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The Importance of Critical Thinking for News Media Literacy

With news available at the tap of a finger, keyboard, or remote, we are often exposed to a barrage of news media. Some of it is high quality, informational news, while other pieces may be riddled with biases, inaccuracies, and misinformation. That’s why it’s so important for students to learn to properly evaluate the news they’re consuming. Read on for an exploration of news media literacy and the importance of critical thinking in supporting it.

News Media Literacy

News media literacy is the ability to critically analyze, evaluate, and interpret the information presented in news media. It involves understanding how news is produced, identifying bias and misinformation, and being able to distinguish between fact and opinion. In our modern world, where information is instantly available and constantly changing, news media literacy has become an essential skill for individuals of all ages to navigate the media landscape and make informed decisions.

Students being taught news media literacy develop a variety of interrelated and crucial skills and knowledge. They learn to identify when news sources are presenting biased or misleading information and to seek out additional sources to confirm or refute claims. News literacy also helps students understand how news is produced and distributed, including the role of journalists, media organizations, and the impact of social media on the news cycle.

A study in the Journal of Media Literacy Education found that highly news literate teens were:

More intrinsically motivated to consume news
More skeptical
More knowledgeable about current events

This is important because it can help prevent the spread of misinformation and disinformation, both of which can have serious consequences, such as spreading false information about health, elections, or social issues. News media literacy skills can help students recognize harmful reporting or sharing, and take steps to stop their spread.

The difference news media literacy makes is not limited to the student alone, but can also impact their wider community. Authors Hobbs et al. explore this concept in their article “Learning to Engage: How Positive Attitudes about the News, Media Literacy, and Video Production Contribute to Adolescent Civic Engagement.” They found that “the best predictors of the intent to participate in civic engagement are having positive attitudes about news, current events, reporting, and journalism.”

Given its importance and wide-ranging impact, news media literacy is an essential part of education today. Here’s how teachers can use critical thinking to build up news literacy—and vice versa—in their students.

Critical Thinking Skills for News Literacy

Critical thinking is a key component of news media literacy, as it allows individuals to assess the accuracy and credibility of news sources, identify biases and misinformation, and make informed decisions. Critical thinking involves questioning assumptions, evaluating evidence, and considering multiple perspectives, which are all crucial skills for navigating our complex and constantly evolving media landscape. Let’s explore these critical thinking skills and their impact on news literacy in more depth.

Evaluating Sources and Evidence

One essential critical thinking skill that supports news literacy is the ability to evaluate sources. In today's world, where anyone can publish information online, it is important to be able to distinguish between credible sources and those that lack credibility. This means understanding the differences between primary and secondary sources, recognizing when a source is biased or unreliable, and evaluating the credentials of the author or publisher.

Being able to evaluate sources and evidence for credibility and accuracy allows students to identify fake news and other harmful media. Research on fake news and critical thinking highlights critical thinking as “an essential skill for identifying fake news.”

Analyzing Information

Another critical thinking skill that supports news literacy is the ability to analyze information. This involves breaking down complex information into its component parts, evaluating the evidence presented, and considering the implications of the information. For example, if a news article presents statistics about a particular issue, it is important to evaluate the methodology used to collect the data, the sample size, and the relevance of the statistics to the issue at hand.

Identifying and Evaluating Biases

Critical thinking also allows students to identify and evaluate biases. News sources may have biases based on political or social values, financial interests, or personal opinions. It is important to be able to recognize these biases and to evaluate how they may affect the presentation of information. By developing these critical thinking skills, students can become more discerning consumers of news media, and better equipped to make informed decisions based on the information presented.

How Practicing News Literacy Develops Critical Thinking

Becoming more news literate can also help develop critical thinking skills in turn. By engaging with news media and seeking out diverse perspectives on issues, individuals can develop their ability to question assumptions, evaluate evidence, and consider multiple perspectives. This can lead to a more nuanced understanding of complex issues and a greater appreciation for the diverse perspectives that exist in society.

This creates a powerful education win-win. News literacy and critical thinking effectively support each other and allow students to become informed and discerning consumers of media.

How THINKING PRO Helps Students Build News Literacy

Our THINKING PRO system is built around local news media and teaches students media literacy and critical thinking in a meaningful and impactful way. It walks students through a simple but effective process for analyzing news media, involving:

Differentiating simple statements (answers to who, what, when, and where questions) and complex claims (answers to why and how questions)
Evaluating evidence supporting each
Differentiating evidence and opinion in complex claims

Our interactive learning videos allow students to hone these media literacy and critical thinking skills. With THINKING PRO, students will learn to:

Identify various categories of claims that can be made within an informational text (e.g.: cause and effect, problem and solution, value judgments)
Evaluate internal logic of informational text by:
analyzing the consistency of information within the text and with one’s own background knowledge, and
identifying conflicting information within the text.
Synthesize information, as well as claims and their supporting evidence, across multiple passages of texts, and integrate it with one’s own understanding

Here at Thinking Habitats, we use thinking tools to empower young people to lead successful lives and contribute to the wellbeing of their communities. Our online platform has helped students improve their critical thinking, reading comprehension, and news media literacy, and has had significant individual and community impacts. Try THINKING PRO today , and join our students who feel more empowered in decision-making, more mindful with their news engagement, and more connected to their local community!

Hobbs, R., Donnelly, K., Friesem, J., & Moen, M. (2013). Learning to engage: How positive attitudes about the news, media literacy, and video production contribute to Adolescent Civic engagement. Educational Media International , 50 (4), 231–246. https://doi.org/10.1080/09523987.2013.862364

Machete, P., & Turpin, M. (2020). The use of critical thinking to identify fake news: A systematic literature review. Lecture Notes in Computer Science , 235–246. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-45002-1_20

Maksl, A., Ashley, S., & Craft, S. (2015). Measuring News Media Literacy. Journal of Media Literacy Education , 6 (3), 29–45. https://doi.org/10.23860/jmle-6-3-3

Research guides: Identifying bias: What is bias? . University of Wisconsin Green Bay. (n.d.). https://libguides.uwgb.edu/bias

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Article contents

Critical media literacy in teacher education, theory, and practice.

Jeff Share , Jeff Share University of California Los Angeles
Tatevik Mamikonyan Tatevik Mamikonyan School of Education, University of California Los Angeles
and Eduardo Lopez Eduardo Lopez University of California Los Angeles
https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.013.1404
Published online: 30 September 2019
This version: 20 September 2023
Previous version

Democracy in the digital networked age of “fake news” and “alternative facts” requires new literacy skills and critical awareness to read, write, and use media and technology to empower civic participation and social transformation. Unfortunately, not many educators have been prepared to teach students how to think critically with and about the media and technology that engulf us. Across the globe there is a growing movement to develop media and information literacy curriculum (UNESCO) and train teachers in media education (e-Media Education Lab), but these attempts are limited and in danger of co-optation by the faster growing, better financed, and less critical education and information technology corporations. It is essential to develop a critical response to the new information communication technologies, artificial intelligence, and algorithms that are embedded in all aspects of society. The possibilities and limitations are vast for teaching educators to enter K-12 classrooms and teach their students to use various media, critically question all types of texts, challenge problematic representations, and create alternative messages. Through applying a critical media literacy framework that has evolved from cultural studies and critical pedagogy, students at all grade levels can learn to critically analyze the messages and create their own alternative media. The voices of teachers engaging in this work can provide pragmatic insight into the potential and challenges of putting the theory into practice in K-12 public schools.

critical literacy
critical pedagogy
media education
media literacy
critical media literacy
social justice
politics of representation
cultural studies
teacher education

Updated in this version

The authors made minor revisions to this text to reflect more recent scholarship. The reference list and further readings have similarly been updated.

Introduction

It is a formidable challenge to prepare critical educators to work inside a system in which every brick in the wall has been laid to transmit the information, skills, and ideas necessary to reproduce the social norms, inequities, ideologies, and alienation that are undermining the quality and sustainability of life on this planet. However, education can be a powerful tool to challenge these problems and create opportunities for students to work in solidarity with others to create a more socially and environmentally just world. To support these changes, we need teachers ready to engage students in critical inquiry by posing questions about systemic and structural issues of power, hierarchies of oppression, and social injustice. In the current media and information age, information communication technologies (ICTs) are available to either continue the control and degradation or to deconstruct the systems of oppression and reconstruct a more just and sustainable society.

Digital technology is opening opportunities for individual participation and alternative points of view, while at the same time a handful of enormous media and technology corporations have become the dominant storytellers, often repeating the same story at the expense of countless different perspectives and creative ways of thinking. Many of these storytellers are actually story-sellers, more interested in peddling ideas and products than informing, enlightening, inspiring, or challenging. While young people are using more media, they are also being used more by media companies. Giant transnational corporations are targeting youth as one of the most valuable markets for building brand loyalty and selling to advertisers. Researchers found 8- to 18-year-olds in the United States spend well over 10 hours a day interacting with various forms of media, such as music, computers, video games, television, film, and print ( Rideout et al., 2011 ). Another investigation discovered that 95% of American 13- to 17-year-olds have access to a smartphone and 97% say they are online daily and 46% use it constantly ( Vogels et al., 2022 ).

Not only is the amount of time with media increasing but the quality of that engagement is also changing by becoming more commercial and rarely critical. Researchers at Stanford University administered six tasks to 3,466 high schools across 14 states in the US to judge their ability to assess online information. In one task, students were asked to evaluate the credibility of a website that claimed to “disseminate factual reports” and 96% failed to learn about the site’s ties to the fossil fuel industry. In a different task, over half of students believed an anonymously posted video purporting to show voter fraud in the US was real, even though it was filmed in Russia ( Breakstone et al., 2021 ). In another study, Vosoughi et al. (2018) examined approximately 126,000 stories tweeted over 4.5 million times between 2006 and 2017 . The researchers were interested in understanding what accounted for the differential diffusion of verified true and false news stories. They found that false news stories spread “farther, faster, deeper, and more broadly than the truth because humans, not robots, are more likely to spread it” (p. 5). In analyzing the tweets, the authors concluded, false stories were 70% more likely to be retweeted because people found them not only more novel but the stories also inspired emotional responses of fear, disgust, or surprise.

The concern about “fake news” has encouraged many people to recognize the need for critical readers and writers of media. Some have suggested that we simply need better cognitive skills to determine truth from lies. However, making sense of the media and our information society is far more complicated than a reductionist idea of simply finding the truth. Rather than judging information as either true or false, students need to learn to search for multiple sources, different perspectives, and various types of evidence to triangulate and evaluate findings. In order to best evaluate and understand the information, they also need to question the influence of media in shaping the message and positioning the audience. Since all knowledge is an interpretation ( Kincheloe, 2007 ), interpreting the meaning of a message is a complex process that requires skills to probe empirical evidence, evaluate subjective biases, analyze the medium and construction of the text, and explore the social contexts.

This is an opportunity for educators to guide their students to think critically with and about the ICTs and media that surround them. Morrell et al. (2013) argue that the technology itself will not bring about transformative educational change. “That change will only come through teachers who draw on critical frameworks to create learning communities where the use of these tools becomes an empowering enterprise” (p. 14). Therefore, the changes in media, technology, and society require critical media literacy (CML) that can support teachers and students to question and create with and about the very tools that can empower or oppress, entertain or distract, inform or mislead, and buy or sell everything from lifestyles to politicians. Now more than ever, teachers should encourage students to be reading, viewing, listening to, interacting with, and creating a multitude of texts, from digital podcasts to multimedia productions.

Teacher Education

Even though youth are immersed in a world in which media and technology have entered all aspects of their lives and society, few teacher education programs are preparing teachers to help their students to critically understand the potential and limitations of these changes. It is crucial that new teachers learn how to teach their K-12 students to critically read and write everything, from academic texts to social media.

This means that schools of education responsible for training the new wave of teachers must be up to date, not just with the latest technology, but more importantly, with critical media literacy (CML) theory and pedagogy in order to prepare teachers and students to think and act critically with and about media and technology. In Canada, where media literacy is mandatory in every grade from 1 to 12, most new teachers are not receiving media literacy training in their preservice programs ( Wilson & Duncan, 2009 ). Researchers investigating media education in the United Kingdom and the US have found that many teachers are unprepared to teach media education and that professional learning opportunities are limited ( Butler, 2020 ; Kirwan et al., 2003 ). The progress has been slow, especially considering that inclusion of media literacy in formal public education has a history dating back to the 1980s in Australia, Britain, and Canada. However, nonformal media education has been occurring in many parts of the world for decades ( Hart, 1998 ; Kaplún, 1998 ; Kubey, 1997 ; Pegurer Caprino & Martínez-Cerdá, 2016 ; Prinsloo & Criticos, 1991 ).

While it is difficult to know for sure who is and who is not teaching critically about media and technology ( Mihailidis, 2008 ), there seems to be an increased interest in media literacy in the United States. In 2022 , the National Council of Teachers of English published a position statement recommending implementation of media education in English Language Arts along with two special issue journal publications ( Lynch, 2021 ; Kist & Christel, 2022 ) devoted to critical media literacy, arguing that “media education must be an essential component of the professional identity of teachers” ( National Council of Teachers of English, 2022 ).

As technology and media continue to evolve and increasingly enter public and private spaces, more educators are recognizing the need for training new teachers about media literacy ( Domine, 2011 ; Goetze et al., 2005 ; Hobbs, 2007a ) and some are even addressing the need to teach about CML ( Flores-Koulish et al., 2011 ; Funk et al., 2016 ; Robertson & Hughes, 2011 ; Trust et al., 2022 ). Researchers Tiede et al. (2015) studied 64 universities or colleges of teacher education in Germany and 316 U.S. public educational institutions that provide teacher training and graduate studies, concluding that very few offer more than media didactics (basic educational technology that teaches with media, not about media). From their data in the United States, they report, “media education, with emphasis on the instructional practices associated with the critical evaluation of media, culture, and society, were scarce, representing only 2% of all study programs in teacher training programs” (pp. 540−541). In Germany, the percentage increases to 25%, but “media didactics tends to be emphasized to the disadvantage of media education in both countries” (p. 542).

In 2011 , the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) published a curriculum guide online in 11 languages for training teachers in media education ( Grizzle & Wilson, 2011 ), declaring that “teacher training in media and information literacy will be a major challenge for the global education system at least for the next decade” ( Pérez-Tornero & Tayie, 2012 , p. 11). 1 In Europe, Ranieri and Bruni (2018) analyzed the successes and challenges of training preservice and in-service teachers about media and digital literacy. An initiative called e-Media Educational Lab, funded by the European Commission, provided blended training to 279 preservice teachers and 81 in-service teachers in six countries. Based on surveys and fieldnotes, Ranieri and Bruni (2018) reported that the preservice and in-service teachers found critical media analysis and media production to be very important; they described their intent to transfer their media competency to their classrooms and expressed a desire to learn more practical ways to help their students develop media competencies.

