how to write a scientific thesis paper

Think of yourself as a member of a jury, listening to a lawyer who is presenting an opening argument. You'll want to know very soon whether the lawyer believes the accused to be guilty or not guilty, and how the lawyer plans to convince you. Readers of academic essays are like jury members: before they have read too far, they want to know what the essay argues as well as how the writer plans to make the argument. After reading your thesis statement, the reader should think, "This essay is going to try to convince me of something. I'm not convinced yet, but I'm interested to see how I might be."

An effective thesis cannot be answered with a simple "yes" or "no." A thesis is not a topic; nor is it a fact; nor is it an opinion. "Reasons for the fall of communism" is a topic. "Communism collapsed in Eastern Europe" is a fact known by educated people. "The fall of communism is the best thing that ever happened in Europe" is an opinion. (Superlatives like "the best" almost always lead to trouble. It's impossible to weigh every "thing" that ever happened in Europe. And what about the fall of Hitler? Couldn't that be "the best thing"?)

A good thesis has two parts. It should tell what you plan to argue, and it should "telegraph" how you plan to argue—that is, what particular support for your claim is going where in your essay.

Steps in Constructing a Thesis

First, analyze your primary sources.  Look for tension, interest, ambiguity, controversy, and/or complication. Does the author contradict himself or herself? Is a point made and later reversed? What are the deeper implications of the author's argument? Figuring out the why to one or more of these questions, or to related questions, will put you on the path to developing a working thesis. (Without the why, you probably have only come up with an observation—that there are, for instance, many different metaphors in such-and-such a poem—which is not a thesis.)

Once you have a working thesis, write it down.  There is nothing as frustrating as hitting on a great idea for a thesis, then forgetting it when you lose concentration. And by writing down your thesis you will be forced to think of it clearly, logically, and concisely. You probably will not be able to write out a final-draft version of your thesis the first time you try, but you'll get yourself on the right track by writing down what you have.

Keep your thesis prominent in your introduction.  A good, standard place for your thesis statement is at the end of an introductory paragraph, especially in shorter (5-15 page) essays. Readers are used to finding theses there, so they automatically pay more attention when they read the last sentence of your introduction. Although this is not required in all academic essays, it is a good rule of thumb.

Anticipate the counterarguments.  Once you have a working thesis, you should think about what might be said against it. This will help you to refine your thesis, and it will also make you think of the arguments that you'll need to refute later on in your essay. (Every argument has a counterargument. If yours doesn't, then it's not an argument—it may be a fact, or an opinion, but it is not an argument.)

This statement is on its way to being a thesis. However, it is too easy to imagine possible counterarguments. For example, a political observer might believe that Dukakis lost because he suffered from a "soft-on-crime" image. If you complicate your thesis by anticipating the counterargument, you'll strengthen your argument, as shown in the sentence below.

Some Caveats and Some Examples

A thesis is never a question.  Readers of academic essays expect to have questions discussed, explored, or even answered. A question ("Why did communism collapse in Eastern Europe?") is not an argument, and without an argument, a thesis is dead in the water.

A thesis is never a list.  "For political, economic, social and cultural reasons, communism collapsed in Eastern Europe" does a good job of "telegraphing" the reader what to expect in the essay—a section about political reasons, a section about economic reasons, a section about social reasons, and a section about cultural reasons. However, political, economic, social and cultural reasons are pretty much the only possible reasons why communism could collapse. This sentence lacks tension and doesn't advance an argument. Everyone knows that politics, economics, and culture are important.

A thesis should never be vague, combative or confrontational.  An ineffective thesis would be, "Communism collapsed in Eastern Europe because communism is evil." This is hard to argue (evil from whose perspective? what does evil mean?) and it is likely to mark you as moralistic and judgmental rather than rational and thorough. It also may spark a defensive reaction from readers sympathetic to communism. If readers strongly disagree with you right off the bat, they may stop reading.

An effective thesis has a definable, arguable claim.  "While cultural forces contributed to the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe, the disintegration of economies played the key role in driving its decline" is an effective thesis sentence that "telegraphs," so that the reader expects the essay to have a section about cultural forces and another about the disintegration of economies. This thesis makes a definite, arguable claim: that the disintegration of economies played a more important role than cultural forces in defeating communism in Eastern Europe. The reader would react to this statement by thinking, "Perhaps what the author says is true, but I am not convinced. I want to read further to see how the author argues this claim."

A thesis should be as clear and specific as possible.  Avoid overused, general terms and abstractions. For example, "Communism collapsed in Eastern Europe because of the ruling elite's inability to address the economic concerns of the people" is more powerful than "Communism collapsed due to societal discontent."

Copyright 1999, Maxine Rodburg and The Tutors of the Writing Center at Harvard University

How to Write a Science Thesis/Dissertation

A thesis/dissertation is a long, high-level research paper written as the culmination of your academic course. Most university programs require that graduate and postgraduate students demonstrate their ability to perform original research at the thesis/dissertation level as a graduation requirement.

