research paper on extreme sports

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J Funct Morphol Kinesiol

Why Would You Choose to Do an Extreme Sport?

Giuseppe musumeci.

1 Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, Human, Histology and Movement Science Section, University of Catania, Via S. Sofia n°87, 95123 Catania, Italy; ti.tcinu@ireguamaizarg or [email protected] ; Tel.: +39-095-378-2043

2 Research Center on Motor Activities (CRAM), University of Catania, Via S. Sofia n°97, 95123 Catania, Italy

3 Department of Biology, Sbarro Institute for Cancer Research and Molecular Medicine, College of Science and Technology, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19122, USA

Why do so many athletes keep practicing extreme sports, even though they know the danger of risking their lives? Why is our body addicted to these strong emotions? I will try to address these questions in this short editorial.

The thrills given by extreme sports attract many individuals seeking excitement. Many of these extreme sports like snowboarding, surfing, skateboarding, rock climbing, bungee jumping, skydiving, and others, allow one to feel the freedom to challenge yourself, both physically and psychologically, and to perform any type of freestyling that would be nauseating to athletes. However, almost all extreme sports have some elements that could endanger an athlete’s life in comparison to traditional sports. These sports could be defined as “extreme” due to their tendency to be dangerous if not performed carefully or with the right equipment [ 1 ]. After all, to experience the true “adrenaline kick,” these sports must be dangerous. Serious injuries are common among adrenaline junkies and many fatalities are reported every year. To give an example of this phenomenon according to the report of the United States Parachute Association, more than twenty people a year die due to parachuting alone. The effort required by these sports is great, but the supply of adrenaline and other hormones is sufficient to avoid tiredness resulting from exercise. The adrenaline rush increases the acceleration of blood flows to the muscles and brain, relaxes the muscles, and lastly helps with the conversion of glycogen into glucose in the liver. For every extreme sports athlete, this adrenaline rush is never enough since they are always seeking stronger emotions.

This kind of feeling cannot be otherwise experienced and many of these extreme sports athletes do not even consider a life without the excitement of these powerful moments. Furthermore, extreme sports have the capacity to establish a strong bond between individuals, thanks to the dangerous elements of the activity that requires a high level of trust between people. Consequently, this kind of friendship bond has a good impact on mental health [ 2 ].

The typical challenges and performances of the so-called “extreme sports” draw the attention of the spectators, growing the interest of researchers in this kind of behavior. The reasons why risk-lovers are attracted to challenges in dangerous places, or to the possibility of facing the unknown or even to the extreme conditions in which it must be lived, are strictly related to their interpretation of life, to their need of challenging life and to have complete control of the most uncertain situations [ 3 ].

These aspects need to be monitored and reworked in case of predominance of self-destructive tendencies, or when evaluating self-capacities. In this situation, the tendency to underestimate the risk could hide the overestimation of the self, or a devaluation of life caused by a non-depressive mental state that can lead to a latently desired death [ 1 ]. However, most extreme sports enthusiasts are not driven by self-destructive tendencies. One of the most important aspects of extreme sports that fascinates people is the possibility to live experiences that make you feel alive in a way out of the ordinary, that generate euphory described with expressions like “feeling in the eye of the storm” or “look I’m getting” or “feel the adrenaline rush”.

Some studies tried to explain the neuropsychological reasons that may lead some people more than others to look for “no limits” experiences. These studies found a correlation between the ability of certain activities to enhance adrenaline’s secretion, the need to take risks, and the inclination to seek extreme experiences. This chemical response is closely related to the so-called “fight or flight”, which is able to generate chills reported as “pleasant” in those who frequently seek these kinds of experience. The feeling of imminent danger elicited by these extreme sports activates the survival mechanisms in response to stress in order to face the event through neurophysiological changes broadly acknowledged by the literature [ 2 ].

However, it is possible to activate the “fight or flight” response in the average population even with activities that guarantee great safety and that allow people to deal with uncertainties or changes with respect to the usual point of reference: like the small challenges to daily habits of some game at the funfair that are able to elicit a pleasant, and safe, euphory. Emotional experiences on daily life have also been related to the release of neuromediators, which is physiologically activated in several situations faced by the individuals.

In these scenarios, the organism produces a large amount of dopamine which is known to elicit the sensation of pleasure similar to those experienced with alcohol, drugs, or sexual intercourse. Therefore, this explains (along with the presence of adrenaline) the frequent propensity to uncontrollably smile or scream while living those experiences. The common attraction towards these situations has also been studied in relation to a gene mutation that could cause a lower presence of dopamine receptors. This mutation has been found in many people who express attraction to extreme sports; therefore, it was considered among the possible physiological reasons that can explain the tendency to experiment with extreme activities, since the latter would be able to induce the overproduction of dopamine in order to obtain those physiological effects which are physiologically achieved at a lower level of stimulation in people with, otherwise, a greater number of dopaminergic receptors [ 4 ].

Many other studies on the typical personality of extreme sports enthusiasts spotted in these people the propensity to seek strong emotions, and this has led to the definition of “sensation seekers”, a psychological aspect very common between paratroopers, free climbers, and other athletes practicing extreme sports or showing addiction to exercise [ 5 ]. In a similar context, it is possible to place the psychological studies that have compared the differences between common people and “sensation seekers”. Sensation seekers are characterized by a need to try the extreme, in search of thrills, even though it implies doing dangerous sports.

These kinds of people avoid trivial experiences because they need high-emotional situations (like drug addicts), developing a sort of “shivering tolerance”, forcing them to seek higher doses of emotion every time to reach the same sensation as before. When this occurs, they get used to the same extreme challenge and start looking for a more intense one, to feel the thrill again, risking death just as might happen in drug addiction. In these situations, the need to seek the thrill is combined with a system of values or criminal behaviour tendencies, fuelled by an altered evaluation of life: the result is the pursuit of one’s passion, putting in danger himself and other lives [ 2 ].

There are various reasons why it would be interesting to tackle the challenge of extreme sports, but before venturing into them, it is necessary to consider and reflect on the above-discussed arguments. Furthermore, people who want to undertake these sports should be careful about their own and others’ physical integrity, because sport should simply improve the psychophysical abilities of the person and not the other way around.

This work was funded by the University Research Project Grant (PIACERI Found–NATURE-OA–2020–2022), Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences (BIOME-TEC), University of Catania, Italy.

Conflicts of Interest

The author declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Psychology and the Extreme Sport Experience

First Online: 20 September 2016

Cite this chapter

Eric Brymer 2 &
Susan Houge Mackenzie 3

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18 Citations

The term ‘extreme sports’ has become synonymous with a variety of nontraditional adventure experiences. Terminologies such as ‘whiz sports’, ‘free sports’, ‘adventure sports’, ‘lifestyle sports’, ‘action sports’, ‘alternative sports’ and ‘extreme sports’ are often used interchangeably. One disadvantage of this proliferation is that accompanying definitions are imprecise or misleading. For example, white-water kayaking on grade two of the universal grading system can feel exciting and adventurous, but the results of an accident or mistake would be relatively innocuous in comparison to the consequences of an accident or mistake on grade six water. At the highest levels of difficulty, death is a real possibility. In addition to these semantic issues, theories used to explain extreme sport participation typically portray participants as risk or adrenaline seekers. Theorists have explained participants’ motivations through a range of analytical frameworks, including edgework, sensation seeking, psychoanalysis, neotribe or subcultural formation and masculinity theory. These risk-focused accounts are often formulated by non-participants and supported by theory-driven methodologies that may not fully capture the actual lived experiences of extreme sport participants. Problems with traditional approaches to studying extreme sports include (1) research revealing characteristics and statistics that are incongruent with traditional risk and sensation-seeking accounts, (2) a myopic focus on risk-seeking that largely ignores other key motives and benefits and (3) theory-driven perspectives that do not fully reflect the lived experiences of participants. In this chapter, the authors explore the psychology of extreme sports with the aim of illuminating additional perspectives on extreme sport experiences and motivations beyond risk and sensation seeking.