UNESCO’s approach to media education combines media and information literacy (MIL) to include many competencies, from learning about and using information communication technologies to thinking critically about ethics and democracy. Carolyn Wilson (2012) explains, “MIL is both a content area and way of teaching and learning; it is not only about the acquisition of technical skills, but the development of a critical framework and approaches” (p. 16).

Combining information technology with media-cultural studies is essential, but still infrequent. Within the current wave of educational reform that prioritizes the newest technology and career readiness over civic engagement and critical inquiry, schools are more likely to adopt only information technology or information literacy and not critical media education. In the United States, few universities offer more than a single course in media literacy and most do not even offer that ( Goetze et al., 2005 ; Meehan et al., 2015 ).

Schwarz (2001) asserts that because of the power of emerging literacies, “teacher education needs media literacy as an essential tool and an essential topic in the new millennium” (pp. 111−112). She calls for integrating media literacy across all subject areas of teacher education, “from methods courses and educational psychology to foundational courses and student teaching” (p. 118). This interdisciplinary approach for media education could be easier now for K-12 teachers in the United States since the Common Core State Standards require literacy to be taught and technology to be used across the curriculum ( California Common Core State Standards, 2013 ; Moore & Bonilla, 2014 ; Trust et al., 2022 ).

Two studies with a total of 31 preservice teachers found a discrepancy between their positive attitudes for teaching media literacy and the lack of attention and support in their teacher education programs to prepare them to teach MIL ( Gretter & Yadav, 2018 ). Based on interviews with these preservice teachers, Gretter and Yadav (2018) report that they associated MIL with critical thinking skills and expressed concerns about not knowing how to teach MIL because their teacher preparation program encouraged “teaching with technology and not necessarily about technology” (p. 115). These preservice teachers complained about “a lack of preparation to help them transfer their knowledge of digital media to MIL pedagogies that would benefit students” (p. 111). This highlights the importance of preparing educators with the theory and conceptual understandings as well as the pedagogy and practical applications for how to teach their students to critically analyze and create media.

Teaching Teachers Critical Media Literacy

Transforming education to critically use media, technology, and popular culture for social and environmental justice is the overarching goal of a critical media literacy (CML) course in the teacher education program at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA). The authors of this article have been involved in designing and teaching this course to in-service and preservice teachers. Through combining theory from cultural studies and critical pedagogy with practical classroom applications of digital media and technology, this course prepares K-12 educators to teach their students how to critically analyze and create all types of media. In 2011 , this four-unit course on CML was officially approved and became a required class for all students working on their teaching credential at UCLA.

The teacher education program at UCLA is primarily a two-year master’s and credential program that accepts about 130 candidates annually. The program is committed to developing social justice educators to work with and improve the schooling conditions of California’s ethnically, culturally, and linguistically diverse children. While most of the students go through the two-year program, additional pathways for earning a teaching credential and master’s degree have been offered, such as a master’s-only program for in-service teachers with two years or more of full-time teaching experience.

The CML class is taught in separate sections, usually divided by subjects, with 25−50 students per section. Most of the candidates taking the class are student teaching at the same time, except for the master’s-only candidates, who were teaching full-time while attending the class once a week in the evening. The class includes lectures, discussions, and activities interwoven into each session during the 10-week quarter.

Beginning with a theoretical overview, the course explores the development of media education that is defined less as a specific body of knowledge or set of skills and more as a framework of conceptual understandings ( Buckingham, 2003 ). Much of the theory behind CML has evolved from cultural studies, a field of critical inquiry that began in the 20th century in Europe and continues to grow with new critiques of media and society. From the 1930s through the 1960s, researchers at the Frankfurt Institute for Social Research used critical social theory to analyze how media culture and the new tools of communication technology induce ideology and social control. In the 1960s, researchers at the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies at the University of Birmingham added to the earlier concerns of ideology with a more sophisticated understanding of the audience as active constructors of reality, not simply mirrors of an external reality. Kellner (1995) explains that cultural studies has continued to grow and incorporate concepts of semiotics, feminism, multiculturalism, and postmodernism. Incorporating a dialectical understanding of political economy, textual analysis, and audience theory, cultural studies critiques media culture as dynamic discourses that reproduce dominant ideologies as well as entertain, educate, and offer the possibilities for counter-hegemonic alternatives ( Hammer & Kellner, 2009 ).

Critical media literacy includes three dimensions ( Share & Gambino, 2022 ). The first involves the content students learn about systems, structures, and ideologies that reproduce hierarchies of power and knowledge concerning race, gender, class, sexuality and other forms of identity and environmental justice, as well as general understandings about how media and communication function. The second dimension engages the skills to critically think and question media representations and biases, to deconstruct and reconstruct media texts, and use a variety of media to access, analyze, evaluate, and create. The third involves developing a disposition for empathy, critical consciousness, and empowerment to take action to challenge and transform society to be more socially and environmentally just. This third dimension is based on Freire’s (2010) notion of conscientização , a revolutionary critical consciousness that involves perception as well as action against oppression. These three dimensions of critical media literacy pedagogy are supported through an inquiry-based democratic approach that follows ideas of transformative educators like John Dewey and Paulo Freire. We incorporate feminist theory and critical pedagogy to analyze relationships between media and audiences, information and power ( Carlson et al., 2013 ; Garcia et al., 2013 ). When we first began teaching the course, we used a simple framework with five core concepts and key questions from the Center for Media Literacy. 2 To emphasize the critical potential of these ideas, while providing an accessible tool for teachers to use in the classroom, the following critical media literacy framework was developed, with six conceptual understandings and questions, as shown in Table 1 ( Kellner & Share, 2019 ).

These six conceptual understandings and questions are referred to regularly and are addressed in all lesson plans. It is important for teachers to understand the concepts and questions because theory should inform practice for all three dimensions. However, it is better for K-12 students to learn to ask the questions rather than memorize the concepts, since the questions, with appropriate guidance, can lead students on a path of inquiry where they are more likely to make meaning themselves, related to the conceptual understandings.

The CML framework is designed to help teachers and their students question the role of power and ideology that socialize and control society through making some people and ideas seem “normal” and “natural” while the rest are “othered” and “marginalized” ( Hall, 2003 ). This critical framing supports teachers and students to deepen their explorations of racism, sexism, classism, homophobia, overconsumption, environmental exploitation, and other problematic representations in media. Candidates analyze and discuss current media examples, while also learning how to use various ICTs to create their own media with alternative counter-hegemonic representations. Using an inquiry process and democratic pedagogy, problems are posed to the students to collaboratively wrestle with, unpack, and respond to through media production.

Critical media literacy promotes an expansion of our understanding of literacy to include many types of texts, such as images, sounds, music, video games, social media, advertising, popular culture, and print, as well as a deepening of critical analysis to explore the connections between information and power. In our digital networked media age, it is not enough to teach students how to read and write just with print while their world has moved far beyond letters on a page. Literacy education in the 21st century requires breaking from traditional practices to include all the varied ways people communicate with media, technology, and any tool that facilitates the transfer of information or connects people. This calls for new skills and understandings to decode and analyze as well as to create and produce all types of texts. The California Teaching Performance Expectations also require teacher education programs to expand this view of literacy and integrate media and technology into coursework in order to “deepen teaching and learning to provide students with opportunities to participate in a digital society and economy” ( California Commission on Teacher Credentialing, 2016 , p. 9).

Each class starts by reviewing and applying the conceptual understandings and questions. Since one goal of the course is for candidates to understand that literacy includes reading and writing all types of texts, we encourage students to analyze as well as produce media. A series of assignments requires candidates to work together to create various types of media projects such as visual posters, photographs, podcasts, memes, digital stories, and social media. The candidates are also expected to work collaboratively on a CML lesson plan and learning segment that they write up, present a summary of to the whole class, and when possible, also teach it. For a detailed description of this course, see Share (2015) and visit the UCLA Library Critical Media Literacy Research Guide for links to articles, videos, and websites used in the course. 3

Table 1. Critical Media Literacy Framework

From a desire to explore if and how former students are applying the skills and knowledge gained from the critical media literacy (CML) course into their teaching practice, we created an online survey for students who had taken the course. Through purposeful sampling, we sent out the survey to the 738 students who had taken the CML course and ended up with 185 usable responses (25% response rate), 153 preservice and 32 in-service teachers. Of the 185 respondents, 53 taught elementary school and 132 were secondary-level teachers. The breakdown of the middle school and high school teachers was: 38 science, 34 math, 33 social sciences, 28 English, and several reported teaching a combination of subjects as well as some who taught other areas such as music, visual arts, Spanish, English language development, or adult education. The span of experience was wide; some just started teaching and some had been teaching over seven years, yet most of the teachers (52%) had been teaching between two and three years.

The mixed method survey included 20 questions. The first eight sought to identify participants’ teaching background. The remaining 12 questions inquired about their experiences teaching CML skills and concepts to their K-12 students. Ten quantitative questions used a Likert scale with a choice of responses, including very frequently, frequently, occasionally, rarely, and never, as well as an option to choose not applicable. The final two qualitative questions were open-ended in which respondents could type their thoughts about any “memorable moment(s) teaching critical media literacy” and “any additional comments.” During the analysis phase, we found it helpful to combine the categories very frequently and frequently and refer to them as VF/F.

Voices From the Field

Using mixed methods of quantitative and qualitative data, we analyzed the survey responses to explore teachers’ ideas about what they had been doing with their students. The overall feedback suggested that the majority of the respondents had brought aspects of media literacy education into their K-12 classrooms, and sometimes even incorporated CML. One of the most recurring patterns we noticed was that these teachers had been expanding the traditional concept of literacy by engaging their students with various types of media.

Teaching With Media

In reply to the first question, most of the respondents reported having integrated media into their class activities: 64% VF/F, 30% occasionally, 6% rarely, and no one responded never ( N = 185). The responses to Question 1 were very similar for elementary and secondary teachers, with only a 1% to 5% difference. Where we saw greater variation was when comparing the subject matter of secondary teachers. The English and science teachers had the highest percentages (75% and 76%) of VF/F responses to Question 1 about integrating media into class activities. Math teachers, by contrast, reported the lowest percentage, with 44% reporting VF/F and 15% rarely integrating media into the curriculum (see Figure 1 ).

Figure 1. Responses from secondary teachers to Question 1 about how often they integrated media into class activities.

While these responses demonstrated an overall high amount of media integration, it was not clear how the teachers integrated media and what students were doing with the media. The responses from Question 5 (“my students have created the following media”) provided more information about the students’ interactions with media, showing that the vast majority of respondents (92%) had their students create some type of media (see Figure 2 for a list of the various media students created).

Since the question only asked teachers to check the box for the type of media their students created, we did not know how often this occurred or with what degree of analysis. Questions 1 and 5 indicated that teaching with media occurred with over 90% of the respondents.

Figure 2. Responses to Question 5 about the different types of media that all 185 respondents report their students have created. They were asked to choose all that apply.

Teaching About Media

The second question tried to find out more about those interactions with media by asking respondents to rate how often they had given their “students opportunities to engage in media analysis.” For Question 2, about one-third of all 185 respondents, 32%, reported VF/F, 43% occasionally, 21% rarely, and 4% never. When comparing responses from Questions 1 and 2, the respondents seemed to have been doing more teaching with media (Question 1) than teaching about media (Question 2) (see Figure 3 ). A similar finding was mentioned in the research conducted in Germany and the United States by Tiede et al. (2015) .

Figure 3. Comparing all responses from Question 1 about integrating media into class activities (teaching with media) with Question 2 about engaging in media analysis (teaching about media).

A more nuanced perspective of Question 2 is possible when comparing the responses about media analysis from different content area secondary teachers. In response to Question 2, the teachers who reported VF/F were the following: 63% of English teachers reported giving the most opportunities for their students to engage in media analysis, as compared to almost half as often by 32% of science teachers and about five times less often by 12% of math teachers (see Figure 4 ). Since literacy is a primary goal of English instruction, it is not surprising that English teachers reported the highest levels of media analysis ( Hobbs, 2007b ).

It is important to recognize that teaching about media can be a highly complex and multifaceted undertaking, especially when done through a CML lens. For example, the second conceptual understanding encourages students to analyze the codes and conventions of the media text and the medium through which they travel by asking how the text was constructed and delivered or accessed. This, in itself, can have many layers and yet is just one of six questions intended to help students think critically about media. Livingstone (2018) asserts, “media literacy is needed not only to engage with the media but to engage with society through the media .” As Luke and Freebody (1997) argue, it is not enough to only have a psychological approach to literacy, as if reading and writing is just an individual cognitive process. We need to also bring a sociological lens into the process of questioning the contexts, the dominant ideologies, and the systems that make some things seem “natural” or “normal.” The CML framework is a holistic tool for thinking about and questioning the dynamic role media play in our relationships with ourselves, each other, and society. Responses and comments to other questions in the survey provide more insight into how some teachers have engaged their students in various types of media analysis.

Figure 4. Comparing responses from different content areas about Question 2 regarding how often secondary teachers gave their students opportunities to engage in media analysis.

Evaluating Information and Advertising

In the qualitative responses to Questions 11 and 12, teachers mentioned embracing basic media literacy principles in the ways students were evaluating the credibility of information and advertising as well as creating different types of media. The popularity of the term “fake news” and the growing amount of disinformation have increased the challenge to distinguish misinformation and propaganda from journalism and scientifically researched facts ( Rogow, 2018 ). An elementary teacher who reported “frequently” integrating media into the classroom, asserted:

Though my students are younger and some of these concepts are more difficult to teach than others, I find it important to bring up especially in terms of making sure they don’t believe every YouYube video they watch. We’ve had many meaningful discussions about what can be created for a video shouldn’t just be accepted as the truth. For example, the ‘mermaid’ documentary that came out a few years ago had all of my students convinced that they had found a mermaid. It led to an interesting discussion on hoaxes and further reading about Bigfoo[t] and other such stories.

Since all media contain bias because they are created by subjective humans, it is important for teachers to help their students to recognize the bias and also be able to judge the credibility of information. A high school math teacher wrote:

It has not happened until this school year, when I began teaching Statistics. I introduced some pictographs for students to analyze and an article for students to read about how a website stated that if polls were unskewed, Trump would be leading the polls for election. I had students read and discuss about the validity and why/why not it is trustable.

Several respondents mentioned having their students study political advertising, and since all U.S. elections are now multimillion-dollar advertising campaigns (e.g., Barack Obama’s 2008 presidential campaign won the top prizes at the Cannes Lions International Advertising Awards), there is little distinction between selling products, ideas, and political candidates.