Not all theses/dissertations are structured the same way. In this article, we’ll specifically look at how to structure a thesis/dissertation in the sciences and examine what belongs in each section. Before you begin writing, it is essential to have a good understanding of how to structure your science thesis/dissertation and what elements you must include in it.

How are science theses/dissertations structured?

There isn’t a universal format for a science thesis/dissertation. Each university/institution has its own rules, and these rules can vary further by department and advisor. For this reason, you must start writing/drafting your thesis/dissertation by checking the rules and requirements of your university/institution.

Some universities mandate a minimum word count for a thesis/dissertation, while others provide a maximum. The number of words you are expected to write will also vary depending on the program/course you are a part of. A Master’s level thesis/dissertation can range, for example, from 15,000 to 45,000 words, while a PhD thesis/dissertation can be around 80,000 words.

While your university/institution may have its own specific requirements or guidelines, this article provides a general overview of how a typical thesis/dissertation in the sciences should be structured. For easier understanding, let’s break it up into two parts:

• Thesis body
• Supplemental information

The thesis body of your thesis/dissertation includes:

• Acknowledgements

Table of contents

Introduction/literature review, materials/methodology, discussion/conclusion, figure and tables, list of abbreviations.

Your thesis will conclude with the supplemental information section, which comprises:

Reference list

Your thesis may or may not include each and every one of these sections. Now, let’s examine the parts of a thesis/dissertation in greater detail.

The parts of a science thesis/dissertation: Getting started

Let’s begin by reviewing the sections of the thesis body, from the title page to the glossary. This part of your thesis/dissertation should ideally be written last, even though it comes at the beginning. That is because it is the easiest to put it togethe r once you have written the rest of your thesis/dissertation.

Your thesis/dissertation should have a clear title that sums up the content. In addition, the title page should include your name, the degree of your thesis/dissertation, your department, your advisor, and the month/year of submission. Your university/institution likely has its own format for what should be included in the title page, so make sure to check the relevant guidelines.

Acknowledgments

This section gives you the opportunity to say thanks to anyone who gave you support while you worked on your thesis/dissertation. Many people use this section to give credit to their advisor, editor, or even their parents. If you received any funding for your research or technical assistance, make sure to mention it here.

Your abstract should be a brief summary (generally around 300 words) of your thesis/dissertation. You can think of your abstract as a distillation of your thesis/dissertation as a whole. You need to summarize the scope and objectives, methods, and findings in this section.

 The table of contents is a directory of the various parts of your thesis/dissertation. It should include the headings and subheadings of each section along with the page numbers where those sections can be found.

 Think of this section as the table of contents for figures and tables in your thesis/dissertation. The titles of each figure/table and the page number where it can be found should be in this list.

This list is intended to identify specialized abbreviations used throughout your thesis/dissertation. This can include the names of organizations (WHO, CDC), acronyms (PFC), and so on. For a science thesis/dissertation, it is preferable also to include a note regarding any abbreviations for units of measurement and standard notations for chemical elements, formulae, and chemical abbreviations used.

In this section, you would define any terminology that your target audience may be unfamiliar with.

The parts of a science thesis/dissertation: Presenting your data

Following the glossary, the thesis body of a science thesis/dissertation begins with the introduction. The introduction section of a science thesis/dissertation often also includes the literature review. This is unlike most social science or humanities theses/dissertations, where the literature review commonly forms a separate chapter. The introduction section should begin by clearly stating the background and context for your research study, followed by your thesis question, objectives, hypothesis , and thesis statement . An example might be: 

“The connection between nicotine consumption and insulin resistance has long been established. However, there is no substantial body of research on how long insulin resistance is maintained after people quit smoking. In this study, we aim to measure levels of insulin resistance in otherwise healthy subjects following a total cessation of nicotine consumption. We hypothesize that insulin resistance will begin to decline rapidly within six months.”

 The introduction should be immediately followed by a review of earlier literature written on the thesis topic. In this section, you should also clearly identify where the literature connects to your study and how your research study fills a gap or bolsters previous studies. Fit your study within the puzzle of previous work and demonstrate the importance of your research.

In the methodology section of your thesis/dissertation, you must explain what you did and how you did it. If you used materials (for example, bacteria), make sure you clearly list each one. Live materials should be listed, including the specific strain and genus. You must explain your techniques, materials, and methods such that another researcher can replicate exactly what you have done.

In the results section, you will explain what happened. What were your findings? This section should be heavy on data and light on analysis. Usually, in-depth analysis and interpretation of your results will be covered in the discussion section of your thesis/dissertation. While you should present your results in full, any supplementary data that you don’t have room for can be included in an appendix. As a note, this section is often written in the past tense. While other portions of your thesis/dissertation may use past and present interchangeably depending on the topic at hand, the results section of a scientific paper focuses on what has already happened (in an experiment), which is why it is written this way.

