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Advances in Sensory Evaluation of Foods

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Sensory evaluation is an evolving field that is constantly incorporating new techniques from different disciplines of science. The study of how humans perceive foods and beverages is currently undergoing a technological transformation that is providing researchers with more data than ever. The progressive ...

Keywords : Perception, Emotions, Biometrics, Context, Human psychology, Consumers study, Descriptive test, Virtual reality, Augmented reality, Artificial Intelligence, Eye-tracking, Sensory evaluation, Mixed reality, Physiological responses

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Sensory Evaluation of Food

Principles and Practices

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• Harry T. Lawless 0 ,
• Hildegarde Heymann 1

Department of Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, USA

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Department of Viticulture and Enology, University of California – Davis, Davis, USA

• The first volume of this book, which has not been updated since 1998, still remains a classroom and research favorite.
• Sensory evaluation is a required class for any Food Science undergraduate major, and this has served for nearly a decade as one of the only texts.
• Comprehensive in scholarship and represents divergent philosophies in the field in a balanced manner
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Table of contents (20 chapters)

Front matter, introduction.

• Harry T. Lawless, Hildegarde Heymann

Physiological and Psychological Foundations of Sensory Function

Principles of good practice, discrimination testing, similarity, equivalence testing, and discrimination theory, measurement of sensory thresholds, time–intensity methods, context effects and biases in sensory judgment, descriptive analysis, texture evaluation, color and appearance, preference testing, acceptance testing, consumer field tests and questionnaire design, qualitative consumer research methods, quality control and shelf-life (stability) testing, data relationships and multivariate applications, strategic research.

• Sensory Evaluation
• food science
• neuroscience
• quality control

About this book

From the reviews of the second edition:

“This volume is an academic text, bringing together theory, methodologies and analysis techniques of sensory evaluation and references to thousands of research articles on sensory science in a logical and practical manner. … its primary aim is as a textbook for university-level sensory science modules. … also serves as an over-arching technical manual and resource for practicing food and drink technologists and sensory scientists. … The book is essential reading for those in the sensory evaluation sphere and serves as an excellent and practical reference.” (Patricia Stefanowicz, Journal of Wine Research, Vol. 24 (1), 2013)

Authors and Affiliations

Harry T. Lawless

Hildegarde Heymann

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Bibliographic information.

Book Title : Sensory Evaluation of Food

Book Subtitle : Principles and Practices

Authors : Harry T. Lawless, Hildegarde Heymann

Series Title : Food Science Text Series

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-6488-5

Publisher : Springer New York, NY

eBook Packages : Chemistry and Materials Science , Chemistry and Material Science (R0)

Copyright Information : Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2010

Hardcover ISBN : 978-1-4419-6487-8 Published: 14 September 2010

Softcover ISBN : 978-1-4939-5039-3 Published: 23 August 2016

eBook ISBN : 978-1-4419-6488-5 Published: 27 September 2010

Series ISSN : 1572-0330

Series E-ISSN : 2214-7799

Edition Number : 2

Number of Pages : XXIII, 596

Topics : Food Science , Neurochemistry , Receptors

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• Published: 19 June 2018

Example food: What are its sensory properties and why is that important?

• Herbert Stone 1  

npj Science of Food volume  2 , Article number:  11 ( 2018 ) Cite this article

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• Human behaviour

Today’s marketplace for food and beverages is diverse and competitive in ways not imagined a few decades ago. It is driven, in part, by consumers and consumer blogs asking questions about the safety of ingredients and processed foods, in general. Some of these questions are about GMOs and/or the need for gluten free, organic, and natural foods. It also has led to the development of products by non-traditional food companies that offer alternatives vs. foods currently available. Regardless of the product, source of raw materials, and potential benefits offered, success is determined ultimately by the consumer. History tells us that a unique ingredient or a food formulated that meets some or all of the aforementioned characteristics does not guarantee market success. Although there are numerous steps between development and consumption by the consumer where a product can fail, its sensory properties are critical in establishing its potential and continued success.