Analyzing advertising is an important aspect of media education because advertising is the motor that drives commercial media and has become so common in our lives that there are few spaces that are completely ad-free ( Jhally, 2003 ). Several respondents reported about their students investigating advertisements for false health messages, misleading packaging, political campaigns, tobacco, alcohol, and different perspectives. One secondary English teacher wrote, “My students took pictures of advertisements that surrounded their neighborhood and we analyzed them for patterns, themes, and purposes.” A high school science teacher reported, “I had many times this past year where students were able to reflect on marketing strategies and how they affect the viewer’s perspective of their life and themselves. Students made great connections.”

During the critical media literacy (CML) class, students scrutinize consumer culture and the role advertising plays in creating anxieties, shaping desires, and normalizing representations about all things, from consumption to gender, race, and class. Candidates in the CML class learn about these ideas through readings, by analyzing advertisements, and also by creating ads for different target audiences. When asked about the media their students had created, one third reported their students created advertisements.

Creating Different Types of Media

When students are taught print literacy, they are instructed how to decode letters on a page and how to write with those letters to construct words, sentences, and paragraphs. The same process of teaching reading and writing should be applied to visual images, movies, songs, video games, social media, and all the various multimedia texts that students are encountering daily. In responses from the survey, teachers reported about having their students write and create many different types of texts beyond print (see Figure 2 ).

One English teacher wrote that having students create media was “very successful. They loved being able to create memes, posters, Prezis, etc. to present their work.” An elementary teacher shared about students “creating podcasts/npr style news stories regarding UN sustainability goals.” Several respondents commented on their students designing commercials or challenging ads by producing spoofs that parody the ads. One middle school teacher shared, “students analyzed ads for nicotine and alcohol products, then used the practice with critical media skills to create ‘anti-ads’ with Google drawings.”

During the first year of teaching, a high school science teacher reported about a memorable moment when “creating a multi-lingual, easy-to-understand and scientifically supported pamphlet on the hazards in LA’s environment.” A high school Spanish teacher wrote about his students creating critical memes in Spanish, like the ones they created in the critical media literacy (CML) class. During the session exploring racism and media, candidates challenge racist representations through creating racial myth-busting memes. As a strategy to demonstrate the value of media production, the CML class has students create various media in almost every session, and these activities are often the favorite lessons mentioned in the end of course evaluations.

Increasing Engagement

While engagement is not a learning objective, all teaching benefits from students being engaged in their learning. One of the patterns that emerged from the responses was teachers’ observations that student engagement increased. An eighth-grade English teacher wrote that after incorporating media literacy, the students’ “entire attitude toward learning shifted. Especially the hard to reach students.” An elementary teacher reported, “Media literacy has made great contributions in my class with science research in the past. The simple act of using google images, google maps and finding credible sources has sparked learning and interest in my class.” Another elementary teacher shared about using critical media literacy (CML) to analyze food justice issues: “They were instantly engaged and students who had a difficult time writing and with critical thinking then did not.”

A secondary science teacher reported, “Students spent the entire class engaged in discussion when I intended for it to only be an introduction to the unit.” Another high school science teacher wrote, “When I did teach a class specifically geared towards media literacy, it was great because students were engaged. They were quick at analyzing images and creating their own.” A third science teacher wrote, “using critical media literacy made engaging my students in abstract chemistry concepts more meaningful and engaging.” Engagement tends to increase when students are genuinely interested and intrinsically motivated, something that often comes out of personal connection, a sense of meaningfulness, and an authentic belief in the value of the learning ( Dewey, 1963 ). These are all elements of good CML pedagogy. A high school science teacher described the feelings of students and their parents as they responded to their CML work: “My favorite moments are students exuding pride and passion over the work they are creating that speaks to their perspectives and experiences; parents proud of their students’ media creations.” Feelings of pride and passion are important for all students to experience; they help lower students’ affective filters for learning ( Krashen, 1995 ) and increase intrinsic motivation to want to learn.

Critical Media Literacy

As we analyzed teachers’ written responses, we saw a number of comments in which they were taking basic media literacy concepts to deeper levels of criticality. Several mentioned how useful the class was to understanding critical theory and be able to see how it can be enacted in their K-12 classroom. Similar findings were mentioned after Joanou (2017) analyzed data about a critical media literacy (CML) class taught to master’s-level practicing K-12 educators. Joanou (2017) reported, “critical media literacy helps bridge the gap between theory and practice” (p. 40). The use of media texts and popular culture can provide relevant examples for entry into abstract concepts that are often politically and emotionally charged, and sometimes too sensitive or too distant to begin discussing on a personal level.

Teaching about the connections between information and power reflects a key goal of CML ( Kellner & Share, 2007 ) and our respondents demonstrated this through their qualitative comments about recreating counter-narratives, analyzing the politics of representation, making critical connections between history and current events with media texts, and engaging in political, social, and environmental media activism. Questions 3 and 4 attempted to assess the frequency in which teachers were bringing critical aspects of media education to their students.

Question 3 asks teachers to rate how often: “My students have engaged in media analysis by exploring media representations of ideology, race, class, gender, sexuality, environmentalism, and/or other social justice issues.” Elementary and secondary teachers reported almost identical frequencies in response to Question 3: 22% in both groups reported VF/F while 42% (elementary) and 45% (secondary) stated occasionally. When asked Question 4 about making connections between information and power, the differences increased: 39% of the secondary teachers responded doing this VF/F while just 23% of the elementary teachers reported doing this VF/F.

In-service teachers reported higher frequencies for Question 3: 54% of in-service teachers reported VF/F while preservice teachers reported 14% VF/F. For Question 4: 56% of in-service teachers reported VF/F compared with 30% of preservice teachers who reported VF/F.

When comparing responses separated by subject matter with secondary teachers, 33% of English teachers and 30% of social science teachers reported VF/F for engaging in critical media analysis, as seen in Question 3 about exploring media representations. This is considerably higher than the 16% of science teachers and 9% of math teachers reporting VF/F. The math and science teachers reported the highest percentages for rarely or never having their students explore media representations of social justice issues (see Figure 5 ). The literature supports similar findings. Garii and Rule (2009) reported that student teachers had a difficult time integrating social justice into math and science content due to several factors. In their research with novice elementary teachers, Garii and Rule discovered that the candidates were not confident in their ability to teach math and science and had limited and unsophisticated knowledge of the content. They also viewed math and science “to be a set of routinized, algorithmic practices that lead to a single, correct answer and neither science nor mathematics are assumed to be closely connected to real-world issues and concerns” (p. 491). Given that they are struggling to learn and understand the content, math and science candidates turned to classroom textbooks to guide instructional practices. Incorporating nontraditional practices or making connections to students’ lives becomes a challenge because they disconnect social justice from their teaching and focus on teaching to the content ( Garii & Rule, 2009 ).

Figure 5. Responses to Question 3 from secondary teachers about how often they engaged their students in critical “media analysis by exploring media representations of ideology, race, class, gender, sexuality, environmentalism, and/or other social justice issues.”

One of the more significant findings of the study is the number of respondents reporting they “noticed that using critical media literacy encourages critical thinking among students” (Question 9). Of the preservice respondents, 61% reported VF/F, and for the in-service teachers, the percentages jump to 81% who reported VF/F. In both cases, the majority of respondents expressed their feelings that CML promotes critical thinking most of the time (see Figure 6 ). A middle school social science teacher wrote that after teaching CML, “students were deeper thinkers and our discussions were so much richer. Students were highly engaged and more invested in the classroom.” When comparing grade levels for Question 9, we see 78% of elementary teachers reported that using CML VF/F encourages critical thinking, and 61% of secondary teachers reported VF/F. This large percentage of elementary teachers reporting about CML encouraging critical thinking shows great promise for the potential of CML in the early grades.

Figure 6. Comparison of preservice and in-service teachers’ responses to Question 9 about how often they have noticed CML encourages critical thinking among their students.

Creating Counter Narratives and Supporting Students’ Voices

Many of the responses regarding transformative education centered on guiding students to create counternarratives and supporting student ideas and voices. Respondents mentioned activities that enabled their students to recreate media texts with a critical lens. These counternarratives included recreating superhero comic books, news, advertisements, digital storytelling, national holiday observances, and poems. A high school English teacher noted, “after analyzing recent and popular superhero comic books, my students used the comic medium to tell an autobiographical story wherein they exhibited power in the face of oppression.” A middle school English teacher reported:

The most memorable lesson I’ve taught involving critical media literacy was a unit based on perseverance and the power of the human spirit in regards to power structures and oppression. After analyzing multiple types of media, students created their own VoiceThread using spoken word in order to share their own messages of perseverance. It was incredibly powerful to hear their messages.

For most respondents, the notion of enabling their students to share personal stories using multimedia tools meant that they were integrating critical media pedagogy into their teaching practice. Traditionally, personal and experiential knowledge as a form of literacy is not often valued; thus, it is a critical pedagogical orientation to encourage students to recreate media texts that reflect their intersecting realities and challenge the pervasive dominant ideologies. Students’ personal histories become scholarly pursuits when digital storytelling encompasses media production skills taught through a critical media literacy (CML) framework. Vasquez (2017) asserts, “students learn best when what they are learning has importance in their lives, using the topics, issues, and questions that they raise should therefore be an important part of creating the classroom curriculum” (p. 8). A middle school math and technology teacher commented about incorporating CML into her master’s inquiry project:

The project we ultimately created was a digital storytelling project, in which students interviewed their parents or someone they admire and created some sort of media project around that story to tell counter-narratives to the dominant story told in media about people of color.

Guiding students to create counternarratives can be an empowering instructional strategy that nurtures their personal realities and supports their voice. Considering the context of urban education, it becomes particularly important for low-income students and students of color, who have been historically denied the power to be heard, to engage in their learning as empowered subjects through creating digital counter-narratives.

Politics of Representation

A major difference between critical media literacy (CML) and the more common media literacy practiced in the United States is the rigorous examination of the politics of representation; an analysis of how historically disenfranchised social groups are represented in media ( Funk et al., 2016 ). Many of the respondents discussed analyzing issues related to representations of different identities with their students. A high school visual arts teacher reported that through “using current events in the media, students created headline news with people of color perspective.” The majority of the responses highlighted engaging in discussions related to gender and a few responses about race. One elementary teacher noted:

My grade level did a Critical Media Literacy unit and after it was over, a week later, a student showed me a box of Chips Ahoy cookies and said that it was made to be sold to boys and girls. She compared it to a rainbow pop tarts box made for girls and a basketball cereal box made for boys that we had discussed during the CML unit.

A high school social science teacher reported:

My 11th and 12th grade Sociology class created representation boards. Each group was assigned an identity (‘white male,’ ‘Asian male,’ ‘black female,’ etc.). When each group was done, we compared the images and discussed the similarities between representations of race and gender. It really opened their eyes.

The politics of representation explores the complexities and intersections of identity markers, such as ethnicity, culture, gender, class, sexual orientation, religion, and ableism. Several candidates alluded to the intersectionality between race and gender in their responses, mostly engaging their students in discussions related to the unequal representation and socialization of gender roles. They also noted that discussing stereotypical gender roles challenged their students’ internalized notions of gender. Responses such as the following highlight the shift in their students’ perspectives about gender: An elementary teacher wrote, “We’ve had some successful discussions around gender stereotypes and I’ve heard the language change in the classroom and students be more thoughtful about others’ choices.” Another elementary teacher reported, “My students showed greater acceptance. After teaching a lesson invoking gender all my male students felt accepted to choose any color paper—the favorite was pink for the rest of the year.”

Making Critical Connections

In response to the open-ended questions, an array of items was mentioned that demonstrate critical engagement, from teaching about racism and whitewashing, to numerous examples of analyzing gender and sexism, as well as projects on environmental justice and climate change at all grade levels. Some respondents discussed their transformative practice through the way their students analyzed and created media to make critical connections between historical and current events.

A high school social science teacher stated, “I had students create videos explaining the situation in Ukraine and relating it to the Cold War. In United States history, I often had students look at political cartoons and think about current examples of imperialism and how they’re represented in media.” Similarly, another social science teacher described a memorable moment of teaching critical media literacy (CML) as: “When students could make the connection between yellow journalism in Spanish-American War and media sensationalism during the War on Terror.” An elementary school teacher wrote:

My students began to think critically about history after showing them the spoken word poem ‘History Textbooks,’ which talked about world history being American Propaganda. Through this poem, they began questioning: who gets to write history and whose stories are told? It was a really powerful lesson we returned to over and over again throughout my course.

Analyzing media texts by acknowledging their historical continuity is vital because marginalization and exploitation are historically bound. Discovering these historical connections helps teachers and students learn how dominance and ideology are perpetuated, transcending time and space. Bridging the gap between the past and the present enables students to identify the common thread of hegemony across various spheres of social life. This instructional approach of CML promotes critical thinking with a social justice emphasis.

Another topic on which respondents commented was using CML to teach about environmental issues, especially the climate crisis. This is an important area for CML, since so many media messages about climate change distort the scientific evidence and mislead the public ( Beach et al., 2017 ; Share & Beach, 2022 ). A high school science teacher reported, “My class analyzed the politics behind climate change denial and how climate change is represented in the media. It was very easy for my students to see the connection between the message and its creators.” Exploring the connection between media ownership and media messages, another high school science teacher commented that a memorable moment was having a “discussion with students about where they were getting their information about environmental issues, and talking about who owns and controls Univision.”

In addition to becoming more aware, being engaged in critical analysis and creating counternarratives, some respondents noted that their students had engaged in political, environmental, and social media activism. A high school science teacher mentioned:

My class was looking at environmental justice and one student took that information and used it for an English project she was working on and that project transformed into a petition to the city council to plant more trees as her contribution to offsetting pollution in the inner city.

Another science teacher reported about how his “students created social media campaigns to raise awareness about animals affected by climate change. Different groups created the ‘Puffin Dance’ and #peekatmypika to help their campaigns get going.” A kindergarten teacher wrote about her students creating a video with opinion posters for change they shared with their school community.

Activism can be enacted in multiple ways; some efforts are more explicit, like petitions and protests, while others are more subtle, such as creating alternative media. Teacher responses reflect their students’ activism related to social, environmental, and political issues materialized through local and issue-specific efforts.

