would often write his essays and conference papers in either English or Hindi, as seemed suitable.

Another novelist even more sternly castigated by Jaidev, Krishna Baldev Vaid (1927–), taught English literature in a college of the University of Delhi before going to the USA where he obtained a Ph.D. from Harvard in 1961; his doctoral dissertation was published by Harvard University Press in 1964 under the title Technique in the Tales of Henry James. He then taught English for over two decades at the State University of New York at Potsdam before returning to live in India. Besides numerous Hindi novels, short stories and plays of his own, many of them published while he was living in the USA, he has also published translations into Hindi of Beckett's Waiting for Godot and Endgame , and of Alice in Wonderland , and translations into English of Nirmal Verma's first novel, Days of Longing , and of several books of his own fiction, including his much acclaimed first novel, Uska Bachpan (literally, “His Childhood”), as Steps in Darkness .

It could be argued that both Verma and Vaid know the West rather better than, say, Rushdie knows India, which he left forever when he was a mere child of thirteen. Nor could Rushdie, by all available evidence, possibly translate a work of his own into Hindi/Urdu/Hindustani, which is his first Indian language, to save his life. If intertextuality is not mainly a matter of multilingual punning and allusion-mongering broadly within the same culture (as in the case of James Joyce), or a superficial and sensational representation of the exotic “other” (as in the case of Salman Rushdie), but the function of a more deeply permeating intermingling of two radically different cultures within the same individual sensibility, as in the cases of Verma and Vaid (and of scores of other writers from the eighteen major Indian languages), then, a close study of such Indian writers may lead to a serious enrichment of our understanding of both (colonial) influence and (postcolonial) intertextuality, and possibly also a reformulation of the very meaning and definition of these terms on the evidence of their modified function in a (post)colonial context, beyond the ateliers of Western theory.

V. Woolf, To the Lighthouse (1927; rpt. London, 1951), pp. 24, 105.

D. Lodge, Small World (New York, 1984), pp. 59–60.

M. Orr, Intertextuality: Debates and Contexts (Cambridge, 2003), pp. 83ff.

Qtd. in Orr, Intertextuality , p. 33.

Rptd. in D. Lodge, Modern Criticism and Theory: A Reader (London, 1988), pp. 167–72, 197–210.

G. Allen, Intertextuality (London, 2000), pp. 5–6.

J. Mowitt, Text: The Genealogy of an Anti-Disciplinary Object (Durham NC, 1992), p. 110.

Qtd. in Mowitt, Text , p. 110.

See M. Drabble (ed.), The Oxford Companion to English Literature , new edn (Oxford, 1985), pp. 703 and 100, and M. Galik, “East–West interliterariness: a theoretical sketch and a historical overview”, in: Comparative Literature: Theory and Practice , ed. A. Dev & S. K. Das (Shimla, 1989), p. 120.

See R. Schwab, The Oriental Renaissance: Europe's Rediscovery of India and the East 1680–1880 (in French 1950; Eng. tr. New York, 1984), pp. 152–60.

Schwab, “There is an Oriental Renaissance”, in his Oriental Renaissance , pp. 11–20 and passim.

J. Drew, India and the Romantic Imagination (Delhi, 1987).

E. W. Said, “Foreword”, in Schwab, Oriental Renaissance , pp. vii–xix. For a textually detailed analysis of the connection between imperialism and Romantic Orientalism, see N. Leask, British Romantic Writers and the East: Anxieties of Empire (1992; rpt. New Delhi, 1993).

For a survey of the production and politics of orientalism in India through translations into English in the nineteenth century, see H. Trivedi, “Literatures of the Indian sub-continent”, in: The Oxford History of Literary Translation into English , ed. P. France & S. Gillespie, Vol. 4 (Oxford, 2006).

For example, see Namvar Singh, “The Nineteenth century Indian Renaissance: myth or reality?”, in Avadhesh K. Singh, Indian Renaissance Literature (New Delhi, 2003), pp. 53–79.