In this part of your thesis/dissertation, you will discuss what your findings mean. Did they align with your hypothesis? If so, how? If not, what was different? If there were any exceptions, errors, or total lack of correlation found, do not try to hide it. Clearly discuss what it might mean, or if you aren’t sure, don’t be afraid to say so. In this section, you can also highlight potential practical applications for your research study, limitations of your study, directions for future studies, and once again highlight the importance of your study in the field. This section usually concludes with an overall summarization of whether your results support your hypothesis or not. For example:

“Our study found that 500 of our 600 subjects continued to exhibit high levels of insulin resistance three years or more after stopping nicotine use. This does not support our hypothesis that insulin resistance would begin to drop around six months after subjects stopped nicotine use. Further research is warranted into the mechanisms by which past nicotine use alters insulin resistance levels in former smokers.”

The reference list is an alphabetical or numerical list of sources you’ve used while researching and writing your thesis. The formatting of your reference list will be dependent on your university guidelines. Useful tools like citation generators can help you correctly format your references. Reference managers like EndNote or Mendeley are also helpful for compiling this list. Furthermore, a professional editor or proofreading service can ensure that each reference is correctly formatted.

This section can be very useful if you want to include materials that are relevant to the topic of your thesis/dissertation but that you were unable to include in the main text. Tables, large bodies of text, illustrations, forms used to collect data or perform studies, and other such materials can all be included in an appendix.

Critical steps for planning, drafting, and structuring a science thesis/dissertation

Writing your thesis/dissertation is a daunting and lengthy task. Here are some helpful tips to keep in mind when drafting your science thesis/dissertation:

• Choose a thesis topic that is of professional interest to you. You are going to spend a lot of time thinking, reading, and writing about your thesis topic. Many aspiring young researchers end up working in a field related to their thesis/dissertation . If you start researching or writing a proposal and then decide you aren’t into the topic, don’t be afraid to change directions!
• Plan your thesis timelines carefully. Is your topic realistic given the time and material constraints you have? Do you need to apply for external funding for your research study? Will that take additional time? Write a schedule and revisit/revise it often throughout your thesis/dissertation process.
• Don’t wait until the last minute to start writing! A thesis/dissertation isn’t like an undergraduate paper where you spend some time researching and then some time writing it. You will need to write your thesis/dissertation as you continue your research study. Write as you work in the lab. Write as you learn things and then revise. Ideally, by the time you have finished your actual research study, you will already have a substantive draft.
• Start writing the methodology section first. This is often the easiest because it is straightforward and you have already done quite a lot of the work while preparing your research study. The order in which you write your thesis/dissertation doesn’t matter too much—if you find yourself jumping between sections, that is perfectly normal.
• Keep a detailed list of your references using a reference manager or similar system, with tags so that you can easily identify the source of your information.

Final tips for writing and structuring a science thesis/dissertation

Writing a thesis/dissertation is a rewarding process. As a final tip for getting through this process successfully, don’t forget to leave sufficient time for editing and proofreading. Your thesis/dissertation will go through many drafts and revisions before it reaches its final form.

Engaging the services of a professional can go a long way in helping you produce a professional and high-quality document worthy of your research. In addition, there are many helpful tools like AI grammar checker tools available online for students and young researchers.

Check out our site for more tips on how to write a good thesis/dissertation , where to find the best thesis editing services , and more about thesis editing and proofreading services .

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Review Checklist

Use this checklist to ensure that your science thesis/dissertation isn’t missing any important structural components.

Title page: Does your thesis/dissertation have a title page with your title, name, department, advisor’s name, and other important information?

Acknowledgements: Did you give credit to your funders, research colleagues, and anyone else who helped you?

Abstract: Does your thesis/dissertation include a brief summary?

Table of contents: Does your table of contents include headings, subheadings, and page numbers?

Figure and tables: Is there a complete list of figures and tables that are in your thesis/dissertation?

List of abbreviations: Are all of the abbreviations used in your thesis/dissertation listed here?

Glossary: Did you clearly define any specialized terminology used in your thesis/dissertation?

Introduction/Literature review: Did you justify your research study, state your objectives, and your hypothesis? Did you review the previous relevant literature in your field and explain how your thesis/dissertation fits in?

Materials/Methodology: Could another scientist replicate what you did by reading this section?

Results: Did you include all of the data from your experiments/research study?

Discussion/Conclusion: Did you clearly explain what your results mean and whether your hypothesis was correct or not?

Reference list: Are your references properly formatted and listed alphabetically or numerically?

Bibliography and Appendices: Did you include any additional relevant data, figures, or text that didn’t fit into the main section of your thesis/dissertation?

How long is a typical science thesis/dissertation? +

A typical Master’s thesis/dissertation ranges from 15,000-45,000 words, while a Ph.D. thesis/dissertation can be as much as 80,000 words.

How do I start my thesis/dissertation? +

You don’t have to start with the introduction when you begin writing. You can start with the methodology section or any other section you prefer and revise it later.