In analyzing the responses, we found many encouraging and hopeful comments about how critical media literacy (CML) has helped teachers rethink their pedagogy and increase student engagement. However, the responses also highlight challenges for implementing CML, such as limited resources, support, and clarity about how to integrate it into the curriculum. An elementary teacher wrote about the scarcity of technology at the school and how that “makes it difficult to do anything around critical media.” From the answers to Question 7 (incorporating CML into my teaching is difficult), secondary teachers reported more difficulty teaching CML (35% VF/F) than elementary teachers (26% VF/F). This is another place where the potential for CML in the lower grades surfaced, since they seem to have less difficulty incorporating it than secondary teachers. The design of most elementary classrooms, which requires the same teacher to cover all subject matter to the same group of students throughout the day, opens the potential for integrating CML pedagogy through thematic teaching, project-based learning, or problem-posing pedagogy.

A first-year middle school social science teacher shared wanting to use more CML, but had little departmental and administrative support. An elementary teacher shared about an administrator who “is reluctant to have me teach how to be critical of all media.” Three responses focused on wanting more resources, instructional strategies, and school-appropriate material in order to be able to implement CML in their classrooms. These qualitative statements of lack of support can be seen in the quantitative responses to Question 10 in which respondents rated the statement: “I feel supported by people at my school when teaching critical media literacy”: 36% VF/F, 24% occasionally, 18% rarely, 6% never felt supported, and 17% not applicable.

The group that shared the most challenges for implementing CML consisted of five teachers who taught secondary math and science. Their qualitative responses broadly discussed the difficulty of integrating CML into their content and finding only limited application. One of these responses from a high school math teacher mentioned:

I remember how when I was in the [CML] class, it seemed all over the place. I was unable to fully find the purpose of the class and how we can use it in a math class. In a traditional math class, such as Pre-Calculus or Calculus, it was rather difficult to find ways to incorporate the idea of CML.

This same person also commented that once he began teaching statistics, he was able to find ways to integrate CML. Of the 34 math teachers who answered Question 7, 59% of them reported that incorporating CML into their teaching was difficult VF/F. This is about double the VF/F responses from the other subjects.

A high school math teacher saw the value in teaching students CML but limited its application to challenging students’ misinformation about math and who is or is not a mathematician:

Critical Media Literacy is pretty important for students, especially in an age where they’re exposed to various forms of media, a lot of which is very skewed in one way or the other, and usually takes a reductionist viewpoint of the issues it addresses. I try to use CML to help students understand the misinformation about mathematics, the nature of mathematics, and challenge stereotypes of who is or isn’t a mathematician (examples: Not all mathematicians are white or Asian, there are Latino and African/African American mathematicians, there are mathematicians from faith backgrounds, mathematics isn’t just about calculations, etc.).

Two additional respondents also acknowledged the benefits of CML but felt challenged by the additional work needed to integrate it into the curriculum. A high school science teacher shared:

When I took the Critical Media Literacy class, it felt like it was more geared towards the humanities and not necessarily for the sciences. While it would be great to come up with lessons that connect chemistry and critical media literacy, it is immensely time-consuming when I can’t find other people to brainstorm with.

Another secondary science teacher also felt CML was important but struggled to find ways to integrate it into the classroom:

It was a great shared learning space and I got a ton of inspiration from taking the class; however, it has been difficult to use CML when direct instruction does focus on the explanation of scientific concepts. That’s not to say it is impossible, it just does take one more step of planning and student buy in.

Researchers in Canada found that after teaching CML concepts and skills in a Language Arts methods course, their preservice teachers felt enthusiastic about teaching media literacy, but challenged when designing CML lessons ( Robertson & Hughes, 2011 , p. 51). Robertson and Hughes (2011) list five reasons why teaching CML was so challenging for their students: (1) when these preservice teachers were K-12 students, most did not experience CML lessons; (2) the majority of their mentor teachers did not teach CML or know much about it; (3) critical analysis practices are not easy; (4) few resources are available; and (5) some schools have little technology and technical support. These are many of the same challenges that our teachers reported.

Intent and Importance of Incorporating Critical Media Literacy

Numerous teachers wrote about how meaningful, vital, transformative, and important this class was for them. A high school science teacher shared that the critical media literacy (CML) class, “was transformative! I’m still working on ways to fully integrate what I learned, but I have had my students creating media ever since.” A middle school English teacher commented about how the CML class “gave us techniques, projects, lessons that we can incorporate in our classrooms. Teaching students how to be critical of information related through the media is highly important because student[s] gain that critical awareness necessary for a technology-based society!”

A desire to bring more CML into the classroom surfaced throughout many of the qualitative responses. When asked to indicate any additional comments, 16 out of 64 respondents (25%) expressed their intention to integrate concepts related to media literacy or CML. A high school math teacher who wrote about having students create ads to represent data in graphs stated, “I wish I could incorporate more. I’ll keep trying.” A kindergarten teacher commented, “I wish I had more time to engage my students in this topic. As I grow in experience and expertise, I incorporate it more and more. Teaching in urban areas is a challenge but I do find the ideas of the course to be valuable in the classroom.”

The data and voices of these teachers raise practical, theoretical, and policy implications for future work in supporting teachers in adopting a pedagogical approach that can ignite engagement, make learning relevant, and deepen critical thinking with media, technology, and all information. In order for this to happen, teacher education programs need to address some of the challenges and limitations highlighted in the study.

The teachers surveyed reported challenges for implementing critical media literacy (CML) such as limited access to resources, lack of support, and a struggle to understand how to integrate it into the curriculum. This was especially evident for the math and science teachers. CML courses need to help teachers in all content areas rethink the silo approach to separate subject matter instruction and recognize the ways literacy is used in all areas and how information is connected to students’ lives through issues of power, privilege, and pleasure. To help teachers integrate CML into the curriculum, it is important for them to see content and grade-level examples while also receiving ongoing support and resources.

One way to support teachers in various subject matter is to create groups or projects modeled after the Stanford History Education Group (SHEG) or the Center X professional development projects. 4 The SHEG is a research and development group that provides free online resources and lesson plans for history teachers to support students in developing historical thinking skills. In a similar way, the Center X projects provide resources, lesson ideas, and professional development to support working teachers and administrators, while also creating curriculum, providing trainings, and engaging in research. The creation of a CML project or research and development group could provide ongoing professional development for new and experienced teachers in order to sustain CML implementation and support the growth of CML as an important field of investigation.

In-service teachers in our survey reported higher rates of integration of CML, perhaps because experienced teachers have figured out issues of classroom management, lesson planning, and how to balance work and life expectations. As a result, they are better situated to build and expand their curricula and teaching practices to bring CML into their classrooms. While creating a site modeled after the SHEG or Center X projects will require a significant investment of time and money, a more immediate and economical way to provide support for preservice teachers could be through integrating CML across various teacher preparation courses, especially in methods classes. This integration would require working with teacher educators to explore the CML theoretical framework and co-construct new practices and curricula for integrating these ideas throughout different content areas.

Despite the challenges reported by our teachers, the data also suggest promising possibilities for CML. While we do not claim causality between their teaching and the CML course, the data provide a window into how our preservice and in-service teachers have supported critical engagement with the information, entertainment, and social media embedded in the lives of students.

The similarities between elementary and secondary teachers suggest that CML can be just as appropriate for lower grades as it is commonly assumed to be for older students. The work in critical literacy by Comber (2013) and Vasquez (2014) offers support for the notion that young children can engage deeply in critical thinking and social justice education. The elementary teachers in our study demonstrate these ideas through the work they have done to engage their young students with media analysis and critical media production from kindergarten on up. While some teachers reported deep levels of critical analysis more often than others, many expressed their belief in the importance of CML and their desire to teach about social justice. Vasquez (2017) reminds us that critical literacy should not be a topic to teach: “Instead it should be looked on as a lens, frame, or perspective for teaching throughout the day, across the curriculum, and perhaps beyond. What this means is that critical literacy involves having a critical perspective or way of being” (p. 8). Developing social justice educators who internalize a critical way of looking at the world and questioning systems of power is the project for which CML provides a pragmatic framework and pedagogy.

It is impressive to see the majority of teachers reporting that using CML encourages critical thinking, something more important than ever in the age of fake news and alternative facts. There is hope in the teachers’ voices as they describe the activities they have been doing with their students, the successes they have encountered, and the challenges they have struggled to overcome. The comments about their intentions to teach CML and the importance they attribute to teaching these concepts provide encouragement for teacher educators to embrace CML. More than anything, the data demonstrate the potential for teaching CML in elementary and secondary settings with preservice and in-service teachers and in all content areas, even though some are more challenging than others. The use of media and technology offers opportunities for teachers to build on students’ prior knowledge, create a bridge to connect the outside world with school learning, and provide the raw material to examine everyday experiences of power, marginalization, and resistance.

Simply integrating media into the curriculum is not enough to develop critical literacies given the changing and multiple literacies associated with new digital information and communication technologies and practices. In the contemporary moment, there is a pressing pedagogical need to navigate the increasingly consequential artificial intelligence (AI) systems that collect, collate, process, predict and disseminate information determined by algorithms. Data from the survey suggest that our teachers are teaching more with media than critically analyzing it. Further studies are needed in order to better understand how to develop teachers’ CML frameworks and support more implementation.

Preparing educators to teach CML is not easy, and unfortunately, few institutes of higher education are attempting the challenge. However, it is possible, and in fact, it can be highly rewarding. By listening to the voices of teachers who have taken a CML course, we see the potential. As one high school science teacher commented, “CML changed me, changed my teaching, continues to change my students.”

While information communication technologies are integrating into all aspects of our lives, we are also witnessing increasing divisions between the haves and have nots, out-of-control climate change, and the weaponization of information and media. In order to create a socially just democratic society and sustainable planet, we must have people who can critically read and write the word and the world ( Freire & Macedo, 1987 ). The need for CML has never been greater. A high school English teacher wrote, “there is no literacy without media literacy. There is not critical pedagogy without critical media literacy.” It is our hope that this article serves as a resource to continue exploring the potential that CML offers to transform students, schools, and society.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank the following educators who helped us design and teach this critical media literacy course: Shani Byard, Peter Carlson, Steven Funk, Antero Garcia, Mark Gomez, Clifford Lee, Elexia Reyes-McGovern, and Martin Romero. We are grateful to Megan Franke for her guidance with the creation of the survey. We also appreciate the assistance of Jarod Kawasaki, Jose-Felipe Martinez, and Brandon McMillan with helping to organize the survey data.

Media and Information Literacy, a critical approach to literacy in the digital world

importance of critical thinking in media and digital literacy

What does it mean to be literate in the 21 st century? On the celebration of the International Literacy Day (8 September), people’s attention is drawn to the kind of literacy skills we need to navigate the increasingly digitally mediated societies.

Stakeholders around the world are gradually embracing an expanded definition for literacy, going beyond the ability to write, read and understand words. Media and Information Literacy (MIL) emphasizes a critical approach to literacy. MIL recognizes that people are learning in the classroom as well as outside of the classroom through information, media and technological platforms. It enables people to question critically what they have read, heard and learned.

As a composite concept proposed by UNESCO in 2007, MIL covers all competencies related to information literacy and media literacy that also include digital or technological literacy. Ms Irina Bokova, Director-General of UNESCO has reiterated significance of MIL in this media and information landscape: “Media and information literacy has never been so vital, to build trust in information and knowledge at a time when notions of ‘truth’ have been challenged.”

MIL focuses on different and intersecting competencies to transform people’s interaction with information and learning environments online and offline. MIL includes competencies to search, critically evaluate, use and contribute information and media content wisely; knowledge of how to manage one’s rights online; understanding how to combat online hate speech and cyberbullying; understanding of the ethical issues surrounding the access and use of information; and engagement with media and ICTs to promote equality, free expression and tolerance, intercultural/interreligious dialogue, peace, etc. MIL is a nexus of human rights of which literacy is a primary right.

Learning through social media

In today’s 21 st century societies, it is necessary that all peoples acquire MIL competencies (knowledge, skills and attitude). Media and Information Literacy is for all, it is an integral part of education for all. Yet we cannot neglect to recognize that children and youth are at the heart of this need. Data shows that 70% of young people around the world are online. This means that the Internet, and social media in particular, should be seen as an opportunity for learning and can be used as a tool for the new forms of literacy.

The Policy Brief by UNESCO Institute for Information Technologies in Education, “Social Media for Learning by Means of ICT” underlines this potential of social media to “engage students on immediate and contextual concerns, such as current events, social activities and prospective employment.

UNESCO MIL CLICKS - To think critically and click wisely

For this reason, UNESCO initiated a social media innovation on Media and Information Literacy, MIL CLICKS (Media and Information Literacy: Critical-thinking, Creativity, Literacy, Intercultural, Citizenship, Knowledge and Sustainability).

MIL CLICKS is a way for people to acquire MIL competencies in their normal, day-to-day use of the Internet and social media. To think critically and click wisely. This is an unstructured approach, non-formal way of learning, using organic methods in an online environment of play, connecting and socializing.

MIL as a tool for sustainable development

In the global, sustainable context, MIL competencies are indispensable to the critical understanding and engagement in development of democratic participation, sustainable societies, building trust in media, good governance and peacebuilding. A recent UNESCO publication described the high relevance of MIL for the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

“Citizen's engagement in open development in connection with the SDGs are mediated by media and information providers including those on the Internet, as well as by their level of media and information literacy. It is on this basis that UNESCO, as part of its comprehensive MIL programme, has set up a MOOC on MIL,” says Alton Grizzle, UNESCO Programme Specialist.

UNESCO’s comprehensive MIL programme

UNESCO has been continuously developing MIL programme that has many aspects. MIL policies and strategies are needed and should be dovetailed with existing education, media, ICT, information, youth and culture policies.

The first step on this road from policy to action is to increase the number of MIL teachers and educators in formal and non-formal educational setting. This is why UNESCO has prepared a model Media and Information Literacy Curriculum for Teachers , which has been designed in an international context, through an all-inclusive, non-prescriptive approach and with adaptation in mind.

The mass media and information intermediaries can all assist in ensuring the permanence of MIL issues in the public. They can also highly contribute to all citizens in receiving information and media competencies. Guideline for Broadcasters on Promoting User-generated Content and Media and Information Literacy , prepared by UNESCO and the Commonwealth Broadcasting Association offers some insight in this direction.

UNESCO will be highlighting the need to build bridges between learning in the classroom and learning outside of the classroom through MIL at the Global MIL Week 2017 . Global MIL Week will be celebrated globally from 25 October to 5 November 2017 under the theme: “Media and Information Literacy in Critical Times: Re-imagining Ways of Learning and Information Environments”. The Global MIL Feature Conference will be held in Jamaica under the same theme from 24 to 27 October 2017, at the Jamaica Conference Centre in Kingston, hosted by The University of the West Indies (UWI).