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Brymer, E., Houge Mackenzie, S. (2017). Psychology and the Extreme Sport Experience. In: Feletti, F. (eds) Extreme Sports Medicine. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28265-7_1

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The significance of extreme sports: a qualitative analysis

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Injuries in extreme sports

Lior Laver 1 ,
Ioannis P. Pengas 2 &
Omer Mei-Dan 3 , 4

Journal of Orthopaedic Surgery and Research volume 12 , Article number: 59 ( 2017 ) Cite this article

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Extreme sports (ES) are usually pursued in remote locations with little or no access to medical care with the athlete competing against oneself or the forces of nature. They involve high speed, height, real or perceived danger, a high level of physical exertion, spectacular stunts, and heightened risk element or death.

Popularity for such sports has increased exponentially over the past two decades with dedicated TV channels, Internet sites, high-rating competitions, and high-profile sponsors drawing more participants.

Recent data suggest that the risk and severity of injury in some ES is unexpectedly high. Medical personnel treating the ES athlete need to be aware there are numerous differences which must be appreciated between the common traditional sports and this newly developing area. These relate to the temperament of the athletes themselves, the particular epidemiology of injury, the initial management following injury, treatment decisions, and rehabilitation.

The management of the injured extreme sports athlete is a challenge to surgeons and sports physicians. Appropriate safety gear is essential for protection from severe or fatal injuries as the margins for error in these sports are small.

The purpose of this review is to provide an epidemiologic overview of common injuries affecting the extreme athletes through a focus on a few of the most popular and exciting extreme sports.

The definition of extreme sports (ES) inhabits any sports featuring high speed, height, real or perceived danger, a high level of physical exertion, and highly specialized gear or spectacular stunts and involves elements of increased risk. These ES activities tend to be individual and can be pursued both competitively and non-competitively [ 1 ]. They often take place in remote locations and in variable environmental conditions (weather, terrain) with little or no access to medical care [ 2 ], and even if medical care is available, it usually faces challenges related to longer response and transport times, access to few resources, limed provider experience due to low patient volume, and more extreme geographical and environmental challenges [ 3 ].

Examples of popular ES include BMX (Bicycle Motorcross) and mountaineering; hang-gliding and paragliding; free diving; surfing (including wave, wind, and kite surfing) and personal watercraft; whitewater canoeing, kayaking, and rafting; bungee jumping, BASE ( B uilding, A ntenna, S pan and E arth) jumping, and skydiving; extreme hiking and skateboarding; mountain biking; in-line skating; ultra-endurance races; alpine skiing and snowboarding; and ATV ( A ll- T errain V ehicle) and motocross sports [ 4 ].

In the last two decades, there has been a major increase in both the popularity and participation in ES, with dedicated TV channels, Internet sites, high-rating competitions, and high-profile sponsors drawing more participants [ 5 – 7 ]. The popularity of ES has been highlighted in recent years by the success of the X-games, an Olympic-like competition showcasing the talents in ES.

Participation in ES is associated with risk of injury or even death, and therefore, the extreme athlete—amateur or professional—and the medical personnel treating these athletes must consider the risk of injury and measures for injury prevention.

Recent data suggest that the risk and severity of injury in some ES is unexpectedly high [ 8 ].

Medical personnel treating the ES athlete need to be aware that there are numerous differences which must be appreciated between the common traditional sports and this newly developing area. These relate to the temperament of the athletes themselves, the particular epidemiology of injury, the initial management following injury, treatment decisions, and rehabilitation.

The purpose of this chapter is to provide an epidemiologic overview of the available literature on common injuries affecting the extreme athletes, the risk of their occurrence, and available prevention measures in this athletic population.

Epidemiology of extreme sports injuries

Despite great evolution in traditional sports epidemiology, injury mechanisms in ES are less understood. Higher injury rates are seen in two groups: new and inexperienced athletes who have just started engaging in extreme sports and experienced extremists [ 4 ]. In some of these ES, we do not have a clear picture of the injury pattern due to lack of formal recorded events. What we do observe is an injury increase during competitions rather than training—a trend well recognized in common team sports [ 9 , 10 ] as athletes are trying to push their limits even further for prizes, audience, or fame.

Specific extreme sports and their associated injuries

Skydiving is a major air sports of parachuting from an aircraft, the International Parachuting Commission (IPC) reported in 2009 approximately 5.5 million jumps, made by almost one million jumpers in 40 countries [ 11 ], including tandem jumps. The reported number of jumpers self operating their equipment added up to some 220,000 skydivers performing some 4.7 million skydives [ 12 ], with the majority of jumps being performed by a small number of skydivers whereas a larger number of participants perform fewer jumps [ 13 – 17 ].

Since the late 1980s, a few epidemiological studies have been conducted in order to establish the injury and fatality rates associated with the sport. Fatalities are seen more frequently in those who are considered “expert” or “seasoned” jumpers 60 vs. 20% with 71% occurring where the skydiver had at least one good parachute on, with the majority of fatalities (79%) been caused by human error [ 12 ].

Barrows et al. documented jumping incidents during two consecutive world free fall skydiving conventions in Illinois in 2000–2001 [ 13 ]. They followed 8976 skydivers making 117,000 skydives, in 20 days, indicating a total injury rate of 170 per 100,000 jumps while only 30% of those required a visit to an emergency department and as few as 10% continued to hospital admission. Most, 66% of the injuries were considered minor with 32% of these were abrasions and contusions and 22% lacerations. Of the jumpers who visited the emergency department for follow-up treatment, half suffered from extremity trauma which was related to lower extremity in 80% of patients with a rate of 0.5 fractures per 100,000 jumps.

Westman evaluated the skydiving injury rate during five consecutive years and more than half a million jumps in Sweden [ 18 ]. The incidence of non-fatal events was found to be 48 per 100,000 jumps (or 2100 jumps per incident as total or 3200 jumps per licensed jumpers), and 88% of those occurred around the landing with 51% of injuries involved the lower extremities, 19% involved the upper extremities, 18% involved the back and spine, and 7% involved the head, with 41% of the injuries categorized as minor, 47% as moderate, and 12% as severe. Most serious injuries were experienced by licensed skydivers while students in training had a six times higher injury rate. Interestingly, women over presented with injuries in this study, and they also had a higher proportion of landing injuries than men.

Although many parameters and participants may have changed over the last 20 years, injury rates remain similar. Modern equipment has decreased overall morbidity and mortality, but it has also led to faster landings with increased limb injuries.

BASE jumping

BASE jumping (“BASE” stands for B uilding, A ntenna, S pan—a bridge, arch, or dome, and E arth—a cliff or other natural formation often less than 500 ft above ground level) has around 3000 active members; it is considered the most dangerous adventure sports in the world and a skydiving offshoot using specially adapted parachutes to jump from fixed objects (Fig. 1 ).