For an extensive discussion of how Western literary influence was felt by numerous Indian writers to be an oppression, see S. Chandra, The Oppressive Present: Literature and Social Consciousness in Colonial India (Delhi, 1992). See also the section titled “The Early Hindi Novel; The Tyranny of the Form”, in H. Trivedi, “The progress of Hindi, Part 2: Hindi and the nation”, in: Literary Cultures in History: Reconstructions from South Asia , ed. S. Pollock (Berkeley, 2003), pp. 1002–7.

Qtd. in H. Trivedi, “Nationalism, internationalism, imperialism: Tagore on England and the West”, in H. Trivedi, Colonial Transactions: English Literature and India (Manchester, 1995), p. 56.

J. C. Ghosh, Bengali Literature (1948; rpt. London, 1976), pp. 118–19.

Ghosh, Bengali Literature , pp. 34–5.

S. K. Das, A History of Indian Literature 1800–1910, Western Impact: Indian Response (New Delhi, 1991), p. 331.

Das, A History , pp. 332, 332, 336, 340 and 336, respectively.

H. Bloom, The Anxiety of Influence: A Theory of Poetry (Oxford, 1973).

B. B. Agrawal, Hindi upanyas par pashchatya prabhav (New Delhi, n.d. [ c. 1971]), pp. 66–8; my translation. Incidentally, a standard dictionary defines “ prabhav ” as “1. power, might; majesty. 2. influence (upon); effect; impression”, and the adjectival past participle “ prabhavit ” as “influenced (by); impressed (by)”; “ prabhav ” in both its senses thus seems an altogether more useful word in a colonial context than “influence” in English. R. S. McGregor, The Oxford Hindi–English Dictionary (Delhi, 1997), p. 662.

Agrawal, pp. 352–3, and D. H. Lawrence, Lady Chatterley's Lover (London, 1973), p. 120.

Jaidev, The Culture of Pastiche: Existential Aestheticism in the Contemporary Hindi Novel (Shimla, 1993), pp. 23, 3 and 224, respectively.

Jaidev, Culture , p. 160.

Jaidev, Culture , pp. 14, 89.

Jaidev, “ Na Aane Wala Post-colonialism?”, in: Interrogating Post-Colonialism: Theory, Text and Context , ed. H. Trivedi & M. Mukherjee (Shimla, 1996), pp. 177–85.

H. K. Bhabha, The Location of Culture (London, 1994), p. 172–3 and passim.

For a variety of critical views on the matter, see M. Ghosh-Schellhorn (ed.), Peripheral Centres , Central Peripheries (Munster, 2006).

M. Baxandall, qtd. in Orr, Intertextuality , pp. 83–4.

Bhabha, Location , pp. 85–92 and 93–101.

“In Rushdie's novel [ Midnight's Children ], a contemporary narrator, Saleem Sinai, born at the moment of Pakistan's independence, tries to narrate his own life history at the same time as narrating the history of Pakistan” (G. Allen, Intertextuality [London, 2000], p. 192). But cf.: “I was born in the city of Bombay […] at the precise instant of India's arrival at independence” (S. Rushdie, Midnight's Children [1980; rpt. New York, 1982], p. 3). It was in his next novel, Shame (1983), that Rushdie narrated the “history” of Pakistan; perhaps, a case can be argued that the two novels are intertextual.

Email alerts

Citing articles via.

Recommend to your Library

Affiliations

Online ISSN 1471-6860
Print ISSN 0015-8518
About Oxford Academic
Publish journals with us
University press partners
What we publish
New features
Open access
Institutional account management
Rights and permissions
Get help with access
Accessibility
Advertising
Media enquiries
Oxford University Press
Oxford Languages
University of Oxford

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide

Cookie settings
Cookie policy
Privacy policy
Legal notice

This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only

This PDF is available to Subscribers Only

For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription.

Thursday, January 31, 2013

Reflective essay on pre-colonial period literature of the philippines, no comments:, post a comment.