Alton Grizzle , Programme Specialist – Media Development and Society Section

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Accelerating Progress Towards SDG4: Stocktake of Transformative Actions in Education

Teaching critical digital literacy

Critical digital literacy is a set of skills, competencies, and analytical viewpoints that allows a person to use, understand, and create digital media and tools. Related to information literacy skills such as numeracy, listening, speaking, reading, writing and critical thinking, the goal of critical digital literacy is to develop active and engaged thinkers and creators in digital environments. Digital literacy is more than technological understanding or computer skills and involves a range of reflective, ethical, and social perspectives on digital activities.

See also studies of "Critical Media Literacy."

This article is based on work done by Robin Davis as part of the Folger Institute’s Early Modern Digital Agendas (2013) institute. We welcome the addition of resources and readings, particularly those focused on teaching digital literacy from an early modernist perspective and critically analyzing the digital tools related to early modern studies.

1 Multi-literacies of digital environments
2 Teaching critical early modern digital literacy
3 Pedagogical settings for digital literacy
4.2 Exercises
4.3 Information about tools and infrastructure
5.1 Introductions
5.2 Short reads
5.3 Long reads

Multi-literacies of digital environments

Juliet Hinrichsen and Antony Coombs at the University of Greenwich propose a "5 Resources Model" for articulating the scope and dimensions of digital literacies. The five resources are:

Decoding : Learners need to develop familiarity with the structures and conventions of digital media, sensitivity to the different modes at work within digital artifacts and confident use of the operational frameworks within which they exist. These skills focus on understanding the navigational mechanisms and movement of the digital landscape (buttons, scrolling, windows, bars); understanding the norms and practices of digital environments (safety and online behavior, community norms, privacy and sharing); understanding common operations (e.g. saving, upload and download, organizing files); recognizing and evaluating stylistics (e.g. the social codes embedded in color, font, transition, and layout choices); and recognizing that different modes of digital texts (twitter streams, video, immersive games) have different characteristics and conventions.
Meaning Making : This aspect maps onto other well-recognized literacy concepts in recognizing the agency of the learner as a participant in constructing meaning. This dimension of digital literacy focuses on reading , the fluent assimilation of digital content and the ability to follow a narrative across diverse semantic, visual and structural elements; relating , or recognizing relationships between new and existing knowledge and adapting mental models; and expressing , or the capacity to translate a purpose, intention, feeling or idea into a digital form.
Using : Learners need to develop the ability to effectively and creatively deploy digital tools. This includes finding the tool and the requisite evaluation of different tool options, effectively apply tools and techniques, employ problem solving, and have the confidence to explore, experiment, and innovate to create solutions with imaginative approaches, techniques, or content.
Analyzing : Learners need to develop the ability to make informed judgements and choices in the digital domain. This includes deconstructing digital resources to analyze their constituent parts, selecting resources and tools, and interrogating the provenance, purpose, and structures that affect digital content and influence its output.
Persona : Sensitivity to the issues of reputation, identity and membership within different digital contexts. In identity building, learners develop a sense of their own role in digital environments; reputation management emphasizes the importance of building and maintaining both individual and community reputations as assets; while participation focuses on the nature of the collaborative (both synchronous and asynchronous) contributions that make up many digital projects and their ethical and cultural challenges.

Teaching critical early modern digital literacy

Students encounter early modern texts, images, and objects through an increasing array of digital tools and sources. By reading an edited version of Macbeth via the Folger Digital Texts, critiquing a digital facsimile of a pamphlet on Early English Books Online, or navigating the Agas Map at the Map of Early Modern London , digital texts and tools allow for interactive and expansive exploration of early modern topics. In encouraging students to engage with early modern literature and history through these tools, we also need to provide them with the skills to analyze the tool, its intended audiences, its affordances and limitations. By teaching students how to assess digital editions and tools critically, we can prepare them not only to select the best tools for their purpose, but also provide the skills necessary for further development of digital texts, tools, and resources. Critical digital literacy is the first step towards digital authorship.

Pedagogical settings for digital literacy

Critical digital literacy, writ broadly, is taught in a variety of settings, including humanities and information courses; public, academic, and special collections libraries; and K-12 classrooms and after-school programs. The articles listed below present a variety of perspectives on the benefits of critical digital literacy and point to some of the fields in which discussions of critical digital literacy are taking place.

Graduate education; Rhetoric and Composition.
Undergraduate education; English Department.
High school education and postsecondary education; English, Art, Preservice teacher education.
High School, Academic standards and student attitudes.
Undergraduate education; Academic libraries.

Teaching resources and exercises

Many digital literacy exercises are designed to make the affordances of specific tools visible. Many students treat digital humanities tools as "black boxes": opaque systems in which a user provides input and receives a product, but does not have information about what happens in between. The goal of many of these exercises is to make the box a little less opaque and open up digital humanities tools, programs, and databases to criticism. We want students to question the assumptions and choices made in the selection, organization, and presentation of content and understand what their tools are doing for them.

http://dhbox.org/ : streamlines installation processes and provides a digital humanities laboratory in the cloud through simple sign-in via a web browser.

How to see through the cloud : using traceroute to walk through the physical network of the Internet
Governing Algorithms: Provocation piece : short essay split into 38 provocations concerning algorithms, policy, and practice. #21 is a great discussion starter, courtesy of Solon Barocas, Sophie Hood, and Malte Ziewitz.
Teaching with Lingfish : Using the Early Modern Recipe Archive, Luna, the OED, and EEBO to examine how different repositories deal with fish, courtesy of Nancy Simpson-Younger.

Information about tools and infrastructure

The Basement : what an internet hub for a major American city looks like, courtesy of Cabel Sasser.

Short reads

Practicing Freedom in the Digital Library by Barbara Fister in Library Journal (2013)
Beyond Citation student project at the CUNY Graduate Center (2014)
Digital Humanities Pedagogy: Practices, Principles, and Politics edited by Brett D. Hirsch (2012)
"Hacking the Classroom: Eight Perspectives" Eds. Mary Hocks and Jentry Sayers. Computers and Composition Online . (Spring 2014).
Suggested readings from CRTCLDGTL , a reading group at Northwestern
Never Neutral: Critical Approaches to Digital Tools & Culture in the Humanities , essay by Josh Honn (2013)
Folger Institute
Digital humanities
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Today’s Two Important Skills: Digital Literacy and Critical Thinking

First Online: 15 March 2023

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Aysu, S. (2023). Today’s Two Important Skills: Digital Literacy and Critical Thinking. In: Köksal, D., Ulum, Ö.G., Genç, G. (eds) Undividing Digital Divide. SpringerBriefs in Education. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-25006-4_4

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Critical Thinking: The Key to Digital Literacy

By: fishtree - november 10, 2014.

How should we define digital literacy? Educational leader and PhD student, Lynnea West, explains her research on the principle ways of redefining education through technology, using digital literacy as a key driver: “I would hope that moving forward, we just call them ‘literacies’ and they’re just considered essential components of good literacy practices. We’re living in an online world and digital tools are our reality , so literacy in the broader context is just how we make meaning of what we’re reading or interpreting and how that joins together with our place in the world.”

The concept of digital literacy has been broken down in numerous attempts to define what constitutes a ‘digital native’ and what skills are central to our understanding and interpretation of digital content. Lynnea argues the key to fostering a digital mindset lies in the emphasis of critical thinking. “Critical thinking has always been emphasized in literacy skills but they become much more apparent when it comes to interpreting digital content”, she says. Referencing the work of Dr. Julie Coiro and Donald J. Leu, Lynnea explains, “there’s actually no real correlation between how well a student reads on paper and how well a student can read in a digital environment, so you have to teach those skills and strategies really explicitly about analyzing and evaluating.”

The Evolution of Literacy

Lynnea outlines how digital technology has changed the way we interact with text, taking a more collaborative approach to the way in which we make meaning. “Before, it was like: ‘Here’s your paper, do your worksheet’. Now, we have the opportunity to represent our thinking using visual images in a collage, or by creating a video, so we have a lot of different ways to respond to reading. We also get the opportunity to create meaning together. For example, when responding to a concept, you can create your meaning and demonstrate that through a video. Then, your students can reply to that video and the story gets continued. So it’s not just this singular piece anymore, it’s this dynamic and multimodal process, it’s a back and forth, and it’s collaborative . ”

Lynnea describes technology’s potential to give every single student a voice, showcasing student creativity and critical thinking skills like never before. “If you have a student who is somewhat quiet in a face-to-face conversation, they may just need that time to process, think, listen and then reflect later, and have their voice heard. So you can use technology to increase student voice in a way that they’d never have been able to before.”

The Digital Native

There has been widespread debate on the topic of the digital native, and whether or not the digital generation should inherit the title. Lynnea explains her logic that it’s not simply a question of ‘being’, but rather of ‘becoming’, a digital native. “I’m not in the generation of the digital native but I can certainly navigate my way through technology”, she says. “I don’t think it’s as simple as you are or you aren’t, I think you can be developed in whatever it is that you want to do. Anything, if you have that growth mindset, you can take to the next level .”

While most educators are moving towards this digital mindset, many remain reluctant to embrace the ‘digital native’ status. Lynnea argues that much of this reluctance boils down to the fear of letting go. “I think there are some teachers who have been teaching with pretty impressive results, who feel a sense of mastery, and it’s really uncomfortable to let that go”, she says.

Blurred Lines

Another reason for such reluctance, Lynnea explains, is the blurring of lines between students and teacher, as the traditional school structure begins to change shape. With educators now being urged to join in the learning cycle with their students, the idea of taking a back seat remains frightening to some. “It’s going to continue to change and evolve, and I think the students will be the drivers of that, and that makes the lines a little blurry between teachers and students… Who’s the learner? And who’s the teacher? ”

While many may grimace at the idea of these blurred lines, Lynnea is excited at the prospect of students taking the reigns. “To me, this is awesome. I have two kids, and if they can be put in the role of leader at the age of eleven, then great. That’s a sense of mastery and accomplishment. It’s exciting to me to have those roles a little more blurry”, she says.

As literacies continue to evolve and adapt to our more complex, digital surroundings, the skills at the center are gaining more significance than ever. Could critical thinking be the key driver in our quest for the ‘digital native’? Should educators take a step back to promote the innovative mindset of the 21st century? Are we essentially foreigners in the land of the digital generation? Perhaps it’s time for us to indulge in some critical thinking of our own.

P.S. If you liked this post, you might want to check out fishtree.com . Start teaching with the 21st century learning platform today… the ideal tool for adaptive, blended and mobile learning!

About the author:

Lorna Keane is a teacher of French, English and ESL. She specializes in language teaching and has taught in second and third-level institutions in several countries. She holds a B.A in languages and cultural studies and an M.A in French literature, theory and visual culture. Follow her on Twitter or connect on LinkedIn .

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Strengthen Media Literacy to Win the Fight Against Misinformation

If the world is going to stop deliberate or unintentional misinformation and its insidious effects, we need to radically expand and accelerate our counterattacks, particularly human-centered solutions focused on improving people's media and information literacy.

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By Kristin M. Lord & Katya Vogt Mar. 18, 2021

Illustration of tiny people and huge laptop computer with cracked planet Earth globe, journalist with mic on screen.

The deliberate or unintentional spread of misinformation, despite capturing widespread public attention, remains as rampant as ever, showing up recently in the form of false claims about COVID-19 vaccines , the Capitol riot , and many other topics . This “ infodemic ” is polarizing politics , endangering communities , weakening institutions , and leaving people unsure what to believe or whom to trust . It threatens the foundations of democratic governance , social cohesion , national security , and public health .

Misinformation is a long-term problem that demands long-term, sustainable solutions as well as short-term interventions. We've seen a number of quicker, technological fixes that improve the social media platforms that supply information. Companies like Facebook and Twitter, for example, have adjusted their algorithms or called out problematic content . We've also seen slower, human-centered approaches that make people smarter about the media they demand to access online. Evidence-driven educational programs, for instance, have made people better at discerning the reliability of information sources, distinguishing facts from opinions, resisting emotional manipulation, and being good digital citizens.

It hasn't been enough. If we're to stop misinformation and its insidious effects, we need to radically expand and accelerate our counterattacks. It will take all sectors of society: business, nonprofits, advocacy organizations, philanthropists, researchers, governments, and more. We also need to balance our efforts. For too long, too many resources and debates have focused on changing the technology, not educating people. This emphasis on the supply side of the problem without a similar investment in the demand side may be a less effective use of time and energy.

While technology-centered, self-policing solutions—filtering software, artificial intelligence, modified algorithms, and content labeling—do have the ability to make changes quickly and at scale, they face significant ethical, financial, logistical, and legal constraints.

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For one, social media business models thrive on engagement, which incentivizes emotionally charged and freely flowing content. Tech leaders like Facebook's founder, Mark Zuckerberg, hesitate taking action over concerns about free speech and have tried to avoid political debates until pressed . When they do take action, they face scrutiny for an inconsistent approach. Additionally, research shows that some of the most commonly employed methods for combatting misinformation on social media—such as banners that display fact-checks—have little impact on people’s likelihood to believe deliberately misleading news, and some even backfire. And because people often have a deeply held desire to share what they know with others—particularly information that seems threatening or exciting —tech companies can only go so far to regulate content. There is also the challenge of volume. Tech platforms struggle to keep pace with the many forms and producers of disinformation. Stopping them resembles a high-stakes, never-ending game of Whac-A-Mole.

Given these challenges, we need to invest more into human-centered solutions focused on improving people's media and information literacy. They not only demonstrate a much deeper and longer-lasting impact, but also may be easier and cheaper to implement than commonly believed.

Research from the RAND Corporation and others shows media and information literacy improves critical thinking , awareness of media bias , and the desire to consume quality news —all of which help beat back misinformation. Even brief exposure to some training can improve competencies in media literacy, including a better understanding of news credibility or a more robust ability to evaluate biases . Media literacy has a stronger impact than political knowledge on the ability to evaluate the accuracy of political messages, regardless of political opinion. Digital media literacy reduced the perceived accuracy of false news, and training remains effective when delivered in different ways and by different groups .

Media literacy training has lasting impact. A year and a half after adults went through a program from IREX (a nonprofit where the authors work), they continued to be 25 percent more likely to check multiple news sources and 13 percent more likely to discern between disinformation and a piece of objective reporting. In Jordan and Serbia, participants in IREX's training also improved their media literacy skills up to 97 percent .

Media literacy programs can also be affordably and extensively delivered through schools. Finland and Sweden incorporated media literacy into their education systems decades ago with positive results, and Ukraine is beginning to do the same . In Britain, youth who had training in schools showed an improvement in media literacy skills .