How do I structure a science thesis/dissertation? +

The main section of a science thesis/dissertation includes an introduction/literature review, materials/methodology section, results, discussion/conclusion section, and a references list.

WASP (Write a Scientific Paper): How to write a scientific thesis

Affiliations.

• 1 Anatomy Department, University of Malta, Malta. Electronic address: [email protected].
• 2 University of Malta and Consultant Paediatric Cardiologist, Mater Dei Hospital, Malta. Electronic address: [email protected].
• 3 Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, with the Faculty of Medicine & Surgery, University of Malta, Malta. Electronic address: [email protected].
• PMID: 30086984
• DOI: 10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2018.07.012

The prospect of writing a thesis is considered daunting by many but the task is a requisite when embarking into reading for any academic degree. A thesis is a written document following personal research. It is performed to obtain an academic degree or qualification, both at undergraduate and postgraduate level. When writing a thesis, it is imperative that the student follows the universal well-acknowledged structure format known as "IMRAD": i.e. Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion. A summary of the thesis, known as the 'Abstract', is placed at the beginning of the "IMRAD", while all references cited in the thesis are placed at the very end. The thesis format is similar to a research manuscript prepared for publication in scientific journal, but there are significant differences between the two types of academic works. For example, the liberal use of graphical aides in the form of figures and/or tables enhances the delivery of results. It is essential to ensure that all the literature referred to in the thesis is cited, while paying particular attention to potential plagiarism. When writing a thesis, the student needs to keep in mind three factors: [1] the structure, [2] the substance and [3] the style. Once the student has developed a good plan for thesis layout, then writing becomes greatly faciliated.

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Scientific Writing: Sections of a Paper

• Sections of a Paper
• Common Grammar Mistakes Explained
• Citing Sources

Introduction

• Materials & Methods

Typically scientific journal articles have the following sections:

Materials & Methods

References used:

Kotsis, S.V. and Chung, K.C. (2010) A Guide for Writing in the Scientific Forum. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. 126(5):1763-71. PubMed ID:  21042135

Van Way, C.W. (2007) Writing a Scientific Paper. Nutrition in Clinical Practice. 22: 663-40. PubMed ID:  1804295

What to include:

• Background/Objectives: include the hypothesis
• Methods: Briefly explain the type of study, sample/population size and description, the design, and any particular techniques for data collection and analysis
• Results: Essential data, including statistically significant data (use # & %)
• Conclusions: Summarize interpretations of results and explain if hypothesis was supported or rejected
• Be concise!
• Emphasize the methods and results
• Do not copy the introduction
• Only include data that is included in the paper
• Write the abstract last
• Avoid jargon and ambiguity
• Should stand-alone

Additional resources: Fisher, W. E. (2005) Abstract Writing. Journal of Surgical Research. 128(2):162-4. PubMed ID:  16165161 Peh, W.C. and Ng, K.H. (2008) Abstract and keywords. Singapore Medical Journal. 49(9): 664-6. PubMed ID:  18830537

• How does your study fit into what has been done
• Explain evidence using limited # of references
• Why is it important
• How does it relate to previous research
• State hypothesis at the end
• Use present tense
• Be succinct
• Clearly state objectives
• Explain important work done

Additional resources: Annesley, T. M. (2010) "It was a cold and rainy night": set the scene with a good introduction. Clinical Chemistry. 56(5):708-13. PubMed ID:  20207764 Peh, W.C. and Ng, K.H. (2008) Writing the introduction. Singapore Medical Journal. 49(10):756-8. PubMed ID:  18946606  

• What was done
• Include characteristics
• Describe recruitment, participation, withdrawal, etc.
• Type of study (RCT, cohort, case-controlled, etc.)
• Equipment used
• Measurements made
• Usually the final paragraph
• Include enough details so others can duplicate study
• Use past tense
• Be direct and precise
• Include any preliminary results
• Ask for help from a statistician to write description of statistical analysis
• Be systematic

Additional resources: Lallet, R. H. (2004) How to write the methods section of a research paper. Respiratory Care. 49(10): 1229-32. PubMed ID:  15447808 Ng, K.H. and Peh, W.C. (2008) Writing the materials and methods. Singapore Medical Journal. 49(11): 856-9. PubMed ID:  19037549

• Describe study sample demographics
• Include statistical significance and the statistical test used
• Use tables and figures when appropriate
• Present in a logical sequence
• Facts only - no citations or interpretations
• Should stand alone (not need written descriptions to be understood)
• Include title, legend, and axes labels
• Include raw numbers with percentages
• General phrases (significance, show trend, etc. should be used with caution)
• Data is plural ("Our data are" is correct, "Our data is" is in-correct)

Additional resources: Ng, K.H and Peh, W.C. (2008) Writing the results. Singapore Medical Journal. 49(12):967-9. PubMed ID:  19122944 Streiner, D.L. (2007) A shortcut to rejection: how not to write the results section of a paper. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. 52(6):385-9. PubMed ID:  17696025