Where product success is achieved, changes happen reflecting the dynamics of the marketplace and include such issues as the shift to larger scale production, availability and cost of raw materials, competition, and so forth. Any change results in a different product and management needs to know whether the change is important, i.e., is it recognized by the consumer and does it change purchase intent? What product characteristics or combination of characteristics have changed? What can technology do to compensate if this change has negative effects? Answers to these kinds of questions are best obtained through use of sensory evaluation, a science that has long been used for the evaluation of products but not as well-known as other consumer testing resources, e.g., market research.

What is sensory evaluation?

Sensory evaluation is a science that measures, analyzes, and interprets the reactions of people to products as perceived by the senses. It is a means of determining whether product differences are perceived, the basis for the differences, and whether one product is liked more than another. The value of the science lies in its use of limited numbers of consumers to reach decisions that can be extrapolated to larger populations with confidence. This means that the subjects are representative of the consumer population for whom the product is intended and have the necessary sensory skills. In practical terms, it enables one to evaluate products in a relatively short time and at low cost. In the discussion that follows, key sensory resources are described; however, a detailed discussion about the science can be found in the reference list at the end of this article.

There are four types of resources that serve as the basis for the science. These are subjects, methods, test plans and analyses, and facilities and support services. Each is summarized below.

Sensory evaluation relies on consumers to provide the data on which decisions are based. Although there are consumers everywhere to provide responses, there are considerable differences in any population. They look different and not surprisingly, their sensory skills are different, by as much as 100% or more in sensitivity to differences among products. Depending on the type of information needed, analytical or affective, different skill levels or qualifications are required.

For analytical methods (discrimination and descriptive), subjects need to be above average users of a product/product category and demonstrate ability to discriminate differences at better than chance among those products.

Empirical evidence from more than 50 years of testing around the world has shown that about 30% of any population cannot discriminate differences at better than chance. This is independent of age, frequency of product use, gender, and other typical criteria. It means that those who do not meet this requirement should not participate as sensitivity is decreased and variability is greater. Otherwise, there is a high risk of concluding there is no difference when, in fact, there is (β risk). For more on risk, see Cohen 1 .

Qualifying subjects for analytical tests is a straightforward process taking about 4–5 h in a series of three or four 90 min test sessions. Consumers have to learn how to use their senses, how to take a test, and familiarize themselves with the products. Based on numerous experiments, it was concluded that having a consumer participate in about 30–40 difference test trials was necessary before determining an individual is qualified. It is surprising how often this process is ignored and recommendations based on test results are not supported in the marketplace. See Stone et al. 2 , 3 for a more extensive discussion on this topic.

For affective tests, i.e., liking or preference, the key qualification is product and brand use. Above average product use is necessary, as those consumers are generally found to be more sensitive than the infrequent user.

There are many test methods available for use; all have specific applications and can be categorized as analytical or affective.

Analytical methods include discrimination/difference and descriptive analysis. Results from a difference test tell us whether product differences are perceived. Results from a descriptive test identify the specific kinds of differences, e.g., a fruit aroma for a series of samples and their intensities. An example of results from the latter is shown in Fig. 1 , a sensory map showing results from a test of competitive wines.

A sensory map of aroma and appearance attributes obtained from a descriptive analysis of an competitive chardonnay wines. The intensity values are measured from the center to that point where a line crosses and are the computed means obtained from a panel of 12 subjects and 4 replicates ( N  = 48)

Analytical tests rely on limited numbers of qualified subjects but all require replication. This is no different than a chemical analysis of a product which is done more than once to have confidence in the reported result. For discrimination, between 20 and 30 subjects are recommended. With replication this yields sufficient judgments to have confidence in the conclusions. More discussion about this recommendation, see Stone 2 .

For descriptive analysis, the optimal number of subjects is 12 and not < 10. Empirically, it has been observed that using more than 12 does not result in more information, only greater statistical significances. Using fewer than 10 makes it more difficult to obtain expected significances. With a 6-product test, 30–40 attributes (typical for foods and beverages), and 4 replicates for each product, there are sufficient data to enable a thorough analysis of subject skill and specific product differences.