BASE jumping. With permission and courtesy of Omer Mei-Dan

Very few studies have been conducted on this small unique population. Soreide et al. determined that BASE jumping is associated with a five- to eightfold risk for fatality or injury when compared to regular skydiving [ 19 ]. The fatality rate associated with BASE jumping was found to be 0.4 per 1000 jumps from a single site [ 19 ], although lacking information on demographic characteristics or jumpers’ experience level. In a study by Monasterio and Mei-Dan among 35 experienced BASE jumpers [ 20 ], an estimated injury rate of 0.4% was found in 9914 jumps, a finding similar to Soreide’s results [ 19 ]. Twenty-one (60%) jumpers in that study were involved in 39 accidents. The majority of accidents (28 accidents—72%) involved the lower limbs, 12 (31%) involved the back\spine, 7 (18%) the upper limb, and 1 (3%) was a head injury. It seems the sports attracts predominantly male participants. In Monasterio and Mei-Dan’s study, 75% of injuries were categorized as moderate or severe, as opposed Soreide’s series where most injuries were considered minor [ 20 ]. This could be explained by the fact that the single high site (1000 m) studied in Soreide’s series offered relatively safe jumping conditions allowing greater speed generation before parachute deployment and controlled landing. The rate of injuries requiring hospitalization in Monasterio and Mei-Dan’s study was 294 per 100,000 jumps and 16 times higher compared to the rate of such injuries in free fall skydiving found by Burrows et al. (18 per 100,000 jumps) [ 13 ]. A more recent study by Mei-Dan et al. analyzing fatality rates associated with wingsuit use in BASE jumpers showed a growing pattern of wingsuit-related fatalities, with 49% wingsuit-related fatalities between 2008 and 2011 and 90% in the first 8 months of 2013 compared to 16% between 2002 and 2007 [ 21 ]. Most fatalities occurred in the summer period in the northern hemisphere and were attributed to cliff or ground impact, being mostly the result of flying path miscalculations [ 21 ].

Climbing is an adventure sports which has developed from alpine mountaineering. Its popularity has vastly grown in the past three decades, with the introduction of indoor climbing gyms and climbing walls, becoming globally spread and evolved to new categories like ice climbing, bouldering, speed climbing, and aid climbing reaching an estimated two million participants in Europe and about nine million in the USA [ 22 ] (Fig. 2 ).

Bouldering. With permission and courtesy of Volker Schoffl

There are various disciplines encapsulated under the umbrella of climbing; some are less risky than others, with sports climbing or free climbing among the safest. A cross-sectional survey on rock climbing showed a lower frequency injury rate compared to football and horse riding [ 23 ], but with more catastrophic or fatal consequences.

Most studies show that the incidence of overuse injuries is associated with climbing frequency and difficulty [ 24 , 25 ]. Most injuries are sustained by the lead climber, with falls being the most common mechanism of acute injuries [ 26 ]. Overall, most registered injuries in climbing studies are of minor severity. The fatality rate reported in climbing ranges from 0 to 28% climbers in various studies [ 27 ]. This wide range could be explained by varying methodology and data collection techniques in different series.

In indoor climbing, injury rates are much lower with 0.027–0.079 injuries/1000 h of participation and fatalities are very rare [ 28 ]. Overuse injuries are more common in this discipline, most commonly involving the upper extremities—mainly finger injuries. Although climbing relies on the synchronized and optimal function of the whole body, activity and performance are primarily limited by finger and forearm strength. Various gripping techniques lead to transmission of extremely high forces to the fingers, making overuse injuries of the fingers and hands the most common complaints in rock climbers [ 24 , 25 , 28 – 31 ]. Some injuries, such as flexor tendon pulley ruptures or the lumbrical shift syndrome, are very unique and specific for the sports and are rarely seen in other patient populations [ 24 ]. Very little data exists for ice climbing, and although severe injuries and fatalities occur, most recognized injuries are of minor severity and are comparable with other outdoor sports [ 27 , 32 ].

Most studies on mountaineering report fatality/injury rates per 1000 climbers or 1000 summits, making it difficult to compare to the more common 1000 h of sports participation used in other disciplines. In mountaineering, additional environmental factors (avalanches, crevasses, altitude-induced illnesses with neurological dysfunction, etc.) can directly influence injuries and fatalities [ 33 ]. In high altitudes, it is important to also follow the prevalence of altitude illness, estimated between 28 and 34% above 4000 m [ 34 , 35 ] and can be a major cause of injury, accident, or even death [ 36 – 38 ].

The sports of wave surfing is ever growing with a huge market involved, commercialization of surfing apparel and the surfing lifestyle, fashion trends, and media coverage. In 2009, it was estimated that there were more than 2.4 million surfers in the USA [ 39 ]. Despite being one of the most popular outdoor sports in the world, less than ten studies have been conducted on wave surfing.

Surfing is considered relatively safe compared to more traditional sports. A survey of self-reported injuries in Australia in 1983 found 3.5 “moderate to severe” injuries (resulting in lost days of surfing or requiring medical care) per 1000 surfing days [ 40 ]. The most common injuries requiring medical attention or resulting in inability to surf were lacerations (41%) and soft-tissue injuries (35%). A recent Australian survey found a rate of 2.2 significant injuries per 1000 surfing days [ 41 ] equating to 0.26 injuries/surfer/year, of those 45.2% were caused by collision with another surfer or surfboard. Distribution of lacerations, sprains, and contusions were similar to other reported rates, but they also reported 11% dislocation rate and 9% fractures.

Nathanson et al. evaluated acute competitive surfing injuries at 32 professional and amateur surfing contests worldwide between 1999 and 2005 [ 42 ]. The injury rate found was 5.7 per 1000 athlete exposures, or 13 per 1000 h of competitive surfing, with 6.6 significant injuries per 1000 h of competitive surfing. This injury rate compares favorably to those found in American collegiate football (33 per 1000 h), soccer (18 per 1000 h), and basketball (9 per 1000 h) where similar methods of data collection and injury definition were used [ 43 ]. The relative injury risk was calculated to be 2.4 times greater when surfing in waves overhead or bigger and 2.6 times greater when surfing over a rock or reef bottom.

In a Web site-based survey, 1348 individuals reported 1237 acute injuries and 477 chronic injuries [ 44 ]. Lacerations accounted for 42% of all acute injuries, contusions 13%, sprains/strains 12%, and fractures 8%. Thirty-seven percent of acute injuries were to the lower extremity, and 37% to the head and neck. Fifty-five percent of injuries resulted from contact with one’s own board, 12% from another surfer’s board, and 17% from the sea floor. This data correlates well with previous reports showing high incidence of lacerations caused by the sharp fin, the tail, or the nose of the surfboard. An interesting finding showed a considerable proportion of head injury, in contrast to the fact very few surfers use protective headgear [ 44 , 45 ].

Fatality rates are unknown in surfing. Reports from Hawaii from 1993 to 1997 found that bodyboarders and surfers accounted for 17 of 238 ocean-related drownings [ 46 ]. This data includes fatal shark attacks. As 50% of a surfer’s time is spent paddling and 45% is spent remaining still, while only 3–5% is spent actually riding waves, most overuse injuries derive from paddling [ 47 , 48 ]. Other data found overuse injuries to the shoulder (18%), back (16%), neck (9%), and knee (9%) [ 42 ].

Injury prevention in surfing is practiced by following basic safety recommendations such as maintaining adequate swimming skills (the ability to swim 1 km in less than 20 min and being comfortable swimming alone in the ocean) [ 49 ], familiarizing with the surfing environment and conditions (entry and points, currents, and underwater hazards), avoiding surfing to exhaustion, and safely practicing breath-holding training. Using adequate equipment is also essential such as temperature-appropriate wetsuits protecting against hypothermia, protected, rounded, and shock absorbing surfboard noses and fins trailing edges, and a board leash to keep the surfer’s board close at hand, and the board can be used as a flotation device should a surfer become exhausted or injured.

Skiing and snowboarding

Skiing and snowboarding are the two main piste-based snow sports. With roots in Nordic (cross-country) skiing, Alpine skiing gradually evolved over time from method of transportation in Scandinavia thousands of years ago into the present recreational and competitive sport, becoming a winter Olympic sports in Garmisch in 1936, with snowboarding becoming an Olympic sports in 1998 (Fig. 3 ).

Snowboarding. With permission and courtesy of David Carlier

Although variable between resorts, currently approximately 60% of those on the slopes are Alpine skiers and 30–35% are snowboarders while the remainder perform ski boarding (snowblading) and Telemark skiing. Recent estimation report around 200 million skiers and 70 million snowboarders active in the world today.