• Did you reject your null hypothesis?
• Include a focused review of literature in relation to results
• Explain meaning of statistical findings
• Explain importance/relevance 
• Include all possible explanations
• Discuss possible limitations of study
• Suggest future work that could be done
• Use past tense to describe your study and present tense to describe established knowledge from literature
• Don't criticize other studies, contrast it with your work
• Don't make conclusions not supported by your results
• Stay focused and concise
• Include key, relevant references
• It is considered good manners to include an acknowledgements section

Additional resources: Annesley, T. M. (2010) The discussion section: your closing argument. Clinical Chemistry. 56(11):1671-4. PubMed ID:  20833779 Ng, K.H. and Peh, W.C. (2009) Writing the discussion. Singapore Medical Journal. 50(5):458-61. PubMed ID:  19495512

Tables & Figures: Durbin, C. G. (2004) Effective use of tables and figures in abstracts, presentations, and papers. Respiratory Care. 49(10): 1233-7. PubMed ID:  15447809 Ng, K. H. and Peh, W.C.G. (2009) Preparing effective tables. Singapore Medical Journal. (50)2: 117-9. PubMed ID:  19296024

Statistics: Ng, K. H. and Peh, W.C.G. (2009) Presenting the statistical results. Singapore Medical Journal. (50)1: 11-4. PubMed ID:  19224078

References: Peh, W.C.G. and Ng, K. H. (2009) Preparing the references. Singapore Medical Journal. (50)7: 11-4. PubMed ID:  19644619

Additional Resources

• More from Elsevier Elsevier's Research Academy is an online tutorial to help with writing books, journals, and grants. It also includes information on citing sources, peer reviewing, and ethics in publishing
• Research4Life Training Portal Research4Life provides downloadable instruction materials, including modules on authorship skills as well as other research related skills.
• Coursera: Science Writing Coursera provides a wide variety of online courses for continuing education. You can search around for various courses on scientific writing or academic writing, and they're available to audit for free.

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• Cuschieri S 1
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Early Human Development , 04 Aug 2018 , 127: 101-105 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2018.07.012   PMID: 30086984 

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Key Concepts

• A thesis is a simple sentence that combines your topic and your position on the topic.
• A thesis provides a roadmap to what follows in the paper.
• A thesis is like a wheel's hub--everything revolves around it and is attached to it.

After your prewriting activities-- such as assignment analysis and outlining--you should be ready to take the next step: writing a thesis statement. Although some of your assignments will provide a focus for you, it is still important for your college career and especially for your professional career to be able to state a satisfactory controlling idea or thesis that unifies your thoughts and materials for the reader.

Characteristics of an Effective Thesis

A thesis consists of two main parts: your overall topic and your position on that topic. Here are some example thesis statements that combine topic and position:

Sample Thesis Statements

Importance of tone.

Tone is established in the wording of your thesis, which should match the characteristics of your audience. For example, if you are a concerned citizen proposing a new law to your city's board of supervisors about drunk driving, you would not want to write this:

“It’s time to get the filthy drunks off the street and from behind the wheel: I demand that you pass a mandatory five-year license suspension for every drunk who gets caught driving. Do unto them before they do unto us!”

However, if you’re speaking at a concerned citizen’s meeting and you’re trying to rally voter support, such emotional language could help motivate your audience.

Using Your Thesis to Map Your Paper for the Reader

In academic writing, the thesis statement is often used to signal the paper's overall structure to the reader. An effective thesis allows the reader to predict what will be encountered in the support paragraphs. Here are some examples:

Use the Thesis to Map

Three potential problems to avoid.

Because your thesis is the hub of your essay, it has to be strong and effective. Here are three common pitfalls to avoid:

1. Don’t confuse an announcement with a thesis.

In an announcement, the writer declares personal intentions about the paper instead stating a thesis with clear point of view or position:

Write a Thesis, Not an Announcement

 2. a statement of fact does not provide a point of view and is not a thesis..

An introduction needs a strong, clear position statement. Without one, it will be hard for you to develop your paper with relevant arguments and evidence.

Don't Confuse a Fact with a Thesis

3. avoid overly broad thesis statements.

Broad statements contain vague, general terms that do not provide a clear focus for the essay.

Use the Thesis to Provide Focus

Practice writing an effective thesis.

OK. Time to write a thesis for your paper. What is your topic? What is your position on that topic? State both clearly in a thesis sentence that helps to map your response for the reader.

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How to Write a Successful Book Chapter for an Academic Publication?

If you are an academic or a researcher working towards a PhD degree or engaged in various tasks in a university or academic institution the idea of writing a book chapter would have definitely crossed your mind. Receiving an invitation to write an academic book chapter is indeed a great honor, and going onto write it is a milestone that every writer aims to achieve in their career. Writing a successful academic book chapter requires careful planning and execution by the author. In this article we will look at how to write an academic book chapter along with a few key steps that must be followed during the writing process.  

Table of Contents

• What is an academic book chapter? 