Affective methods include hedonic and preference. Results from a hedonic test tell us the degree of liking for series of products. It is used primarily for determining which product is best liked from an array of options. Preference methods determine which product is preferred. About 75–100 subjects are recommended for an affective sensory test.

No sensory method is more sensitive than another. The choice of method is based on the test objective and the nature and number of products to be tested. If products have a lingering taste, then methods requiring multiple sampling within a test session would not be appropriate because of sensory fatigue.

A few comments are warranted here about the use of the internet as a means for obtaining information from consumers. Various methods have been described in the literature and have attracted considerable attention. One can collect large amounts of information in a relatively short time period; a process no different than surveys using landlines to recruit for a test or measure attitudes about social or political issues. One of the advantages today is the ability to provide pictures and descriptions of products which add focus to the consumer’s responses. In early stage development of ideas, this approach has value to brand managers and technical staff; however, without knowledge of a person’s sensory skills, it does not, as yet, appear to be a substitute for more traditional sensory procedures.

Test plans and analyses

The importance of using appropriate design and analysis cannot be underestimated. Plans must reflect behavioral and physiological elements in the design which means that balanced designs are preferred and designs that rely on randomized serving orders should be avoided. Otherwise, risk is high that one sample will be served in one position several times, whereas another product is never served in that position. First sample effects cannot be eliminated so one must be sure that each product appears equally often in each position. Although this is relatively easy to achieve in a test of four or fewer products, it is more difficult in a test of ten products. A solution is to balance the design across all subjects. With replication, the serving order challenges are minimized but not eliminated. A variety of test designs have been published while others are connected with software packages; however, all need to be reviewed before use.

In situations where products are scored, a common feature of descriptive analysis and liking, the most useful analysis is the analysis of variance. As with any statistical procedure, it is important that the data collection process fit the model on which the test plan is based. Much has been written about statistical methods and the interested reader is directed to Stone 2 .

Facilities and support services

Traditionally, sensory tests were fielded in a purpose built facility with a controlled environment and partitions to minimize visual contact between subjects and servers. Responses were captured on paper ballots and then transcribed for analysis. Today’s facility has touch screens and the ability to provide real time analyses regardless of where the data were obtained. In addition this has enabled the actual data collection to no longer be restricted to a sensory facility. Use of a tablet and the web has made it possible to test products anywhere, based on the purpose for the information. This means that managers can obtain information and transmit instructions to others regardless of their location.

Application, an example

As previously noted, a sensory map is very useful in identifying the effects of formulation changes on sensory attributes from a developer’s perspective. Maps also have value for marketing and brand managers when results are connected with preferences and other consumer measures.

Figure 2 shows results from a plot of sensory attributes and consumer preferences. The circled groupings show the connection between specific sensory attributes and preferences enabling marketing to identify which word groupings are best used in communicating to which consumers. Additional discussion about this and other applications are described in the aforementioned references.

A bi-plot of the sensory attributes and preferences obtained from wine consumers. The attributes that are most associated with specific wines are circled

Sensory evaluation is all about people using their senses vs. simply eating a meal without appreciating the experience. Learning to use one’s senses has many rewards especially as it relates to a greater appreciation for the food and beverages we consume. Companies invest substantial sums of money in developing and marketing products without fully appreciating the consumer’s ability to identify what makes one product a success and another just getting by. Sensory information should be an integral part of any product effort, whether at the formulation stage or at the marketing stage if one expects to be more successful in satisfying consumer expectations.

Cohen, J. Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences . 2nd edn, (Taylor & Frances Group: NY, 1988).

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Stone, H. in Rapid Sensory Profiling Techniques and Related Methods (eds Delarue J., Lawlor J. B., & Rogeaux M.) pp 27–50 (Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, 2015).

Stone, H., Bleibaum, R. M., & Thomas, H. Sensory Evaluation Practices. 4th edn (Academic Press: San Diego, 2012).