The current risk of a recreational snow-sport-related injury is between 2 and 4 injuries per 1000 participant days [ 50 ], a risk much lower than in popular sports such as football and rugby, and has decreased steadily over recent years [ 51 ] thanks to improvements in equipment, ski area design and maintenance, and piste preparation [ 51 ]. The risk of injury from recreational Alpine skiing is generally accepted to be between 1 and 2 injuries per 1000 participant days [ 50 , 52 ].

The fracture rate from Alpine skiing is approximately 19% [ 53 ], and common sites include the clavicle, proximal humerus, and tibia. Prior to the introduction of release bindings, fractures of the lower leg were common from twisting forces transmitted unmitigated from the ski up to the lower leg. Even so, Alpine skiers are still more likely to injure their lower rather than their upper limb, with the knee joint being the single commonest site of injury among skiers, and most of these injuries are soft tissue/ligamentous in nature. (Figs. 4 and 5 ).

Injury types breakdown in Alpine skiing. From [ 69 ]. Used with publisher’s permission

Commonly injured areas in Alpine skiing. From [ 69 ]. Used with publisher’s permission

Upper limb injuries feature strongly with either the thumb or the shoulder being involved following a fall onto an outstretched hand. Thumb injuries almost exclusively affect Alpine skiers, so much so that the term “skier’s thumb” is used to describe the commonest injury—an acute radial stress to the metacarpophalangeal (MCP) joint of the thumb. The handle of the ski pole acts as a fulcrum across the MCP joint stressing the ulnar collateral ligament (UCL) [ 54 ]. If left untreated, this may lead to long-term functional disability.

The four commonest shoulder injuries to affect skiers and snowboarders are anterior dislocation of the glenohumeral joint, acromioclavicular (AC) joint disruption, clavicle fracture, and fracture of the proximal humerus. The incidence of shoulder injuries is higher in snowboarders [ 55 ].

The risk of injury from snowboarding is generally estimated at about twice that of Alpine skiing and currently stands at between 2 and 4 injuries per 1000 participant days [ 52 ]. Snowboarders are more likely to injure their upper limb than their lower limb [ 53 ]. Unlike skiers, when losing balance, snowboarders cannot step out a leg to regain balance. As a result, falls due to loss of balance are frequent, and not surprisingly, beginner snowboarders are at highest risk. This commonly results in falls on an outstretched hand and places the upper limb, and the wrist joint in particular, at high risk of injury [ 56 ]. The fracture rate among snowboarders is twice that of Alpine skiers [ 53 ], caused largely by the high rate of wrist fractures (up to 33% of all injuries [ 57 ].

Muscle and ligament strain/sprains are still common as are contusions from off-balance falls. Snowboarders suffer a higher rate of shoulder joint injuries due to an increased tendency to fall onto the upper limb [ 53 ]. Jumps and other aerial maneuvers, commonly performed in snowboarding, are associated with a relatively small but definite risk of injury to the spine [ 58 – 60 ]. Figure 6 illustrates injury types in snowboarding.

Injury types breakdown in snowboarding. From [ 69 ]. Used with publisher’s permission

The injury risk among professional skiers and snowboarders is approximately three times that of recreational participants [ 61 ] and has been calculated to be 17 injuries per 1000 ski runs [ 62 ]. Almost one third of injuries among professional athletes were classified as severe, leading to an absence from participation of more than 28 days [ 63 ]. The knee is the commonest injury area among competitive skiers and snowboarders [ 61 – 63 ].

Knee injuries account for about one third of all skiing injuries. Most are minor soft tissue sprains. The medial collateral ligament (MCL) is commonly injured as a result of valgus force to the knee as the ski unintentionally splays the lower leg outward. Most grade 1 and 2 injuries will settle with conservative treatment. The most serious soft tissue knee injury involves the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL). This important ligament may be injured in isolation or in combination with other structures. While it is possible to ski without an ACL, this requires considerable effort and rehabilitation to maintain knee stability, muscle bulk, and proprioception. Most orthopedic surgeons recommend ACL reconstruction for those who wish to ski at or above an intermediate level. Knee injuries among snowboarders are much less common and usually result from direct trauma to the anterior aspect of the knee.

The fatality risk in snow sports is even lower at one death per 1.57 million participant days [ 64 ]. This equates to approximately 39 traumatic deaths per year in the USA out of a total of almost 60 million participant days (source: http://www.nsaa.org/ ). These fatality rates are much lower compared to other popular recreational activities such as swimming and cycling [ 64 ]. The commonest cause of a traumatic snow-sport-related death is a high-speed collision with a static object (tree, pylon, or another person) [ 65 , 66 ]. Many of these deaths involve head injuries [ 66 ]. Non-traumatic causes of death on the slopes include ischemic heart disease, hypothermia, and medical events such as acute severe asthma attacks [ 65 ]. A less frequent but important mechanism of death is the so-called non-avalanche-related snow immersion death (NARSID), also known as a “tree well death” [ 66 , 67 ], when skiers/snowboarders fall into a hidden pit underneath a tree. Unless the event is witnessed, self-extraction from the tree well is nearly impossible. The trapped individual tends to cause more snow to fall into the pit as they struggle to try to extract and death usually resulting from hypothermia or asphyxiation from snow falling in [ 68 ].

Conclusions

Extreme sports are increasing in popularity, being fun to participate in and exciting to watch. The management of the injured extreme sports athlete is a challenge to surgeons and sports physicians. Appropriate safety gear is essential for protection from severe or fatal injuries as the margins for error in these sports are small. However, extreme sports athletes are more likely to return to their pre-injury levels of activity than the general population following treatment.

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Laver, L., Pengas, I.P. & Mei-Dan, O. Injuries in extreme sports. J Orthop Surg Res 12 , 59 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13018-017-0560-9

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PERSPECTIVE article

Defining extreme sport: conceptions and misconceptions.

$\r\nRhonda Cohen*$

1 The London Sports Institute, Faculty of Science and Technology, Middlesex University London, London, United Kingdom
2 Department of Psychology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Middlesex University London, London, United Kingdom

One feature of how sport is defined is the distinction between extreme and non-extreme sport. BASE jumping is an example of an “extreme sport” because it involves a high degree of risk, whilst swimming is classified as “non-extreme” because the risks involved are minimal. This broad definition falls short of identifying the extent of risk and ignores the psychological, social-demographic and life style variables associated with engagement in each sport.

Introduction

Indeed, the lack of consistency within the term “extreme sport" means that those wishing to study this field are forced to create their own criteria as a starting point, often in a less than scientific manner. This literary review of contemporary and historical research articles raises the key question of whether the definition of extreme sport is one of risk-taking with a high chance of injury or death or whether there are additional aspects to consider such as lifestyle or a relationship to the natural environment. This review does not examine any hypotheses and is a narrative based on key papers. Due to the lack of literature on this subject area it was not thought pertinent to conduct a systematic review.

The aim of this article is twofold: firstly, to demonstrate whether the term “extreme sport” in scientific terms, has developed into a misnomer, misleading in the context of the sports it tends to encompass, secondly, to propose a revised, more accurate definition of extreme sport, reflective of the activities it encompasses in the context of other non-mainstream sports. Based on this review it is argued that a new definition of an extreme sport is one of “a (predominantly) competitive (comparison or self-evaluative) activity within which the participant is subjected to natural or unusual physical demands. Moreover, an unsuccessful outcome is “likely to result in the injury or fatality of the participant, in contrast to non-extreme sport” ( Cohen, 2016 , p. 138).