Critics may say that improving people's media literacy and other human-centered solutions are resource-intensive and will not address the problem quickly enough or at sufficient scale. These are real challenges, but the long-term efficacy of such programs is exactly what is needed in the never-ending battle with misinformation. We need to invest more in them while continuing to pursue technology solutions, or we may never create and sustain the accurately informed citizenry that healthy democracies demand.

The effort will require all sectors of societies across the globe collaborating to fully understand and solve the problem. We need nonprofits and advocacy organizations to raise the alarm with the people they serve. We need philanthropists to step up with funding to scale solutions. We need more researchers to provide evidence-based answers to the full scope of the problem and the efficacy of fixes. We need governments to integrate media literacy standards into schools and incentivize training. We need tech companies to do more than tweak their platforms—they need to invest in educating the people who use them, too.

The tools to blunt the power of misinformation are in our hands, but we have to work smarter and faster or risk losing an ever-intensifying fight. Much learning, coalition-building, scaling, and communication remains to be done to " emerge from information bankruptcy ." Solutions are complex but within our reach. And the consequences of inaction are dire: the increasingly severe and invasive destabilization of our societies and daily lives as lies trample the truth.

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Understanding Social Media Literacy: A Systematic Review of the Concept and Its Competences

Karina polanco-levicán.

1 Programa de Doctorado en Ciencias Sociales, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco 4780000, Chile; [email protected]

2 Departamento de Psicología, Universidad Católica de Temuco, Temuco 4780000, Chile

Sonia Salvo-Garrido

3 Departamento de Matemática y Estadística, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco 4780000, Chile

Associated Data

Not applicable.

Nowadays, people spend long periods on social media, ignoring the implications this carries in daily life. In this context, the concept of social media literacy, an emerging concept scarcely developed in the literature, is relevant. This study sought to analyze, descriptively, the main definitions and competences of the concept of social media literacy. The methodology included a systematic search of literature in the databases Web of Science, PubMed, and Scopus between 2010 and 2021, applying filters for English and Spanish, including only scientific articles. A total of 1093 articles were obtained. An article selection process took place, applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria, resulting in a total of 15 articles being selected. The findings indicate that the concept of social media literacy is based on media literacy to then integrate the characteristics and the implications of digital platforms. This is linked to the development of cognitive competences, where critical thinking, socio-emotional competences, and technical competences are fundamental, considering the social context. The development of socio-emotional competences stands out since social media are a frequent place of interaction between people.

1. Introduction

The transformation of society has been linked to technological changes that are an important part of people’s lives [ 1 , 2 ]. Digital technologies are inserted in aspects of social life, in families and relations with others, at work, in governance and political participation, and they generate new ways to shape a community [ 3 , 4 , 5 ]. In this sense, social media are widely used by different societies, transcending the geographical borders of territories and cultures, connecting the global to the local [ 6 , 7 ]. Staying on the Internet and social media for extended periods has resulted in media and digital literacy continuing to gain importance [ 1 ].

It is important to specify that social media differ from other types of Internet platforms in that they are characterized by their mass use, they allow content creation, and are not only consumed passively, making it possible for people who do not have formal knowledge about mass media to produce information [ 8 ]. This is even more relevant considering the cross-sectional use of social media by different age groups and that children’s exposure to cell phone screens begins at an early age [ 9 ]. Later, in adolescence they spend extensive periods on social media due to their socializing with their peers [ 10 , 11 ], whereas university students spend an average of 20 h a week on such digital platforms [ 12 ], it has been reported that 98.3% of survey respondents state they use social media [ 13 ]. The opposite would mean being outside a relevant social space [ 14 ]. In the older adult population, there is evidence that they use the technology less other age groups; however, the rates of social Internet use are increasing [ 15 ].

It should be noted that users are exposed to different phenomena on social media, such as publicity, images with a positivity bias, and aggressive and violent behaviors. In addition, the way in which social media operate must be considered as they use technology to filter content based on the users’ previous choice, favoring confirmation bias [ 16 ]. They also offer the opportunity to choose with whom one wishes to interact, enabling the formation of groups or communities with similar characteristics [ 17 , 18 , 19 ], which can foster negativity against what is different, which can be particularly relevant in phenomena such as cyberbullying, which has been linked to time spent on social media [ 20 , 21 ].

Thus, there are also messages on social media that can be potentially harmful when they are about health and personal appearance [ 22 ], considering people’s exposure to advertising and photos shared with positivity biases [ 23 , 24 ]. In this sense, exposure to photos that have been manipulated to achieve a positive appearance is associated with reducing body image and body satisfaction, with the increase in the desire of young women to get cosmetic surgery [ 25 ], depending on the time spent on the Internet [ 23 ].

On the other hand, users can be confronted with demands and difficulties such as the dissemination of false and manipulated news in the post-truth era [ 1 , 26 ], which are produced and put into circulation intentionally to obtain benefits such as more visits by users [ 27 ]. This is combined with people sharing information without a review process for this content since positive feedback from other users prevails; consequently, fake news goes viral very quickly [ 26 ]. People are needed in the role of information consumers; they must develop critical thinking, i.e., a skeptical view of the selection of the news provided through algorithms and the news sources must be tracked [ 4 , 26 ], since discerning veracity or falsity is a responsibility that transcends the individual [ 5 ].

It is important to note that the use of social media is not negative in itself as it can increase social capital, foster friendships and reduce feelings of loneliness; however, it depends on the user’s characteristics and how the different platforms are used [ 28 , 29 ]. As a result, teaching and learning competences for the use of these Internet platforms are particularly relevant since they include social and ethical aspects and technical skills [ 14 ], as well as competences that can assess information that aids in better decision-making [ 30 ].

Media literacy was defined by the Aspen Institute [ 31 ] as “the ability to sensitize, analyze and produce information for specific results” (p. 6), although this conceptualization has certainly undergone progressive transformations, moving from printed information to expression and communication that includes new symbolic forms, such as images and multimedia content. In addition, social media have enabled group collaboration and the dialogue of a large number of people who produce content [ 32 ]. It is worth noting that Hobbs [ 32 ] refers in particular to media literacy and understands it as knowledge, competences, and skills for life that make it possible to participate in today’s society by accessing, analyzing, evaluating, and creating messages in different ways and in different media, being the result of media education. For his part, Buckingham [ 33 ] emphasizes the critical component and the understanding that contents are inserted in a broad context, for example, digital capitalism. The emergence of new types of literacy is linked to the appearance of Internet and mobile communication technologies, which have resulted in the appearance of new media. Considering their impact, this is occurring with technologically based sociocultural platforms [ 34 ].

In the same vein, digital literacy refers to a broad set of competences around the use of digital media, computers, and information and communication technologies (ITC), being understood as part of other forms of literacy, such as computer, Internet, media, and informational literacy [ 35 ]. Currently, efforts are being made by the international community to guarantee digital literacy [ 36 ], because since the COVID-19 pandemic time on the Internet and social media has increased [ 37 ]. It is important to mention that digital literacy has been proposed as a strategy against social inequality, given the connection between technological exclusion and wider forms of economic and social exclusion [ 38 ], because people have fewer opportunities to develop skills due to their limited Internet connection, thereby reducing participation levels [ 39 ]. Another relevant element is that it is linked to socio-economic disadvantage with a lack of knowledge about the algorithms that these types of platforms use to recommend content [ 40 ].

Literacy in traditional and digital media is central given that we live permanently receiving messages from different sources [ 41 ]. Generally, these are focused on improving people’s competences to integrate and operate in today’s society [ 42 ]. Therefore, it is necessary to promote the development of skills such as critical thinking because even though teenagers and young adults have known the world with the Internet, they do not have better developed skills in all the areas that digital literacy addresses [ 43 ]. Nevertheless, according to Leaning [ 35 ], the difficulty arises because media literacy does not sufficiently address digital technology, considering that digital literacy does not fully develop a critical approach compared to media literacy. However, it is relevant to point out that the boundaries between the types of literacy can be blurred; in addition, other proposals progressively emerge that link different approaches such as critical digital literacy, rendering the desired distinctions complex [ 44 , 45 , 46 ].

In this sense, due to their mass use, social media have transformed the way we relate to each other, form communities, and use mass media. This has been of interest, with proposals on the issue of literacy being generated that focus particularly on these digital platforms. Therefore, Livingstone [ 47 ] indicates the need for literacy focused on social media to update the analysis of media literacy. Nevertheless, this concept has limited theoretical development and little operationalization [ 7 , 48 ]. In addition, there is evidence that authors define it differently; it has not been clearly established what the competences are that are included in this type of literacy given the authors working with this concept in their research.

In light of the above, this article focuses on social media literacy by performing a systematic literature review to better understand the concept in terms of the competences it provides that adequately guide efforts in the direction of teaching and learning processes in this area. The relevance of these processes must be borne in mind due to the mass use of such platforms and their use by people of different ages for extended periods, considering there are dangers in social media while at the same time they afford possibilities for interaction, entertainment, and other options that can be useful with an adequate understanding of how social media work and how to make use of them. Therefore, the aim of this study was to analyze, descriptively, the main definitions and competences of the concept of social media literacy.

2. Materials and Methods

A systematic search of the literature was done, considering the guidelines of Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) [ 49 ], in the Web of Science, PubMed, and Scopus databases in July 2021. The question that guided the search strategy was: what are the competences that must be developed to operate on social media? The search took place using free terms and terms from Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) including social media, social media sites, digital literacy, media literacy, and social media literacy. The filters were: language (English and Spanish), number of years (from 2010 to date), and article type (article). With respect to the total articles ( n = 1039), they were first selected by relevant title, second, by relevant abstract. Then, the articles were reviewed in full ( n = 59), and the inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied, resulting in 15 articles ( Figure 1 ).

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Systematic review flowchart (Adapted from Page et al., 2020 [ 49 ]).

2.1. Criteria for Eligibility

Inclusion criteria: Articles were selected that proposed a conceptual definition of social media literacy and/or that demonstrated the competences that integrate this concept. Articles were included where the participants were children, teenagers, young adults, adults, and families. Only scientific articles, theoretical and empirical, in English and Spanish between 2010 and 2021 were included.

Exclusion criteria: Articles that address social media from digital literacy without specifically considering the scope of social media literacy were not included, since they do not define the concept, nor do they refer to the competences that social media literacy encompasses. In addition, articles that address digital platforms but do not consider social media were not included. Theses, conference proceedings, and systematic reviews were not included. Articles in languages other than English or Spanish or with a publication date before 2010 were also excluded.

2.2. Procedure

Articles were selected considering the inclusion and exclusion criteria. The articles also had to provide information that responded to the research question; therefore, those articles that did not fit as previously indicated were eliminated. Where questions or disagreements arose about the selected articles, they were resolved through the joint review by the two authors to determine their relevance and to make a decision about their inclusion.

In terms of biases of this study, the language bias was countered by including articles in Spanish and English. In terms of coverage bias, the different databases (Web of Science, Scopus, and PubMed) were reviewed.

2.3. Analysis Strategy

With respect to the selection final, the articles were read and reviewed completely, observing if the records provided a conceptual definition of social media literacy or if they reported on the skills that this type of literacy includes. The other criteria of inclusion and exclusion were also considered. The standard quality assessment criteria for evaluating primary research papers were also applied [ 50 ].

Later, a table was constructed to present the studies, considering first the authors, type of study, objective, and information on the sample. Then, the main results were transformed in relation to the research question to report on the studies selected and to organize the findings of this study.

In relation to the biases present in articles, generally the records describe full data in their results; moreover, the results were reported according to the analyses used, considering that this is of interest to this review.

Fifteen articles were obtained for analysis from the following countries: Australia, Belgium, the Czech Republic, Germany, Indonesia, Singapore, Spain, the United Kingdom, and the United States, it being observed that interest in the concept of social media literacy is concentrated mainly in European countries that develop and contribute theoretical and empirical evidence relating to this concept ( Table A1 in Appendix A ).

3.1. Social Media Literacy: Definition

The conceptualization of social media literacy is based on media literacy [ 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 ]. However, it is emphasized that social media are oriented to the interpersonal communication that arises from the human need to establish interactions with others [ 48 , 52 , 53 ]. Thus, according to Vanwynsbergue [ 56 ], the focus would be on favoring the efficiency and efficacy of Internet communication, benefitting social relations ( Table A1 in Appendix A ).

On the other hand, the understanding of the particular characteristics of such platforms is worth noting, in that it is relevant how the information is presented on social media, considering the objectives after posts by both people and advertising, in addition to positivity bias [ 51 , 53 , 54 ]. Consequently, social media literacy is oriented towards the prevention of risks such as mental and physical health problems [ 51 , 53 ], as well as other types of consequences that can arise from interactions between people, for example cyberbullying, information spreading, and other difficulties [ 52 , 53 , 55 ].

3.2. Social Media Literacy: Competences

With respect to the different competences that encompass social media literacy according to the different studies, there is evidence that cognitive competences appear cross-sectionally in most of the studies searched. These include understanding, analysis, evaluation, synthesis, and the interpretation of the information, added to the assessment of the motive, purpose, realism, and credibility of the publication. Critical thinking is considered fundamental due to the large volume of information to which social media users are exposed [ 51 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 ]. In addition, according to Schreurs and Vandenbosch [ 54 ], cognitive competences include a knowledge of traditional media literacy and the dynamics of interpersonal communication on social media ( Table A1 in Appendix A ).

Similarly, user-generated information requires that they have knowledge of the implications of sharing personal data and the generation of information considering the digital fingerprint, since this information is used by the social media platforms and shared with other companies, so the user must evaluate what content to share [ 62 ]. Likewise, Tandoc et al. [ 63 ] report on the need to raise awareness about the content recommendation algorithms that transform the social media experience.

The technical or practical competences include the ability to create, review, organize and share contents [ 57 , 58 ], access, find information and use functions such as privacy settings [ 62 ], create social media accounts and publish photos and images, and make videos and memes [ 60 , 63 ]. These competences fulfill an important role so people of different ages can perform adequately on these digital platforms [ 51 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 ].

On the other hand, the socio-emotional competences are integrated by several authors into the conceptualization of social media literacy because such digital platforms are oriented to the interaction between different people who share content online; therefore, management strategies for interpersonal communications are relevant [ 48 , 51 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 63 ]. Festl [ 48 ] proposes that the development of social competences is central to social media literacy including participation and moral, communicative, and education competences, consistent with other studies that lend relevance to motivation, attitude, and behavior that people on social media exhibit [ 55 , 56 ]. In addition, Schreurs and Vandenbosch [ 54 ] note that effective competences are reflected in the use of adaptive strategies when users are exposed to difficulties on social media, as indicated in Appendix A ( Table A1 ).

