critical thinking in language learning

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Critical Thinking & Language Learning

From a very young age, learning a language is of utmost importance. Starting from our mother tongue, we then learn another language (usually English, Spanish, German or French). Learning – and teaching- methods though, don’t always work as expected. Conventional teaching and learning techniques are starting to become a feature of the past now, as new methods are considered to be more efficient. One of these techniques is critical thinking.

Critical Thinking Defined

When we discuss Critical thinking, we refer to some specific practices. First of all, critical thinking occurs when we doubt something- a text, an idea, a political statement, a speech, a piece of information, an article.

Second of all, it also occurs when we look at a specific issue or problem, from more than one perspective. Third of all, it also occurs when we criticize something, in a constructive way. For example, disagreeing with the words of a journalist, while pointing out the problem and supporting our opinion with arguments. Also, when critically viewing new information, we can find more meanings that might be indirect.

Therefore, it becomes apparent why Critical Thinking is necessary when learning a language.

Critical thinking affecting Language Learning

The first person who supported the use of Critical thinking in education was the American philosopher John Dewey. According to his beliefs, teaching Critical thinking to the students is actually the ultimate goal of education.

In combination with this belief, school/ college activities that require Critical thinking can affect the efficiency of learning for students. Combining experiential learning with real-life activities urges a student to think outside the box, using his/her emotional intelligence. Thus, learning is achieved in a way that the student understands and enjoys more.

In addition, learning a language can be achieved by many practical activities that combine critical thinking with the material taught in class. Hence, learning becomes more inclusive and practical.

Critical thinking improving Language Learning

In many cases, it has been proved that language learning is achieved way better when activities that require critical thinking are included. This happens because students not only use their existing knowledge but because they also apply it to a real-life situation. In this way, the knowledge they acquire during these activities is more memorable.

Furthermore, when a student participates in such activities, he/she becomes an “active participant”, as he/she interacts with other students while constructing his/her learning. Through this process, the student perceives the knowledge learned at the moment in his/her own way, and because of this fact, this knowledge is remembered – and used- more easily (learning stops being too theoretical and is applied in practice).

Overall, critical thinking allows a learner to “process” a language, and perceive it in his/her own way. Therefore, language learning becomes easier, more efficient, and applicable.

As critical thinking affects language learning, language learning affects critical thinking too. Learning a language requires the ability to learn a whole new ideology, a very different culture – in many cases-, and practically, a different language from yours ( in many cases). That means that you learn a set of grammatic and syntactic rules that might not be the same as the ones of your own language.

Overall, learning a language demands many skills that help you acquire a whole new ideology. Therefore, language learning “sharpens” your Critical thinking skills, as you get to compare and contrast your mother tongue with another language ( when learning a second language).

Language learning improving Critical Thinking Skills

Per the above fact, it is useful to mention that critical thinking skills are improved through the process of language learning. Critical thinking and language learning support each other at a level where Critical thinking can almost teach you the language itself.

For example, critically assessing a situation and its character- during which you have to communicate in a specific language with someone, has already given you the necessary “tool” that guarantees the efficiency of the communication.

In addition, problem-solving and conflict can also improve critical thinking skills. For example, in a conversation where you have to support your argument without been affected by the potential disagreement and annoyance of the other participant (during a language learning-related activity), proper selection of language is needed. This can be accomplished by applying your knowledge and by using your critical thinking skills.

Furthermore, while learning a language a person can participate in various activities where different kinds of critical thinking are unlocked. Therefore, critical thinking becomes more spherical. As a necessary and useful process, language learning provides critical thinking with a lot more dimensions.

The kind of relationship between Critical thinking and language learning

As mentioned above, Critical thinking and language learning support and affect each other. It is very important to realize that language learning can become much more efficient and interesting if critical thinking is applied and used. At the same time, critical thinking skills can be acquired and improved while learning a language, because of the variety of exercises and activities this process includes.

Their relationship is only positive. They both positively contribute to the efficiency of each other. Nevertheless, Critical Thinking is a skill, which we use on numerous occasions. Language learning is a procedure, that needs critical thinking.

In other words, critical thinking is not dependent on language learning, when it comes to its improvement and formation whereas language learning needs critical thinking, as it has the goal of being as much efficient as possible.