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Stone, H. Example food: What are its sensory properties and why is that important?. npj Sci Food 2 , 11 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41538-018-0019-3

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Sensory Analysis and Consumer Research in New Product Development

Sensory analysis examines the properties (texture, flavor, taste, appearance, smell, etc.) of a product or food through the senses (sight, smell, taste, touch and hearing) of the panelists. This type of analysis has been used for centuries for the purpose of accepting or rejecting food products. Historically, it was considered a methodology that complements technological and microbiological safety when assessing the quality of food. However, its important evolution and impact in recent decades has placed it as one of the most important methodologies for innovation and application to ensure final product acceptance by consumers. Traditional sensory techniques, such as discriminatory, descriptive evaluations, preference and hedonic tests, which are still widely used today, have evolved into newer, faster and more complete techniques: check-all-that-apply (CATA), napping (N), flash profile (FP), temporal dominance of sensations (TDS), etc., together with an important and adequate statistical analysis. All of these techniques, with their advantages and disadvantages, are very useful in the development of new foods. However, it is not only sensory characteristics that determine the acceptance or success of a new product. Factors such as social aspects, the environment, nutritional knowledge, specific diets, emotions, health, the nature of the products, packaging, etc., also have a very important influence. New food product developers should take into account the attitudes and expectations of potential consumers. Consumers describe a product’s benefits by perceived intrinsic and extrinsic characteristics. For example, focus groups could be planned to identify different consumer expectations for new products. Properly measuring these factors and emotions will also have a very decisive influence on the success or failure of new product developments. A better understanding of the sensory experiences of potential consumers opens up a space and the inspiration for innovation. For all these reasons, sensory analysis, together with consumer research, is currently considered by the industry and researchers to be one of the most useful tools at the different stages of new product development, from design to commercialization, to improve the quality of products and to guarantee the success of innovation in market uptake among consumers. All these aspects are collected by Ruiz-Capillas et al. [ 1 ] in their review, which helps to better elucidate these techniques and enhance knowledge in this field, in order to facilitate the choice of the most appropriate aspect at the time of its application in the different stages of new product development, particularly regarding meat products.

Furthermore, this Special Issue (SI) also includes different sensory and consumer studies used for their application in the development of very different new products. Kalumbi et al. [ 2 ] evaluated consumer acceptability of new enriching maize-based stiff porridge with flour made from hydrothermally treated soybeans. This development could significantly contribute towards reducing the burden of energy–protein under-nutrition in populations in sub-Saharan Africa. On the other hand, Szymandera-Buszka et al. [ 3 ] employed consumer tests and sensory profiling to assess the impact of ethanol extracts of spices (lovage, marjoram, thyme, oregano, rosemary and basil) on the sensory quality of new pork meatballs and hamburgers. This work noted the usefulness of these techniques in the development of products with clean labeling, replacing synthetic preservatives with natural plant extracts. Tao and Cho [ 4 ] evaluated the sensory characteristics of Rebaudioside (Reb) A, D and M compared with sucrose, using a consumer panel, and explored the relationship between 6-n-Propylthiouracil (PROP) taster status (i.e., non-tasters, medium tasters, supertasters) and the perceived intensity of sweet and bitter tastes of the three steviol glycosides. Consumers were instructed to rate the sweetness and bitterness intensities of different solutions and a check-all-that-apply (CATA) question was used to evaluate the taste, which are considered to be more flexible and less time-consuming methodologies than traditional ones.

Other authors have analyzed the association between consumer perceptions of food quality and their acceptance of enhanced meat products and novel packaging [ 5 ]. This study was conducted using the Computer-Assisted Personal Interview (CAPI) method in a random group of 1009 respondents. The results suggested that educating consumers may improve their acceptance of product enhancement, as concerns about the addition of food preservatives may lead them to reject enhanced products. Biro et al. [ 6 ] also study sensory evaluation (CATA) together with technological parameters (color, hardness, etc.) to assess consumer acceptance of insects as food. These authors valued the acceptance or rejection of oat biscuits enriched with insect powders [ Acheta domesticus (house cricket)]. An important part of this study was to discover how the insect content of the products affects the overall liking (OAL) and which attributes are the drivers of liking.