“Extreme Sport” – Challenging the Definition

The question of what is an extreme sport and whether the term “extreme sport” should be used to label particular sports can be viewed from a variety of angles. “Extreme sport” appears to be used interchangeably with “high risk sport” in much of the research literature. Both “high risk” and “extreme sport” are defined as any “sport where one has to accept a possibility of severe injury or death as an inherent part of the activity” ( Breivik et al., 1994 ). In the same manner, classification of extreme or high risk could partly be due to peak static and dynamic components achieved during competition ( Mitchell et al., 2005 ), which may result in bodily changes such as high blood pressure (e.g., Squash vs. Archery). A further classification would consider physical risk (e.g., BASE Jumping vs. Darts) as a defining feature of any “extreme or high risk sport” ( Palmer, 2002 ). However, the implication that those who engage in extreme sport are exclusively high-risk taking participants is an over simplification which requires careful consideration. Part of the difficulty in being able to define extreme sport is, according to Kay and Laberge (2002) . There are so many contradictory factors aside from risk. It is suggested here that there are spatial, emotional, individualistic and transgressive dimensions to consider in these sports. Terms such as “alternative,” “action,” “adventure,” and “lifestyle” are also used to describe extreme sport, however, none of these terms categorically encompass what extreme sport actually entails.

What is Extreme?

According to Merriam-Webster’s online dictionary (retrieved September 2018) the word extreme means: (1) Exceeding the ordinary, usual or expected. (2) Existing in a very high degree. (3) Going to a great or exaggerated lengths. Therefore, extreme as used in “extreme sport” suggests a deviation beyond what is generally viewed as “normal” or “traditional” activity and assumes participants pursue activities beyond these limits. The online Oxford University Dictionary (2018) defines “extreme sport” as “Denoting or relating to a sport performed in a hazardous environment and involving great risk.” So, the concept of “going beyond normal limits” and “risk” seem integral to what constitutes extreme sport. Booker (1998) stated that “extreme sports” were beyond the boundary of moderation; surpassing what is accounted for as reasonable – i.e., radical, and sports that are located at the outermost. Breivik et al. (1994) defined extreme sport’ as a high-risk sport where the possibility of severe injury or death is a possibility as well as integral to the sport or activity. So, the components of these definitions include: going beyond the norm of what is considered reasonable and may result in severe injury or death, i.e., high physical and/or psychological risk.

What is Sport?

Historically the definitions of sport have evolved particularly as new activities such as “BASE jumping” and “extreme mountain ironing” have emerged to challenges the perception of what sport actually is. Eysenck et al. (1982) , in their seminal review paper began by highlighting the problems inherent in the definition of sport. They used the Collins dictionary in their paper to define sport as amusement, diversion, fun, pastime, game… individual or group activity pursued for exercise or pleasure often involving the testing of physical capabilities… ( Eysenck et al., 1982 ). Arguably, this type of definition is overly inclusive, incorporating activities of amusement and pleasure whereby virtually anything that is non-work could be considered sport.

A more recent definition of sport is “all forms of physical activity which, through casual or organised participation, aimed at expressing or improving physical fitness and mental well-being, forming social relationships or obtaining results in competition at all levels” ( Council of Europe [CEE], 2001 , The European Sports Charter, revised, p. 3 – CEE). This broad definition of sport can encompass “traditional” sports such as Archery, Football, and Cricket, as well as those hitherto regarded as extreme sports such as Drag racing, BASE Jumping and Snowboarding.

Historically the CEES’s definition is not entirely new as sport has traditionally been accepted to represent a competitive task or activity engaged in by an individual or a group, which requires physical exertion and is governed by rules. Mason (1989) saw sport as “a more or less physically strenuous, competitive, recreational activity…usually…in the open air (which) might involve team against team, athlete against athlete or athlete against nature, or the clock.” Sport is generally viewed to be performed by individuals or in a group, as an organised, evaluative activity where the outcome of performance is judged by winning or losing. However, the inclusion of the word “or” in the CEES definition changes the nature of what is considered to be sport. It implies that results in competition do not need to be present and can be self evaluative or competitive. The modification of this definition allows activities such as recreational swimming or bungee jumping to now be classified as sports.

Is “Extreme Sport” the Same as “High Risk Sport?”

If “extreme sport” is the same as a “high-risk” sport then those individuals that engage in these sports should be at greater risk of injury or even death than those engaging in traditional sports ( Yates, 2015 ). When investigating the available statistics relating to extreme sport, one comes across a minefield of contradictions as the classification of injuries and/or fatalities are reported in a myriad of different ways.

A further challenge is then to set parameters using statistics of extreme sport according to risk, injury or mortality. This would require traditional sports such as cheerleading and horse riding, due to their high annual incidence of catastrophic injuries, to be classified as high-risk sports ( Turner and McCory, 2006 ). In the United Kingdom the Rugby Football Union defined injury as something that “…prevents a player from taking a full part in all training activities typically planned for that day…” (p. 7 in the England Professional Rugby Injury Surveillance Project Season , England Professional Rugby Injury Surveillance Project Season ). Mean injuries per match for 2013 were identified as 62 and mean injuries per club (including training) were 35 (p. 6 England Professional Rugby Injury Surveillance Project Season , England Professional Rugby Injury Surveillance Project Season ). Annual Rugby Union incidents around the world account for 4.6 catastrophic injuries per 100,000 each year, e.g., the risk of sustaining a catastrophic injury in Rugby Union in England (0.8/100,000 per year) are relatively lower than in New Zealand (4.2/100,000 per year), Australia (4.4/100,000 per year), and Fiji (13/100,000 per year). The risk of sustaining a catastrophic injury in other contact sports are; Ice Hockey (4/100,000 per year), Rugby League (2/100,000 per year), and American Football (2/100,000 per year) ( Gabbe et al., 2005 ; Fuller, 2008 ).

Besides mortality as a relevant and possible outcome, the link between the “extreme” nature of sport and brain damage arguably should be considered. Recently, the association between contact sports such as American Football and Rugby, combat sports such as Boxing and the team sport of Soccer (which includes heading balls), has resulting in a raised awareness of the relationship between sport and brain injuries and/or cognitive disturbance such as that found in Dementia. Negative effects on neuro-functioning in terms of cerebral blood flow, resulting in poor cognitive performance, can be prevalent in several sports, e.g., there have been recommendations from scuba diving research which suggested that scuba diving should be classified as a high-risk sport for the purpose of subjecting it to tighter controls and increased medical advice ( Slosman et al., 2004 ). Alternative research suggests that classifying a sport as “extreme” should be based solely by mortality rate ( Schulz et al., 2002 ). Mortality figures (see Table 1 ) show that whilst BASE Jumping has an extremely high mortality rate so does boxing and, somewhat surprisingly, canoeing. One may argue that employing such methods to classify sports is anything but straightforward, moreover many of the sports currently viewed as “traditional” may need further consideration as to how they could fit into a proposed working definition of extreme sport.

TABLE 1. Categorising extreme sport.

Besides physical risk May and Slanger (2000) suggest there is potentially psychological risk when engaging in high risk sport. Their findings suggest such activities can be psychologically damaging leading to elevated stress levels, extreme competitiveness and excessive perfectionism. In view of this it could be pertinent to consider the tenets of high-risk sport as both physical and psychological. In a somewhat provocative statement, Slanger and Rudestam (1997) cited extreme sport as an expression of a death wish, whereby in a slightly different manner, Brymer and Oades (2009) considered extreme sport not to be about the expression of risk but rather about the experience of approaching danger. It is also evident that many researchers conducting studies into sensation seeking have used the term “high-risk” interchangeably with “extreme sport” (e.g., Cronin, 1991 ; Gomài Freixanet, 1991 ; Breivik et al., 1994 ; Wagner and Houlihan, 1994 ).

Extreme sport has also been viewed as a contradiction to “normal” behaviour, which generally seeks safety and avoids high-risk ( Fletcher, 2004 ). The idea that participants choose to “accept the possibility” of injury or death ( Breivik, 1996 ) contradicts theories such as Maslow (1987) which stress that safety is a primary, innate need. Baudry (1991) writes that extreme sport is paradoxical in nature, as it requires one to contest his/her mortality through a strategy of premeditated suicide. This challenges normative thinking as it infers that extreme sport goes beyond official regulations and safety precautions and can purposefully place the participant in a potentially fatal situation. It implies that extreme sport is dangerous, unregulated and could arguably involve breaking laws or safety regulations, e.g., trespassing is often intrinsically linked to the sport of BASE jumping.