The proposals of authors that consider the relevance of the context in which social interactions occur as well as the language used on social media are worthy of note. Specifically, the differences between the different digital platforms must be taken into account since they have particular ways of operating [ 55 ]. Moreover, the sociocultural pragmatics in the different social media must be borne in mind, i.e., changes in the users’ language, relations, and behavior depending on the different social and cultural contexts that take place on the Internet [ 57 ]. This would make it possible to assess the context that could help discern veracity of the information [ 60 ], considering the increase in fake news [ 63 ].

4. Discussion

The objective of this study was to analyze descriptively the main definitions and competences of the concept of social media literacy. The results yielded 15 studies ( Table A1 in Appendix A ) that address social media literacy by either conceptualizing it, or by referring to the competences of which it consists. It should be noted that there are studies that, despite using the concept in their articles, do not develop it, or they use it to talk about another type of literacy without making a suitable distinction on the issue [ 22 , 64 , 65 ].

In relation to the findings of this study, the construction of the concept of social media literacy is based on the knowledge gained through media literacy, to then integrate elements focused on catching the particularities, characteristics, and implications of social media. In this context, it is fundamental to consider the social interactions produced on social media, the possibility of users creating content, the large amount of information that circulates on social media that includes user content and publicity from businesses, as well as the content filtering and recommendation technology. In the same vein, it is suggested that the concept of social media literacy could respond to the requirements of today’s society due to the mass and recurring use of these types of virtual platforms worldwide [ 47 , 48 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 ].

Consequently, social media literacy is an update of media literacy [ 47 ], being oriented to favoring people being able to perform adequately on social media considering the various difficulties that can arise. Without a doubt, the phenomena that occur on social media are not all negative, rather these digital platforms have benefits that could be taken advantage of better if users have greater knowledge and competences [ 28 ]. Thus, access to the benefits or opportunities that social media afford, such as the possibility of sharing with friends and relatives, should be promoted, but with strategies to protect against damaging trends or risky behaviors [ 54 ].

Generally, the analyzed studies converge in the relevance of cognitive competences in social media literacy. It is worth noting the development of critical thinking because most studies mention it being necessary to obtain a suitable understanding and assessment of the content, being aware of the reliability and credibility of the information [ 55 , 56 , 60 ], reducing the persuasive influence of mass media through the evaluation of the intention and realism of the content [ 53 , 61 ]. This is not an easy task due to the large volume of information and the anonymity of those who produce the content on social media [ 57 ]. In this sense, the knowledge about the algorithms with which social media work acquires relevance, presenting information to the user according to their fingerprint [ 40 ].

As Livingstone [ 52 ] points out, social media literacy is at the intersection between social and mass media, so that the relevance of socio-emotional competences stands out. The social interactions that take place between users in real time or delay time are one of the characteristics that distinguishes social media from other types of digital platforms or mass media; therefore, different authors have focused on the socio-emotional competences to conceptualize and operationalize the construct [ 48 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 ]. In this way, such competences can be considered a protective factor against cybervictimization [ 66 ], and a greater prosocial behavior in Internet activities is implied [ 67 ], since there are adaptive strategies against negative experiences [ 54 ].

With respect to the technical or practical competences, there is evidence that among these are the ability to access, create, review, and share content on social media, adding other functions such as those linked to privacy settings. These competences are considered in a general way; however, social media platforms are different from each other, which is why it is relevant to consider those specific skills that could help people to perform adequately on the different social media. Coincidently, Manca et al. [ 7 ] refers to a higher skill level that can be cross-sectional on the different social media and skills specific to each digital platform.

Likewise, studies have shown the relevance of the context in which the content is generated in order to assess its construction [ 55 , 57 , 60 ]. Then, the specific platform can be considered, the context in which differences in the language used and the forms of interaction between users are reflected. On the other hand, it is important to place social media within a broader social and economic context such as digital capitalism [ 33 ], being aware of the objectives of the social media companies such as generating profits [ 68 ], transforming the private experience into merchandise [ 69 ].

Another finding of this study is the different areas in which studies are being conducted that involve this concept. On the one hand, evidence shows that different authors work with this concept applied to the area of physical and mental health related to body perception [ 51 , 53 , 61 , 70 ], developing interventions to reduce eating disorders and the negative impact of exposure to social media because they show idealized appearances, such that social media literacy is considered a protective factor [ 24 , 61 ]. Meanwhile, another group of authors focuses on research with children and adolescents due to the continuous use of social media as a result of their need to establish relations with their peers and how their families mediate the use of digital platforms [ 48 , 52 , 54 , 58 ]. Consequently, the development of competences by teenagers is fundamental for them to operate suitably on social media, considering that parents show deficiencies in technical competences and knowledge of social media because they use them less or they use digital platforms passively [ 54 , 58 ].

Finally, the relevance of the analysis and the assessment of news content on social media to determine its veracity stands out in the current context [ 5 , 26 , 60 , 63 ]. In this sense, the contribution of social media literacy is significant since it considers aspects of such platforms, because when sharing information, it prioritizes the expectation of positive feedback from other users, or that the content supports one’s personal beliefs and values.

5. Conclusions

This systematic review collaborated in the understanding of the construct of social media literacy in its definition and the skills that integrate it, being considered an area of emerging research and that its development is very necessary due to people staying on social media specifically for extended periods. Social media literacy is focused on the development of different abilities that range from the technical to the socio-emotional. In this sense, social media, by making possible and favoring social interactions, bring with them requirements for people to perform adequately on digital platforms, understanding that there is no separation between the digital plane and the physical plane; therefore, a mutual influence is produced that could affect people’s experience by being exposed to the dangers on social media that worsen without the skills to deal with such situations.

On the other hand, the social, economic, cultural, and political context is integrated into the analysis conducted on social media given that such platforms have product advertising, political announcements, and other situations to which social media users are exposed. At the same time, the social media differ from each other, so it is relevant to visualize the characteristics of each of them and their differences, noting they each have their own culture that is reflected in the language, behavior, and interactions generated.

In terms of the limitations of this study, it should be noted that there may be articles that were not detected in the systematic search, or that were not selected for the analysis considering the inclusion and exclusion criteria of this study because the authors used concepts linked to media and digital literacy to refer to the concept of social media literacy. Other databases could be added to verify whether there are new articles and integrate them into the results, contributing to different research questions. Similarly, other types of articles such as systematic reviews or conference proceedings could be added since they were excluded here. With respect to the future lines of investigation, studies must be generated considering the construct of social media literacy and its relation to other constructs such as cyberbullying and cyberaggression as the dangers of social media are considered, making it possible to observe which competences that make up social media literacy are those that would mainly protect against these dangers. In addition, it would be interesting to identify the relations with constructs that reflect if social media literacy facilitate the opportunities that such platforms offer. Finally, other studies could broaden the inclusion criteria by incorporating articles that address social media literacy, although the authors have used other broader concepts or approaches in their research. This way, future studies could analyze and evaluate which of the different literacies that focus on social media obtain the best results.

Concept and competences of Social Media Literacy.

Funding Statement

K.P.-L. received financial support by the National Agency for Research and Development (ANID)/Scholarship Program/DOCTORADO BECAS CHILE/2020-21200712.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, K.P.-L. and S.S.-G.; methodology, K.P.-L. and S.S.-G.; formal analysis, K.P.-L. and S.S.-G.; investigation, K.P.-L. and S.S.-G.; data curation, K.P.-L. and S.S.-G.; writing—original draft preparation, K.P.-L. and S.S.-G.; writing—review and editing, K.P.-L. and S.S.-G.; supervision, K.P.-L. and S.S.-G.; All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Peer Reviewed

Digital literacy is associated with more discerning accuracy judgments but not sharing intentions

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It has been widely argued that social media users with low digital literacy — who lack fluency with basic technological concepts related to the internet — are more likely to fall for online misinformation, but surprisingly little research has examined this association empirically. In a large survey experiment involving true and false news posts about politics and COVID-19, we found that digital literacy is indeed an important predictor of the ability to tell truth from falsehood when judging headline accuracy. However, digital literacy is not a robust predictor of users’ intentions to share true versus false headlines. This observation resonates with recent observations of a substantial disconnect between accuracy judgments and sharing intentions. Furthermore, our results suggest that lack of digital literacy may be useful for identifying people with inaccurate beliefs, but not for identifying those who are more likely to spread misinformation online.

Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA

Media Lab, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA

Center for Research and Teaching in Economics (CIDE), Aguascalientes, Mexico

Research Questions

How do social media users’ level of digital literacy relate to their ability to discern truth versus falsehood when assessing the accuracy of news posts, and when deciding what news to share?
How does the strength of these associations with digital literacy compare to other constructs that have been previously associated with truth discernment, particularly analytic thinking and general procedural news knowledge?
Do these relationships differ based on users’ political partisanship, or the topic (politics versus COVID-19) of the news headlines?

Essay Summary

In surveys conducted in late 2020, American social media users ( N = 1,341) were presented with a set of true and false news posts about politics or COVID-19 taken from social media. Participants were randomly assigned to either assess the accuracy of each headline or indicate their likelihood of sharing each headline in social media, as well as completing two measures of digital literacy along with analytic thinking (the tendency to stop and think versus going with one’s gut), procedural news knowledge, partisanship, and basic demographics.
Both digital literacy measures were positively associated with the ability to tell true from false headlines when assessing accuracy (accuracy discernment), regardless of the user’s partisanship or whether the headlines were about politics or COVID-19. General news knowledge was a stronger predictor of accuracy discernment than digital literacy, and analytic thinking was similar in strength to digital literacy.
Conversely, neither digital literacy measure was consistently associated with sharing discernment (difference in sharing intentions for true relative to false headlines, or fraction of shared headlines that are true).
These results emphasize the previously documented disconnect between accuracy judgments and sharing intentions and suggest that while digital literacy is a useful predictor of people’s ability to tell truth from falsehood, this may not translate to predicting the quality of information people share online.

Implications

In recent years, there has been a great deal of concern about misinformation and “fake news,” with a particular focus on the role played by social media. One popular explanation of why some people fall for online misinformation is lack of digital literacy: If people cannot competently navigate through digital spaces, then they may be more likely to believe and share false content that they encounter online. Thus, people who are less digitally literate may play a particularly large role in the spread of misinformation on social media.

Despite the intuitive appeal of this argument, however, there is little evidence to date in support of it. For example, Jones-Jang et al. (2019) found in a representative sample of US adults that digital literacy—defined as self-reported recognition of internet-related terms, which has been shown to predict the ability to effectively find information online (Guess & Munger, 2020; Hargittai 2005)—did not, in fact, predict the ability to identify fake news stories. Neither did scales measuring the distinct attributes of news literacy or media literacy; while information literacy—the ability to identify verified and reliable information, search databases, and identify opinion statements— did predict greater ability to identify fake news stories. Guess et al. (2020) found that a brief intervention aimed at teaching people how to spot fake news significantly improved the ability to tell truth from falsehood, but not sharing intentions, in both American and Indian samples, and Epstein et al. (2021) found that an even briefer version of the same intervention improved the quality of COVID-19 news Americans indicated they would share online (although this improvement was no greater than the improvement from simply priming the concept of accuracy). Relatedly, McGrew et al. (2019), Breakstone et al. (2021), and Brodsky et al. (2021) found that much more extensive fact-checking training modules focused on lateral reading improved students’ assessments of source and information credibility. These interventions were focused more on media literacy than on digital skills per se; and similarly, Hameleers (2020) found that a media literacy intervention with no digital literacy component increased American and Dutch subjects’ ability to identify misinformation. Conversely, Badrinathan (2021) found no effect of an hour-long media literacy training of Indian subjects’ ability to tell truth from falsehood.

In this paper, we aim to shed further light on the relationship between digital literacy and susceptibility to misinformation using a survey of 1,341 Americans, quota-sampled to match the national distribution on age, gender, ethnicity, and geographic region. We examine the association between two different measures of digital literacy and two outcome measures, belief and sharing, for true versus false news about politics and COVID-19.

We examine belief and sharing separately, as recent work has documented a substantial disconnect between these outcomes: Accuracy judgments tend to be much more discerning than sharing intentions (Epstein et al. 2021; Pennycook et al., 2020; Pennycook et al., 2021). Evidence suggests that this disconnect is largely driven by people failing to attend to accuracy when thinking about what to share (for a review, see Pennycook & Rand, in press). As a result, even if people who are more digitally literate are better able to tell truth from falsehood, this may not translate into improved sharing discernment. If they fail to even consider whether a piece of news is accurate before deciding to share it, their higher ability to identify which news is accurate will be of little assistance.

With respect to digital literacy, the first measure we use follows the tradition of conceptualizing digital literacy as the possession of basic digital skills required to effectively find information online (e.g., Hargittai, 2005). To measure this form of digital literacy, we use a set of self-report questions about familiarity with internet-related terms and attitudes towards technology that Guess & Munger (2020) found to be most predictive of actual performance on online information retrieval tasks. The second digital literacy measure we use, adapted from Newman et al. (2018), focuses specifically on literacy about social media and asks subjects how social media platforms decide which news stories to show them. This measure seems particularly well-suited to the challenges of identifying susceptibility to fake news on social media: If people do not understand that there are no editorial standards for content shared on social media, or that journalists do not get news before it is posted, it seems likely that they would be less skeptical of low-quality social media news content when they encounter it.

We find that both digital literacy measures are independently predictive of the tendency to rate true news as more accurate than false news—that is, of being able to successfully discern the truth of news (we define truth discernment as the average accuracy rating of true news minus the average accuracy ratings of false news). This positive association is similar in size to the association between truth discernment and both the tendency to engage in analytic thinking and performance on a procedural news knowledge quiz—measures which have been previously demonstrated to predict truth discernment (Amazeen & Bucy, 2019; Pennycook & Rand, 2019; Pennycook & Rand, 2021). The positive association between truth discernment and both digital literacy measures is equivalent for news about politics and COVID-19 and does not vary based on subjects’ partisanship. Thus, we find robust evidence that lack of digital literacy is indeed associated with less ability to tell truth from falsehood.

The pattern is strikingly different, however, when considering sharing intentions. Neither digital literacy measure is consistently associated with sharing discernment—the tendency to share true news more than false news—nor are they significantly associated with the fraction of headlines the subject shared that are true (an alternative metric of information sharing quality). Again, the results do not significantly differ for news about politics versus covid or based on participants’ partisanship. Analytic thinking is also not significantly associated with either sharing quality measure. It is only procedural news knowledge that is positively associated with having a higher fraction of shared content that is true (regardless of news type or partisanship) and positively associated with sharing discernment for Republicans.