The potential to design natural tea-infused set yoghurt was also investigated using quantitative descriptive profile analysis and a consumer hedonic test together with technological properties (texture analysis, yield stress, physical stability and color) [ 7 ]. Three types of tea ( Camellia sinensis )—black, green and oolong tea—as well as lemon balm ( Melissa officinalis L.), were used to produce set yoghurt and compare this with plain yoghurt. Both types of yoghurt were also characterized by a high consumer willingness to buy. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to analyze differences between samples and the correlation of selected variables.

Studies of different consumers from different countries have also been presented in this SI. Grasso and Jaworska [ 8 ] studied the presence of hybrid meat products in the UK market, extracted UK online consumer reviews on hybrid meat products and gathered preliminary consumer insights, utilizing the tools and techniques of corpus linguistics. These studies are of great importance since hybrid meat products could open up new business opportunities for the food industry and a greater diversity of products for consumers. Silva et al. [ 9 ] also carried out a preliminary inquiry with 155 consumers from Região de Lisboa and Vale do Tejo (Center of Portugal) to assess fish consumption, the applicability of fish product innovation and the importance of valorizing discarded fish (blue jack mackerel, black seabream, piper gurnard, etc.). Five products (black seabream ceviche, smoked blue jack mackerel pâté, dehydrated piper gurnard, fried boarfish and comber pastries) were developed and investigated for their sensory characteristics and consumer liking by hedonic tests by 90 consumers. The knowledge of consumers’ interests acquired with the data from the initial survey allowed for the development of new fish products, with the addition or substitution of the fish species under study through the reformulation of existing products that are familiar to the consumer. Głuchowski et al. [ 10 ] also used descriptive quantitative analyses and consumer tests to explore sensory characteristics, consumer liking of key attributes, their declared sensations and emotions, as well as consumers’ facial expressions when responding to the six dishes prepared using lemon or tomatoes and made in the traditional (classical), molecular and Note by Note (NbN) versions. Tests included a nine-point hedonic scale for degree of liking a dish, check-all-that-apply (CATA) for declared sensations and FaceReader for facial expressions. The influence of factors associated with consumer attitudes toward new food and willingness to try the dishes in the future were also determined. Such an approach was valuable in modifying features such as the taste, flavor and texture of dishes according to consumers’ points of view. The goal of the Kumar et al. [ 11 ] study was to highlight one strategic framework to find white spaces in the marketplace and then develop new snack texture concepts to fit the sensory concepts identified as white spaces. This paper shows one method of how new product concepts can be developed using such sensory science tools as product categorization, projective mapping and descriptive profiling. This research approach for novel and distinctive market opportunities displays an innovative, practical side of NPD research as a complement. The methodology produced in this study can be used by food product developers to explore new opportunities in the global marketplace.

Finally, Świąder and Marczewska [ 12 ] explored the current trends of using sensory evaluation in NPD in the food industry in countries that belong to the EIT Regional Innovation Scheme (RIS). A computer-assisted self-interviewing (CASI) technique for survey data collection was used. The research results showed that almost 70% of companies apply sensory evaluation methods in NPD and more so the bigger the company. Here, it was also noted that most companies prefer consumer (affective) tests to expert tests.

Conclusions and Future Outlook

To summarize, the works collected in this Special Issue serve to offer an interesting contribution to the field and a better understanding of sensorial techniques and consumer research as a tool for innovation in new product development in order to satisfy the demands of consumers who increasingly seek new flavors, pleasure and fun and for companies to gain a better market position. Therefore, this SI is very useful for both present and future use for the different players involved in this kind of product development (industry, companies, researchers, scientists, marketing, merchandising, consumers, etc.). However, although these techniques have evolved substantially in recent years, the potential of using sensory evaluation methods is not yet fully exploited. A great future is predicted for them and a significant development is expected in the coming years. Finding new opportunities in food product development is a challenging assignment.

Acknowledgments

We thank to all the authors who have collaborated and have made this special issue possible.

Author Contributions

C.R.-C.; A.M.H. writing—original draft preparation; C.R.-C.; A.M.H. writing—review and editing; C.R.-C.; A.M.H. funding acquisition. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research was funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (PID2019-107542RB-C21), by the CSIC Intramural projects (grant numbers 201470E073 and 202070E242), CYTED (Reference 119RT0568; Healthy Meat Network).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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