High Risk is a key concept in the definition of extreme sport and therefore Table 1 includes the component of risk of injury and mortality related to a range of sports. High risk is often used interchangeably with extreme sport.

Although terms such as Whiz ( Midol, 1993 ), Post-modern, Post-industrial, New sport, Unconventional, and Non-traditional and Panic sport, have been used in the past ( Rinehart and Sydnor, 2003 ) the most prevalent terms perceived as representing extreme sport which are subsequently outlined in this review, are: Alternative, Action, Adventure, Lifestyle, Media Driven, and Individualism.

Is “Extreme Sport” Just an “Alternative Sport” to “Traditional Sport?”

In North America, the word “alternative” is popularly used to denote any sport not American ( Humphreys, 1997 ; Rinehart and Sydnor, 2003 ) whereas researchers such as Kay and Laberge (2002) have used the term “alternative sport” in a more universal way to describe sports which are non-traditional sports. The difficulty in using this term as an all-encompassing word for extreme sport is that many sports are “alternative” as they challenge the societal concept of what is the norm but not all “alternative” sports are extreme ( Jarvie, 2006 ). Arguably then the term “alternative” can be merely a transient term until the “alternative” sport becomes mainstream, thus conventional. For example, Howe (1998) suggests that alternative sport depends on the masses for its continued existence, for once alternative sport becomes commercial and popularised by the public it becomes mainstream. Rinehart and Sydnor (2003) recognise this as an irony as they acknowledge that what is alternative quickly becomes conventional so a dynamic definition of extreme sport, due to perceptual changes, would be needed. Arguably then, in view of this, the term “extreme sport” is therefore considerably more accurate than the widely used term “alternative sport.”

Is “Extreme Sport” the Same as “Action” or “Adventure” Sport?

“Action” sports are an assortment of “risky, individualistic and alternative sports such as skateboarding, BMX biking, surfing, street luge, wakeboarding, and motor cross” ( Bennett and Lachowetz, 2004 ). Griffith (2002) explores the definition of action sports as something that has evolved from the broader sporting culture of surfing, skating, snowboarding and wakeboarding. Advertising companies employ the term as an effective association in creating a “cool” desirable, brand.

Winged suit jumper Chris “Douggs” McDougall prefers the term “adventure sport” to “extreme sport” because every time he participates he feels that he is going on a cool adventure ( O’Neil, 2017 ). The term adventure sport is used a great deal commercially. The Mintel Report (2003a) noted a division in the reporting of sporting holidays as either hard or soft adventure, whereby “hard” adventure holidays promote risk, danger, challenge and an adrenalin rush. These types of holidays offer caving, mountaineering, white water rafting and skydiving. Adventure sport may be a commonly used term amongst holiday promoters as the words themselves denote excitement and fun. Adventure sports also depict lifestyle sports as they are a leisure time pursuit with not only physical, but also mental exercise. They are journeys through which participants face their own limits of fear, exhaustion and risk, however, they are based more on individual achievement than many traditional sports. For example, the competition element between individuals could be lacking though it is evident that “competition” may exists between the participants and their environment. Adventure sport is a term commonly used in the tourism industry, however, when searching for a universal term for the sake of academic research it is limiting as sports such as BASE jumping or Stunt Cycling or Drag Racing would not readily fit into this category.

The key term, natural environment emanating from action and adventure research is another component placed in Table 1 so that the researchers could see whether there is a pattern of words which emerge to formulate the start of definition and this academic debate. In addition, the idea of competition versus self-evaluation found in the above literature was also included.

Is “Extreme Sport” Just a Lifestyle Sport?

The term “lifestyle sport” as utilised in the Mintel Report (2003b) identifies specific sports through an examination of the link between the participants, the activity and the environment. Their popularity represents a bottom-up approach steeped in grass root participation that is welcoming to all who want to participate. Those who have been alienated by traditional school-based and institutional sport are often attracted to lifestyle sports ( Wheaton, 2004 ). Affiliation provides participants with membership into an exclusive club – which includes equipment, clothes, like-minded people, books and web sites and can create a social group and sub-culture. In essence, it is sharing the enthusiasm for sport with others who share the same passions and yearn for the same excitement. There are commonalities between “Lifestyle” and “Extreme” sports whereby participants have a sense of camaraderie as they learn from each other via a dress code (e.g., Surfers, Skiers, Skateboarders), specialist web sites as well as the need for specialised equipment.

Tomlinson et al. (2005) considered the “lifestyle” definition to be ambiguous and problematic. They described lifestyle as a way in which individuals interpret their lives for themselves and for others. Using that definition to distinguish between sports would require a differentiation between each person’s motivations for participation in sport. Lifestyle sports relate to those sports pertaining to individual or personal factors. It is more of a descriptor than an encompassing way to describe a variety of sports. Those that do undertake extreme sport, however, may agree that participation in extreme sport does become a lifestyle of sorts when they are with others who are also engaging in their sport.

Alternatively, high risk can refer to spatial dimensions, based on “extreme locations – wilderness, remoteness, the forbidden” ( Tomlinson et al., 2005 ). Sport where participants compete with the natural elements in locations with snow, hills, canyons, islands, mountains, rivers, or volcanoes would fit into the category of “high risk” sport, e.g., extreme skiing and white water rafting. As mentioned previously these are also sometimes referred to as “adventure” sports. Brymer and Oades (2009) labelled “high risk” sport as being undertaken in the natural environment, however, not all “high risk” sports meet this criterion. BMX, Drag Racing and Big Air Snowboarding, for example, take place on a man-made track and Skateboarding can be performed inside or outside and may involve a ramp designed and manufactured specifically for the performance of sport. So although performance in a natural environment is true for some “high risk” sports and could be true for many extreme sports it is not categorically accurate for all extreme sports.

Is “Extreme Sport” Media Driven Terminology?

So is extreme sport merely a new term for high-risk sport and if so where did the term “extreme sport” emanate from? Arguably what constitutes extreme sport has been predominantly media led ( Kay and Laberge, 2002 ), whereby the term extreme sport has been based on the sale-ability in promoting non-traditional sport to the media and for the increase in consumerism and corporate interest. Sponsorships, endorsements, TV marketing and advertising all utilise the term “extreme sport” for these reasons. For example, the 2014 Winter Olympics became the first games to classify such events as Snowboarding, Ski Jumping, Freestyle Skiing, Skeleton, Luge, Kayaking, and Windsurfing under “extreme sport” umbrella. The 2018 games included as extreme sport events Big Air Snowboarding, Mixed Alpine Skiing, and Mass Start Speed Skating. The 2020 Olympic games in Tokyo has approved the inclusion of the extreme sports of surfing, rock climbing and skateboarding ( Herreria, 2016 ). Adaptive sport is pursuing extreme sport as a cultural norm with the characteristics of increasing heart rate, adrenalin rush, and action sport ( Denq and Delasobera, 2018 ). Interestingly, the term “extreme sport” is probably the most prevalent term used in the media for these types of sports.

Does “Extreme Sport,” Include a Component of Individualism?

“Extreme sport” can be a way of striving for self-actualisation. Those who are self-actualised according to Maslow (1987) have a sense of self-acceptance and the thrill in living for the moment. Researchers examining these terms for “extreme sport” have focused on the psychological motivation the participants need to find “self-actualisation and spiritualism” ( Borden, 2001 ), promote a “positive personal change” ( Brannigan and McDougall, 1983 ) or fulfil the desire of a “powerful life wish” ( Brymer and Oades, 2009 ).