Information collection

Finalizing chapter structure, attractive chapter title, a strong introduction, detailing out the chapter, summarizing the chapter, what is an academic book chapter.

An academic book chapter is a distinct section of a book having its own title or a chapter number. A book consists of several chapters, each of which focuses on a particular topic or sub-argument that is linked to the overall theme of the book. In other words, each chapter should have a sound argument that is consistent with the central theme or argument of the book. Each chapter should therefore be an inter-connected part to the rest of the chapters and to the overall book. 

It is important to understand that an academic book chapter is very different from a thesis chapter. While a book chapter has as its audience anyone who may be interested in the particular topic, the audience for a thesis chapter is primarily the thesis examiner. For the same reason, a thesis examiner will closely read the entire chapter and thesis, but this may not be the case for a book chapter. As mentioned earlier, a book chapter deals with a specific topic with an important idea or argument related to the central theme of the book and hence it is a separate division of a book. On the other hand, a thesis chapter does not stand separately but will have multiple arguments and relies on the other chapters to make it a complete whole. The length of each academic book chapter normally varies and there is no standard rule as to the length of chapters. However, on a general note, chapter length usually varies from 3500 to 5000 words.  

Key steps to follow when writing an academic book chapter

Integrating the following steps as you plan to write an academic book chapter can help you achieve excellent results.  

It is important that sufficient research is carried out and the author has a thorough understanding of the available literature in the field. Collecting relevant information and being up to date with all aspects on the topic that you are going to write about is one of first steps in writing an academic book chapter. Presenting information in a visually attractive manner and using various tools like mind maps can help in structuring the key arguments better.  

An academic book chapter also requires a good outline. For example, you must have a title, a well worded introduction, informative paras that make up the main body, a chapter summary and a neat transition to the succeeding chapter. Try to make the outline clear and concise, organize your ideas effectively and ensure there is a logical flow.  

This is a critical element and goes a long way in getting people to read your chapter or even pick up the book. Strive to make the title or heading of your chapter interesting and impactful, potential readers should be attracted to the title by itself, going on to pick up the book just by the vigor of the title itself.  

Having a well written introduction can be invaluable in ensuring that audiences will be compelled to read further. Engaging your reader with an anecdote or a dialogue or through a fictional account or plot can be useful devices to anchor the introduction on.  

Ideally as you elaborate on your chapter with the key points as you begin, it is a good idea to provide evidence for your statements and arguments. Try to highlight these in about 4 to 5 paragraphs linking it to the chapter details. 

A concise summary is a must as you come to the end of your chapter. Remember, here you are reflecting on the main content of the chapter and helping the reader to take away some key aspects of the arguments that you have presented in the chapter.  

Paperpal is a comprehensive AI writing toolkit that helps students and researchers achieve 2x the writing in half the time. It leverages 21+ years of STM experience and insights from millions of research articles to provide in-depth academic writing, language editing, and submission readiness support to help you write better, faster.  

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Why writing by hand is better for remembering things

Keyboards still have a place, but if you want to retain information, grab a pen.

By Justin Pot | Published May 1, 2024 9:31 AM EDT

Want to remember something? Don’t type it out— write it down . 

At least that’s what a paper published in Frontiers in Psychology suggests, concluding that “whenever handwriting movements are included as a learning strategy, more of the brain gets stimulated, resulting in the formation of more complex neural network connectivity.” In other words: Writing by hand, as opposed to with a keyboard, helps you remember things. 

The study, by F. R. Van der Weel and Audrey L. H. Van der Meer, psychology researchers at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology, had 36 students write a variety of words, chosen at random from the game Pictionary , either with a digital stylus or a keyboard, all while wearing a 256-channel sensor array on their heads. The researchers were watching to determine which involved more connectivity between the two sides of the brain , something that’s been shown to correlate with learning and memory. Though a small sample size, the results “revealed increased connectivity for handwriting over typewriting, suggesting that different underlying cognitive processes are involved in the two tasks.” 

This makes sense to me—I can type without looking at the keyboard, or even really thinking about the fact that I’m typing. Writing with a pen, though? That I have to pay attention. That’s a meaningful distinction, one that has implications for anyone who is trying to learn. Now, the paper goes out of its way to state that this doesn’t mean you should abandon your keyboard altogether—they’re just different tools for different jobs. 

There is, all the same, a demonstrable difference between how writing with a pen, or typing by hand, affects your ability to remember the words you’re recording. Now that you know this you can take advantage—here’s a little bit of advice. 

Want to remember something? Use a pen or stylus.

Lately, when I’m reading a book or paper with the intention of learning from it, I take notes by writing. In my case I’m using a Remarkable e-ink tablet but there’s no reason a sheet of paper, a notebook, a digital notebook , or even an iPad with a pencil can’t work the same way. 

Remember: The study above involved a tablet and stylus, meaning that it’s the movement of writing by hand—not the lack of screens—that helps with memory . So, if the point of writing something down is to help you remember, take those notes using handwriting. The most obvious use case for this is taking notes during class. But it applies even if you’re not a student. 