Overall, it is a unique relationship during which each “party” offers and receives positive traits and features.

On An Ending Note

Taking everything into consideration, we can see that this relationship between Language learning and critical thinking is very beneficial, for both parties. However, viewing this relationship from a strict perspective, we can conclude that Language Learning ( a.k.a., the educational field) can take into advantage Critical thinking as a tool that guarantees effective learning and use it more.

https://ajssr.unitar.my/doc/vol1i2/2107.pdf

https://unitec.researchbank.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10652/3680/revised-critical-thinking-paper-May-2016-.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

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MINI REVIEW article

English as a foreign language teachers’ critical thinking ability and l2 students’ classroom engagement.

• School of Foreign Studies, Hebei University, Baoding, China

Critical thinking has been the focus of many studies considering the educational and social contexts. However, English as a foreign language (EFL) context is the one in which studies about critical thinking and its link to classroom engagement have not been carried out as much as expected. Hence, this study investigated to understand the association between EFL teachers’ critical thinking ability and students’ classroom engagement to get a broader understanding of the impact critical thinking has on students’ success. To do this, firstly, both variables of this study are defined and explicated. Then, the relationship between critical thinking and students’ classroom engagement is discussed. Finally, the implications of this research and also its limitations along with suggestions for further studies are put forward.

Introduction

“Critical thinking enables individuals to use standards of argumentation, rules of logic, standards of practical deliberation, standards governing inquiry and justification in specialized areas of study, standards for judging intellectual products, etc.” ( Bailin et al., 1999 , p. 291). Paul and Elder (2007) conceptualized critical thinking as the art of analysis and evaluation, considering the point that it can be improved since a quality life needs the quality of thinking. Facione (2011) noted that happiness cannot be guaranteed even if good judgment is practiced and critical thinking is enhanced; however, it undoubtedly offers more opportunities for this goal to be achieved. It has been stressed that autonomy can be shaped through critical thinking ability and one’s learning process can critically be evaluated ( Delmastro and Balada, 2012 ). According to a study conducted by Marin and Pava (2017) , English as a foreign language (EFL) critical thinker has the following characteristics: they are active, continuously asking questions, and seeking information which helps them build associations between L2 learning and other features of everyday life. They describe as people, having the capability to analyze and organize thoughts that can be expressed through speaking and writing. They almost always tries to put what has learned before into practice. Beyond doubt, in order to enhance critical thinking skill in EFL learners, teachers should consider the point that teaching is not just about grammar and vocabulary; instead, it concentrates on enhancing teaching, encouraging to be creative, encourage to learn independently, strategies for making decisions and evaluating himself. Similarly, opportunities must be provided by the educators to provide a learning environment in which autonomous learning, active engagement, reflection on learners’ learning process, and L2 advancement are emphasized, for instance, task-based activities. Thus, this study is different from other studies since the focus is placed on teachers’ critical thinking ability to help students thrive rather than students’ critical thinking ability. The reason is that differentiates it from the previous studies is that providing students with opportunities, in which thinking differently is appreciated, would be absolutely rewarding and it is the skill that should be much more highlighted in the studies. Therefore, critical thinking is a skill through which students’ confidence can be raised, leading to their active engagement in the classroom and their being successful since they can see the issues from a different point of view and novel solutions to those problems can be proposed. In the current study, first of all, both teachers’ critical thinking ability and students’ classroom engagement have been discussed. Given that, the association between these two variables has been dealt with. Then, the implications and restrictions of the study as well as some recommendations for further studies have been proposed.