Robinson (1992 , p. 99) viewed “extreme sport” as an activity based on both cognitive and emotional components, as a “a variety of self-initiated activities that generally occur in natural-environment settings and that, due to their always uncertain and potentially harmful nature, provide opportunity for intense cognitive and affective involvement.” Tomlinson et al. (2005) also recognised an “emotional dimension” within “extreme sport” which can be identified as a sensation of wholeness. This is akin to the concept of flow which Csikszentmihalyi (1975) described as a conscious state of being completely absorbed in a situation or sport. The sense of elation and peace experienced in “extreme sport” may be the result of a rush of adrenalin and release of endorphins, which are endogenous mood enhancers.

Puchan (2004) suggests that underlying the growth of “extreme sports” are societal factors such as computer games and various websites designed to promote excitement and/or fear. These cultural changes within particular areas of society encourage individuals to test themselves against great odds without having to leave the parameters of their home. However, in an effort to escape what Puchan (2004) calls boredom and mediocrity, individuals search for outlets where the self can be rediscovered. The concept of “extreme sport” as an answer to boredom fits in with the notion of boredom as a factor in Zuckerman’s (1994) subscale of sensation seeking.

Thrill seeker sports participants are typically 24–34 year old males, single and 80% are without children ( Sport England, 2015 ) therefore one could argue that they have ample spare time and are bored with life? Griffith (2002) sees the market of extreme sport as being youth oriented, as a sport that doesn’t require a group or team and therefore open to anyone who wishes to participate. Moreover if “extreme sports” were predominantly youth oriented, then this term makes an immediate assumption that those who participate are all younger adults which is not the case. Most extreme sport participants are on average aged around 30–31 years: e.g., in Triathlon (off road) the average age is 31 years, Windsurfing 30 years and Sport Climbing 30 years ( Outdoor Participation Report, 2013 ). The latest figure by the Outdoor Foundation Topline Report produced by the Physical Activity Council (2016) shows that 56% of all those that participate in outdoor activities are aged between 15 and 44 years. Clearly, from a developmental perspective, this age group is in a period of transition from adolescence into adulthood, therefore arguably there may be an individualistic nature to extreme sport. Moreover it could be viewed in some instances as a modern rite of passage ( Groves, 1987 ). Perhaps part of the appeal of extreme sport is due to its’ challenging nature at a period (in western culture) when the uncertainty of adulthood is approaching, thus further supporting the argument for a strong self or narcissist focus.

Wheaton (2004) discussed this narcissistic focus as a need for isolation. So while, in many cases, traditional sports promote the ideal of teamwork, extreme sports are focused on individual goals: a more personalised way of challenging oneself without an organised winning or losing concept. Here the emphasis is mostly on self-competition through personal challenges and the idea of just “doing it” ( Tomlinson et al., 2005 ). Arguably, for this reason the term “extreme sport” is often synonymous with “individualistic sport” ( Puchan, 2004 ), whereas traditional sport focuses on the challenge of competition, extreme sport focuses on individual achievement.

Conclusion and Implications

From a scientific perspective there are difficulties when setting out to examine extreme sport due to a lack of consensus on the tenets of extreme sport. One of the aims of this article was to contribute to the literature on extreme sport and enhance the academic debate prescribing a new workable definition for the sporting literature. However, this objective has been problematic as the definition of extreme sport is ill-defined due mainly to a variety of terms having been used interchangeably with little scientific evidence in support, namely extreme, alternative, high risk, action, and lifestyle sports. This lack of consistency in terminology means that those wishing to study this field are forced to create their own criteria as a starting point, often in a less than scientific approach. As definitions are important to the start of evidenced based research or argument, this article focused on examining the terminology commonly used to represent what is generally perceived as “sporting activities outside of the norm” in order to distinguish between the various terms.

When examining the available research, it also became evident that a variety of interchangeable terms are used by the media, e.g., high-risk sport, adventure sport, alternative sport, lifestyle sport, and action sport as well as extreme sport. These terms have been identified and are in use according to the Mintel Report (2003a) on “Sport Activity in the United Kingdom.” Interestingly, each definition or synonymous term also contains components that give insight into the personality and the motivation of “extreme sport” participants. For example, adventure sport infers challenge along with uncertainty, whilst lifestyle sport implies camaraderie.

Tomlinson et al. (2005) concluded that there were “no universally agreed terms to describe the sports (extreme sports), no agreed categorisations through which to order and understand them and little in the way of governance structures to regulate them” (p. 5). Yet extreme sport, because it has yet to be fully defined, has, to some extent, been a created by the media complete with a “marketing strategy, an ethic, a vocabulary, an attitude, and a style” ( Kay and Laberge, 2002 ).

This article proposes another way in which the term “extreme sport” may be considered so that ambiguity within research is reduced in the future. Specifically we argue that “extreme sport” is a predominantly competitive (comparison or self- evaluative) activity within which the participant is subjected to natural or unusual physical and mental challenges such as speed, height, depth, or natural forces. Moreover, an unsuccessful outcome is more likely to result in the injury or fatality of the participant more often than in a “non-extreme sport.” Therefore, it is suggested that incidents of injury/fatality are the defining factors that separate extreme sports from other sports which would fit into the alternative categories listed, i.e., adventure sport, alternative sport, lifestyle sport and action sport. High-risk sport immediately evokes a sense of danger and extremism, activities similar in nature to extreme sport. In this case, for the purpose of scientific investigation, it is suggested that the term “high risk” is not abandoned but that the use of the current new definition proposed incorporates it within a fuller richer definition of Extreme/High Risk Sport.

Extreme or High Risk sport is one of the fastest growing areas in sporting activity this century, due to its nature it attracts the interest of the media worldwide yet, in the context of sport science, it’s definition needs to be needs to be conceptually clear and linguistically accurate and not influenced by terminology promoted by the media. If our scientific endeavours are to be reliable and valuable then our parameters under investigation need to be consistently, clearly defined. A clear definition of “extreme/high risk sport” as contained in this review, employing a system categorised on the number of injuries/fatalities with a sport is, arguably, a solid basis on which to drive the scientific process for future research forward.

Limitations and Future Research

A limitation of this research is that we have neither discussed nor differentiated between extreme sport as a “sport” or an “activity” furthermore, between recreational or non-recreational as in CEES. Future research will be undertaken to examine a wide range of sports in order to devise a classification system, which ranges from traditional to extreme/high risk sport according to the current working definition which may be based on injury/fatality per capita for each sport in relation to general risk. Indeed, a recent study by Cohen et al. (2018) , has shown significant differences in personality traits between athletes engaged in extreme sport (drag racing) and traditional sport (archery). Personality traits are now playing a significant role in the psychological models of rehabilitation and predicted outcomes ( Pain and Kerr, 2004 ). Future research should capitalise on the distinctions made in the present study in examining the role of personality in sport injury and rehabilitation.

Ongoing research conducted by the current authors includes interviewing and surveying those who participate in extreme sport as well as those who don’t participate, in order to gain insight for future directions, with an immediate aim to ascertain where specific sports may lie on a continuum of sports ranging from traditional to extreme/high risk. Table 1 is a start on examining the categories of risk, extremes in nature (e.g., height, speed, depth) and (elements of the sport definition – competitive, evaluation) being proposed in the definition for extreme sport. The authors will further expand on any arising variables that have not yet been under consideration and on completion of our follow up work the aim is to develop a formula which enables the aspects of each sport to be analysed according to the current working definition, hence enabling evidence based inclusion on a sporting continuum.

A final recommendation is for subsequent researchers to examine sporting categories in line with the current working definition thus building a corpus of evidence by which the debate around what is extreme/high risk can be scientifically judged. This will enable an advance not only into the field of extreme/high risk sport but in sport science research in general.

Author Contributions

All authors approved the manuscript for publication and agreed to be accountable for all aspects of the work.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Keywords : extreme sport, sport, high risk sport, defining sport, thrill seeking, action sport, adventure sport, BASE jumping

Citation: Cohen R, Baluch B and Duffy LJ (2018) Defining Extreme Sport: Conceptions and Misconceptions. Front. Psychol. 9:1974. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01974

Received: 19 January 2018; Accepted: 26 September 2018; Published: 18 October 2018.