Take paper notes during meetings

Do you attend meetings regularly? Consider leaving your laptop in your bag and taking notes by hand. You might not be able to write things down as quickly, granted, but you’ll remember the key points from the meeting with more clarity. As a bonus, it’s a lot easier to maintain eye contact when you’re not constantly looking down at your computer. 

I find this even works during online meetings. I leave my tablet between my computer and me, which allows me to jot things down during the conversation. This doesn’t just help me remember things; I’m also not interrupting the conversation with my infamously loud typing sounds. Win-win. 

Consider using paper productivity software

I’m straying pretty far from the research here, granted, but if writing things down instead of typing helps with memory you might want to consider replacing your productivity software with pen and paper , or a digital system that allows you to handwrite. I especially recommend this if you’re the kind of person who frequently sets up to-do lists and calendar apps only to forget that they exist. Writing things down might help you remember in a way that apps just don’t. 

Need to be quick? Use a keyboard.

The study went out of its way to say that keyboards have their place. To quote the conclusion:

Handwriting requires fine motor control over the fingers, and it forces students to pay attention to what they are doing. Typing, on the other hand, requires mechanical and repetitive movements that trade awareness for speed. 

There is a time and a place for keyboards: I’m typing this right now. The takeaway isn’t that writing is better , per se, just that the act itself can help you remember things. Keep this in mind and try out writing at times when you normally wouldn’t. You might be surprised.

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• Published: 08 May 2024

A secondary atmosphere on the rocky Exoplanet 55 Cancri e

• Renyu Hu 1 , 2 ,
• Aaron Bello-Arufe 1 ,
• Michael Zhang 3 ,
• Kimberly Paragas 2 ,
• Mantas Zilinskas 4 ,
• Christiaan van Buchem 5 ,
• Michael Bess 6 ,
• Jayshil Patel 7 ,
• Yuichi Ito 8 , 9 ,
• Mario Damiano 1 ,
• Markus Scheucher 1 ,
• Apurva V. Oza 1 ,
• Heather A. Knutson 2 ,
• Yamila Miguel 4 , 5 ,
• Diana Dragomir 6 ,
• Alexis Brandeker 7 &
• Brice-Olivier Demory 10 , 11  

Nature ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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We are providing an unedited version of this manuscript to give early access to its findings. Before final publication, the manuscript will undergo further editing. Please note there may be errors present which affect the content, and all legal disclaimers apply.

• Inner planets

Characterizing rocky exoplanets is a central endeavor of astronomy, and yet the search for atmospheres on rocky exoplanets has hitherto resulted in either tight upper limits on the atmospheric mass 1–3 or inconclusive results 4–6 . The 1.95-R Earth and 8.8-M Earth planet 55 Cnc e, with a predominantly rocky composition and an equilibrium temperature of ~2000 K, may have a volatile envelope (containing molecules made from a combination of C, H, O, N, S, and P elements) that accounts for up to a few percent of its radius 7–13 . The planet has been observed extensively with transmission spectroscopy 14–22 , and its thermal emission has been measured in broad photometric bands 23–26 . These observations disfavor a primordial H 2 /He-dominated atmosphere but cannot conclusively determine whether the planet has a secondary atmosphere 27,28 . Here we report a thermal emission spectrum of the planet obtained by JWST’s NIRCam and MIRI instruments from 4 to 12 μm. The measurements rule out the scenario where the planet is a lava world shrouded by a tenuous atmosphere made of vaporized rock 29–32 , and indicate a bona fide volatile atmosphere likely rich in CO 2 or CO. This atmosphere can be outgassed from and sustained by a magma ocean.

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No thick carbon dioxide atmosphere on the rocky exoplanet TRAPPIST-1 c

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Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA

Renyu Hu, Aaron Bello-Arufe, Mario Damiano, Markus Scheucher & Apurva V. Oza

Division of Geological and Planetary Sciences, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA

Renyu Hu, Kimberly Paragas & Heather A. Knutson

Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA

Michael Zhang

SRON Netherlands Institute for Space Research, Leiden, The Netherlands

Mantas Zilinskas & Yamila Miguel

Leiden Observatory, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands

Christiaan van Buchem & Yamila Miguel

Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA

Michael Bess & Diana Dragomir

Department of Astronomy, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden

Jayshil Patel & Alexis Brandeker

Division of Science, National Astronomical Observatory of Japan, 2-21-1 Osawa, Mitaka, Tokyo, Japan

Department of Physics and Astronomy, University College London, Gower Street, London, United Kingdom

Center for Space and Habitability, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland

Brice-Olivier Demory

Space Research and Planetary Sciences, Physics Institute, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland

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Hu, R., Bello-Arufe, A., Zhang, M. et al. A secondary atmosphere on the rocky Exoplanet 55 Cancri e. Nature (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07432-x

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07432-x

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When authoritative sources hold onto bad data: A legal scholar explains the need for government databases to retract information

Associate Professor of Law, Fordham University

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Janet Freilich does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

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In 2004, Hwang Woo-suk was celebrated for his breakthrough discovery creating cloned human embryos , and his work was published in the prestigious journal Science. But the discovery was too good to be true ; Dr. Hwang had fabricated the data. Science publicly retracted the article and assembled a team to investigate what went wrong .