Teachers’ Critical Thinking Ability

Critical thinking has attracted much attention since teachers’ way of thinking and beliefs has a pivotal impact on what students achieve in terms of academic success and attainments. Dewey (1933 , p. 9), who can be regarded as the father of modern critical thinking, conceptualized it as “active, persistent, and careful of a belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds which support it and the further conclusions to which it tends.” As defined by Chance (1986) , critical thinking is conceptualized as the capability that one puts into practice to do the followings through this ability: facts which are analyzed, ideas that are generated and organized, opinions that are defended, comparisons that are made, inferences that are drawn, arguments which are evaluated, ideas that are organized, and problems that are solved. As stated by Vdovina and Gaibisso (2013) , critical thinking is relevant to quality thinking that enables learners to communicate with others, gain knowledge, and deal with ideas, attitudes, and beliefs in a more skillful way. Based on what has been proposed by Shirkhani and Fahim (2011) , critical thinking is an integral factor in many ways. The first reason that can be taken into consideration is that when language learners take responsibility for the way they think; they can evaluate the way they learn in a more successful way. Secondly, critical thinking causes learners to experience a meaningful process of learning in which learning a language is meaningful to them. Thirdly, critical thinking and learners’ achievement are positively correlated. If the learners are shown how to think critically, they get proficient in learning a language. Likewise, Liaw (2007) study indicated that when the content-based approach is implemented in the class, it promotes EFL students’ critical thinking skills. It should be noted that in a content-based approach, attention is focused on the content and what can be perceived through it.

Besides, as Davidson (1998) noted, “the English teachers are expected to provide learners with the ability to communicate with native speakers, valuing overt comments, clever criticism, and intellectual claims.” In a similar manner, Meyers (1986) proposed that teachers can facilitate critical thinking through the activities that are assigned, the tasks that are set, and the feedback that is provided. A study done in a Chinese context by Li and Liu (2021) put forward the taxonomy of critical thinking ability in the EFL learning context and in this study, five skills through which critical thinking can be practiced, were proposed: analyzing, inferring, evaluating, synthesizing, and self-reflection/self-correction ( Wang and Derakhshan, 2021 ). Li (2021) also indicated that the development of critical thinking in international students can be facilitated by learning Chinese. According to a study done by Birjandi and Bagherkazemi (2010) , a critical thinker has the following characteristics:

• problems are identified by them and relevant solutions are dealt with,

• valid and invalid inferences are recognized by them,

• decisions and judgments are suspended by them when there is not enough evidence to prove it

• the difference between logical reasoning and justifying is perceived by them

• relevant questions are asked by them to see if their students have understood

• statements and arguments are evaluated

• lack of understanding can be accepted by them

• they have developed a sense of curiosity

• clear criteria for analyzing ideas are defined

• he is a good listener and gives others feedback

• he believes that critical thinking is a never-ending process that needs to be evaluated

• judgment is suspended by them until all facts have been collected

• they seek evidence for the assumptions to be advocated

• opinions are adjusted by them when there are some new facts

• incorrect information is easily rejected by them.

Consequently, according to the characteristics mentioned above, teachers with the ability to think critically is good problem solvers and when facing a problem during the class, they can have greater reasoning skills so as to find a solution to the problem. They are curious and they also ask their students questions to create a sense of curiosity in them. Additionally, they do not accept the new ideas easily, instead, they analyze them and sometimes make them better.

Classroom Engagement

Engagement is an inseparable part of the learning process and a multifold phenomenon. Classroom engagement refers to the amount of participation that students take in the class to be actively involved in the activities and whether the mental and physical activities have a goal. Engagement itself is a context-oriented phrase which relies on cultures, families, school activities, and peers ( Finn and Zimmer, 2012 ). It has been categorized into different groups: Behavioral engagement such as the amount to which students participate actively in the class; emotional engagement pertains to high levels of enthusiasm which is linked to high levels of boredom and anxiety; cognitive engagement such as the usage of learning strategy and self-regulation; agentic engagement such as the amount of conscious effort so that the learning experience would be enriched ( Wang and Guan, 2020 ; Hiver et al., 2021 ). Amongst the aforementioned categories, the one which is strongly important in the learning process is behavioral engagement in that it is relevant to the actual recognition of an individual’s learning talents ( Dörnyei, 2019 ). Another possibility that can be viewed is to consider engagement from two other aspects, internal and external. The former implies how much time and effort is allocated to the process of the learning. The latter entails the measures that are taken at the institutional level so that the resources would be dealt with along with other options of learning and services for support, encouraging the involvement in activities leading to the possible outcomes such as consistency and satisfaction ( Harper and Quaye, 2009 ).

Much attention is deserved to be paid to engagement since it is perceived as a behavioral means with which students’ motivation can be realized and as a result, development through the learning process can occur ( Jang et al., 2010 ). Active involvement should be strengthened in L2 classes to prevent disruptive behaviors and diminish the valence of emotions that are negative such as feeling anxious, frustrated, and bored.