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*Correspondence: Rhonda Cohen, [email protected]

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Published: 14 May 2024

2023 summer warmth unparalleled over the past 2,000 years

Jan Esper ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3919-014X 1 , 2 ,
Max Torbenson ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2720-2238 1 &
Ulf Büntgen 2 , 3 , 4

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Climate change
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Including an exceptionally warm Northern Hemisphere (NH) summer 1 ,2 , 2023 has been reported as the hottest year on record 3-5 . Contextualizing recent anthropogenic warming against past natural variability is nontrivial, however, because the sparse 19 th century meteorological records tend to be too warm 6 . Here, we combine observed and reconstructed June-August (JJA) surface air temperatures to show that 2023 was the warmest NH extra-tropical summer over the past 2000 years exceeding the 95% confidence range of natural climate variability by more than half a degree Celsius. Comparison of the 2023 JJA warming against the coldest reconstructed summer in 536 CE reveals a maximum range of pre-Anthropocene-to-2023 temperatures of 3.93°C. Although 2023 is consistent with a greenhouse gases-induced warming trend 7 that is amplified by an unfolding El Niño event 8 , this extreme emphasizes the urgency to implement international agreements for carbon emission reduction.

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Esper, J., Torbenson, M. & Büntgen, U. 2023 summer warmth unparalleled over the past 2,000 years. Nature (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07512-y

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COMMENTS

Why Would You Choose to Do an Extreme Sport?
Furthermore, extreme sports have the capacity to establish a strong bond between individuals, thanks to the dangerous elements of the activity that requires a high level of trust between people. Consequently, this kind of friendship bond has a good impact on mental health [ 2 ]. The typical challenges and performances of the so-called ...
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This paper attempts to reconcile the commonly accepted assumption of the egocentric nature of extreme sports with the lived experiences of individuals across a range of extreme sports. It builds upon research by Willig (2008) which discusses the positive human experiences that extreme sport participation can have on an individual and also how ...
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Editorial on the Research Topic. Understanding Extreme Sports: A Psychological Perspective. A new class of sport has emerged in the last few decades, variously called extreme, adventure, action, and lifestyle sports. These activities are revolutionizing the notion of sport, exercise and physical activity and overtaking many traditional sports ...
PDF Psychology and the Extreme Sport 1 Experience
majority of reversal theory research in extreme sports has focused on the telic/paratelic states. These states are considered highly relevant to extreme sports as they provide an explanation as to why people interpret intense emotional arousal in very different ways, such as feeling excitement versus anxiety in the same external situation.
The Impact of Extreme Sports on the Individual and Society: A Short
Abstract: Extreme sports (ES) have developed and won the interest of. individuals to practice and watc h, all over the world. The need to build. personal identity, to live one's own experiences ...
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1. Introduction. Recent years have seen an exponential increase in the practice of sports involving extreme risk (Brymer and Schweitzer, 2013; Florenthal and Shoham, 2001; Mata, 2002).Experiencing new sensations, breaking with routine, enhancing self-control capacities and pushing one's limits (Kern et al., 2014) are becoming highly attractive to many people who, as a consequence of practising ...
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From these theoretical, risk- taking. perspectives extreme sports par ticipation is: 1) a need or search for uncertainty and. 5. uncontrollability; 2) a pathological and unhealthy activity that ...
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The extreme sports experience: A research rep ort. Brymer, E. School of Human Movement, Rec reation and Performance. Victoria University. Footscray Park Campus. Melbourne. Victoria 8001. Australia ...
JFMK
Furthermore, extreme sports have the capacity to establish a strong bond between individuals, thanks to the dangerous elements of the activity that requires a high level of trust between people. Consequently, this kind of friendship bond has a good impact on mental health [ 2 ]. The typical challenges and performances of the so-called ...
The search for freedom in extreme sports
Evoking the Ineffable: The Phenomenology of Extreme Sports. E. Brymer R. Schweitzer. Education. 2017. We are witnessing an unprecedented interest in and engagement with extreme sport activities. Extreme sports are unique in that they involve physical prowess as well as a particular attitude toward…. Expand.
The significance of extreme sports: a qualitative analysis
Extreme sports are not about risk but present a more positive experience, an experience that directly benefits the participants and others in society. This paper shows that extreme sports are important to society and qualitative methodologies have the capacity to reveal findings that were previously unimaginable.
Risk taking in Extreme Sports: A phenomenological perspective
In this paper I review current risk‐oriented perspectives on extreme sports and present research findings that question this assumed relationship between extreme sports and risk and thus reposition the experience in a hitherto unexplored manner. Risk taking is not the focus. Participants acknowledge that the potential outcome of a mismanaged ...
Frontiers
Hypotheses, as yet untested, include overcoming phobias or honing physical skills as juveniles, or exhibiting desirability during mate selection. Extreme sports can provide an ethically and experimentally feasible tool to analyze thrill. To use this tool, extreme sports must first be defined in a non-circular way, independent of participant ...
Injuries in extreme sports
Extreme sports (ES) are usually pursued in remote locations with little or no access to medical care with the athlete competing against oneself or the forces of nature. They involve high speed, height, real or perceived danger, a high level of physical exertion, spectacular stunts, and heightened risk element or death.Popularity for such sports has increased exponentially over the past two ...
Extreme sports don't take a toll on longevity
Extreme sports don't take a toll on longevity. The first 200 athletes to run a mile in under 4 minutes actually outlived the general population by nearly five years on average, according to ...
(PDF) A Systematic Review of Smart Clothing in Sports: possible
A Systematic Review of Smart Clothing in Sports: possible Applications to Extreme Sports. S. Scataglini, A. P. Moorhead, F. Feletti 3,4. 1 Department of Product Development, Faculty of Design ...
Understanding Extreme Sports: A Psychological Perspective
About this Research Topic. Submission closed. Extreme sports, those activities that lie on the outermost edges of independent adventurous leisure activities, where a mismanaged mistake or accident could result in death, have developed into a significant worldwide phenomenon. Extreme sport activities are continually evolving, typical examples ...
Defining Extreme Sport: Conceptions and Misconceptions
1 The London Sports Institute, Faculty of Science and Technology, Middlesex University London, London, United Kingdom; 2 Department of Psychology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Middlesex University London, London, United Kingdom; One feature of how sport is defined is the distinction between extreme and non-extreme sport. BASE jumping is an example of an "extreme sport" because it ...
Extreme weather negatively impacting physical activity
Three in five adults in England say extreme weather has had a negative impact on their ability to be physically active, according to new research by Sport England. The funding agency is announcing a new investment package "to help sports battle climate change" as part its first environmental and sustainability strategy. A total of £45m ...
2023 summer warmth unparalleled over the past 2,000 years
Here, we combine observed and reconstructed June-August (JJA) surface air temperatures to show that 2023 was the warmest NH extra-tropical summer over the past 2000 years exceeding the 95% ...

Why Would You Choose to Do an Extreme Sport?

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PERSPECTIVE article

Introduction

“Extreme Sport” – Challenging the Definition

What is Extreme?

What is Sport?

Is “Extreme Sport” the Same as “High Risk Sport?”

Is “Extreme Sport” Just an “Alternative Sport” to “Traditional Sport?”

Is “Extreme Sport” the Same as “Action” or “Adventure” Sport?

Is “Extreme Sport” Just a Lifestyle Sport?

Is “Extreme Sport” Media Driven Terminology?

Does “Extreme Sport,” Include a Component of Individualism?

Conclusion and Implications

Limitations and Future Research

Author Contributions

Conflict of Interest Statement

2023 summer warmth unparalleled over the past 2,000 years

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Climate damage projections beyond annual temperature

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