These results add to the mixed pattern regarding digital literacy and misinformation on social media. While digital literacy was associated with a better ability to identify true versus false information, this did not appear to translate into sharing better quality information. Conversely, procedural news knowledge was positively predictive of both the ability to identify true versus false information and the tendency to share higher quality information. This is surprising, as one might intuitively have assumed that digital literacy was particularly relevant for social media sharing decisions. Yet, these findings resonate with experiments in which digital media literacy interventions increased belief accuracy but did not increase sharing discernment beyond simply priming the concept of accuracy (Epstein et al. 2021; Guess et al., 2020). And more generally, our digital literacy findings add to the growing body of evidence for a sizable disconnect between accuracy judgments and sharing intentions (e.g., Epstein et al. 2021; Pennycook et al., 2020; Pennycook et al., 2021). More digitally literate subjects’ higher accuracy discernment did not translate into higher sharing discernment, likely (at least in part) due to people’s tendency to fail to consider accuracy when considering what to share (Pennycook & Rand, in press).

An important implication of our findings is that digital literacy may be useful (e.g., for policymakers or social media platforms) when trying to identify users who are vulnerable to believing misinformation, but it does not seem particularly promising for identifying users who are likely to spread misinformation. Our findings also have implications regarding the potential impact of interventions that shift attention to accuracy to reduce the sharing of misinformation (for a review of the accuracy prompt approach, see Pennycook & Rand, in press). Although digital literacy did not significantly predict baseline sharing discernment, it seems likely that higher digital literacy users’ sharing decisions will be more responsive to accuracy prompts because their underlying accuracy judgments are better calibrated: Once their attention is shifted to accuracy, their improved accuracy discernment should then translate into improved sharing discernment. Testing this empirically is a promising direction for future study. Finally, if future work shows that the correlational relationships observed here reflect underlying causal effects, that could suggest that education interventions aimed at improving the quality of content shared online would do better to focus on procedural news knowledge more generally, rather than digital literacy per se.

On all these counts, it is essential for future work to explore cross-cultural generalizability. This is particularly true given that in many parts of the world, widespread access to digital technologies is an extremely recent development, and thus digital literacy levels are likely to be quite low. It is also of great importance to keep in mind that a major limitation of our study is that our sharing intention judgments are hypothetical. Although the hypothetical sharing intentions measure employed here has been widely used in the literature (e.g., Epstein et al. 2021; Guess et al., 2020; Pennycook & Rand, 2019; Pennycook et al., 2020; Pennycook et al., 2021; Roozenbeek et al., 2021; Roozenbeek & van der Linden, 2020; Rosenzweig et al., 2021; Ross et al., 2021), it is of paramount importance for future work to examine the relationship between digital literacy and actual on-platform sharing.

Finally, our findings are also important for the ongoing discussion about what, exactly, digital literacy is (e.g., Guess & Munger, 2020). We examined measures capturing two distinct notions of digital literacy and found that each measure was similarly predictive of truth discernment, even when both were included in the same model, along with procedural news knowledge and general analytic thinking. This emphasizes the multifaceted nature of digital literacy and the importance of future scholarship further elucidating the many dimensions of digital literacy, as well as the relationship between digital literacy, media literacy, and digital media literacy.

Finding 1: More digitally literate social media users show better truth discernment.

We predict participants’ ability to tell true headlines from false headlines (truth discernment, defined as average accuracy ratings for true headlines minus average accurate ratings for false headlines) including controls for age, gender, race (white versus non-white), education (less than college degree versus college degree or more), political partisanship, and headline content (political versus COVID-19). We find a significant positive relationship for self-reported familiarity/comfort with the internet ( β = .224, 95% CI = [0.154, 0.295], p < .001) and for correct understanding of the Facebook newsfeed algorithm ( β = .231, 95% CI = [0.164, 0.297], p < .001); see Figure 1. The size of these relationships is similar to what we find for procedural news knowledge ( β = .290, 95% CI = [0.221, 0.359], p < .001) and analytic thinking ( β = .210, 95% CI = [0.142, 0.278], p < .001), replicating previous findings (e.g., Amazeen & Bucy, 2019; Pennycook & Rand, 2019; Pennycook & Rand, 2021).

Finding 2: More digitally literate social media users are no more discerning in their sharing.

We predict participants’ tendency to share true headlines more than false headlines (sharing discernment, defined as average sharing probability for true headlines minus average sharing probability for false headlines) including controls for age, gender, race, education, political partisanship, and headline content. We find no significant relationship for self-reported familiarity/comfort with the internet ( β = .068, 95% CI = [-0.010, 0.146], p = .088) or for correct understanding of the Facebook newsfeed algorithm ( β = .027, 95% CI = [-0.048, 0.101], p = .483); see Figure 2. We also find no significant relationship for procedural news knowledge ( β = .051, 95% CI = [-0.027, 0.130], p = .199) or analytic thinking ( β = -.019, 95% CI = [-0.094, 0.057], p = .628). The lack of association with analytic thinking is interesting as it stands in contrast to previous working findings that analytic thinking is positively associated with sharing discernment for political news (Ross et al., 2021) and COVID-19 news (Pennycook et al., 2020), and the quality of news sites shared on Twitter (Mosleh et al., 2021) (although, see Osmundsen et al., 2021 who do not find a significant relationship between analytic thinking and the sharing of fake news on Twitter).

This measure of sharing discernment, however, can be potentially misleading when comparing groups where the overall sharing rate differs substantially. Thus, as a robustness check, we also consider a different measure of sharing quality: out of all of the news that the user said they would share, what fraction is true? (That is, we divide the number of true headlines selected for sharing by the total number of headlines selected for sharing). We predict this fraction of the subject’s shared headlines that are true—again including controls for age, gender, race, education, political partisanship, and headline content—and continue to find no significant relationship for self-reported familiarity/comfort with the internet ( β = .013, 95% CI = [-0.080, 0.106], p = .784) or for correct understanding of the Facebook newsfeed algorithm ( β = .015, 95% CI = [-0.072, 0.102], p = .348); see Figure 3. We also find no significant relationship for analytic thinking ( β = .002, 95% CI = [-0.093, 0.097], p = .961), but we do find a highly significant positive relationship for procedural news knowledge ( β = 0.153, 95% CI = [0.057, 0.248], p = 0.002).

We note that these null results for digital literacy are not easily attributable to floor effects. First, the average sharing probabilities are far from the floor of 0: 36.4% of false headlines and 40.3% of true headlines were shared (yielding an average discernment of 0.403-0.364 = 0.039). Second, we find that other factors were significantly related to sharing discernment, indicating that there is enough signal to observe relationships that do exist. Furthermore, our results are broadly consistent when excluding users who, at the outset of the study, indicated that they would never share anything on social media, or who indicated that they did not share political news on social media. The only exception is that self-reported internet familiarity was significantly positively related with the first sharing discernment measure ( β = .18, 95% CI = [0.07, 0.30], p = 0.002) when excluding users who stated that they never share political news. Given that this was the only significant result out of the numerous combinations of digital literacy measure, sharing outcome measure, and exclusion criteria, we conclude that there is no robust evidence that digital literacy is associated with the quality of sharing intentions.

Finding 3: Relationships between digital literacy and discernment are similar for Democrats and Republicans, and for news about politics and COVID-19.

Finally, we ask whether there is evidence that the results discussed above differ significantly based on the subject’s partisanship or the focus of the headlines being judged. To do so, we use a model including both digital literacy measures, procedural news knowledge, analytic thinking, and all controls, and interact each of these variables with partisanship (6-point scale of preference for Democrat versus Republican party) and headline content (political versus COVID-19), as well as including the relevant three-way interactions. We find no significant two-way or three-way interactions for either digital literacy measure when predicting truth discernment or either sharing discernment measure ( p > .05 for all). Thus, we do not find evidence that the relationship (or lack thereof) between digital literacy and discernment varies based on user partisanship or political versus COVID-19 news.

Conversely, we do find some significant interactions for analytic thinking and procedural news knowledge (although these interactions should be interpreted with caution given the lack of ex ante predictions and the large number of tests performed). When predicting truth discernment we find a significant three-way interaction between analytic thinking, partisanship, and news type ( β = .095, 95% CI = [0.030, 0.161], p = .005), such that when judging political news analytic thinking positively predicts truth discernment regardless of user partisanship, but when judging COVID-19 news analytic thinking only predicts greater truth discernment for Democrats but not Republicans. This pattern differs from what has been observed previously, where participants higher on analytic thinking were more discerning regardless of partisanship for both political news (e.g., Pennycook & Rand, 2019) and COVID-19 news (e.g., re-analysis of data from Pennycook et al., 2020). When predicting sharing discernment, we find a significant two-way interaction between procedural news knowledge and partisanship ( β = .133, 95% CI = [0.043, 0.223], p = .004), such that procedural news knowledge is associated with significantly greater sharing discernment for Republicans but not for Democrats. We also find a significant three-way interaction between analytic thinking, partisanship, and news type ( β = .095, 95% CI = [0.030, 0.161], p = .005), but the association between analytic thinking and sharing discernment is not significantly different from zero for any subgroup. Finally, when predicting the fraction of shared headlines that are true, we find a significant two-way interaction between analytic thinking and politics ( β = .111, 95% CI = [0.009, 0.213], p = .033), such that analytic thinking is associated with a significantly lower fraction of true headlines shared for COVID-19 news but not political news.

We conducted two waves of data collection with two similarly structured surveys on Qualtrics. Our final dataset included a total of 1,341 individuals: mean age = 44.7, 59.3% female, 72.4% White. These users were recruited on Lucid, which uses quota-sampling in an effort to match the national distribution of age, gender, ethnicity, and geographic region. Participants were first asked “What type of social media accounts do you use (if any)?” and only participants who had selected Facebook and/or Twitter were allowed to participate. The studies were exempted by MIT COUHES (protocol 1806400195).

In both surveys, participants were shown a series of news items, some of which were true and others which were false. The first wave had 25 headlines (just text) pertaining to COVID-19, 15 false and 10 true, and participants saw all 25. This study ( N = 349) was conducted from July 29, 2020 to August 8, 2020. The second wave ( N = 992) had 60 online news cards about politics (including headline, image, and source), half were true and half false, and subjects were shown a random subset of 24 of these headlines. This study was conducted from October 3, 2020 to October 11, 2020. Full experimental materials are available at https://osf.io/kyx9z/?view_only=762302214a8248789bc6aeaa1c209029 .

Each subject was randomly assigned to one of two conditions for all headlines: accuracy and sharing. In the accuracy condition, participants were asked for each headline “To the best of your knowledge, is the claim in the above headline accurate?” In the sharing condition, they were instead asked “Would you consider sharing this story online (for example, through Facebook or Twitter)?” Both questions had binary no/yes response options. In the political item wave, participants in the sharing condition were also asked if they would like or comment on each headline, but we do not analyze those responses here because they were not included in the COVID-19 wave. Both experiments also included two additional treatment conditions (in which both accuracy and sharing were asked together) that we do not analyze here, as prior work has shown that asking the accuracy and sharing together dramatically changes responses (e.g., Pennycook et al., 2021), and thus these data do not provide clean measures of accuracy discernment and sharing discernment.

Given the survey nature of our experiment, we were limited to measuring people’s intentions to share social media posts, rather than actual sharing on platforms. This is an important limitation, although some reason to expect the relationships observed here to extend to actual sharing comes from the observation that self-reported willingness to share a given article is meaningfully correlated with the number of shares of that article actually received on Twitter (Mosleh et al., 2020; although this study examined item-level, rather than subject-level, correlations), and from the observation that an intervention (accuracy prompts) that was developed using sharing intentions as the outcome was successful when deployed on actual sharing in a field experiment on Twitter (Pennycook et al., 2021); this suggests that the sharing intentions were not just noise but contained meaningful signal as to what people would actually share (and how that sharing would respond to the intervention).

Following the main task, participants completed a question about their knowledge of the Facebook algorithm (Newman et al., 2018) that asked, “How are the decisions about what stories to show people on Facebook made?” The answer choices were At Random ; By editors and journalists that work for news outlets ; By editors and journalists that work for Facebook ; By computer analysis of what stories might interest you ; and I don’t know . If the participant selected I don’t know, they were asked to give their best guess out of the remaining choices in a follow-up question. Participants who chose By computer analysis of what stories might interest you in either stage were scored as responding correctly. Next, they completed a short form of the digital literacy battery from Guess & Munger (2020), responding to “How familiar are you with the following computer and Internet-related items?” using a slider scale from 1 ( no understanding ) to 5 ( full understanding ) for phishin g, hashtags , JPEG , malware , cache , and RSS ; and indicated their agreement with four statements about attitudes towards digital technology using a scale of -4 ( Strongly Disagree ) to 4 ( Strongly Agree ): I prefer to ask friends how to use any new technological gadget instead of trying to figure it out myself; I feel like information technology is a part of my daily life; Using information technology makes it easier to do my work; and I often have trouble finding things that I’ve saved on my computer. Finally, participants completed a three-item cognitive reflection test that measures analytic thinking using math problems that have intuitively compelling but incorrect answers (Frederick, 2005), a ten-item procedural news knowledge quiz adapted from Amazeen & Busy (2019), and demographics. Table 1 shows the pairwise correlations between the various individual difference measures.

/ Fake News
/ Media Literacy
/ Partisan Issues
/ Social Media

Cite this Essay

Sirlin, N., Epstein, Z., Arechar, A. A., & Rand, D. G. (2021). Digital literacy is associated with more discerning accuracy judgments but not sharing intentions. Harvard Kennedy School (HKS) Misinformation Review . https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-83

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The authors gratefully acknowledge funding from the Ethics and Governance of Artificial Intelligence Initiative of the Miami Foundation, the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation, the Reset Initiative of Luminate (part of the Omidyar Network), the John Templeton Foundation, the TDF Foundation, and Google.

Competing Interests

DR received research support through gifts to MIT from Google and Facebook.

This research was deemed exempt by the MIT Committee on the Use of Humans as Experimental Subjects, # E-2443.

This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided that the original author and source are properly credited.

Data Availability

All materials needed to replicate this study are available at https://osf.io/kyx9z/?view_only=762302214a8248789bc6aeaa1c209029 and via the Harvard Dataverse at https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/N0ITTI (data & code) and at https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/WG3P0Y (materials).

The role of Media in shaping public opinion on conflicts

Power of Media

Framing conflicts, conflict resolution vs. escalation, humanizing vs. dehumanizing narratives, media bias and objectivity, political and ideological bias, corporate interests and sensationalism, the role of social media and digital platforms, amplification of misinformation, echo chambers and polarization, disinformation campaigns, citizen journalism and activism, media literacy and critical thinking, promoting media literacy, encouraging critical thinking, fact-checking and verification, diversifying media consumption.

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