Regarding “classroom engagement,” its opposie word “disengagement” can play a significant role in not engaging the students in the class, leading to them feeling bored and demotivated in the class, so from this aspect, it would be worth considering this phrase as well. It has been claimed by some authors ( Skinner, 2016 ) that disengagement itself does not happen frequently in educational settings due largely to the fact that it is related to extreme behaviors, and it is when another phrase disaffection can be considered significant. Disaffection is characterized by disinterest, aversion, resignation, and reduced effort. Therefore, our perception of boredom as a complex emotion can be enhanced, and it can be dealt with more systematically if boredom is viewed through the following factors, disengagement, and disaffection ( Wang and Guan, 2020 ; Derakhshan et al., 2021 ). As Elder and Paul (2004) mentioned, students should be taught to actively make questions- that is a good emblem of engagement- which is a radical part of critical thinking. The more the students can question, the more they can learn. Some students get accustomed to memorizing the facts and have never been faced with the outcomes of the poor decisions they made since there is always someone to back them and they had better be challenged, being questioned by their teachers ( Rezaei et al., 2011 ).

The Relationship Between Teachers’ Critical Thinking Ability and Classroom Engagement

Critical thinking has been said to widen one’s horizon because it may shape students’ mindsets and help them take a look at items from a different viewpoint. When one has learned to think critically, they will never accept the status quo easily, he will welcome the opposing ideas and will evaluate the arguments. In the EFL context, when a learner has the capability to think critically, or he has been taught to think critically, he always looks for reasons learning new materials and in this respect, his curiosity allows him to learn everything in depth and challenge his schemata to make a link between the newly learned ideas and the ones he has already known. Critical thinking is not a term that can be utilized just for the specific type of people; it can be taught and practiced to be enhanced. The way ideas can be generated and the way comparisons can be made is highly relevant to what has been called critical thinking. Different items can be conceptualized in different ways when we look at them through the lens of critical thinking; therefore, it can have a positive effect on students’ mindsets and the way they live. From an educational point of view, the decisions that have been made by the students, the solutions that have been put forward to tackle a problem when it comes to a learning context, and the way through which their process of learning is ameliorated are all impacted by teachers’ critical thinking. When teachers think critically and they strive to see different skills from a different point of view, it is where students’ sense of curiosity is tickled and their imagination is stretched so as to think of things in a various way.

Implications and Further Suggestions for Research

Critical thinking is believed to have an enormous effect on students’ classroom engagement. As mentioned above, according to Dewey (1933) , the more the students practice thinking critically, the more successful they are in terms of academic achievements because they can decide more rationally, and their problems can be addressed more sensibly. Attention should be paid that this study is of great significance for those people who are engaged in the learning process including those devising curriculums, develop materials, teachers, and learners. Critical thinking is a skill that should be developed in learners so that they would compare and contrast ideas, and as a result, decide wisely and accomplish what they have planned for. Accordingly, opportunities must be provided by the educators to provide a learning environment in which autonomous learning, active engagement, reflection on learners’ learning process, and L2 advancement are emphasized, for example, task-based activities ( Han and Wang, 2021 ).

Additionally, further studies can be done to find more about the variables in this study.

With regard to various age groups, the understanding of critical thinking might be different. Teenagers are said to start thinking critically and hypothetically; however, undoubtedly there is a big difference between what can be perceived about critical thinking by teenagers and adolescents in the educational contexts. Consequently, how different levels of critical thinking can be conceptualized in the learning context is one of the studies that can be conducted in the future. Secondly, teachers’ success and well-being are also tremendously affected by the way they think. Therefore, from this point of view, a study can be conducted in the future so as to find the correlation between teachers’ critical thinking and other aspects of their lives. The reason why this study should be carried out is that considering the L2 environment, students’ way of thinking is impacted by how they are treated by their teachers. Teachers are supposed to equip students with techniques through which the learning process will be facilitated and students’ creativity will be boosted, therefore, it is what helps them to be critical thinkers both in the classroom context and out of it. Another line of research that is worth being done is that diverse activities that can enhance learners’ ability of critical thinking should be categorized based on learners’ characters. In a modern educational world where individual differences are emphasized, classroom activities should be classified, regarding the learning differences of the learners. Therefore, according to Birjandi and Bagherkazemi (2010) ; Vdovina and Gaibisso (2013) , and Li and Liu (2021) , teachers’ critical thinking ability play a vital role in how students are engaged in the class.