IMAGES

Characteristics of Pre-Colonial Literature Free Essay Example
AN Essay About THE Philippine Literature IN Precolonial Period
[Solved] 1. Why is it important to learn about the pre-colonial
PPT
PRE-COLONIAL LITERATURE by Andi Policarpio
Literary History of the Philippines (Pre-Colonialism Period)

VIDEO

Oral Lore
Literature
colonial and post colonial literature semster 3 MA english lko universiry 2024
Intro to Pre-Colonial Period, Colonialism, and Early Nationalism
Post colonial literature #english #literature #study #youtube #youtubeshorts #notes #class #history
PRE-COLONIAL LITERATURE

COMMENTS

1: Pre- and Early Colonial Literature
This page titled 1: Pre- and Early Colonial Literature is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Wendy Kurant (GALILEO Open Learning Materials) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is available upon request.
Philippine Literature during Pre-Colonial Period
The oral literature of the precolonial Filipinos bore the marks of the community. The subject was invariably the common experience of the people constituting the village-food-gathering, creature and objects of nature, work in the home, field, forest or sea, caring for children, etc. This is evident in the most common forms of oral literature ...
Becoming America: An Exploration of American Literature from
The University of North Georgia Press and Affordable Learning Georgia bring you Becoming America: An Exploration of American Literature from Precolonial to Post-Revolution. Featuring sixty-nine authors and full texts of their works, the selections in this open anthology represent the diverse voices in early American literature. This completely-open anthology will connect students to the ...
Past and Presentism: the 'Precolonial' and The Foreshortening of
51 D. Newbury, The Land Beyond the Mists: Essays on Identity and Authority in Pre-colonial Congo and Rwanda (Athens, OH, 2009); J. Vansina, Le Rwanda ancien: le royaume nyiginya (Paris, 2001), translated as Antecedents to Modern Rwanda: The Nyiginya Kingdom (Madison, 2004).
Explore Pre Colonial Literature in the Philippines
Pre-colonial literature continues to inspire and influence contemporary Filipino literature, preserving the cultural richness and artistic legacy of the Philippines. The Philippines' Pre-Colonial Period. The Pre-Colonial period in the Philippines was a time of vibrant indigenous cultures, rich traditions, and flourishing trade.
Colonial Writing in North America
Reassessments of Colonial Literature. In early-21st-century culture, for example, renewed appreciation for the expressive value of nonfictional prose, and for writing that blurs the distinction between journalism and imaginative literature, opens the way to better understanding of colonial autobiographies, histories, and sermons.Attentiveness to irony and patterns of self-making enables a ...
1.2: Native American
Image 1.2.1 1.2. 1: Flag of the Wabanaki Confederacy. Missionaries and ethnologists were some of the first collectors of Native American tales. The missionaries often learned Native American languages and customs as a way to better proselytize the tribes, and some became at least as interested in these studies as in their religious missions.
African Literature in The Making: From Pre-colonialism to Post-colonialism
At any rate, the first phase in the evolutionary growth of English African literature is what is generally labeled as pre-colonial literature. Pre-colonial literature dates from the period of the Atlantic slave trade between the 15th and 19th centuries, perhaps the 13 Gunner, E.A. ibid 9 darkest chapter in the history of homo-sapiens.
Pre-Colonial North America
Pre-Colonial North America (also known as Pre-Columbian, Prehistoric, and Precontact) is the period between the migration of the Paleo-Indians to the region between 40,000-14,000 years ago and contact between indigenous tribes and European colonists in the 16th century CE which eradicated the Native American culture, replacing it with what became Canada and the United States of America.
AN Essay About THE Philippine Literature IN Precolonial Period
AN ESSAY ABOUT THE PHILIPPINE LITERATURE IN PRE-COLONIAL PERIOD DIANA ROSE I. ORILLA STEM 11-08, Senior High school Department Polytechnic University of the Philippines "It's more fun in the Philippines", indeed it was, because of the hospitality of Filipinos, the great and breath-taking places here and many more.
(DOC) PRE COLONIAL LITERATURE
Pre- Colonial Literature Religious Drama Spanish occupied Philippines in early 15th century. During Spanish Colonization the European literature was introduced and assimilated in Filipino Songs and indigenous Themes. One of the literature under the Spanish Colonial Period is the Religious drama. The religious drama, as setting forth events ...