Retractions are frequently in the news. The high-profile discovery of a room-temperature superconductor was retracted on Nov. 7, 2023. A series of retractions toppled the president of Stanford University on July 19, 2023. Major early studies on COVID-19 were found to have serious data problems and retracted on June 4, 2020.

Retractions are generally framed as a negative: as science not working properly, as an embarrassment for the institutions involved, or as a flaw in the peer review process. They can be all those things. But they can also be part of a story of science working the right way: finding and correcting errors, and publicly acknowledging when information turns out to be incorrect.

A far more pernicious problem occurs when information is not, and cannot, be retracted. There are many apparently authoritative sources that contain flawed information. Sometimes the flawed information is deliberate, but sometimes it isn’t – after all, to err is human. Often, there is no correction or retraction mechanism, meaning that information known to be wrong remains on the books without any indication of its flaws.

As a patent and intellectual property legal scholar , I’ve found that this is a particularly harmful problem with government information, which is often considered a source of trustworthy data but is prone to error and often lacking any means to retract the information.

Patent fictions and fraud

Consider patents, documents that contain many technical details that can be useful to scientists . There is no way to retract a patent . And patents contain frequent errors : Although patents are reviewed by an expert examiner before being granted, examiners do not check whether the scientific data in the patent is correct.

In fact, the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office permits patentees to include fictional experiments and data in patents. This practice, called prophetic examples , is common; about 25% of life sciences patents contain fictional experiments . The patent office requires that prophetic examples be written in the present or future tense while real experiments can be written in the past tense. But this is confusing to nonspecialists, including scientists, who tend to assume that a phrase like “X and Y are mixed at 300 degrees to achieve a 95% yield rate” indicates a real experiment.

Almost a decade after Science retracted the journal article claiming cloned human cells, Dr. Hwang received a U.S patent on his retracted discovery. Unlike the journal article, this patent has not been retracted. The patent office did not investigate the accuracy of the data – indeed, it granted the patent long after the data’s inaccuracy had been publicly acknowledged – and there is no indication on the face of the patent that it contains information that has been retracted elsewhere.

This is no anomaly. In a similar example, Elizabeth Holmes, the former – now imprisoned – CEO of Theranos, holds patents on her thoroughly discredited claims for a small device that could rapidly run many tests on a small blood sample. Some of those patents were granted long after Theranos’ fraud headlined major newspapers.

Long-lived bad information

This sort of under-the-radar wrong data can be deeply misleading to readers. The system of retractions in scientific journals is not without its critics, but it compares favorably to the alternative of no retractions. Without retractions, readers don’t know when they are looking at incorrect information.

My colleague Soomi Kim and I conducted a study of patent-paper pairs. We looked at cases where the same information was published in a journal article and in a patent by the same scientists, and the journal paper had subsequently been retracted. We found that while citations to papers dropped steeply after the paper was retracted, there was no reduction in citations to patents with the very same incorrect information.

This probably happened because scientific journals paint a big red “retracted” notice on retracted articles online, informing the reader that the information is wrong. By contrast, patents have no retraction mechanism, so incorrect information continues to spread.

There are many other instances where authoritative-looking information is known to be wrong . The Environmental Protection Agency publishes emissions data supplied by companies but not reviewed by the agency. Similarly, the Food and Drug Administration disseminates official-looking information about drugs that is generated by drug manufacturers and posted without an evaluation by the FDA.

Consequences of nonretractions

There are also economic consequences when incorrect information can’t be easily corrected. The Food and Drug Administration publishes a list of patents that cover brand-name drugs. The FDA won’t approve a generic drug unless the generic manufacturer has shown that each patent that covers the drug in question is expired, not infringed or invalid.

The problem is that the list of patents is generated by the brand-name drug manufacturers , who have an incentive to list patents that don’t actually cover their drugs . Doing so increases the burden on generic drug manufacturers. The list is not checked by the FDA or anyone else, and there are few mechanisms for anyone other than the brand-name manufacturer to tell the FDA to remove a patent from the list.

Even when retractions are possible, they are effective only when readers pay attention to them. Financial data is sometimes retracted and corrected, but the revisions are not timely. “ Markets don’t tend to react to revisions ,” Paul Donovan, chief economist of UBS Global Wealth Management, told the Wall Street Journal, referring to governments revising gross domestic product figures.

Misinformation is a growing problem. There are no easy answers to solve it. But there are steps that would almost certainly help. One relatively straightforward one is for trusted data sources like those from the government to follow the lead of scientific journals and create a mechanism to retract erroneous information.

• Retractions
• Misinformation
• Drug patents
• Government data
• Scientific fraud
• Scientific journals

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