Author Contributions

The author confirms being the sole contributor of this work and has approved it for publication.

This review was supported by the Social Science Foundation of Hebei Province of China “Testing and Research on Critical Thinking Ability of Undergraduates in Hebei Province under the Background of ‘Belt and Road’ Education Action” (Project Number: HB20YY017).

Conflict of Interest

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Teaching and Assessing Critical Thinking in Second Language Writing: An Infusion Approach

Dong Yanning holds a PhD from the University of British Columbia. She is currently vice president of Higher English Education Publishing at Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. Her research focuses on teaching English as a second language, second language writing and critical thinking.

Recent calls for promoting students’ critical thinking (CT) abilities leave second language (L2) teachers wondering how to integrate CT into their existing agenda. Framed by Paul and Elder’s (2001) CT model, the study explores how CT could be effectively taught in L2 writing as a way to improve students’ CT skills and L2 writing performance. In this study, an infusion approach was developed and implemented in actual classroom teaching. Mixed methods were employed to investigate: (1) the effectiveness of the infusion approach on improving students’ CT and L2 writing scores; (2) the relationship between students’ CT and L2 writing scores; and (3) the effects of the infusion approach on students’ learning of CT and L2 writing. The results of the statistical analyses indicate that the infusion approach has effectively improved students’ CT and L2 writing scores and that there was a significant positive relationship ( r =0.893, p <0.01) between students’ CT and L2 writing scores. The results of the post-study interview illustrate that the infusion approach has beneficial effects on students’ learning of CT and L2 writing by bridging the abstract CT theories and interactive writing activities and by integrating the instruction and practice of CT into those of L2 writing.

About the author

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Appendices: Appendix A

CT-oriented Brainstorming Worksheet for the Experimental Group

CT-oriented Peer-review Checklist

The Criteria for Assessing CT in L2 Writing

© 2017 FLTRP, Walter de Gruyter, Cultural and Education Section British Embassy

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Classroom Q&A

With larry ferlazzo.

In this EdWeek blog, an experiment in knowledge-gathering, Ferlazzo will address readers’ questions on classroom management, ELL instruction, lesson planning, and other issues facing teachers. Send your questions to [email protected]. Read more from this blog.

When Teaching English Learners, Embrace These 3 Critical Mindsets

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I’ve previously posted about the most important instructional strategies to use when teaching English-language learners.

Today, I’d like to share my ideas for the most important mindsets for ELL teachers to remember:

Be asset-based and not deficit-based

Our students bring many assets to the classroom, not least of which are that, because of their life experiences, research has found they tend to be more creative and self-reliant than those who are not ELLs. Their diverse experiences can provide exceptional opportunities for learning.

In classes, some ways that I have tried to build on ELL student assets include:

• When teaching themes and related vocabulary, have students describe seasons in their home countries (when teaching weather); have them talk about folktales and fables from their home cultures (when learning to write stories); and have them share popular games from their childhood that we can then adapt for English learning.
• After reading a world history textbook suggesting that feudalism ended in the world hundreds of years ago and listing its practices—including that law enforcement sided with the wealthy and that poor people didn’t own land and only worked for the “lords”— students surveyed their families and friends about practices in their home country. They then wrote, and sent, a letter to the textbook publishers detailing their own experiences and saying that the book was inaccurate.
• In a unit on California missions, our class had a discussion about how they would respond if they were Native Americans forced into slavery by the Spanish. At first, many who had not experienced direct violence said they would violently revolt. Then, after hearing from their classmates who had experienced violent trauma and the deaths of family members who had fought oppression and who had universally said they would try to find ways to run away, everyone in the class decided they would choose that option. Later, they would try to conceive and organize a way to free everyone. This kind of critical dialogue is unlikely to happen without ELLs in class.
• In a U.S. history class, have students compare/contrast lessons connecting both independence revolutions and civil wars in their home countries with those here in the United States.

Be trauma-informed

Many of our ELL students have had traumatic experiences in their home countries and little or no voice in the decision to come here to the United States. Acknowledging that trauma and sense of powerlessness is critical in helping our students progress in the language-acquisition process.