The Evolution of Philippine Literature
CL 150. History of Philippine Literature. 1.) Pre-Colonial Period. • The evolution of Philippine literature depended on the influences of colonization and the spirit of the. age. But before the change was done, indigenous Philippine literature was based on the given traditions. and customs of a particular area of the country.
Periods of American Literature
The Colonial and Early National Period (17th century-1830) The first colonists of North America wrote, often in English, about their experiences starting in the 1600s. This literature was practical, straightforward, often derivative of literature in Great Britain, and focused on the future.
Literature and Decolonization
The recasting of decolonization through the lens of cultural agents demands a recognition that a key element of the process of uncoupling colonizer and colonized involves the imagination (or re-imagination) of postcolonial futures. These practices take place in novels, poetry, and theatre as much as they do in law, philosophy, or political theory.
American literature
American literature - Puritanism, Colonization, Revolution: This history of American literature begins with the arrival of English-speaking Europeans in what would become the United States. At first American literature was naturally a colonial literature, by authors who were Englishmen and who thought and wrote as such. John Smith, a soldier of fortune, is credited with initiating American ...
Lesson 1
LITERATURE About the Pre-Colonial Period of the Philippines. The first settlers of the Philippines arrived through land bridges around 15,000 - 30, 000 BC. Those first settlers (the Aetas) were excellent hunters and food gatherers. In 2500 BC, two types of Malays came and influenced our ancestors. The Proto- Malays introduced knowledge in ...
Evolution of Philippine Literature Across Colonization
Evolution of Philippine Literature Across Colonization. Categories: Philippines. Download. Essay, Pages 5 (1228 words) Views. 5908. I. Pre-Colonial Period - Consisted of early Filipino literature passed down orally; oral pieces have a communal authorship - it was difficult to trace the original author of the piece since oral literature did ...
The Evolution of Philippine Literature
The history of Philippine literature can be divided into four eras: Pre-Colonial, Spanish Colonial, American Colonial, and Contemporary. Pre-Colonial literature includes oral traditions such as folk songs, epics, and proverbs. Spanish Colonial literature includes works written in Spanish by Filipino authors.
Colonial Influence, Postcolonial Intertextuality: Western Literature
For an extensive discussion of how Western literary influence was felt by numerous Indian writers to be an oppression, see S. Chandra, The Oppressive Present: Literature and Social Consciousness in Colonial India (Delhi, 1992). See also the section titled "The Early Hindi Novel; The Tyranny of the Form", in H. Trivedi, "The progress of Hindi, Part 2: Hindi and the nation", in: Literary ...
The Timeline of Philippine Literature from Pre-colonial to Contemporary
PHILIPPINE LITERARY HISTORY PRE-COLONIAL PERIOD BC - 1564 BC - 1564 The pre-colonial period Historical Background It happened before Spaniards claimed the Philippines in 1565. The pre-colonial Philippine archipelago was home to numerous kingdoms and sultanates. The society was A.
Pre-Colonial Literature Essay Example For FREE
Pre-colonial literature abounds in the form of sabi (maxims), bugtong (riddles), epics, and myths. The early Filipinos also had a form of government called Barangay, headed by a Datu or Sultan (among the Moros). Social classes exist but social mobility was possible. Also, the early Filipinos followed and obeyed rules, as evident in the ancient ...
Postcolonial literature
Postcolonial literature is the literature by people from formerly colonized countries, originating from all continents except Antarctica. Postcolonial literature often addresses the problems and consequences of the decolonization of a country, especially questions relating to the political and cultural independence of formerly subjugated people, and themes such as racialism and colonialism.
Reflective Essay on Pre-Colonial Period literature of the ...
Pre Colonial period is known as Oral Literature in the Philippines. To what have I recalled, pre-colonial literature is more on cultural tradition rather than art because they based their stories, myths, bugtungan, fable, and salawikain from food that they eat, gathering, farming, house and I think anything random to our lives now but important ...