In my own classes, this kind of trauma-informed instruction has included supporting the development of a Latina support group, working with our counseling staff to ensure that bilingual support is available to ELLs, and just being present and relational with students. I try to recognize that their “in the moment” reactions in class are not necessarily based on what is happening then but what they have and are experiencing outside of school. I also troubleshoot with other ELL teachers and provide support and advice on how to support students.

Another specific example of trauma-informed teaching is when I was considering having our class read a modified version of an article about gang violence in Central America. I first met with students and asked them how they would feel about doing a lesson on the topic. During that discussion, several showed me many photos of their friends who had been murdered. There was unanimous agreement that we should do the lesson and that there should also be another classroom available for individuals to go to if it began bringing up too many emotions. It turned out to be a very successful lesson, and one student did, indeed, opt out in the middle of it and go to another classroom (he, too, though, was glad we did the activity).

Recognize that ELLs are as capable and smart as any other students—they just don’t know English yet

It’s not unusual for many Americans, including some teachers, to mistake lack of fluency in English for lack of intellectual ability. There’s much irony in that, considering many ELLs speak multiple languages—more than most Americans. It’s just that English isn’t one of them— yet .

I try to respect my ELL students’ intellectual abilities by making inductive learning , which promotes the higher-order thinking skills of categorization and learning transfer, a key part of my instruction. I work hard at making age-appropriate reading resources accessible to them. We also regularly do long- and short-term goal activities that connect what we are doing in class and what more they could be doing to realize their hopes and dreams.

Being asset-based, trauma-informed, and recognizing the intellectual potential of our ELL students are critical mindsets for teachers to remember.

These three are not the only important mindsets for ELL teachers to have, but I think it’s pretty darn hard to make a classroom work without them.

Consider contributing a question to be answered in a future post. You can send one to me at [email protected] . When you send it in, let me know if I can use your real name if it’s selected or if you’d prefer remaining anonymous and have a pseudonym in mind.

You can also contact me on Twitter at @Larryferlazzo .

Just a reminder; you can subscribe and receive updates from this blog via email . And if you missed any of the highlights from the first 12 years of this blog, you can see a categorized list here .

The opinions expressed in Classroom Q&A With Larry Ferlazzo are strictly those of the author(s) and do not reflect the opinions or endorsement of Editorial Projects in Education, or any of its publications.

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2023-24 Book Studies on The Keys to Strategies for Language Instruction: Engagement, Relevance, Critical Thinking, Collaboration

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The Office of Bilingual Education and World Languages (OBEWL) of the New York State Education Department (NYSED) is proud to sponsor a series of book studies in 2024-25 using The Keys to Strategies for Language Instruction:  Engagement, Relevance, Critical Thinking, Collaboration by Leslie Grahn and Dave McAlpine. Four virtual book studies will be facilitated by teams of individuals who were trained by Leslie Grahn and Bill Heller during the 2023-24 school year.  NYS world language educators from district, charter, religious, and independent schools, as well as administrators who supervise world language departments, are encouraged to participate. 

Through this virtual book study, participants will do a deep dive into the why and how of instructional strategies for the world language classroom in alignment with the revised New York State World Languages Standards adopted in 2021. Gain thought processes for selecting and implementing instructional strategies that have communicative purpose and lead to growth in language proficiency. Time will be provided for small group processing and application of new ideas to classroom contexts. During the last session, participants will meet with and ask questions of Leslie Grahn and Bill Heller.

The dates for each book study are listed below.  Book study groups will meet once a month from September to May after school via Zoom (please note meeting times below).  Participants may earn up to 27 hours of CTLE credit (1.5 hours for each of 9 meetings and 13.5 hours for reading the book and preparing for meetings).  Participants must attend at least eight (8) of the nine (9) meetings in order to receive credit, a certificate of attendance, and a digital badge for their participation. The book, Enacting the Work of Language Instruction:  High Leverage Teaching Practices, Vol. 1, will be mailed to participants, free of charge, over the summer.  There is no cost to participate in this book study.

The book studies are organized by language; however, educators of any language may participate in any of the book studies.  Educators must select one (1) of the following book studies in which to participate.

Please contact Candace Black via phone (585.356.0951) or email ( [email protected] ) with any questions regarding this book study.

To register for this book study, click here .

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